A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Tiktaalik,,Extinct,Walking,Fish,,The,Evolution,Of,Four-legged,Animals,(3d

About 375 million years ago, shallow streams and tidal flats teemed with creatures that looked like fish but were already edging toward life on solid ground. One such pioneer, Tiktaalik roseae, blended fins with hints of limbs and sported a flat head suited for peering above the waterline. 



Its fossils, pulled from Arctic rocks, have become a favorite window into that unsure first step from swimming to strolling.



Fresh scans of a well-preserved specimen now show that the shift to land began deep inside the backbone and ribs, long before true legs showed up. 



Instead of an even string of look-alike vertebrae, Tiktaalik’s spine carried specialized sections, and the rear ribs grew stout enough to brace a body that sometimes lifted clear of the water’s push.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiktaalik-fossils-a-fish-with-a-twist">Tiktaalik fossils: A fish with a twist</h2>



Scientists led by Tom Stewart at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> turned a microcomputed tomography scanner loose on the fossil block, peeling away stone to reveal the hidden bones. 



“Tiktaalik was discovered in 2004, but key parts of its skeleton were unknown,” Stewart explained. “These new high-resolution micro-CT scans show us the vertebrae and ribs of Tiktaalik and allow us to make a full reconstruction of its skeleton, which is vital to understanding how it moved through the world.”



Those scans show that the fish’s rear ribs likely reached the pelvis by way of ligaments. 



That soft connection echoes the bony tie between hips and spine seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">four-limbed animals</a>, hinting that the load-bearing framework for walking was already under construction while fins still ruled the day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spine-and-ribs-on-tiktaalik-fossils">Spine and ribs on Tiktaalik fossils</h2>



Most fish carry ribs and vertebrae that stay uniform from head to tail. Limbed animals break that pattern, dividing the spine into neck, trunk, sacrum, and tail, each tuned for a different job. 



Tiktaalik lands somewhere in between. Its trunk vertebrae differ from those near the skull, creating room for the head to swivel. 



“Tiktaalik is remarkable because it gives us glimpses into this major evolutionary transition,” Stewart noted. “Across its whole skeleton, we see a combination of traits that are typical of fish and life in water as well as traits that are seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land-dwelling animals</a>.”



The researchers point out that bigger, stronger ribs in the rear half of the body would have let this fish prop itself up on the streambed rather than flop like a pure swimmer. 



Supporting weight that way is a critical step toward pushing against the ground with true limbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-hips">Connecting the hips</h2>



Fins sprout from long rods of bone that float free inside most fish. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-genome-discovery-explains-how-fish-first-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land vertebrates</a>, those rods fuse into a broad pelvis anchored to the spine. 



Tiktaalik’s pelvis was already large, and the new reconstruction shows it lining up neatly with reinforced ribs. 



“Tiktaalik had specialized ribs that would have connected to the pelvis by a ligament. It’s astonishing really. This creature has so many traits - large pair of hind appendages, large pelvis, and connection between the pelvis and axial skeleton - that were key to the origin of walking," Stewart enthused.



"And while Tiktaalik probably wasn’t walking across land, it was definitely doing something new. This was a fish that could likely prop itself up and push with its hind fin.”



That ligament link is softer than the tight bony joint found in later tetrapods, yet it marks a clear change in how force traveled through the body. Instead of relying only on water for support, Tiktaalik could shift part of its weight to the ground below.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scanning-the-tiktaalik-fossils">Scanning the Tiktaalik fossils</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Micro-CT imaging</a>, a cousin of the medical CT machines used in hospitals, fires X-rays at a fossil from every angle and builds a digital stack of slices. 



The resolution reaches a fraction of a millimeter, letting researchers “see” bones still locked in stone. For Tiktaalik, this non-destructive peek exposed details of the pelvic fin skeleton that hand tools would have missed.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Tiktaalik-fossil-discovery_computer-analysis_credit-PSU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Tiktaalik-fossil-discovery_computer-analysis_credit-PSU_1s.webp" alt="New reconstruction of the skeleton of the 375-million-year-old fossil fish, Tiktaalik roseae. In a new study, researchers used Micro-CT to reveal vertebrae and ribs of the fish that were previously hidden beneath rock. The new reconstruction shows that the fish’s ribs likely attached to its pelvis, an innovation thought to be crucial to supporting the body and for the eventual evolution of walking. Credit: Thomas Stewart, Penn State" class="wp-image-1967597"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New reconstruction of the skeleton of the 375-million-year-old fossil fish, Tiktaalik roseae. In a new study, researchers used Micro-CT to reveal vertebrae and ribs of the fish that were previously hidden beneath rock. The new reconstruction shows that the fish’s ribs likely attached to its pelvis, an innovation thought to be crucial to supporting the body and for the eventual evolution of walking. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Thomas Stewart, Penn State</figcaption></figure>



“It’s incredible to see the skeleton of Tiktaalik captured in such vivid detail,” said Neil Shubin of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, who co-authored the study. 



“This study sets the stage for ones that explore how the animal moved about and interacted with its environment 375 million years ago.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hints-of-future-on-land">Hints of future on land</h2>



The new picture fits with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prototaxites-the-mystery-fossil-from-a-lost-branch-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Devonian fossils</a>, such as Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, that carried limbs but still lived largely in water. 



Tiktaalik slots just before them on the timeline, showing that the groundwork for walking - regional spines, hefty ribs, mobile necks - began while fins were still the main mode of travel. 



Its head could lift, its body could rest on the bottom, and its rear fins could shove against mud or sand.



By tracing these incremental tweaks, biologists can chart how natural selection solved the engineering puzzle of gravity. 



Each adjustment, from a sturdier rib to a mobile skull joint, nudged our distant cousins closer to the shoreline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Walking seems ordinary now, but it took a cascade of innovations to make it possible. Tiktaalik reminds us that evolution rarely leaps; instead, it stacks small changes that, over ages, open new ways of living. 



The study’s authors plan to model how the fish moved, using the fresh skeleton as a blueprint. Their work could even guide robotics engineers who borrow ideas from ancient anatomy.



For anyone who has ever skipped stones or waded in a creek, the notion that a fish once hoisted itself for a peek above the water threads our own story to a world long gone. 



Tiktaalik’s sturdy ribs and ambitious pelvis speak across the ages, whispering that bold moves often start with a subtle shift beneath the surface.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prx/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevX.14.011028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Fossils explain how fish evolved to walk out of the water to live on land

About 375 million years ago, shallow streams and tidal flats...

NASA’s Lucy spacecraft captured a striking image of the asteroid Donaldjohanson during its close flyby on April 20, 2025. 



The snapshot reveals that the asteroid is an elongated contact binary - an object formed when two smaller bodies merge after a collision. 



This flyby marked a major milestone as Lucy completed its second encounter in its planned 12-year journey across the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-lucy-asteroid-mission">Understanding the Lucy asteroid mission</h2>



NASA’s Lucy spacecraft is on a bold journey to explore the Trojan asteroids - ancient remnants of our solar system that share Jupiter’s orbit around the Sun. 



Launched in October 2021 by scientists from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute</a>, Lucy swings past a total of Earth three times, using gravity assists to gain the speed and trajectory it needs to reach its distant targets. 



Over its 12-year mission, the spacecraft will visit eight asteroids, including one in the main asteroid belt and seven Trojans, making it the first mission to examine this unique population up close.



The Trojans are time capsules from the solar system’s early days, and scientists believe they hold vital clues to how the planets formed and migrated. 



By photographing their surfaces, analyzing their composition, and tracking their movement, Lucy aims to unlock secrets about our cosmic origins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lucy-s-busy-road-ahead">Lucy’s busy road ahead</h2>



Over the next several years, Lucy will visit a record number of asteroids. It is scheduled to pass three asteroids in the main <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroids-found-in-the-main-belt-are-the-smallest-ever-detected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid belt</a> and eight Trojan asteroids that travel in Jupiter’s orbit. 



This journey offers a rare opportunity to study these time capsules from the formation of our planets.



Last month, April 20 marked a big moment for the team as Lucy completed its second <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-lucy-discovers-two-asteroids-instead-of-one-during-dinkinesh-flyby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flyby</a>. The spacecraft’s next destination is the Trojan asteroid Eurybates and its small satellite Queta, with the encounter set for August 2027.



Each stop along the way brings scientists closer to understanding how the solar system grew and evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-behind-donaldjohanson-s-name">The story behind Donaldjohanson’s name</h2>



The Lucy spacecraft is named after the fossilized skeleton of a prehuman ancestor from East Africa, famously known as "Lucy." It carries forward the spirit of discovery that the fossil represents.



During this latest flyby, NASA made history by visiting a planetary body named after a living person - a first for the agency.



The asteroid Donaldjohanson received its name only after becoming one of Lucy’s targets. It was named to honor Dr. Donald Johanson, the paleoanthropologist who discovered the original Lucy fossil in Ethiopia. 



His work reshaped how we understand human evolution, and now his legacy travels through space alongside a new era of exploration.



“Asteroid Donaldjohanson has strikingly complicated geology,” noted Hal Levison, principal investigator for Lucy at Southwest Research Institute. 



“As we study the complex structures in detail, they will reveal important information about the building blocks and collisional processes that formed the planets in our Solar System.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-the-past-through-lucy-s-eyes">Seeing the past through Lucy’s eyes</h2>



Lucy’s journey has just begun. The spacecraft continues to cruise through space with a full list of destinations ahead. 



Each asteroid it encounters will offer more pieces to the grand puzzle of how our solar system came to be.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/asteroid_Donaldjohanson_Lucy-Spacecraft-photo_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/asteroid_Donaldjohanson_Lucy-Spacecraft-photo_NASA_1s.webp" alt="The asteroid Donaldjohanson as seen by the Lucy Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (L’LORRI). This is one of the most detailed images returned by NASA’s Lucy spacecraft during its flyby. This image was taken at 1:51 p.m. EDT (17:51 UTC), April 20, 2025, near closest approach, from a range of approximately 660 miles (1,100 km). The spacecraft’s closest approach distance was 600 miles (960 km), but the image shown was taken approximately 40 seconds beforehand. The image has been sharpened and processed to enhance contrast. Credit: NASA/Goddard/SwRI/Johns Hopkins APL/NOIRLab" class="wp-image-1967589"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The asteroid Donaldjohanson as seen by the Lucy Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (L’LORRI). This is one of the most detailed images returned by NASA’s Lucy spacecraft during its flyby. This image was taken at 1:51 p.m. EDT (17:51 UTC), April 20, 2025, near closest approach, from a range of approximately 660 miles (1,100 km). The spacecraft’s closest approach distance was 600 miles (960 km), but the image shown was taken approximately 40 seconds beforehand. The image has been sharpened and processed to enhance contrast. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/Goddard/SwRI/Johns Hopkins APL/NOIRLab</figcaption></figure>



Through Lucy’s eyes, we are seeing the remnants of the past, stitched together in rock and ice. 



It’s a journey that not only charts the ancient history of our cosmic neighborhood but also reminds us of the human drive to explore - from Earth's earliest ancestors to the distant edges of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-small-asteroids">Significance of small asteroids</h2>



At first glance, asteroids like Donaldjohanson might seem small and unremarkable compared to the giant planets or dazzling moons of the solar system. 



But for scientists, these smaller bodies hold some of the most important clues about how everything we see today came to be.



Asteroids are often described as "fossils" of the solar system. They have remained relatively unchanged for billions of years, preserving the conditions and materials from the time when planets were still forming. 



Studying them is like opening a time capsule. Every rock, every crater, and every surface texture tells a story about ancient collisions, chemical changes, and the forces that shaped our cosmic neighborhood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-early-solar-system">Insights into the early solar system </h2>



The contact binary shape of Donaldjohanson also raises interesting questions. Contact binaries are formed when two separate bodies slowly come together under mutual gravitational forces. 



Understanding how and when this happens could reveal new insights about the early chaotic days of the solar system, when collisions were common and the building blocks of planets were still gathering.



Lucy’s mission goes far beyond just taking pictures. Scientists will analyze the colors, surface compositions, and structures of these asteroids to look for patterns. 



They want to find out why some asteroids are darker, why some are rich in metals, and why others seem almost untouched since the beginning.



Each asteroid adds another piece to the larger puzzle of how the Earth, the other planets, and even life itself eventually emerged.



The discoveries that Lucy makes over the coming years could reshape what we know about our origins. It’s a reminder that sometimes, the smallest and most distant places hold big secrets.



Information for this article comes from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



Image credit: NASA/Goddard/SwRI/Johns Hopkins APL/NOIRLab



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Spacecraft captures rare photo of a remnant from our solar system's formation

NASA’s Lucy spacecraft captured a striking image of the asteroid...

Cancer remains a leading cause of mortality across the globe and Nigeria is no exception: Breast, cervical, prostate, and liver malignancies are climbing steadily despite wider access to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted drugs. 



For many patients, however, modern treatment is difficult to afford. This has sparked renewed interest in a largely untapped yet promising resource: Nigeria’s indigenous food plants.



These plants - including their leaves, seeds, tubers, and fruits - are loaded with bioactive compounds. Laboratory studies show that many of these natural substances have the potential to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-plant-species-show-great-promise-in-fight-against-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow or even halt</a> tumor growth. 



A growing body of evidence suggests that these plants, long consumed as part of the traditional diet, could be developed as low-cost, complementary tools in the nation’s fight against cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-that-prevent-or-halt-cancer">Plants that prevent or halt cancer</h2>



Researchers have catalogued dozens of edible Nigerian species with measurable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-cancer activity</a>, but nine stand out for the breadth of experimental data already available.



Spondias mombin (hog plum) contains the flavonoid quercetin along with carotenoids that trigger apoptosis - the “self-destruct” program in malignant cells - while simultaneously tamping down inflammation.



Xanthosoma sagittifolium, a cocoyam cultivated widely in the humid south, produces tannins and other phenolics that cause leukemia cells to stall in the cell-cycle, blocking proliferation and reducing the formation of new blood vessels that tumors need in order to expand.



Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is often maligned for ecological reasons, yet its vitamin-E–rich tocotrienols are potent antioxidants; in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diet-improves-health-in-women-with-breast-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breast cancer</a> models they lower cell viability and force cells into arrest, nudging them toward death.



Irvingia gabonensis, the African bush mango, supplies gallotannins that regulate metabolic pathways linked to tumorigenesis and stimulate immune surveillance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-cancer-fighting-plant-compounds">Powerful cancer-fighting plant compounds </h2>



Allium cepa, the humble onion, is packed with organosulphur compounds as well as flavonoids that up-regulate detoxification enzymes, mop up DNA-damaging free radicals and may even help reverse multidrug resistance.



Blighia sapida (ackee) fruit, famous for its culinary role in Caribbean cuisine, also grows in Nigeria; laboratory work shows its flavonoids can hamper the ERK5 pathway, a key driver of aggressive breast cancer.



Dioscorea dumetorum, a wild yam, synthesizes diosgenin - long prized in the pharmaceutical industry as a raw material for steroid hormones - which shuts off the pro-survival NF-κB and MAPK cascades in cancer cells.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/plants_anti-cancer-properties_nigeria_credit-google-photos_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/plants_anti-cancer-properties_nigeria_credit-google-photos_1s.webp" alt="Selected edible Nigerian plants with anti-cancer properties. (a) Spondias mombin; (b) Xanthosoma sagittifolium; (c) Elaeis guineensis; (d) Irvingia gabonensis; (e) Blighia sapida; (f) Launaea taraxacifolia; (g) Tetracarpidium conophorum; (h) Chrysophyllum albidum; (i) Solanum macrocarpon; (j) Dioscorea dumetorum; (k) Talinum triangulare; (l) Psidium guajava; (m) Allium cepa L. Photo credit: google photo." class="wp-image-1967580"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Selected edible Nigerian plants with anti-cancer properties. (a) Spondias mombin; (b) Xanthosoma sagittifolium; (c) Elaeis guineensis; (d) Irvingia gabonensis; (e) Blighia sapida; (f) Launaea taraxacifolia; (g) Tetracarpidium conophorum; (h) Chrysophyllum albidum; (i) Solanum macrocarpon; (j) Dioscorea dumetorum; (k) Talinum triangulare; (l) Psidium guajava; (m) Allium cepa L. Click image to enlarge. Photo credit: FIM/Google photo.</figcaption></figure>



Psidium guajava (guava) leaves have been used for generations to treat diarrhea; now their tannins and phenolic acids are recognized for inducing apoptosis and shielding DNA from oxidative injury.



Finally, Talinum triangulare, the protein-rich “waterleaf,” contains quercetin and other antioxidants that bolster immune responses and hinder tumor growth in vitro.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-plants-with-similar-strategies">Diverse plants with similar strategies </h2>



Despite their botanical diversity, these species rely on a handful of overlapping biochemical strategies. 



First and foremost is apoptosis induction: they activate pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax while down-regulating anti-apoptotic factors like Bcl-2, tipping the balance toward cell death.



Many extracts also impose cell-cycle arrest at the G1/S or G2/M checkpoints by interfering with cyclin-dependent kinases; deprived of the green light to divide, cancer cells accumulate DNA damage and succumb. Angiogenesis - the sprouting of new blood vessels that feed a tumor - is another frequent target. 



Compounds from cocoyam, yam and hog plum have been shown to lower levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and related signals, choking off the nutrient supply to nascent tumors. 



Inflammatory enzymes (COX-2, iNOS) and reactive oxygen species are suppressed as well, reducing the chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inflammation</a> and oxidative stress that often initiate or accelerate malignancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-tradition-and-modern-oncology"><a></a>Bridging tradition and modern oncology</h2>



While pre-clinical data are encouraging, several hurdles must be cleared before Nigerian food plants can take their place beside paclitaxel or cisplatin. 



Bioactive composition varies by soil type, rainfall pattern and harvest time; rigorous agronomic studies are needed to standardize cultivation and extraction.



Dosage, toxicity and potential interactions with conventional drugs remain largely untested in humans. Well-designed clinical trials - randomized, placebo-controlled and sufficiently powered - are essential if these botanicals are to earn a formal role in oncology clinics. 



Another challenge is the disconnect between traditional knowledge holders and laboratory scientists.



Ethnobotanical surveys can help bridge that gap, ensuring that leads chosen for development reflect community practices and dietary realities. 



Public-health campaigns, meanwhile, could educate physicians, pharmacists, and patients about the evidence base for plant-derived adjuncts, avoiding unsubstantiated claims while highlighting genuine benefits such as reduced side-effects or improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/active-aging-physical-activity-has-a-direct-impact-on-life-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quality of life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-effective-renewable-treatments">Cost-effective, renewable treatments</h2>



If these hurdles are overcome, the payoff could be substantial. Many of the plants grow wild or are already farmed for food, implying a local, renewable supply chain. 



Extracts could be formulated as teas, capsules or functional foods, lowering barriers to access in rural areas where oncology centers are scarce.



Combining plant-based agents with lower doses of chemotherapy or radiation might retain efficacy while mitigating nausea, hair loss, and myelosuppression - side-effects that often deter patients from completing treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-cancer-with-plants-future-research">Fighting cancer with plants: Future research</h2>



Future research should prioritize mapping the full chemoprofile of each candidate plant. This should also include identifying synergistic combinations and unravelling pharmacokinetics in vivo. 



Genomic and metabolomic tools can accelerate the discovery of lead molecules, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nanotechnology-is-fighting-microplastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanotechnology</a> may enhance their bioavailability. Collaboration between Nigerian universities, pharmaceutical firms, and international cancer institutes will be vital to secure funding and regulatory approval.



Ultimately, Nigeria’s indigenous food plants harbor a rich arsenal of anticancer phytochemicals that attack tumours through multiple, complementary pathways. 



Integrated with evidence-based medicine, these botanicals could broaden the therapeutic arsenal, reduce treatment costs and bring culturally familiar options to patients. Harnessing the plants may demand careful science, but the potential rewards will justify the effort.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.xiahepublishing.com/2835-6357/FIM-2024-00042" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Future Integrative Medicine</a>.



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These food plants demonstrated natural anti-cancer properties in a recent study

Cancer remains a leading cause of mortality across the globe...

For decades, farmers have relied on fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO) to feed carnivorous species such as salmon, turning them into supermarket staples. 



Although this trade underpins a multibillion-dollar aquaculture sector, the whereabouts of the factories that convert anchovies, sardines, menhaden, and other small-pelagic fish into feed ingredients has remained obscure.



A study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC) has now lifted that veil by assembling the first open-access, geo-referenced database of FMFO facilities worldwide.



The researchers located 506 factories in 63 nations and linked them to more than 400 separate companies. Peru, Mauritania, and Chile account for the greatest numbers of plants, but sizable clusters also appear in Vietnam, China, Denmark, and the United States.



“Production of fishmeal is a major issue in aquaculture. Understanding where FMFO production occurs is essential for addressing its environmental, social, and economic impacts,” said lead author Lauren Shea, who undertook the project while completing her master’s degree at UBC’s Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-footprint-of-fishmeal">Global footprint of fishmeal</h2>



Roughly two-fifths of the output catalogued in the new map still relies on whole, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild-caught fish</a> rather than trimmings from seafood processing plants. 



These bait-size species sit near the base of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-threaten-marine-life-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> food webs and are a crucial protein source for millions of people in low-income coastal regions.



“Dependence on the global FMFO trade could undermine food security while fueling unsustainable fishing practices,” explained Professor Rashid Sumaila, senior author of the study. “This is not just an environmental issue - it’s about justice and equity.”



The research team combined satellite imagery, government registries, company websites, and third-party certification data to locate each factory and verify which raw materials it uses. 



The most prolific region - Peru - hosts 125 factories and supplies a large share of the world’s fishmeal, primarily from anchoveta catches along the Humboldt Current. Mauritania, the runner-up, has 42 factories, many financed by foreign investors and linked by NGOs to local price spikes and resource conflicts. 



Meanwhile, nations such as Norway and Denmark host relatively few but highly efficient plants that benefit from state-of-the-art rendering technology and strict environmental oversight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-plants-obscure-the-full-picture">Some plants obscure the full picture</h2>



While the map represents a major leap in transparency, Shea and her colleagues stress that it is only a baseline. Many of China’s FMFO facilities, for example, remain poorly documented because of language barriers, sparse public disclosure, and limited online footprints. 



Likewise, several West African and Southeast Asian plants operate in “data-poor” fisheries where catch statistics are unreliable or withheld from public view.



“With more transparent data, governments and organizations can better regulate FMFO sourcing, track environmental impacts, and support alternatives - like plant-based feeds or novel proteins - that reduce pressure on wild fish stocks,” Shea said.



The authors urge routine updates to the database, independent audits of raw-material sources, and finer-scale analysis of each fishmeal plant’s social and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biotic-homogenization-human-impacts-diminish-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological</a> footprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathways-toward-responsible-fish-feed">Pathways toward responsible fish feed</h2>



Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-impacts-wild-fish-much-more-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquaculture</a> already supplies more than half of the fish consumed globally, reforming its feed inputs is central to achieving any credible vision of sustainable seafood. Possible solutions include redirecting fish processing waste into meal and oil and expanding algae-based or microbial proteins. 



An additional solution consists of more aggressively phasing in insect meal or plant concentrates where nutritional profiles allow. Yet technical fixes alone cannot solve the governance challenges that plague FMFO supply chains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fish-factories_spatial-distribution_map_credit-UBC_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fish-factories_spatial-distribution_map_credit-UBC_1s.webp" alt="Factories are color-coded by data type (see Table 1). Factories in dark blue (data type A) represent plants whose locations we were able to verify using satellite imagery and company website information. Green shaded circles represent and are scaled to the number of factories per producing country. Credit: UBC" class="wp-image-1967574"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Factories are color-coded by data type (see Table 1). Factories in dark blue (data type A) represent plants whose locations we were able to verify using satellite imagery and company website information. Green shaded circles represent and are scaled to the number of factories per producing country. Credit: UBC</figcaption></figure>



“Science can only go so far,” Sumaila said. “We need political will, corporate accountability, and community engagement to drive real change. If aquaculture is going to be part of a sustainable food future, we need better data, smarter policies, and ethical sourcing of feed ingredients."



The study highlights existing initiatives such as the <a href="https://fiti.global/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fisheries Transparency Initiative</a> (FiTI), which invites member states to publish detailed statistics on catch volumes, processing facilities, and trade flows. 



Mauritania - a FiTI participant - has already placed a public list of its FMFO factories online, demonstrating how national action can complement independent research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-stakes-for-oceans-and-people"><a></a>The stakes for oceans and people</h2>



Small-pelagic fish are often described as “the gold of the sea” because of their high omega-3 content and sheer abundance. When harvested responsibly, they can support coastal livelihoods, provide affordable nutrition, and feed farmed fish without jeopardizing ecosystem balance. 



When industrial fleets overshoot precautionary limits, however, the health of predator species, seabirds, and local communities can unravel quickly. 



By shining a light on where these reduction fisheries land and where the converted products are manufactured, the UBC-led investigation equips policymakers, advocacy groups, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-seafood-production-while-protecting-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafood</a> buyers with a new tool for risk assessment.



The footprint of fishmeal and fish oil production emphasizes the urgency of enforcing science-based catch quotas. This protects traditional fishing rights, and promoting circular-economy feed ingredients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-the-footprint-of-fishmeal">Reducing the footprint of fishmeal</h2>



Future research will need to integrate factory-level emission estimates, water-use data, and labor-rights records to paint a fuller sustainability portrait. 



Furthermore, comparing the profitability of FMFO production against potential human dietary use of the same fish could inform more equitable allocation of marine resources.



For now, the global FMFO map establishes a reference point that did not exist before. Where those 506 dots move - or multiply - over the next decade will reveal whether the aquaculture sector can reconcile growth with ocean stewardship and social responsibility.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr6921" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Feeding fish, draining the sea: Fishmeal's global footprint revealed

For decades, farmers have relied on fishmeal and fish oil...

Fires have long been a seasonal scourge on the west coast of North America and the densely forested east coast of Australia. 



In January 2025, flames tore through Los Angeles, destroying more than 10,000 buildings and claiming 29 lives. Just four years earlier, Australia’s 2019–2020 “Black Summer” burned over 12 million hectares - an area larger than England.



For decades, emergency crews have relied on the fact that the Northern and Southern Hemispheres reach peak fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">danger</a> at different times, allowing them to share personnel, aircraft and expertise. 



New research, however, shows that this breathing space is rapidly disappearing as wildfire seasons are increasingly overlapping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-fire-data">Decades of fire data</h2>



To determine how the window for mutual aid is changing, an international team of climatologists analysed daily values of the <a href="https://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/background/summary/fwi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Fire Weather Index</a> (FWI) for western North America and eastern Australia between 1979 and 2022. 



The FWI combines temperature, rainfall, humidity and wind to flag “fire-weather days,” when conditions are ripe for ignition and spread.



Over the past forty years, simultaneous fire-weather days in the two regions have increased by roughly one per year. The overlap is now most pronounced from July through December, when about three-quarters of days register high wildfire risk in both places.



“This is because the fire season in eastern Australia is starting earlier in spring and overlapping with the end of the fire season on the west coast of North America,” explained Andreia Ribeiro, a climate scientist at Germany’s <a href="https://www.ufz.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research</a> (UFZ) and the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projections-point-to-steeper-rise">Projections point to steeper rise</h2>



Using four state-of-the-art climate models and hundreds of ensemble simulations to capture uncertainty, the researchers projected trends to mid-century under different greenhouse-gas scenarios. Every simulation showed further convergence.



“The number of overlapping fire weather days in western North America and eastern Australia will continue to increase,” Ribeiro warned. 



Depending on future emissions, the extra days could range from just four each year to nearly thirty by the 2050s - effectively adding an entire month of simultaneous high danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diminishing-influence-of-el-nino">Diminishing influence of El Niño</h2>



Fire danger in the two regions has historically been tied to opposite phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Eastern Australia usually endures severe heat and dryness during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-event-may-push-earth-towards-its-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a>, whereas La Niña increases fire potential in coastal California, Oregon and British Columbia by priming vegetation in spring and desiccating it by late summer.



Yet the new study found an unexpected signal: “Despite these generally opposing patterns, we found that during strong fire weather overlap, El Niño conditions are especially pronounced in the Central Pacific,” Ribeiro said.



That influence, while still detectable, is likely to be overshadowed by relentless anthropogenic warming. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-attribute-extreme-heat-and-wildfires-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> is causing global temperature rises and increasing drought in some regions while the El Niño effect is expected to remain largely unchanged,” said Jakob Zscheischler, a UFZ co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasingly-overlapping-wildfire-seasons">Increasingly overlapping wildfire seasons</h2>



Until recently, crews could count on a four- to five-month lull between California’s June–October fire season and Australia’s October–March window. Those months allowed exhausted firefighters and scarce aerial tankers to rotate across the Pacific.



“But these increasingly overlapping fire weather seasons in the US and Australia are narrowing the window for international cooperation and making it harder to respond quickly to large-scale wildfires,” said lead author Doug Richardson, a scientist at the <a href="https://climateextremes.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARC Center of Excellence for Climate Extremes</a> at the University of New South Wales.



Existing bilateral agreements - some dating back three decades - assume non-overlapping seasons. 



The study argues that both countries, along with Canada, must revisit those pacts, expand domestic training pipelines, purchase additional large air tankers that can remain on call year-round, and invest in predictive technologies that can pre-position resources when simultaneous crises loom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-the-future">Preparing for the future</h2>



Converging fire seasons ripple beyond emergency services. Insurance markets already reeling from record-breaking claims may face concurrent hits, driving premiums higher. 



Public-health agencies must prepare for overlapping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-particles-erode-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoke</a> waves that can blanket cities like Sydney, Vancouver, and San Francisco at the same time.



Wildlife managers worry that species relying on alternate recovery periods in the two hemispheres - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>, for instance - could lose habitat simultaneously. Carbon-budget analysts note that overlapping megafires release pulses of greenhouse gases that undercut national climate targets in a single season.



The team urges governments to accelerate prescribed burning and forest-thinning programs during the shrinking shoulder seasons, double down on community fire-proofing, and expand early-warning networks that incorporate the latest FWI projections. 



Internationally, they call for a global reserve of firefighting aircraft co-funded by nations facing rising wildfire risk, allowing rapid deployment even when regional fleets are committed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-fire-weather-is-on-the-rise">Extreme fire weather is on the rise</h2>



The new findings illustrate how climate change can synchronize hazards that once struck at different times and places, overwhelming systems designed for isolated events. 



Without deep emissions cuts, the number of days when both hemispheres simultaneously face extreme fire weather is set to climb steeply, leaving little margin for relief operations that span the Pacific.



The scientists behind the study hope their work will spur policymakers to adapt cooperation agreements - and confront the warming trend that is fanning the flames on two continents.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF005030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s Future</a>.



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Wildfire seasons are now overlapping worldwide

Fires have long been a seasonal scourge on the west...

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from the age of dinosaurs sounds like pure fantasy, yet that is exactly what happened on England’s west coast. 



A stretch of shoreline below Somerset’s crumbling cliffs yielded a bone so large that it challenged everything we thought we knew about prehistoric marine reptiles. 



The fossil - a lower jaw more than 6½ feet long - promised a creature leagues beyond anything alive today. The find dated to around 202 million years ago, slotting it into the turbulent final chapter of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic Period</a>.



At that time, much of what is now Britain lay beneath a warm, shallow sea patrolled by meat‑eating giants. Their reign ended in a mass extinction, leaving only scattered bones to whisper their stories - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruby-and-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Ruby and Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



Back in late&nbsp;May&nbsp;2020, 11‑year‑old Ruby&nbsp;Reynolds and her father, Justin, headed for the mudflats of Blue&nbsp;Anchor, looking for fossils. 



Justin spotted a four‑inch scrap of bone, “bigger than any piece of bone I'd ever found before,” he recalls. 



Ruby wandered on and unearthed a second fragment twice that size. “It was just sort of lying there,” she says. “I was just happy, really.” Their excitement would soon ripple far beyond the shoreline.



Word reached paleontologist Dean&nbsp;Lomax, who holds posts at both the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>. He recognized echoes of another Somerset specimen lifted in&nbsp;2016 by local collector Paul&nbsp;de&nbsp;la&nbsp;Salle. 



That earlier jaw fragment, called a surangular, came together from several chunks that, Lomax remembers, “fit together perfectly like an ancient prehistoric jigsaw puzzle.”



Ruby's discovery was eventually named Ichthyotitan severnensis, which literally translates to “giant fish lizard from the Severn.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ichthyotitan-severnensis-was-a-true-monster">Ichthyotitan severnensis was a true monster</h2>



The first bone’s eroded edges left scientists yearning for more. “It suggests that it was from something unusual and exceedingly large,”&nbsp;Lomax says. 



He and colleagues published a cautious description, but could not pin down the creature’s identity. “What we'd hoped for - we kept our fingers crossed - we hoped that maybe more specimens would come to light in the future,” he admits.



Ruby and Justin’s beachside haul delivered exactly that. After they emailed photographs - “Hey, Dr.&nbsp;Lomax - we think we've found another one of your giant ichthyosaur jawbones”&nbsp;-&nbsp;the research team raced to Somerset. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1s.webp" alt="Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax" class="wp-image-1966376"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax</figcaption></figure>



“Of course, they were quite right,” Lomax says. “They correctly identified these sections of bone as belonging to an ichthyosaur.” 



Fresh collecting trips recovered still more pieces, leaving nearly two‑thirds of the jaw intact and in excellent shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-two-huge-jawbones">Matching two huge jawbones</h2>



Comparison of the two Somerset jaws revealed striking similarities. Because both turned up in the same rock layer and displayed uncommon internal bone textures, the team concluded they belonged to one new species. 



In a paper published in PLOS&nbsp;ONE, they proposed that the full animal stretched roughly&nbsp;82&nbsp;feet - “genuinely enormous, about the length of a blue whale,” Lomax says.



Scale alone does not grant a place in the record books; scientists also scrutinized microscopic structures inside the bone. 



These matched the odd pattern seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fiona-the-ichthyosaur-was-preserved-for-millions-of-years-after-a-landslide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super‑sized ichthyosaurs</a>, nudging researchers to suggest these reptiles grew in a way unlike most of their scaly kin.



Whether Ichthyotitan severnensis belonged to the shastasaur group - the clade that once produced Triassic leviathans across the globe - remains uncertain until a complete skeleton surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sizing-up-ichthyotitan">Sizing up Ichthyotitan</h2>



The Somerset titan likely carried a lighter, more streamlined frame suited for open‑ocean cruising. Its jawbone alone outsizes a grown person by several feet. 



If its proportions followed relatives such as Shonisaurus, the skull may have spanned over&nbsp;10&nbsp;feet, with paddle‑shaped flippers stretching wider than a living‑room couch.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1966374"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



Growth to such dimensions suggests a sea rich in food and free of bigger predators. Massive schools of squid‑like cephalopods thrived in Triassic waters, offering a banquet to long‑roaming hunters. 



Stable‑isotope evidence from other ichthyosaur bones hints at warm‑blooded metabolisms, which, paired with live birth and sleek bodies, let them fill whale‑like niches long before mammals took the plunge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-triassic-was-incredible">Life in the Triassic was incredible</h2>



The Triassic often flies under the radar next to the Jurassic’s celebrity dinosaurs, yet biomechanist Kelsey&nbsp;Stilson calls it “a really weird time.” 



Continents had only just fused into <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a>, monsoon‑driven climates swung from drought to deluge, and both early dinosaurs and mammals were fresh on the scene. 



“There were things that we can't even possibly imagine in the past,”&nbsp;Stilson adds. “But we can get little hints, and this is one little hint at this larger picture of evolution on Earth.”



That broader picture shows ichthyosaurs rising fast after the end‑Permian mass extinction, then peaking in size just before the next cataclysm. 



“No marine reptile ever reached such gigantic sizes ever again,”&nbsp;Lomax notes. Later Jurassic and Cretaceous ichthyosaurs shrank, perhaps pushed aside by changing oceans and by the emergence of other reptilian predators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pliosaurs</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-replaced-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Whales replaced Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



The last ichthyosaurs disappeared about&nbsp;94&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, vacating the top spot in marine food webs. 



That gap lingered until hoofed mammals ventured back to sea some&nbsp;50&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, setting whales on their own path to titanic proportions. 



The repeat story - big fish‑shaped predators evolving from land‑going ancestors - highlights how evolutionary solutions recur when similar ecological opportunities arise.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1s.webp" alt="A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy." class="wp-image-1966372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.</figcaption></figure>



Modern blue whales now stretch beyond&nbsp;100&nbsp;feet and can weigh&nbsp;180&nbsp;tons, yet, length for length, they share the open ocean’s realm with Ichthyotitan in the fossil archives. 



Their stories highlight the ocean’s capacity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trachelosaurus-fischeri-worlds-oldest-long-necked-marine-reptile-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurture behemoths</a> when food is ample and competition sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Somerset’s cliffs erode a little more each winter. Storms tear at ancient mudstones, exposing new fossils overnight. 



“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale‑sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period," Lomax concluded.



"These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know.”



Beachcombers like Ruby and Justin now scan those shores with renewed purpose. Their lucky strike reminds us that scientific breakthroughs sometimes hide in plain sight, waiting for curious eyes and a little persistence. 



The sea claimed Ichthyotitan severnensis long before humans walked Europe, yet its story shows that even after millions of years, a coast‑side ramble can rewrite natural history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Largest marine reptile ever known to exist was discovered by an 11-year-old girl

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from...

Why do some individuals rush to help, while others hesitate? A new study led by Dr. Inbal Bartal of Tel Aviv University digs deep into this question using rats. The findings highlight the strong influence of social experience and brain chemistry on prosocial behavior and willingness to help.



The team used a helping behavior task where rats could free a distressed peer trapped in a restrainer. Rats that had previous positive interactions were more likely to help. 



These "helper rats" also showed more brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-increases-feelings-of-hope-happiness-and-gratitude/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> in areas linked to empathy and motivation compared to their less helpful counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-drive-helping">Social bonds drive helping </h2>



Helper rats exhibited stronger activation in the anterior cingulate cortex, somatosensory cortex, and other empathy-related areas. This activity pattern suggests that not just feeling another’s distress, but having a social bond, is crucial for helping.



Interestingly, oxytocin - the hormone involved in bonding - played a key role. Rats that consistently helped had higher oxytocin receptor expression in the nucleus accumbens, a major reward center in the brain. 



Blocking oxytocin signaling did not completely erase helping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> but did reduce the rats’ social tendencies. According to the researchers, caring about others appears more important than simply sensing their distress.



“We appear to live in an increasingly polarized society where there is a gap in empathy towards others," said Dr. Bartal, a faculty member in the Psychology Department and School of Neuroscience at <a href="http://tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel-Aviv University</a>.



"This work helps us understand prosocial, or helpful, acts better. We see others in distress all the time but tend to help only certain individuals. The similarity between human and rat brains helps us understand the way our brain mediates prosocial decisions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helpful-rats-socialize-more">Helpful rats socialize more</h2>



The study found that rats who became "helpers" showed greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> affiliation even before the helping task began. Before any rat was trapped, these rats spent more time interacting, lying together, and engaging in affiliative behaviors with their cagemates.



The frequency of social interactions predicted how quickly rats would later act to free a distressed peer. Rats that interacted more often on the first day were faster to help across testing days. 



This link between early social behavior and later helping actions offers new insights into how prosocial tendencies develop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helpers-had-more-oxytocin-receptors">Helpers had more oxytocin receptors</h2>



Gene expression studies revealed that helper rats had significantly higher oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) levels specifically in the nucleus accumbens. They also showed greater activity of genes related to social reward and emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coping-with-eco-anxiety-turning-climate-worry-into-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulation</a>.



Importantly, genes tied to stress responses were downregulated in helper rats. This suggests that lower stress reactivity could promote a readiness to help others. Brain-wide analyses also showed that helper rats had more active networks in sensory and empathy-related brain regions.



When the researchers blocked oxytocin signaling in the brain’s paraventricular nucleus, rats showed fewer social behaviors. This reduced sociality hints that oxytocin may strengthen social bonds in the brain, which in turn could drive helping actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-brains-are-motivated-to-help">Social brains are motivated to help</h2>



Helper rats demonstrated a widespread activation of the brain’s prosocial network. Critical areas included the anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and insular cortex. Many of these regions overlap with known human empathy and reward circuits.



Moreover, the orbitofrontal cortex stood out as playing a major role. This area, known for evaluating rewards and decisions, showed the strongest difference between helpers and non-helpers.



Social interaction frequency correlated strongly with brain activity in these regions. Rats who were more socially engaged early on had higher brain activation related to empathy later, even days after initial testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-society">Implications for human society</h2>



The research suggests that social connectedness and neurochemical factors together shape helping behavior. The results support the idea that empathy alone does not always lead to action - social bonds and emotional rewards are key motivators.



Understanding how oxytocin and social affiliation drive prosocial behavior could help us better support empathy in increasingly divided societies. Strengthening social bonds might be more effective than simply raising awareness about others' distress.



Dr. Bartal and colleagues have illuminated the biological roots of kindness in a way that could one day inform how we nurture empathy in humans.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/04/17/JNEUROSCI.0845-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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Acts of kindness: Social brains are wired to help

Why do some individuals rush to help, while others hesitate?...

Asteroid,Vesta,In,Space.,Surface,Of,Space,Stone,From,Asteroid

For more than a decade, Vesta has sat in a scientific gray zone: too big and geologically complex to be an ordinary asteroid, yet never quite elevated to the status of a true planet. 



Its basalt-covered surface hinted at a molten past, and early analyses of data from NASA’s Dawn spacecraft suggested that Vesta possessed the same fundamental architecture as Earth - crust, mantle, and metallic core. That tidy picture has now been upended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vesta-s-internal-structure">Vesta's internal structure </h2>



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) re-examined Dawn’s gravity and imaging records with greatly refined calibration methods. The result is a radical reinterpretation of Vesta’s internal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-vesta-found-to-have-channels-that-look-like-water-made-gullies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a>.



Rather than harboring a dense central core, the 500-kilometer-wide body appears almost uniform throughout. 



“The lack of a core was very surprising. It’s a really different way of thinking about Vesta," said study co-author Seth Jacobson, a planetary scientist at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vesta-s-history-is-surprisingly-complex">Vesta's history is surprisingly complex</h2>



The research team reached this conclusion by looking at a property called the moment of inertia, which governs how an object’s mass is distributed and, consequently, how it spins in space. 



Bodies with heavy centers behave like figure skaters who pull their arms in to rotate faster; those with evenly distributed mass spin more sluggishly. Vesta’s spin signature fits the latter description, contradicting earlier models that required a substantial iron-nickel core.



To obtain their revised measurements, principal investigator Ryan Park and colleagues spent nearly a decade perfecting the cross-calibration between Dawn’s onboard cameras and radio-tracking data transmitted through <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/communicating-with-missions/dsn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Deep Space Network</a>.



“After nearly a decade of refining our calibration and processing techniques, we achieved remarkable alignment between Dawn’s Deep Space Network radiometric data and onboard imaging data,” Park explained. 



“Our findings show Vesta’s history is far more complex than previously believed, shaped by unique processes like interrupted planetary differentiation and late-stage collisions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-competing-theories-on-vesta">Two competing theories on Vesta</h2>



Two competing ideas now vie to explain what Vesta really is. One option is that the object began to differentiate - melting internally so that metals could sink and silicates rise - but the process froze in mid-stride. 



That would make Vesta a kind of geological time capsule, preserving a rare snapshot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-world-offers-clues-to-planetary-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary evolution</a> arrested before its final act.



Yet this scenario clashes with laboratory analyses of meteorites that match Vesta’s spectral fingerprint. “We’re really confident these meteorites came from Vesta,” Jacobson noted. “And these don’t show obvious evidence of incomplete differentiation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragment-of-a-lost-world">Fragment of a lost world</h2>



The alternative, more audacious hypothesis is that Vesta is not a stalled planet at all but a fragment blasted off a larger world during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distant-icy-worlds-are-unlocking-secrets-of-the-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>’s chaotic youth. Jacobson first floated the idea informally years ago, suggesting that some meteorites might be relics of violent impacts among embryonic planets.



“This idea went from a somewhat silly suggestion to a hypothesis that we’re now taking seriously due to this re-analysis of NASA Dawn mission data,” Jacobson said. 



If correct, Vesta would be a shard of primordial crust from a planet that continued to accrete elsewhere - or perhaps never reached maturity because subsequent collisions shattered it beyond recognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Either explanation reshapes Vesta’s scientific value. In the incomplete-differentiation model, the body offers insight into the thermal limits that determine whether small planetary embryos grow full cores. 



In the impact-fragment model, Vesta becomes forensic evidence of the collisions that sculpted the inner solar system, possibly preserving geochemical clues to an unknown “parent” planet. 



Jacobson’s research group is already building computer models of such giant impacts, while graduate student Emily Elizondo examines how ejected debris might migrate into the asteroid belt and survive for billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



More work lies ahead. Planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-could-be-key-to-prevent-animal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemists</a> can re-evaluate Vesta-derived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-meteorites-tell-us-about-their-birthplace-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteorites</a> in light of the new gravity data, looking for isotopic markers that would either support or refute a uniform interior.



Meanwhile, improved dynamical simulations could test whether a collision-origin scenario can reproduce Vesta’s current orbit and composition. 



Dawn’s legacy data set remains a treasure trove; the same re-processing techniques may yet reveal subtler interior details or reconcile inconsistencies in previous models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pieces-of-an-ancient-planet">Pieces of an ancient planet</h2>



Whatever the final answer, Vesta’s story now looks less like a straightforward tale of arrested growth and more like a detective mystery spanning 4.5 billion years. “No longer is the Vesta meteorite collection a sample of a body in space that failed to make it as a planet,” Jacobson said.



“These could be pieces of an ancient planet before it grew to full completion. We just don’t know which planet that is yet.” 



In reframing Vesta from wannabe planet to either an unfinished embryo or a planetary shard, scientists gain fresh perspective on the tumultuous processes that forged the terrestrial world we inhabit today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02533-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>



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Asteroid Vesta may be a fragment of a lost world

For more than a decade, Vesta has sat in a...

As the global community scrambles to limit warming, a new study offers an unexpected possibility: we may not need to wait for advanced aircraft technology to intervene in cooling Earth’s climate.



In the face of growing concerns over climate tipping points and the slow pace of emissions cuts, some scientists have turned their attention to solar geo-engineering. This approach involves reflecting a portion of the Sun’s energy back into space to cool the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specialized-aircraft-may-not-be-necessary">Specialized aircraft may not be necessary </h2>



One proposed method is stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI), where sulphur dioxide is released into the upper atmosphere. There, it forms reflective particles that scatter sunlight and reduce global temperatures. 



Until now, most models and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-geoengineering-could-save-up-to-400000-lives-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> focused on injecting these particles high above the tropics - 20 kilometers or more - requiring specialized aircraft not yet in existence.



However, new research led by University College London (UCL) suggests a different, perhaps more accessible path: use commercial aircraft to inject particles at lower altitudes over the polar regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-earth-with-commercial-aircraft">Cooling Earth with commercial aircraft </h2>



In the new study, the research team used 41 computer simulations with the UK Earth System Model to explore the effects of SAI at various altitudes, latitudes, and seasons.



The results showed that even at 13 kilometers (about 8 miles) - within reach of existing planes like the Boeing 777F - SAI could still cool the planet, though less efficiently than tropical high-altitude deployments.



“Solar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-are-changing-the-clouds-unintended-geoengineering-test-atlantic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geoengineering</a> comes with serious risks and much more research is needed to understand its impacts. However, our study suggests that it is easier to cool the planet with this particular intervention than we thought," noted lead author Alistair Duffey, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>.



"This has implications for how quickly stratospheric aerosol injection could be started and by who."



This approach would use lower altitudes over the poles because the stratosphere sits closer to the surface there. While the strategy achieves only about 35% of the forcing efficiency of traditional high-altitude methods, it still results in meaningful cooling and avoids the decade-long wait to develop custom aircraft.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-polar-injection-works">How polar injection works</h2>



To reflect enough sunlight, aerosols must remain in the stratosphere where they are dry and stable, free from clouds that wash particles away. 



The tropopause - the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere - is lower at the poles. That allows existing jets to reach the stratosphere more easily at high latitudes than at the equator.



The simulations show that injecting 12 million tonnes (about 13.2 million US tons) of sulphur dioxide per year at 13 kilometers (about 8 miles) above 60° North and South could cool the Earth by about 0.6°C (about 1.1°F).



This is comparable to the cooling observed after the Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption in 1991, which had a significant but temporary impact on global temperatures.



However, at 13 kilometers, aerosols linger in the atmosphere for months rather than years. This means more frequent injections would be needed to sustain cooling. In comparison, particles released at 20 kilometers can persist much longer, providing greater efficiency for the same mass of injected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-risk-geoengineering-to-reverse-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-timing-of-aircraft-injection">The timing of aircraft injection</h2>



One of the most striking insights from the study is how the timing of aircraft injection matters for cooling Earth. Seasonal deployment, specifically during local spring and summer, improved both the conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid and the lifetime of the particles.



These improvements occur because ultraviolet radiation - needed to drive chemical reactions - is more intense in the summer months, especially near the poles.



In fact, the study found that seasonal injection during spring and summer resulted in 39% more effective cooling than injecting year-round at the same altitude. This strategy produced more aerosol during the sunny months and avoided wasted effort during the dark polar winter, when particles would have little cooling effect.



The polar summer also reduces the longwave warming effect from larger particles, which tends to offset some of the cooling benefits of SAI. By optimizing timing, the low-altitude strategy compensates slightly for its reduced efficiency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-using-commercial-aircraft">Benefits of using commercial aircraft</h2>



Deploying SAI using existing jets offers one major benefit: speed. Designing, building, and certifying high-altitude aircraft could take a decade and billions of dollars. In contrast, modifying current commercial planes could begin in just a few years.



“Although pre-existing aircraft would still require a substantial modification program to be able to function as deployment tankers, this route would be much quicker than designing a novel high-flying aircraft,” noted study co-author Wake Smith, Lecturer at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>.



The Boeing 777F, for example, could be adapted to carry and release sulphur dioxide at the necessary altitude. With a payload of over 100 tonnes (about 110 US tons) and an average of 5.7 flights per day, a fleet of 102 aircraft could deliver the required 21 million tonnes (about 23.1 million US tons) per year for 1°C (about 1.8°F) of cooling.



This would be more efficient than a larger fleet of smaller, custom-built high-altitude aircraft.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-and-ethical-challenges-remain">Practical and ethical challenges remain</h2>



Despite its potential, low-altitude polar SAI presents serious challenges. The efficiency trade-off means more sulphur dioxide must be injected to achieve the same temperature drop. That increases side effects such as acid rain, changes in ozone chemistry, and health impacts due to particle deposition.



Infrastructure also limits feasibility. While several northern airfields exist at high latitudes, options in the Southern Hemisphere are scarce. 



For example, Ushuaia in Argentina is the southernmost large airport, but it handles fewer than ten flights a day. Major SAI operations would require new infrastructure in southern Patagonia or significant aircraft travel from lower latitudes, reducing efficiency and increasing costs.



Moreover, unequal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-geoengineering-save-the-doomsday-glacier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling</a> across the globe could worsen climate justice concerns. High-latitude injection cools the poles more effectively than the tropics. 



That’s a problem because many of the world’s most vulnerable populations live in tropical regions, where the risks of heat, disease, and crop failure are already high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injections-won-t-replace-emissions-cuts">Injections won’t replace emissions cuts</h2>



While low-altitude SAI could offer a stopgap solution, it does not eliminate the need to cut emissions. The researchers stress that this approach is not a replacement for long-term climate mitigation.



“Stratospheric aerosol injection is certainly not a replacement for greenhouse gas emission reductions as any potential negative side effects increase with the amount of cooling: we can only achieve long-term climate stability with net zero,” noted co-author Dr. Matthew Henry from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



In addition to reducing emissions, any SAI strategy must roll out gradually to prevent sudden shifts in global temperatures. Abrupt cooling or rapid withdrawal could cause disruptions to agriculture, ecosystems, and human health. The risks of so-called “termination shock” remain a significant concern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-a-risky-opportunity">Looking ahead: A risky opportunity</h2>



This study expands the boundaries of what might be possible in near-term geoengineering. It introduces a technically feasible strategy that could be deployed using planes that already exist. 



However, the approach is far from optimal. It is less efficient, comes with greater side effects, and offers uneven global benefits.



Still, the idea of using current aircraft for cooling Earth - even if modestly - adds a new dimension to climate policy. It highlights the importance of further research, not just to confirm technical viability, but to understand the social, ethical, and environmental consequences.



Whether low-altitude SAI becomes part of the global climate toolkit depends on decisions yet to be made. But this study opens that conversation with clarity, urgency, and a firm grounding in data. 



It calls on policymakers to weigh aircraft-based cooling options carefully, and on scientists to keep exploring the boundaries of what is possible.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2024EF005567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Cooling Earth's climate with commercial aircraft may be possible

As the global community scrambles to limit warming, a new...

In the natural world, family often defines survival strategies. Across species, cooperation among relatives has evolved into a powerful tool to ensure success in challenging environments. Yet few creatures embody this principle so intricately as the long-tailed tit.



Found flitting through British gardens, these small birds reveal extraordinary loyalty to their kin. Far from fleeting connections, long-tailed tits show unwavering commitment to family, even during the upheaval of migration. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-in-animal-societies">Cooperation in animal societies</h2>



Recent research from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> brings the hidden social lives of long-tailed tits into sharp focus, offering new insights into how cooperation shapes animal societies.



Decades of careful observation and rigorous analysis culminated in a study that redefines what we know about the evolution of social behaviors. 



Through the lives of these tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, we glimpse powerful lessons about kinship, resilience, and the surprising complexity of animal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-tailed-tits-stay-loyal-to-family">Long-tailed tits stay loyal to family</h2>



The study, published in the Journal of Animal Ecology, draws on an extraordinary 30-year dataset. It confirms that long-tailed tits retain strong family bonds throughout migratory movements - a phenomenon never before documented so consistently in cooperative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.



Long-tailed tits migrate not as isolated individuals but as tightly knit family units. This behavior ensures that when they arrive at new locations, they are surrounded by familiar, trusted kin ready to support each other.



"This 30-year study is unique in its depth and has allowed us to understand the evolution of cooperation in a way that would not have been possible otherwise. The discovery of family ties persisting through migration is particularly exciting," noted Dr. Jennifer Morinay, co-lead author of the research.



"These tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> essentially travel with their support network, ensuring that when they reach their new location, they have their kin ready to assist. It highlights the profound importance of family in their social structure."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-family-groups-survive-together">Family groups survive together</h2>



The research identifies several intertwined processes that create and sustain these family structures. Limited natal dispersal ensures many young birds settle close to their birthplace. Even when they do move, long-tailed tits often migrate alongside their siblings, keeping family bonds intact across vast distances.



At the same time, environmental pressures, particularly high predation rates, play a significant role. Frequent nest failures result in clusters of surviving families, making the presence of close kin nearby more likely. Together, these ecological and demographic factors form what scientists term "kin neighborhoods."



Incredibly, even migratory long-tailed tits, such as those studied in Estonia, preserve these ties during long journeys. Studies found that 82% of migratory flocks included at least one first-order relative. These findings challenge longstanding assumptions that migration disrupts social cohesion among birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-roots-of-helping-behavior">Evolutionary roots of helping behavior</h2>



Long-tailed tits do not only stick close to their families; they actively help them. When breeding attempts fail, many individuals redirect their efforts to assist <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relatives</a> raising broods. This redirected helping strengthens the survival chances of their kin’s offspring, ultimately boosting their own inclusive fitness.



"The push and pull between cooperation and competition is something we readily recognize in our own lives. This study demonstrates that these same fundamental tensions are at play in the social dynamics of long-tailed tits and likely many other species," noted Professor Ben Hatchwell, co-lead author of the study.



"Our long-term research provides significant insights into the ecological and social conditions that favour cooperative behaviour and the evolutionary forces that sculpt these intricate social interactions."



Helping decisions are not random acts of kindness. They are influenced by various factors including the bird’s own breeding success, its relatedness to nearby individuals, and the strength of prior social bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mistakes-in-kin-recognition">Mistakes in kin recognition</h2>



Despite their strong social instincts, long-tailed tits sometimes help unrelated individuals. 



About 30% of helpers were found assisting nests of non-kin. Scientists believe this stems from errors in kin recognition rather than a deliberate choice.



The birds rely heavily on learned acoustic cues to identify relatives. Calls learned during the nestling stage help them recognize kin, but these vocal cues are not always completely reliable. Studies show overlap in call similarities between kin and non-kin, leading to occasional misdirected care.



Efforts are ongoing to determine whether other cues, such as olfactory signals, also influence how long-tailed tits recognize their family and make crucial helping decisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment-shapes-cooperation">Environment shapes cooperation</h2>



The study also shows how environmental pressures influence the rates of cooperation. Moderate levels of nest predation foster the highest levels of helping behaviour. 



If predation is too low, there are fewer failed breeders needing alternative strategies. If too high, there are simply fewer successful nests available to help.



Shorter breeding seasons similarly encourage cooperation. With less time to attempt new broods after failure, many birds abandon independent breeding and instead opt to help their kin.



Interestingly, overall population density did not seem to impact cooperation rates, suggesting that the quality of family connections matters more than simple numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-where-to-live">Choosing where to live</h2>



Where a bird chooses to settle has long-term fitness consequences. Males who stay close to their natal territory accrue higher indirect fitness by helping relatives. Conversely, males who disperse far have fewer opportunities to help and lower overall inclusive fitness.



Females experience a different dynamic. Those who disperse farther tend to achieve slightly better direct reproductive success, likely because dispersal reduces inbreeding risks.



These differing pressures create a fascinating tug-of-war, shaping dispersal behaviours across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-family-ties-of-long-tailed-tits">Family ties of long-tailed tits </h2>



Perhaps the most striking revelation is that migration, once believed to hinder the evolution of cooperation, does not necessarily break social bonds. Long-tailed tits maintain their family ties even after traveling hundreds of kilometres.



This finding challenges traditional theories and highlights the incredible flexibility of social strategies in the natural world. Stable territorial groups are not the only route to successful cooperation. 



Dynamic, migratory species can also evolve and sustain sophisticated social systems based on family loyalty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-long-tailed-tits-recognize-family">How do long-tailed tits recognize family?</h2>



Looking ahead, the researchers aim to untangle the specific mechanisms that allow long-tailed tits to recognize and remember their kin.



Current efforts focus on understanding the role of calls, scents, and social associations built during early life stages. Scientists are investigating whether maintaining winter flock associations with relatives influences recognition in later breeding seasons.



These studies promise to deepen our understanding of how cooperation, kinship, and social cognition evolve across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-birds-with-mighty-hearts">Tiny birds with mighty hearts</h2>



Through the lives of long-tailed tits, we see how powerful, enduring, and flexible family bonds can be, even in a world full of risks and change.



The study from Sheffield shows that nature’s loyalty is not reserved for mammals or large social species alone. In every tiny flutter of a long-tailed tit’s wing, there lies a rich story of kinship, survival, and the enduring power of cooperation.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.14237" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



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Long-tailed tits migrate in family units and maintain lasting bonds

In the natural world, family often defines survival strategies. Across...

Thornless, disease-resistant, and tastier blackberries may soon become reality. New genetic research from the University of Florida suggests major advances are coming. Farmers looking to recover from citrus declines might soon have new opportunities through blackberry production.



Blackberries have soared in popularity over the past two decades. In the United States alone, farmers now produce 37 million pounds of processed blackberries and nearly 3 million pounds of fresh berries annually.



"Overall, this study not only advances our understanding of blackberry genetics, but it sets the stage for significant improvements in blackberry breeding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">techniques</a>," noted Zhanao Deng, a researcher at the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (<a href="https://ifas.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UF/IFAS</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-breakthrough-for-blackberries">Genetic breakthrough for blackberries </h2>



In Florida, blackberries were produced across 702 acres on 277 farms according to the 2022 USDA Census of Agriculture. The release of improved blackberry varieties could boost these numbers significantly.



Blackberries appeal to both health-conscious consumers and growers looking for a high-value crop. With demand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expanding</a>, the timing of genetic breakthroughs could not be better for U.S. agriculture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-first-chromosome-scale-genome">Building first chromosome-scale genome</h2>



Deng and his team at the UF/IFAS Gulf Coast Research and Education Center created the first chromosome-scale, haplotype-resolved genome for a tetraploid blackberry selection known as BL1​.



By using Oxford Nanopore sequencing and Hi-C scaffolding, they assembled a highly complete 919 megabase genome across 27 pseudochromosomes. This assembly covers more than 92% of the estimated genome length.



BL1’s genome includes 87,968 protein-coding genes. Over 82% of these have functional annotations, offering rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-could-soon-talk-to-farmers-and-listen-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a> for breeding future cultivars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thornless-blackberries-have-special-genetics">Thornless blackberries have special genetics</h2>



Blackberries are not simple plants. Many cultivated varieties, including BL1, are tetraploid, meaning they carry four sets of chromosomes.



This genetic complexity made previous genome projects difficult. The BL1 genome, by preserving all four haplotypes, provides an unprecedented level of detail for blackberry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a>.



"The release of this tetraploid blackberry genome can contribute to more efficient and targeted breeding, ultimately leading to the development of new cultivars with enhanced fruit quality, and resistance to important diseases," Deng emphasized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thornless-blackberries-could-boost-farming">Thornless blackberries could boost farming</h2>



Thornlessness has been a key goal for breeders. Thorns complicate harvest, damage berries, and pose risks for workers. The team identified genetic regions responsible for thornlessness and studied related transcription factors​.



In addition, their research uncovered key genes regulating anthocyanin production. Anthocyanins are responsible for blackberries’ rich color and antioxidant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">properties</a>.



"This finding can help us understand why blackberries develop their characteristic deep purple/black color over time and how to potentially enhance this process for more nutritious berries," Deng said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-disease-with-genetics">Fighting disease with genetics</h2>



The team also identified hundreds of disease resistance genes, particularly NLR and MLO gene families. These discoveries could help breeders develop cultivars less dependent on chemical pesticides​.



Florida growers, who often face disease challenges like orange cane blotch and leaf spot, could benefit greatly. Varieties with natural resistance would reduce production costs and lessen environmental impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thornless-blackberries-could-fruit-earlier">Thornless blackberries could fruit earlier</h2>



Another focus was on primocane fruiting, a trait allowing blackberries to fruit on first-year canes. Normally, blackberries fruit only on second-year canes.



Primocane-fruiting varieties could offer multiple harvests per year and thrive in regions with shorter growing seasons. Genes involved in this trait were mapped and analyzed, promising new possibilities for blackberry cultivation​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-for-breeding">Future directions for breeding</h2>



The reference genome created by Deng’s team unlocks huge potential for improving blackberries. Through better understanding of thornlessness, disease resistance, and anthocyanin production, researchers can breed blackberries suited for diverse climates and markets.



For Florida and the southeastern United States, these advances are especially important. Local farmers could grow blackberries that are easier to manage, more resistant to disease, and highly marketable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-blackberry-genomic-research">Impact of blackberry genomic research</h2>



Blackberries are a $519 million fresh import industry for the United States alone. Globally, over 900,000 metric tons of blackberries are produced annually​.



This research not only benefits Florida but could reshape blackberry production worldwide. Better berries mean better profits for growers and healthier options for consumers.



With genomics leading the way, a thornless, disease-resistant, and tastier blackberry future looks closer than ever.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/hr/article/12/6/uhaf052/8020809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Horticulture Research</a>.



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Blackberries may soon be thornless, thanks to genetic breakthroughs

Thornless, disease-resistant, and tastier blackberries may soon become reality. New...

Walk into any pet show and you’ll see them - flat-faced Persian cats with plush coats and round eyes, or pug dogs waddling about with their unmistakably squished faces.



At first glance, they seem like they belong together, cousins perhaps. Yet they are worlds apart in evolutionary terms. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-reveal-hidden-danger-of-microplastics-to-unborn-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cats</a> and dogs diverged from a common ancestor over 50 million years ago. Despite that, some breeds have grown so similar, they defy nature’s original blueprint.



How did we get here? The answer lies in us. Humans have not only guided the way these animals look but have also unintentionally rewritten the story of cat and dog evolution.



Recent research by scientists from Cornell University and <a href="https://washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> shows just how powerful human preferences can be. This isn’t a story of natural evolution - it’s one of artificial selection, taste, and the strange paths of convergence that arise when we shape nature in our own image.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-changed-cat-and-dog-evolution">Humans changed cat and dog evolution</h2>



The study, published in the journal PNAS, reveals a striking example of evolutionary convergence.



Convergence typically occurs when unrelated species adapt to similar environments, evolving comparable traits. Think wings in birds, bats, and pterosaurs. But here, convergence didn’t come from nature - it came from us.



The researchers found that certain breeds of cats and dogs - Persians, Pugs, Pekingese, Himalayans - developed nearly identical skull shapes.



The flat faces, short snouts, and upward-tilted muzzles were so similar that they overlapped in 3D models. Even more astonishing, these pets were more like each other than like their own ancestors.



“Persian cats and pug and Pekingese dogs all have skull shapes that are very similar to each other, with flat and short faces, and their muzzles and palettes are tilted up in the same way,” said Abby Drake, senior lecturer at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell</a> and co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-bred-by-humans-are-more-varied">Dogs bred by humans are more varied </h2>



Much of this comparison began years earlier, in an unexpected place. Bern, Switzerland is home to the world’s largest scientific collection of pedigree dog skulls. With 2,800 skulls from over 100 breeds, it offers a comprehensive look into the diversity that breeding has created.



Drake studied this collection to understand how modern dogs compare with wild canines like wolves, foxes, and coyotes. The conclusion was clear: dogs bred by humans are far more varied in skull shape than their wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relatives</a>.



This idea sparked curiosity in Jonathan Losos, evolutionary biologist at Washington University. If dog breeds were more varied than their wild kin, could the same be true for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-associate-human-words-with-images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a>? 



He soon found himself navigating a new kind of evolutionary question - one driven not by survival, but by human whim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cat-and-dog-skull-evolution">Cat and dog skull evolution</h2>



In the new study, Drake and Losos used three-dimensional skull data from domestic cats and dogs, their wild ancestors - the North African wildcat and the wolf - and other members of the Carnivora order. They examined 47 shape landmarks across 1,810 skulls, creating a broad shape-space to compare variation.



“The original idea was to map the cat shape space onto the same graph with the dog shape space and see how diverse the cats were,” Drake said. 



“We did not expect to see what we saw, which was that the cat shape space overlapped the dog shape space. When I saw that, I thought, ‘What’s going on? That’s amazing.’”



The overlap wasn’t just statistical - it was visual. A Pekingese dog and a Persian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-that-like-attention-can-soothe-people-during-therapy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cat</a> shared more in common with each other than with a wolf or a wildcat. Their skulls reflected nearly identical facial structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-and-dogs-that-look-like-babies-nbsp">Cats and dogs that look like babies&nbsp;</h2>



This similarity didn’t happen by chance. Modern breed standards emphasize traits like big eyes, small noses, and round faces - features often associated with infants.



These “baby-faced” aesthetics appeal deeply to humans, possibly triggering nurturing instincts. And breeders, consciously or not, have refined their animals to meet those ideals.



“The dog and cat families diverged evolutionarily 50 million years ago,” Losos said. “What’s happening now is that breeders are selecting for the same baby-like features in dogs and cats: big eyes, small noses and round heads.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breed-standards-and-baby-features">Breed standards and baby features</h2>



Breed standards even describe these features in remarkably similar language. The Cat Fanciers’ Association describes the Persian head as “round and massive” with a nose “centered between the eyes.” 



The American Kennel Club calls the Pekingese’s skull “massive,” stating its chin, brow, and nose must lie in one vertical plane.



“If you read the breed standards for the Pekingese and the Persian, the language is very similar in terms of how they want the nose to be up between the eyes and the face to form a vertical plane with no protrusion of the muzzle,” Drake said. "They set these breed standards up, and they achieved them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-breeds-evolved-similar-looks">Different breeds evolved similar looks</h2>



What’s even more fascinating is that this convergence didn’t occur just once. Within dogs, it happened independently in two lineages: English bulldogs and the Asian breeds like the Pekingese and Pug. In cats, the same short-faced form emerged in both Persian and Burmese breeds.



“We realized that the Asian short-faced dogs like the Pekingese and Pugs are basically unrelated to the bulldogs — or the English short-faced breeds,” Drake said. 



“This short-faced morphology has evolved twice within dogs, and also twice within cats, where it evolved in the Persians and the Burmese. So, we’re seeing not just convergence between the two species - cats and dogs - but also convergence within each species.”



This repeated pattern of similarity in unrelated lineages strengthens the case for artificial convergence. Unlike natural selection, where similar traits evolve to meet shared environmental needs, this is evolution for aesthetic preferences. And it happens fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dark-side-of-breeding">The dark side of breeding</h2>



Yet this similarity comes at a cost. Brachycephalic breeds often suffer from serious health issues. Their flat faces can lead to breathing problems, dental misalignment, and complications during birth. These animals would struggle to survive in the wild.



“There are efforts by some groups led by veterinarians to outlaw breeding such extreme types,” Losos said. “And we really need that, for the benefit of the animals. There are all kinds of skull problems with these cats and dogs, because of the way they have been altered.”



Despite their appeal, baby-faced breeds are biologically compromised. Losos and Drake make it clear they do not support continued breeding for such extreme features. Their work exposes how far we’ve taken some animals from their natural design - and the price they pay for our preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Looking ahead, the team plans to expand their study. They want to gather CT scans of breeds not included yet - like the long-faced Siamese or the uniquely shaped Cornish Rex and Savannah cats. These may add even more complexity to the picture of modern pet evolution.



The researchers also hope to apply their methods to extinct species. Comparing today’s breeds with saber-toothed cats or dire wolves may uncover even more about how artificial and natural selection interact.



This study not only reveals what humans have done to cats and dogs - it also helps us see evolution at work in real time. It’s a mirror reflecting both our creativity and our responsibilities. Through our choices, we’ve sculpted life - but not always with care.



Now, as scientists dig deeper, we face a question just as important as any data point: what kind of future do we want for the animals we love?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413780122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Our love for 'baby faces' reshaped cat and dog evolution

Walk into any pet show and you’ll see them -...

Beautiful,Young,Woman,Near,Beige,Glass,Molecules.,Over,Blue,Background.

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few years to whales that sail through life for more than a century, raising questions about how aging shapes such differences and what forces keep some animals healthy for so long.



Experts have long suspected that variations in the microscopic machinery inside cells might be at play. An emerging study now suggests that certain tiny adjustments in our proteins could hold the secret to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living better</a>, not just longer.



Recent work from <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a> points to specific post-translational modifications in proteins that could be linked to a healthier lifespan. 



Led by Professor Haim Cohen of the Sagol Healthy Human Longevity Center at Bar-Ilan University’s Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, the team used a new computational tool to examine how these protein tweaks show up in species with impressive lifespans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-aging-and-longevity">Clues to aging and longevity </h2>



Nature has been running a grand experiment for millions of years, offering clues about what helps certain species thrive. 



Researchers noticed that whales, elephants, and even some human populations seem to manage serious threats like cancer better than expected.



By comparing these animals to their shorter-lived counterparts, scientists discovered key patterns in the proteins responsible for cell maintenance. Each finding hints that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular changes</a> support a more resilient physiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-patterns-linked-to-healthy-aging">Protein patterns linked to healthy aging</h2>



To uncover these patterns, the team developed a tool called PHARAOH, short for Positive posttranslational Modifications Regulator of Healthspan. It analyzed protein sequences in 107 different mammal species and looked for changes tied to lifespan.



By using evolutionary data, PHARAOH was able to pinpoint which protein tweaks stuck around in long-lived animals. This let scientists identify specific <a href="https://www.cellsignal.com/pathways/chromatin-acetylation-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOooAw_ZHb32yoec5mQmODkYrVWiqcwg8d-bk5wjwW8T4ndTyT8W8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acetylation sites</a> that might support healthier aging across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-protein-changes-matter">How do protein changes matter?</h2>



Proteins are the molecules that build tissues, run chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, and keep our bodies functional during aging. they undergo acetylation, a process that adds or removes small chemical tags, which is one example of a posttranslational modification.



These tags shape how proteins fold, interact, and support different parts of our metabolism. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9038119/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showed that adjusting the function of proteins tied to DNA repair and energy production can extend life in model organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-reveal-secrets-to-long-life-nbsp">Whales reveal secrets to long life&nbsp;</h2>



Whales offer a fascinating case study in healthy longevity. Despite having trillions more cells than humans and living for over 100 years, they rarely develop cancer. This phenomenon, known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto’s Paradox</a>, has <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422861122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puzzled</a> researchers for decades.



The new study sheds light on this mystery. It found that whales and other long-lived mammals share unique patterns in protein modifications that likely help suppress tumor growth. 



These consistent tweaks in their molecular biology may act as built-in defenses against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related</a> disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-tweaks-may-prevent-diseases">Protein tweaks may prevent diseases</h2>



This new research suggests that tweaking proteins might explain why large mammals rarely suffer from runaway cancer despite having far more cells. 



A lower incidence of some cancers could emerge from strategic molecular shifts in the proteins that keep cell division under control.



“Our findings offer a promising path toward understanding how protein modifications can protect against age-related diseases and promote longer, healthier lives,” said Professor Cohen. 



We could see more methods for shielding humans from age-related conditions if these changes prove adaptable through future therapies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-aging-through-protein-changes">Fighting aging through protein changes</h2>



Scientists hope that tapping into these protein modifications will eventually curb conditions like diabetes and neurodegeneration. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7165364/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> found that boosting the action of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/51548" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIRT6</a> helps mice live longer, pointing to a potential strategy for improving health in older age.



As more labs piece together how these modifications appear across species, new ideas for medicines may follow. Clarity on these processes might open ways to slow some effects of aging and give people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">better years</a> later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-could-mean-for-medicine">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



If researchers can figure out how to mimic these protective protein changes in humans, it could change how we approach aging-related treatments. 



Instead of targeting single diseases like cancer or Alzheimer’s, doctors might one day adjust the body’s protein regulation to guard against multiple conditions at once.



Drugs that fine-tune acetylation - the specific type of protein modification linked to longevity in this study - are already being explored. But this research provides clearer targets and stronger biological backing, which could speed up progress in designing future therapies.



Experts believe that continued work in this field could lead to ways of delaying aging and several chronic conditions at once. looking deeper into these molecular changes may hold a key to not just extending life, but ensuring more vitality along the way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58762-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Protein changes discovered that protect humans and mammals from aging and disease

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few...

Among the animal kingdom’s many mysteries, few are as fascinating as bonobos' social lives. 



Often called the "hippies" of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> world, bonobos have long intrigued scientists with their peaceful societies and strong female alliances. Unlike their more aggressive chimpanzee cousins, bonobos embrace cooperation over conflict.



Yet, a deeper puzzle hides within their gentle reputation. Female bonobos dominate social structures, even though males are physically larger and stronger. This unusual dynamic stands in stark contrast to most mammals, where strength usually rules. 



Recent research finally sheds light on how bonobo females turned the tables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-bonobos-control-social-bonds-nbsp">Female bonobos control social bonds&nbsp;</h2>



In bonobo groups, females take the lead in reproduction. They decide when and with whom they mate. If a male attempts an unwanted advance, the female easily parries him. Males know better than to push further, respecting the females' decisions without violence.



This female control extends beyond the bedroom. High-value <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a>, like fresh kills or prized fruits, also rest in female hands. They feed leisurely on the ground while males hover anxiously in the trees. 



Martin Surbeck from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> noted that this behavior is "totally bizarre for an animal like a bonobo."



Normally, larger body size would give males the upper hand. In most mammals, males dominate food, mating, and status by sheer force. Bonobos, however, defy this rule in surprising and illuminating ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-ideas-explain-female-power">Three ideas explain female power</h2>



Understanding bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-say-no-to-unfair-trades-even-if-it-costs-rewards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">society</a> required examining three competing ideas. First is the self-organization hypothesis. It suggests that males could lose dominance over time due to repeated conflict losses.



In addition, the reproductive control hypothesis argues that female hidden ovulation limits male control over mating. Furthermore, the female coalition hypothesis proposes that solidarity among females built power.



"There were competing ideas for how, none of which had ever been tested in wild bonobos living in the jungles in which they evolved," said Barbara Fruth of the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/institutes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a>. To settle the debate, the researchers turned to long-term field data.



Over thirty years, scientists collected observations from six bonobo communities across the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> they uncovered would finally bring clarity to this evolutionary enigma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-alliances-turn-the-power-balance">Female alliances turn the power balance</h2>



The evidence pointed overwhelmingly to one answer: coalitions. Female bonobos gained their power not by physical strength or reproductive tricks but through alliance-building. In 85% of observed coalitions, females banded together to target males.



"It’s exciting to find that females can actively elevate their social status by supporting each other," explained Surbeck. These alliances were not casual. They formed quickly, often within seconds of a triggering event, such as male aggression toward infants.



Once a coalition formed, its effect was loud and unmistakable. Screams pierced the forest so sharply that "you have to block your ears," Fruth recalled. Targeted males faced not just humiliation but sometimes severe injuries, forcing them to flee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> for days or weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-power-varies-between-bonobo-groups">Female power varies between bonobo groups</h2>



Despite the strength of female coalitions, dominance was not absolute. Researchers found wide variation across bonobo communities. In some years, a male even held the top rank, particularly when supported by a powerful mother.



"It's more accurate to say that in bonobo societies, females enjoy high status rather than unchallenged dominance," said Fruth. Mothers played a crucial role. In communities where adult males had living mothers, males sometimes rose higher in the hierarchy.



Other communities, especially those with frequent female coalitions, saw females consistently outranking males. The key factor was the frequency and strength of female alliances, not the number of males or other demographic shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theories-to-explain-female-dominance">Theories to explain female dominance</h2>



The researchers thoroughly tested the alternative hypotheses but found little support. The self-organization hypothesis suggested that a higher proportion of males would lead to female dominance. However, the data showed no significant relationship.



Likewise, the reproductive control hypothesis, based on hidden ovulation and prolonged fertility signals, did not fully explain the female advantage. Synchronization of sexual swelling among females did not correlate with greater female power.



While hidden ovulation may reduce male aggression overall, it does not guarantee female dominance. It is coalition-building, not mating strategies, that most consistently empowers bonobo females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-bonobos-rise-through-alliances">Female bonobos rise through alliances</h2>



Female coalitionary aggression showed a strong association with female power across communities. Where females more often banded together, they won more conflicts against males and held higher ranks.



This finding highlights a striking evolutionary strategy. In most mammals, including primates, females rarely form aggressive alliances. Bonobos stand apart, using group action rather than individual strength to tilt power dynamics.



Interestingly, even in the absence of kinship ties, immigrant bonobo females built strong social bonds. This behavior challenges long-held assumptions that cooperation depends on genetic relatedness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-for-male-behavior-and-society">Consequences for male behavior and society</h2>



Bonobo males, facing strong female alliances, shift their strategies accordingly. Instead of aggression, males invest in maintaining peaceful relationships with females. Coercive mating, common in many primates, is rare among bonobos.



Males gain reproductive success by staying close to receptive females and avoiding conflict. In this environment, violence backfires while cooperation wins mates. Such dynamics reveal an evolutionary route where peace, not aggression, yields greater success.



In communities with strong female coalitions, males sometimes become isolated after aggressive incidents. Some males even leave the community temporarily after facing intense female retaliation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unity-beats-physical-strength">Unity beats physical strength</h2>



The bonobo case challenges the traditional view that strength alone governs social structures. Instead, social support networks play a vital role in shaping dominance hierarchies.



Surbeck’s research adds to a growing body of evidence suggesting that female empowerment in mammals can arise through multiple pathways. In spotted hyenas, for example, female dominance stems from social support and reproductive control.



Fruth reflects, "I'm still puzzled why, of all animals, bonobos were the ones to form female alliances." Although the reasons remain mysterious, the findings offer hope. They hint that even in fiercely competitive environments, solidarity can surpass force.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-bonobo-research">The future of bonobo research</h2>



While much progress has been made, questions linger. How do individual personalities affect coalition formation? Why do some communities show stronger female solidarity than others? What environmental or historical factors shaped these behaviors?



Future studies will aim to unravel these complexities. Researchers also hope to explore how these findings could shed light on human social evolution. After all, bonobos, along with chimpanzees, are our closest living relatives.



Understanding the roots of power, cooperation, and gender relations in bonobos might help us reflect on our own evolutionary journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-kind-of-power">A different kind of power</h2>



In the end, bonobo societies remind us that power does not always stem from size, strength, or aggression. Sometimes, it arises from unity, shared purpose, and rapid, courageous action.



Among bonobos, females carved a unique path - one built not through fear but through collective strength. It is a path that challenges assumptions, sparks wonder, and perhaps, whispers lessons to our own species across the evolutionary gulf.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07900-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Female bonobos stay in charge even though males are stronger

Among the animal kingdom’s many mysteries, few are as fascinating...

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the dramatically thick lips of several African cichlid species. These unique fish, found in lakes Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika, have puzzled researchers who seek to understand how and why such large lips evolved.



This fascination has led to fresh investigations by scientists comparing lip structures, tissue composition, and gene expression in these fish. 



The research effort is led by Dr. Nagatoshi Machii from the <a href="https://www.isct.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a>, whose group has examined microscopic details and molecular data to pinpoint what drives lip enlargement in certain cichlids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlid-lips-and-parallel-evolution">Cichlid lips and parallel evolution</h2>



Researchers have documented that cichlids across different lakes display similar traits, even though they are not closely related. Such repeated emergence of shared features is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/parallel-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel evolution</a>, a process often fueled by environmental pressures.



“Parallel evolution is evidence of natural selection that drives adaptive solutions to the environment,” wrote Jonathan Losos, an evolutionary biologist based at Harvard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-as-natural-laboratories">Lakes as natural laboratories</h2>



The isolated ecosystems of Lake Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika act like nature’s own research stations. Each lake evolved its own line of cichlid species, yet many developed the same traits independently - a perfect setup to study parallel evolution.



By comparing species across these lakes, scientists can spot patterns that might be missed in a single location. It’s a rare opportunity to test how evolution repeats itself under similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-stress-harms-the-brains-of-low-status-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> but with different starting points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-lip-building-proteins">Unmasking the lip-building proteins</h2>



Detailed analyses indicate that thick cichlid lips contain a proteoglycan-rich layer (a structural element found in various tissues, including bone, cartilage, tendons, and skin, that play crucial roles in tissue organization, hydration, and mechanical properties) not seen in normal-lipped fish. 



Proteoglycans are large molecules with attached sugar chains, sometimes linked to extra water retention.



One study on cichlids with enlarged lips showed that certain proteins, including chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, were in high abundance. This composition may give these hefty lips their signature plumpness by increasing connective tissue volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lip-growth-starts-young">Lip growth starts young</h2>



The team found that differences in gene expression begin earlier than expected. Even in juvenile cichlids, before their lips fully thicken, the genes responsible for building extracellular matrix components are already more active in species that develop larger lips.



This suggests the groundwork for lip hypertrophy is laid early in life and then reinforced as the fish matures. The continuous expression of these genes throughout development points to a tightly regulated system that ensures these lip traits persist across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behind-oversized-cichlid-lips">Genes behind oversized cichlid lips</h2>



Scientists also noted changes in genes involved in the Wnt signaling network (a complex network of proteins that plays a critical role in how cells grow, divide, move, and develop. 



It’s especially important during embryonic development, but it also helps maintain and repair tissues in adults). This pathway influences a wide array of growth and developmental processes in many animals.



Some cichlids with oversized lips showed heightened expression of Wnt-related genes at both juvenile and adult stages. This suggests the pathway may stay active over time, nudging tissues to expand and accumulate more extracellular material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tissue-connection-mirrors-human-biology">Tissue connection mirrors human biology</h2>



Recent findings have drawn an unexpected link between the oversized lips of cichlids and conditions seen in humans. The same proteoglycans found in fish lips are also involved in human skin disorders like <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/keloid-scar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keloids</a>, where excess connective tissue causes raised, fibrous scars.



In both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> and humans, these molecules seem to attract and hold large amounts of water, helping tissues expand. Researchers believe that understanding how these proteins behave in cichlids may offer new insights into how connective tissues grow - or overgrow - in other animals, including us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-role-in-cichlid-feeding">Possible role in cichlid feeding</h2>



Biologists have long debated the ecological benefits of bulky lips. Past <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8025722/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests these lips might help fish probe rocky crevices or minimize tissue damage as they forage.&nbsp;



Another line of research hints that extra lip surface could boost contact with environmental cues. This might aid in locating prey, which would be especially useful in the maze-like habitats of the African Great Lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-all-cichlids-have-big-lips">Why not all cichlids have big lips</h2>



Despite the shared environments of the East African Great Lakes, not every cichlid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> ends up with hypertrophied lips. That’s because this trait appears to be polygenic, meaning it depends on many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-fix-faulty-genes-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> working together - each with a small influence.



Environmental pressures like foraging style or diet likely interact with genetic tendencies. In species where the benefit of thick lips isn’t strong enough, the genes driving lip growth may remain quiet or develop differently, even if the molecular tools are present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Genetic studies have pinpointed multiple points in the cichlid genome that may influence lip thickness. Each locus seemingly offers a small push toward fuller lips, forming a broad and complex mechanism for the trait.&nbsp;



Investigations into parallels between enlarged fish lips and certain human connective tissue conditions have also started. Some scientists hope comparisons might clarify how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> and other structural molecules work in different organisms over many generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/99160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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The molecular secret behind the giant lips of African cichlids

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the...

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in reports of the alpha-gal food allergy, which is linked to bites by certain ticks. The number of confirmed cases jumped from just 24 in 2009 to more than 34,000 in 2019.



“Red meat allergy caused by tick bites might be increasing in association with fragmented habitats,” noted Dr. Brandon D. Hollingsworth, from <a href="https://www.unchealth.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Health</a>, who was lead lead author of a new study in the mid-Atlantic region. 



Dr. Hollingsworth has explored how environmental features might be tied to these tick-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-allergy-season-worse-and-longer-lasting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-and-red-meat-allergies">Tick bites and red meat allergies</h2>



Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS) affects people who have developed a specific immune response triggered by substances present in tick saliva. After being bitten, they react negatively to certain sugars in mammalian meat, and develop symptoms that include hives, stomach distress, and sometimes serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-may-help-reduce-peanut-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.



Health specialists have noted that neurotoxins and other biological cues in tick saliva may help these creatures to latch onto humans, increasing exposure for people in areas where wildlife and urban zones overlap.



Those who live near forest edges, or in suburban spots with scattered trees, may be at higher risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broken-forests-and-suburban-lawns">Broken forests and suburban lawns</h2>



Fragmented lands often bring deer, raccoons, and other tick-carrying animals into contact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oak-trees-show-that-allergy-season-is-becoming-longer-and-more-intense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> communities. Large lawns that border wooded patches create a patchwork of grass and trees, which many ticks seem to favor.



Recent investigations found that open space development and low-intensity construction might be associated with more tick bites.



Arachnologist field surveys have shown that some of the densest populations of the tick <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8352541/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amblyomma americanum</a> occur where small forests and developed lots meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-coastlines-to-mountains">From coastlines to mountains</h2>



Scientists who mapped the distribution of alpha-gal syndrome in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia observed a general shift in case frequency from coastal plains to mountainous zones. 



Some analyses showed patchy spots in coastal lands, but the highest likelihood of cases was often in places with low-density sprawl.



Low-density suburban settings offer enough shade, leaf litter, and wild animal life to allow ticks to flourish. Even properties with scattered white-tailed deer traffic may give these ticks the chance to drop off and find new hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-awareness">Lack of awareness </h2>



Diagnosing <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/alpha-gal-syndrome/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpha-gal syndrome</a> isn't easy. Unlike most food allergies, symptoms don’t appear right after eating. They can take 3 to 6 hours to show up, which makes it hard for people to connect their symptoms to something they ate.



Even worse, most doctors still aren’t familiar with the condition. A 2023 CDC <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7230a1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> found that 77% of U.S. healthcare providers were either unaware of AGS or unsure how to diagnose it. 



Without proper testing and awareness, thousands of people may go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, often enduring months of unexplained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-peanut-consumption-could-prevent-100000-allergy-cases-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symptoms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-from-tick-borne-meat-allergies">Protection from tick-borne meat allergies</h2>



Reports of alpha-gal syndrome could keep rising if habitat changes continue and warmer temperatures <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0150180" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extend</a> the active season for ticks. Simple habits, such as using insect repellents, wearing light-colored clothing, and promptly checking for ticks after yard work can reduce exposure risks.



Healthcare professionals also suggest that individuals track any reactions linked to beef, pork, or other red meats. 



Test positivity rates in certain regions have approached 30% of screened patients, which means vigilance is important for anyone experiencing odd, food-related issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-can-spark-lifelong-allergies">Tick bites can spark lifelong allergies</h2>



“We found evidence that suggests repeated tick bites can set off the allergic response,” wrote Gary Crispell, who studied tick-induced IgE patterns in North American patients. Surprisingly, a single tick bite is sometimes enough to spark alpha-gal sensitivity in certain people.&nbsp;



Although this condition can affect day-to-day life for some, awareness among doctors and patients is still catching up. 



Early and correct diagnosis can help steer people away from foods that might trigger severe meat allergy events, leading to more confident meal choices and fewer unwelcome surprises after sitting at the dinner table.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-and-future-research-directions">Limitations and future research directions </h2>



One of the main limitations in current research is that tick exposure is estimated based on where a person lives, not on the location where they were actually bitten. Many people spend time in parks, on trails, or visiting family in different areas, so the models can't pinpoint exact exposure sites.



Researchers also noted that wealthier individuals in suburban areas might be more likely to seek medical help and testing, which could also skew case data. 



To improve accuracy, future studies may need to incorporate patient travel histories and broader seroprevalence surveys across different income and age groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-influential-factors">Recognizing the influential factors</h2>



Many counties across the mid-Atlantic are adding public health alerts to help folks recognize the signs of alpha-gal syndrome. 



Researchers have expressed hope that timely recognition of these habitat factors will lead to targeted education, so that fewer individuals end up with frustrating or even dangerous allergic reactions.



Some people worry that fewer forest corridors might mean fewer ticks, but partial deforestation and selective development sometimes backfire by providing more edges for tick proliferation. 



Land planners aiming to reduce tick-human contact may need to balance green space with better pest-management practices.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000528" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Tick bites can trigger lifelong red meat allergies

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in...

Rattlesnake venom has always intrigued scientists due to its complex role in hunting and survival. A new study is shaking up traditional ideas by showing that some island populations are evolving simpler venom <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venom-beyond-animals-the-toxic-arsenal-of-fungi-plants-and-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">profiles</a> instead of increasingly intricate ones.



The researchers explored 11 remote islands in the Gulf of California to gather samples from 83 rattlesnakes. The investigation was led by Dr. Mark Margres of the <a href="https://www.usf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Florida</a> and doctoral student Samuel Hirst.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-these-rattlesnakes-were-studied">How these rattlesnakes were studied</h2>



The research team spent long nights on quiet shorelines, collecting rattlesnakes once the tropical sun had settled. The goal was to capture fresh venom that reflects real-world conditions in these secluded habitats.



Each snake was coaxed into a specialized container to safely harvest a small sample of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cobra-venom-just-became-less-deadly-thanks-to-a-common-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a>. Afterward, every reptile was released back into the wild, minimizing stress and disruption.



Once collected, the venom samples were carefully dried and labeled, then examined through advanced lab techniques. Different chemical components helped reveal how each snake’s meal plan might influence its toxin makeup.



Because these islands host four recognized rattlesnake species, the researchers could compare venom traits across multiple genetic backgrounds. This gave them a unique perspective on how ecology, diet, and isolation interact to shape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-black-widow-venom-attacks-the-nervous-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-rattlesnakes-evolved-simpler-venoms">Island rattlesnakes evolved simpler venoms</h2>



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1704949114" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat fragmentation</a> is a key factor in the current biodiversity crisis, which threatens species worldwide. Islands act like natural test cases for fragmentation, letting scientists see how animals respond when surrounded by ocean barriers.



“We initially hypothesized that larger islands, which support greater biodiversity and prey diversity, would be associated with more complex venoms. However, we found the opposite pattern,” said Hirst.&nbsp;



On these bigger landmasses, island rattlesnakes often developed narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxin</a> ranges. The reason might be linked to competition from other snake species that forces them to specialize.



At the same time, smaller islands presented their own surprises. Limited space and fewer prey options led to different venom formulas that still challenge old assumptions about how venom should evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-changes-in-rattlesnake-venom">Habitat changes in rattlesnake venom</h2>



“Habitat fragmentation is like breaking apart a completed puzzle. A healthy, intact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> is like a 1,000-piece puzzle where every piece is in place - you can clearly see the full picture,” said Margres.



Although these Gulf of California islands are not heavily impacted by people, they show what might happen in places where roads, farms, or cities carve habitats into smaller patches. Different species may evolve unexpected traits just to keep up with these pressures.



That includes changes at the molecular level, such as refining venom for specific prey. This idea underscores why monitoring smaller populations is so vital to conservation biology.



Funding from the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a> supported fieldwork efforts that took place under permits from Mexican environmental authorities. This partnership made the study possible while respecting ecological protections on the islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-island-rattlesnakes-matter">Why island rattlesnakes matter</h2>



Island rattlesnakes aren’t just oddities tucked away on remote shorelines - they’re indicators of how quickly evolution can shift when ecosystems shrink or isolate.



What happens on an island, where every change is magnified, might foreshadow what could unfold in other fragmented habitats affected by human expansion.



Because venom is a survival tool that adapts to local prey, changes in its complexity can highlight how animals respond to shifting resources, competitors, and climate pressures. 



Studying these snakes offers a rare, measurable glimpse into evolutionary changes that would be hard to track in more connected landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antivenom-effectiveness-for-island-venoms">Antivenom effectiveness for island venoms</h2>



“Right now, we don’t know how well existing antivenoms work against these island venoms - but our research is helping to change that,” said Margres, who is examining these specialized formulas.



Clinical treatments hinge on understanding how well existing remedies match the venom found in actual bites.&nbsp;



An effective antivenom must neutralize the toxins a snake produces, so the discovery of simpler but more specialized venoms calls for careful testing. The team plans to compare the performance of available treatments against the samples taken from remote island snakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-fragmentation-can-change-evolution">Habitat fragmentation can change evolution</h2>



Aside from medical relevance, the research on island rattlesnakes offers lessons for wildlife managers seeking to preserve healthy ecosystems. 



Fragmented habitats can reshape the way species adapt, shifting the balance of life in ways we are only beginning to recognize.



By focusing on a trait that directly affects survival, the scientists have tapped into a powerful indicator of broader environmental change. These findings show that even minor alterations in habitat size or community structure can shift evolutionary outcomes.



The research adds to our understanding of how quickly animals might adjust when their surroundings become splintered or rearranged. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/evolut/advance-article/doi/10.1093/evolut/qpaf074/8118642?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a>.



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Rattlesnakes develop simpler venom when living on bigger islands

Rattlesnake venom has always intrigued scientists due to its complex...

The tiny tardigrade is often praised for its unmatched durability. Scientists have tested these microscopic animals in punishing conditions, and some have lived to tell the tale.



Tardigrades measure just around 0.02 inches, yet appear to shrug off extreme cold, radiation, and weeks without moisture. Observers are now stunned to see new <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00378" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> that place micro designs on their bodies through a specialized electron beam approach.



Ding Zhao from <a href="https://www.zju.edu.cn/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zhejiang University</a>, along with fellow researchers, has introduced a way to etch micro tracings onto tardigrade exteriors without hindering their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-bear-tardigrade-fossils-reveal-how-they-survived-several-mass-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-microfabrication">What is microfabrication?</h2>



The term <a href="https://monroeengineering.com/blog/what-is-microfabrication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microfabrication</a> describes a set of processes for building incredibly small devices. Researchers have used these methods to create sensors, circuit boards, and other intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>.



Achieving compatibility with delicate organisms has remained a sticking point. Old methods risk harming living cells with toxic chemicals or destructive radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattooing-tardigrades-without-harm">Tattooing tardigrades without harm</h2>



The experts used an electron beam to form patterns on a tardigrade’s outer layer. Some portions of the animals withstood the process and resumed normal movement soon after.



“Through this technology, we’re not just creating micro-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoo-ink-travels-through-the-body-and-may-cause-long-term-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tattoos</a> on tardigrades - we’re extending this capability to various living organisms, including bacteria,” explained Ding Zhao.



This statement highlights how advanced microfabrication might find uses across a wide range of living systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-tardigrades-survive-extreme-conditions">Why tardigrades survive extreme conditions</h2>



Scientists are still uncovering the factors behind these creatures’ legendary <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5492148/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toughness</a>. Research has shown that certain species can return to life after losing nearly all their water content, which is a remarkable example of endurance.



This survival strategy makes them ideal test subjects for new fabrication ideas that require harsh steps like exposure to vacuum or cold. Their bodies recover in ways that few other animals can match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-implants-could-help-future-medicine">Tiny implants could help future medicine</h2>



Biomedicine may benefit from micro-scale implants or sensors that merge seamlessly with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoos-and-body-art-found-on-1200-year-old-peruvian-mummies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tissues</a>. Some experts foresee devices that collect data inside the human body without major surgical steps.



“It is challenging to pattern living matter, and this advance portends a new generation of biomaterial devices and biophysical sensors that were previously only present in science fiction,” noted Gavin King, who invented the underlying ice lithography technique but was not involved in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-using-micro-tattoos">Next steps for using micro-tattoos</h2>



The researchers hope to expand these methods to other resilient microorganisms. New forms of <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Anisole" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anisole</a> or related compounds might open doors to printed electronics that stick firmly on biological surfaces.



Specialized micro-sensors could someday track health markers in real time and transmit signals externally. This might transform disease monitoring and personalized care options.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-micro-tattoos-harm-tardigrades">Can micro-tattoos harm tardigrades?</h2>



There are still questions about long-term impacts on each test subject’s health and lifespan. Further studies will examine whether repeated procedures cause hidden issues inside their cells.



Refinements in cooling, beam intensity, and chemical agents are likely to minimize harm. Some scientists see this as a path to safer, more precise methods that respect an organism’s integrity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-tough-tardigrades">Discovery of tough tardigrades</h2>



Tardigrades belong to a distinct group called Phylum Tardigrada. They were first documented in the late 18th century by naturalists who studied water samples.



Early observations noted their curious shape and lumbering walk, prompting the nickname water bear. Centuries later, advanced labs continue to explore new features of their biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-micro-tattoos-could-help-robotics">How micro-tattoos could help robotics</h2>



Scientists speculate that flexible circuits could coat the surfaces of living microbes to monitor chemical changes in high-risk environments. This might lead to real-time alerts about contamination or hidden toxins.



Similar concepts might appear in robotics, where living cells combine with manufactured parts to form hybrid machines. Supporters envision a time when microbes and man-made systems work in unison without harming each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Teams worldwide exchange notes to refine micro-scale engineering on living hosts. This collaboration crosses disciplines, tying biology, physics, and chemistry into one puzzle.



Continual improvements in electron beam control allow for finer detail with fewer side effects. Leading laboratories consider tardigrades a stepping stone to more fragile organisms.



Enthusiasts believe new micro-designs on these creatures will spark ideas for advanced drug delivery and personalized treatments. Tiny adhesives may cling to tissues and guide medication where it is needed most.



Engineers and biologists see common ground in these experiments. The combination of precise patterns and natural resilience points to methods that could redefine how we use biological surfaces in tech.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00378" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



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Tattoos on tardigrades could change biomedicine

The tiny tardigrade is often praised for its unmatched durability....

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back millions of years. Deep within Earth’s mantle, shifting rock and molten heat have nudged continents, created barriers, and shaped migration paths for creatures across the planet.



The link between these buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> and species of ancient wanderers has captured the attention of researchers.



Among them is Thorsten Becker, a professor at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> at Austin, who has helped piece together new insights about the deeper forces that affected how species were able to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-forces-reshaped-continents">Mantle forces reshaped continents</h2>



Earth’s mantle churns with slow but significant motion that can alter the planet’s surface. Gradual sinking of cooler rock and rising of hotter material create a convection system that fuels changes in crustal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elevation</a> and shapes coastlines.



Scientists have found that a towering plume of heated rock may have reached the surface around 30 million years after it began brewing in the depths. 



By 20 million years ago, the upward push on land in what is now the Arabian Peninsula had reorganized seas and formed a passage between Africa and Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-uplift-created-a-land-bridge">Mantle uplift created a land bridge</h2>



This arc of dry ground broke a 75-million-year pattern of isolation for the African continent. Animals such as elephants, giraffes, and cheetahs made use of the open route, traversing miles of emerging terrain to explore and settle new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>.



“The shallow seaway closed several million years before it otherwise likely would have due to these specific processes - <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/mantle-convection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle convection</a> and corresponding changes in dynamic topography,” said Eivind Straume, who is now a postdoctoral fellow at NORCE Norwegian Research Centre and The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research.



Once mantle uplift had created the land bridge, entire groups of mammals made journeys that altered the genetic paths of today’s species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-human-ancestors">Impact on human ancestors</h2>



Long before modern times, primates roamed Asia. A branch of these primates moved into Africa before returning when the land bridge fully emerged. That dual migration shaped the fate of the lineages that survived and evolved in later epochs.



“It’s an example of how the long-term convective evolution of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> talks to the evolution of life,” said Straume. Many researchers believe this timing allowed certain primates in Africa to flourish while their relatives died out elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-shifts-altered-earth-s-climate-patterns">Mantle shifts altered Earth's climate patterns</h2>



Closure of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-70652-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tethys Sea</a> transformed ocean currents and sparked broader shifts in temperature patterns. 



The disappearance of marine passageways altered how water circulated between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific, changing conditions across northern Africa and central Asia.



Warming ocean waters also set the stage for more significant seasonal temperature swings. Some <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/386788a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have linked these shifts to intensified monsoon patterns that brought heavier rains to parts of Asia while promoting dryness in the Sahara.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-uplift-and-the-sahara">Earth's mantle uplift and the Sahara</h2>



As landmasses rose and air circulation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-impacting-earths-rotation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> evolved, the Sahara grew drier. The shift from lush zones to desert terrain introduced a new barrier to animal movement. This drying also encouraged adaptation and migration in species seeking water sources or cooler climes.



Over time, the Sahara came to dominate much of north Africa. The new upland surfaces of Arabia, shaped by rising rock, channeled wind and moisture patterns away from former coastal areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspectives-from-geological-models">New perspectives from geological models</h2>



Scientists are working with advanced simulations to connect deep Earth processes to events at the surface. These models help illustrate how flows of hot rock influence crustal uplift and seafloor changes. They also provide details on how ocean basins, deserts, and mountain ranges evolved.



“This study has relevance to the question of ‘How did our planet change, in general? What are the connections between life and tectonics?’” noted Becker.



By stitching together multiple lines of evidence, teams can outline how events far below the surface have rippled through layers of geological and biological history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-routes-and-biodiversity">Animal routes and biodiversity</h2>



Large mammals that migrated between continents not only diversified their habitats but also interacted in ways that drove evolutionary shifts. 



Elephants, for instance, faced new landscapes and climates that challenged them to adapt. Giraffes and rhinoceroses found novel feeding grounds and survived despite new predators and competition.



Such exchanges left imprints on the genetic makeup of today’s mammal populations. Species that once had limited ranges across Africa or Asia soon encountered new ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-consequences-for-life">Lasting consequences for life</h2>



The land bridge created by mantle-driven uplift gave early primates and other animals opportunities to branch out. Over millions of years, these varied lineages left evidence in fossils and modern DNA.



Researchers continue to uncover how changing geography shaped not just migrations but also the survival strategies of multiple species.



Those pathways often ran in tandem with major climatic shifts. The interplay of plate collisions, mantle upwelling, and fluctuating sea levels set the stage for both expansions and extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-exploration-of-hidden-dynamics">Further exploration of hidden dynamics</h2>



Cutting-edge technology, from seismic imaging to deep-sea drilling, supports the study of how hidden geological processes link to surface environments. 



By incorporating detailed uplift models into paleoclimate reconstructions, geoscientists can refine their understanding of ocean currents and rainfall patterns.



With each new discovery, puzzle pieces fall into place. The uplift that once closed ancient seaways still influences today’s wind and precipitation cycles, reminding us that Earth’s lower layers remain busy behind the scenes.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-025-00653-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Activity in Earth's mantle created a land bridge that animals traversed

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back...

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A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France. Experts say this is a rare find that sheds light on how Stone Age humans interacted with dogs at a time when both species were figuring out how to live together.



This animal’s remains, first discovered in 2021 by a group of spelunkers in the Baume Traucade cave, offer a window into a past where trust and conflict might have existed in the same breath. 



The lead author, <a href="https://naturalsciences-be.academia.edu/MietjeGermonpr%C3%A9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Mietje Germonpré</a> from the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, has studied early canid remains for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-ancient-bonds">Uncovering ancient bonds</h2>



The nearly complete skeleton belonged to a type known as Palaeolithic dogs. Researchers determined it was about 24 inches (61 centimeters) tall at the shoulder and weighed an estimated 57 pounds (26 kilograms).



This size, along with other skeletal measurements, indicates that the animal was an adult female that was old enough to have experienced at least one year of maturity. The physical traits of the animal were closer to those of ancient dogs than to wolves. 



Experts analyzing these bones suspect the animal was part of a growing connection between humans and canids, which may have involved shared shelter, food sources, or protection. 



Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440314000478" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remains</a> from other sites in Western Europe hint that these creatures may have provided practical help, including hunting assistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-puzzle-of-injuries">A puzzle of injuries</h2>



Evidence of trauma is written on the skeleton in the form of impact marks. Researchers say this indicates human involvement shortly before the dog’s death. 



“It is feasible that the individual obtained [its] injuries from being beaten or struck by people,” said Loukas Koungoulos from the University of Western Australia, who was not part of this analysis.



There is also evidence that humans might have cared for the dog during its life, as the skeleton’s condition suggests it may not have been fending for itself outdoors. This would indicate a possible early attempt at domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-the-cave">Clues from the cave</h2>



Baume Traucade is located about 525 feet (160 meters) below the surface on a slope shaped by rocky cliffs. This cave is in a region with numerous archaeological sites that show a long history of human use. 



The canid skeleton’s position in the cave implies it wasn’t dragged in by large predators or moved by floodwaters.



The dog’s remains were buried under layers of sediment that preserved the bones for millennia. Researchers believe it died inside the cave, though they remain unsure whether it was led there intentionally or wandered in. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-domestication">Implications for domestication</h2>



This discovery holds significance for our understanding of how early dogs might have been welcomed into human groups. 



Ancient people could have been exploring ways to benefit from these animals’ natural instincts. Some dogs may have earned a spot near the fire, while others might have ended up in conflict with their keepers.



Researchers have long debated when and how grey wolves began evolving into domestic companions. Genetic <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> suggest that dog domestication might have begun during or before the Last Glacial Maximum, though not all lineages survived to the present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-care-and-aggression">Balancing care and aggression</h2>



Further examination points to a complicated picture of cooperation and aggression. This canid may have been nurtured for certain tasks before meeting a violent end. It’s possible that humans valued the dog’s loyalty but also resorted to lethal force if they viewed it as a threat.



Such complexities are not surprising given the harsh environment of the late Pleistocene. Food shortages, harsh weather, and competition from other predators might have influenced how people treated animals. 



These dynamics represent the start of a long and varied journey for the species we now see snoozing on our couches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparisons-with-other-sites">Comparisons with other sites</h2>



Similar Palaeolithic dogs have emerged at sites in Germany, Spain, and Belgium. The 14,000-year-old remains at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284720121_Street_M_Napierala_H_Janssens_L_2015_The_late_Palaeolithic_dog_from_Bonn-Oberkassel_in_context_In_The_Late_Glacial_Burial_from_Oberkassel_Revisited_L_Giemsch_R_W_Schmitz_eds_Rheinische_Ausgrabungen_72" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonn-Oberkassel</a>, for instance, included a partial skeleton that was buried with humans. Each find contributes fresh details about the earliest efforts to shape wolf-like creatures into domestic dogs.



Though many remains are incomplete fragments, the Baume Traucade skeleton is almost intact. This allowed for thorough measurements of skull, jaw, and limbs. The bones were then compared to fossil wolves, modern canids, and other prehistoric samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-questions">Lingering questions</h2>



One of the biggest challenges is pinpointing when domestication began. Some researchers argue that earlier finds might represent wolves with slight shifts in size or shape, and not true dogs. 



<a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135813" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Others</a> maintain that selective breeding and human cohabitation can alter an animal’s features much faster than we realize.



These debates will continue as new discoveries surface. Each site reveals small pieces of a larger puzzle about how humans shaped, and were shaped by, the dogs they invited into their encampments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Researchers plan to conduct further genetic work on the remains. This may confirm ancestral connections or illuminate distinct lineages that have subsequently vanished. Understanding those lineages can help unravel the broader story of dog evolution.



As more ancient skeletons come to light, knowledge of their wounds, diets, and living patterns may reveal how people managed these animals. Over thousands of years, our relationship with dogs has become more peaceful and rewarding, but the road to this point might have been rocky.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379125001088" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



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A 16,000-year-old dog skeleton has been found, showing the first link between humans and dogs

A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France....

Empathy is often seen as a defining human trait, woven into the fabric of our societies. It helps people cooperate, build friendships, and resolve conflicts. But empathy is not unique to humans. Across the animal kingdom, from elephants to the bonobos, behaviors hint at emotional connections that transcend species boundaries.



Recent research from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> in the UK delves into how two of our closest living relatives — the bonobo and the chimpanzee — express empathy, challenging long-held assumptions and deepening our understanding of emotional evolution.



This study does more than just compare species. It explores how individual personalities, social bonds, and community structures shape emotional behaviors. Led by Dr. Jake Brooker, the research opens a new chapter in the story of human and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> empathy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-and-chimps-show-similar-empathy">Bonobos and chimps show similar empathy</h2>



Traditionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-say-no-to-unfair-trades-even-if-it-costs-rewards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a> have enjoyed a reputation as the "empathic ape," while chimpanzees have been cast as aggressive and political. However, Brooker’s study found that both species comfort others at similar rates.



Observations spanned 1,400 hours, covering 40 bonobos at the Lola ya Bonobo sanctuary in the Democratic Republic of Congo and 50 chimpanzees at the <a href="https://www.chimfunshiwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage</a> in Zambia. 



Researchers focused on how individuals reacted to distress events like fights, recording spontaneous gestures of consolation, including embracing, hand grasping, and soothing touches.



“For a long time, bonobos have been thought of as the more empathic ape, whilst chimpanzees are typically spoken about as the violent, despotic ape. However, we found that chimpanzees are just as likely to console one another as bonobos,” said Dr. Brooker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-apes-offer-comfort-more-often">Young apes offer comfort more often</h2>



Age played a significant role in consolation patterns. Younger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> were more likely to offer comfort compared to their older counterparts, a trend observed across both species.



In bonobos, young individuals actively both consoled and received consolation. In chimpanzees, young males and close social partners were the primary sources of comfort. These findings echo observations in human children, who often show concern for others even before their first birthday.



The study suggests that emotional sensitivity emerges early and may diminish as individuals mature and navigate complex social hierarchies. Dr. Brooker’s team highlighted that empathy is likely intrinsic rather than solely learned through experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-drives-empathy-in-bonobos">What drives empathy in bonobos?</h2>



One of the standout discoveries was the role of social relationships. Among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>, kinship mattered deeply. Individuals were far more likely to console relatives than non-kin. In contrast, chimpanzees prioritized close social bonds over genetic ties when offering comfort.



“Although empathy is very important for our own species, our findings show that empathic behaviours, like consolation, appear to be a common trait we also share with our two closest ape relatives,” said Professor Zanna Clay, senior author of the study. 



This highlights an important point: empathy is not only about feeling another’s distress but is also influenced by relational closeness, just as it is among humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-flexibility-within-ape-communities">Emotional flexibility within ape communities</h2>



Variation within species eclipsed differences between species. Some groups showed stronger tendencies toward consolation based on their unique social environments.



For instance, young male chimpanzees were especially active in consoling peers but became less so with age, suggesting social ambition could influence empathic behavior during development. 



In bonobos, higher-ranked individuals were more likely to console, while lower-ranked members appeared more restrained.



“Just like humans, bonobos and chimpanzees may flexibly show empathy depending on the individual, the group, and the surrounding social culture,” Dr. Brooker noted. 



This points to a flexible empathy that shifts according to social conditions and personal traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-depends-more-on-social-context">Empathy depends more on social context</h2>



The study also connects behavioral trends with biological differences. Previous research shows bonobos have more serotonergic fibers in the amygdala, a brain region crucial for emotion regulation. They also possess genetic differences associated with social bonding tendencies.



Despite these neurological distinctions, this study found no overarching difference in the likelihood of consolation between the two species. Empathy-related behaviors appeared instead to be more responsive to social and individual contexts.



This finding challenges ideas that neurobiology alone can predict empathic tendencies. Instead, it emphasizes how emotional expressions are shaped within dynamic social landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consolation-reflect-deep-evolutionary-roots">Consolation reflect deep evolutionary roots</h2>



The behavior of bonobos and chimpanzees adds to a growing body of evidence showing that empathy has ancient evolutionary origins. Consolation behaviors similar to those seen in apes have been documented in elephants, rodents, and even some bird species.



“Finding these overlaps between our two close cousins suggests our last common ancestor likely showed these empathic capacities too. A next step will be to see how much these patterns are also observed in other settings, particularly in the wild,” said Dr. Clay.



This evolutionary perspective deepens our understanding of where human empathy might have originated and suggests that the roots of our emotional lives are much older than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-empathy-in-wild-natural-settings">Ape empathy in wild natural settings</h2>



One of the major recommendations from this study is the need for broader, cross-setting comparisons. Sanctuaries offer semi-natural environments, but understanding how these behaviors manifest in wild populations will be crucial.



Studying more communities could reveal how local conditions, cultural traditions, and ecological pressures influence the expression of consolation and empathy. 



Future research could also explore how demographic factors, such as the presence of juveniles or social network complexity, shape emotional responses in different communities.



The Durham team plans to pursue such questions to build a richer picture of emotional evolution. They believe that understanding emotional flexibility among our closest relatives will illuminate important aspects of human nature itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-is-shaped-by-social-lives">Empathy is shaped by social lives </h2>



Brooker’s study redefines how we think about empathy in our closest relatives. It challenges outdated notions of species-wide emotional profiles and shows that individual differences and social environments hold the key.



Both bonobos and chimpanzees can express profound empathy, but how, when, and to whom they show it depends on who they are and the world they live in. Just like humans, their emotional lives are complex, dynamic, and deeply social.



The research was funded by the Templeton World Charity Foundation and sets the stage for a new wave of empathy studies across the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1090513825000315?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution and Human Behavior</a>.



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Bonobos and chimps express empathy much like humans

Empathy is often seen as a defining human trait, woven...

Sharks often carry a reputation as the ultimate beasts. However, shark bites remain rare. Only about 100 happen globally each year, and roughly 10% are fatal.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sharks</a> bite for many reasons. They might act out of competition, territorialism, or predation. Now, researchers have identified another reason: self-defense.



Dr. Eric Clua is a shark specialist and researcher at Université PSL and the first author of the study.



“We show that defensive bites by sharks on humans - a reaction to initial human aggression - are a reality and that the animal should not be considered responsible or at fault when they occur,” said Dr. Clua. "These bites are simply a manifestation of survival instinct, and the responsibility for the incident needs to be reversed.”



This discovery challenges common views. It suggests sharks often bite as an instinctive response, not as cold-blooded attackers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-bite-because-they-feel-threatened">Sharks bite because they feel threatened</h2>



Negative interactions between humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-shark-species-face-extinction-despite-fishing-bans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> are not new. However, they have increased with more human activity at sea. Management now aims to minimize lethal responses to wildlife.



Sharks, much like land animals, react defensively when provoked. Yet self-defense motivations in sharks were rarely explored until recently. French Polynesia, with an exclusive economic zone that spans 5.5 million square kilometers, provided key insights.



Between 2009 and 2023, 74 shark bites were documented in French Polynesia. Four were strongly linked to self-defense. This proportion, about five percent, matches global trends when activities like spearfishing and fish trap use are considered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-shark-bites-happen-without-warning">Many shark bites happen without warning </h2>



Self-defense bites arise when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> feel threatened by human actions. Activities like spearfishing or grabbing sharks often trigger these responses. Warning signs are rare or absent. Defensive bites usually cause superficial, non-lethal wounds.



This pattern is not unique to sharks. Bears and cassowaries also react similarly, defending themselves without a lethal intent.



“Some species of coastal shark, such as the gray reef shark, are both particularly territorial and bold enough to come to contact with humans,” said Dr. Clua. A human merely intruding their space could be enough.



Repeated bites during defensive events were noted, though fatalities remained rare. In many cases, minor to moderate injuries occurred, reinforcing the non-predatory nature of these incidents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-may-react-with-strong-defense">Sharks may react with strong defense</h2>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sharks-make-sounds-despite-not-having-vocal-cords/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> react in self-defense, the force may seem excessive compared to the human action.



“We need to consider the not very intuitive idea that sharks are very cautious towards humans and are generally afraid of them,” noted Dr. Clua.



“The sharks’ disproportionate reaction probably is the immediate mobilization of their survival instinct. It is highly improbable that they would integrate revenge into their behavior and remain above all pragmatic about their survival.”



This reaction closely mirrors human behavior under threat. Defenders often inflict greater harm than the attacker intends.



Additionally, there is no proportional link between human aggression and shark bite severity. Tooth anatomy and shark size primarily influence injury outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-studies-from-french-polynesia">Case studies from French Polynesia</h2>



Detailed case studies shed light on real-world self-defense bites. One case involved two spearfishermen at Makemo Atoll in 2016. After injuring a gray reef shark, the animal retaliated, inflicting multiple non-lethal wounds.



Another case focused on traditional fish traps. Fishers entering traps to retrieve fish sometimes confronted trapped sharks. Attempts to spear sharks often triggered defensive bites.



A third case documented scientists trying to handle a blacktip reef shark for sampling. An improper grip allowed the shark to bite a scientist’s hand. These incidents illustrate that even non-aggressive handling attempts can trigger defensive behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-defense-bites-are-common">Self-defense bites are common </h2>



Globally, self-defense bites represent about 4.6% of all recorded shark bites, closely matching French Polynesian observations. Data from the <a href="https://www.sharkattackfile.net" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Shark Attack Files</a> supports this estimate.



For instance, Australian data shows that Wobbegong sharks often bite defensively when accidentally disturbed. This finding highlights that self-defense biting is not region-specific but widespread among various species.



The media often fails to differentiate these events, labeling them all as "attacks," which harms shark conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-shark-bites">Preventing shark bites</h2>



Avoiding aggressive or intrusive actions toward sharks is key to staying safe. Even well-meaning rescue attempts can be perceived as threats.



“Do not interact physically with a shark, even if it appears harmless or is in distress. It may at any moment consider this to be an aggression and react accordingly,” said Dr. Clua. “These are potentially dangerous animals, and not touching them is not only wise, but also a sign of the respect we owe them.”



Touching stranded sharks can lead to defensive bites. Their flexible bodies allow them to turn quickly and strike even when handled gently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-bite-to-survive">Sharks bite to survive</h2>



Recognizing self-defense as a motivation changes how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> incidents should be understood and managed. People must acknowledge their role in provoking many incidents.



This understanding can shift media narratives and reduce unjustified fears. Better reporting can also support shark conservation efforts, crucial for preserving ocean ecosystems.



Self-defense bites reveal sharks as cautious, pragmatic survivors rather than ruthless killers. Humans must revise their attitudes and actions when interacting with these animals.



Reducing aggressive encounters and respecting sharks' space could lower incident rates. Meanwhile, more accurate media representation could significantly aid global shark conservation initiatives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2025.1562502/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



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Sharks often bite people in self-defense, not to attack

Sharks often carry a reputation as the ultimate beasts. However,...

The Caribbean holds secrets in its mangroves, lagoons, and coral-rimmed islands - some buried in sediment, others still alive. Off the coast of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, researchers have made a discovery that rewrites part of crocodilian history. Two isolated island populations - one on Cozumel, the other on Banco Chinchorro - have been identified as distinct species of crocodiles.



For decades, these animals were assumed to be American crocodiles, part of the species Crocodylus acutus, which ranges from Baja California to Venezuela and across the Caribbean. 



But new research reveals that these island <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> are not merely remote relatives. They are genetically and physically distinct - products of isolation, adaptation, and evolutionary divergence.



This revelation comes from an international team led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, working alongside Mexican institutions. Their findings mark a turning point in crocodile biology and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-new-crocodile-species">Saving the new crocodile species </h2>



“Biodiversity is disappearing faster than we can discover what we're losing,” said Professor Hans Larsson, who led the study. His team’s goal was to explore hidden patterns of crocodile diversity before development and climate change erased them. 



Crocodiles are often seen as ancient, unchanging predators. Yet in the islands of the Yucatán, they tell a story of dynamic evolution and ecological specialization.



Island species often evolve rapidly, separated from their mainland ancestors by currents, storms, and time. 



The two island populations - Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro - are part of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System, where prevailing ocean currents reduce genetic exchange with nearby coasts. These natural barriers, acting over thousands of years, allowed isolated populations to take new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary paths</a>.



Each island’s reptiles have stayed hidden in plain sight, their differences mistaken for regional quirks. But as the study shows, these are not minor variations. They are evidence of distinct evolutionary histories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-crocodiles-are-two-separate-species">Island crocodiles are two separate species</h2>



To uncover the truth, Larsson’s team used Restriction-site Associated DNA Sequencing (RAD-seq), analyzing over 13,000 polymorphic genetic markers across crocodile populations from the Caribbean, Pacific Mexico, and Central America. 



They found that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro crocodiles had exceptionally high numbers of unique alleles and genetic diversity, despite their small population sizes.



“These results were totally unexpected,” said José Avila-Cervantes, the study’s lead author and former student in Larsson’s lab. 



Avila-Cervantes explained how they originally assumed all sampled animals were members of a single widespread species. But population structure analyses, genetic clustering algorithms, and phylogenetic reconstructions told a different story.



The team discovered that the two island populations form their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-isnt-just-ancient-history-its-happening-right-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic clusters</a> with no signs of admixture. Their genetic divergence from mainland Crocodylus acutus populations is greater than what separates some recognized crocodile species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-level-distinction-confirmed">Species-level distinction confirmed</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetics</a> wasn't the only signal of divergence. The researchers also analyzed skull shapes using geometric morphometrics. These analyses revealed dramatic differences in cranial morphology between island crocodiles and their mainland counterparts.



Cozumel crocodiles have notably long and narrow snouts - described as “longirostrine.” In contrast, Banco Chinchorro crocodiles have broader skulls adapted for durophagy, likely to help them crush hard-shelled prey.



Morphospace analysis placed each population in distinct zones, confirming that their physical differences mirrored their genetic splits.



Morphological distinctions extend to scale patterns as well. Banco Chinchorro individuals possess a greater number of post-occipital and nuchal scales, while Cozumel individuals have more irregular caudal scales. These features support species-level separation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-species-evolved-in-isolation">Crocodile species evolved in isolation</h2>



Genomic modeling suggests that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro populations have been genetically isolated for over 11,000 years. That’s long enough for new traits to evolve and for species to diverge.



Estimates suggest each island holds only 500 to 700 effective breeding individuals. While these numbers might seem modest, they are significantly larger than previously thought and are adequate to maintain genetic diversity, especially in isolated systems.



These findings highlight how isolation by environment - not just distance - can drive rapid evolutionary changes. Unlike other Crocodylus acutus populations, these two groups have adapted to harsh, specific conditions on their islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-extremes">Adapting to extremes</h2>



Banco Chinchorro is a small atoll in the Caribbean Sea, distant from the mainland and sparsely inhabited by humans. Its crocodile population has developed exceptional traits to survive in this setting. Lagoon salinity on the atoll reaches levels as high as 65 ppt — more than twice the salinity of typical seawater.



Crocodiles here have adapted to tolerate these hypersaline conditions. Hatchlings survive in salt-saturated nursery sites, and adults exhibit slower growth rates, smaller clutch sizes, and reduced egg mass. 



“The lower reproductive parameters for crocodiles in Banco Chinchorro are probably related to a smaller size of nesting females,” noted the researchers.



These ecological pressures are shaping the biology of the population. Females reach maturity at smaller sizes, and survival strategies now depend on both physiological tolerance and geographic seclusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-crocodiles-in-cozumel">Protecting crocodiles in Cozumel</h2>



Cozumel, in contrast, is a much larger island, closer to the Yucatán mainland and more affected by human activity. Urban development, tourism, and invasive species have introduced several stressors. Yet even here, the crocodile population shows signs of stable reproduction and unique genetic makeup.



Despite facing habitat fragmentation and limited protection compared to Banco Chinchorro, Cozumel’s crocodiles have preserved distinct traits and high genetic variation. The study calls for stronger protective measures to preserve their ecological niche.



Recognizing these reptiles as separate species could be the first step toward securing their future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-new-crocodile-species">Naming the new crocodile species</h2>



The study suggests that the Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro populations should be officially described and named as new species. Doing so would have major conservation implications. 



These crocodiles could become flagship species for preserving Caribbean mangrove ecosystems, which are under constant threat.



“Now that we recognize these crocodiles as distinct species, it's crucial to protect their habitats. Limiting land development and implementing careful conservation strategies on Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro will be key to ensuring their survival,” said Larsson.



Because Banco Chinchorro is already designated as a Biosphere Reserve, it provides a model for effective conservation. Cozumel, however, has fragmented protections, and needs more attention from policymakers and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-new-species">The evolution of new species</h2>



The discovery of these island crocodiles serves as a powerful reminder: evolution is not a closed chapter. It continues, quietly and sometimes dramatically, in the overlooked corners of the natural world.



The crocodiles of Cozumel and Banco Chinchorro are not just relics of the past. They are living examples of how isolation, environment, and time can create new life forms. 



These new species may be rare, but they are real - and now, with science and will, perhaps they can be protected too.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790325000582?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a>.



Image Credit: McGill University.



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Hidden in isolation: Two new crocodile species found in Mexico

The Caribbean holds secrets in its mangroves, lagoons, and coral-rimmed...

Pups of the greater sac-winged bat have been recorded spending a significant part of their day making a curious chatter. This chatter, known as babbling, lasts around seven minutes on average, with some sessions reaching an impressive 43 minutes.



Researchers studied 19 pup-mother pairs in roosts across Panama and Costa Rica. According to Dr. Ahana A. Fernandez from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>, the project focused on how maternal behavior influences this vocal practice in young bats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-pup-babbling-and-infant-speech">Bat pup babbling and infant speech</h2>



These tiny creatures produce many different syllable types during their babbling phase. Some of these sounds match up with calls that adults use for territorial defense and group identification.



Scientists use the term <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222518205_Nonmutual_vocal_mother-pup_recognition_in_the_greater_sac-winged_bat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal ontogeny</a> to describe how bat pups develop the full range of sounds that adults make. Babbling by greater sac-winged bats features repetitive and varied sequences that resemble early infant speech in humans.



Male bats sing loud territorial songs at dawn and dusk. Pup babbling, though, seems mostly linked to interactions with their mothers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-influence-on-bat-babbling">Maternal influence on bat babbling</h2>



Researchers filmed and recorded each babbling session. They noticed that some mothers stayed quiet, while others hovered, crawled, or moved closer to their pups during these long bouts of chatter.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disappearance-of-bats-linked-to-a-rise-in-infant-deaths/">Bat</a> pups with more interactive mothers kept babbling longer. Those pups also showed a bigger variety of the learned song syllables in their practice.



Interestingly, the number of singing males in a roost did not matter for pup babbling length. Instead, the mother’s activity seemed to drive how long and how richly the pup practiced its sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-feedback-shapes-learning">How feedback shapes learning</h2>



“Social interactions can have a direct effect on how baby talk develops,” concluded a <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1332441100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by Michael Goldstein and colleagues. In human babies, certain social responses can speed up the shift from simple babble to more mature sounds.



Bats may follow a similar pattern. Mothers often respond to babbling pups with touches, movements, or by allowing nursing right after a session.



Scientists suggest that these gestures reinforce the pup’s interest in babbling. The pups might then refine their vocal control more quickly through this extra practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babbling-beyond-male-tutors">Babbling beyond male tutors</h2>



Adult males offer a steady supply of acoustic input through their songs. Yet the presence of multiple singers in a colony does not appear to increase a pup’s babbling time.



Mothers, on the other hand, engage in direct interactions. The physical movements and close attention may push the pup to keep going, stacking more practice into each day.



This result differs from research in songbirds, where direct tutor interaction is often critical for learning. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hoary-bat-flying-over-open-ocean-first-ever-sighting/">Bat</a> pups instead appear to depend heavily on their mothers for motivation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-female-pups-babble-too">Why do female pups babble too?</h2>



Male bats use these songs later to mark territory. Females normally leave their birth colony once they are grown and do not sing these territorial tunes as adults.



Scientists were surprised to see no difference between male and female pups during babbling sessions. Both sexes copy adult song syllables, show similar levels of practice, and respond to their mothers in a similar way.



One idea is that female pups benefit from early song practice to identify local song dialects in new colonies. This extra experience might help them recognize males from their home group or pick suitable mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mother-s-moves-and-vocal-maturity">Mother’s moves and vocal maturity</h2>



Researchers also tracked whether pup syllables moved toward more adult-like features. They found that pups whose mothers showed higher activity reached mature-sounding syllables earlier.



These results could mean that the mechanical skills and brain processes for producing adult calls are boosted by social contact. Over time, the pup transitions from broad babbling to crisp, well-formed phrases.



Scientists have proposed that such maternal feedback helps the young strengthen vocal skills. Pups learn by comparing their own calls to the calls they hear, then adjusting until there is a match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connections-to-human-speech">Connections to human speech</h2>



Though humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-north-american-bats-face-extinction-risk-in-15-years/">bats</a> are worlds apart, both rely on extensive vocal imitation in early life. People have long studied infant babbling to find clues about how children master speech.



Some researchers think that babbling might serve <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29375276/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiple goals</a>. It gives the infant a chance to practice forming sounds, and it can trigger extra bonding time with caregivers.



Bats might display a comparable loop. Pups try out different notes, the mother replies with movement or attention, and the pup is encouraged to produce more complex sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-babbling-sessions-and-complex-learning">Long babbling sessions and complex learning</h2>



The final number of syllables mastered by weaning did not directly link to how active each mother was. That aspect might depend more on how long pups keep babbling or how quickly they pick up new sound types.



Future work could explore whether mothers respond more often to specific syllables. That level of detail may reveal patterns of back-and-forth shaping that were not obvious in the broader analysis.



Scientists also wonder if close contact with motherly affection can spark hormone changes in pups. This might influence how quickly babbling matures, echoing theories in human child development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-bat-pup-babbling">Significance of bat pup babbling </h2>



These findings hint at a social element in mammalian voice learning. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-bat-appreciation-day-the-crucial-role-of-bats-in-nature/">Bats</a> share certain brain structures with humans, making them especially interesting for understanding speech origins.



The study offers a glimpse into how complex communication systems can appear in non-human mammals. It also opens the door to new ideas on how maternal cues guide early vocal practice.



Such knowledge can enrich our understanding of communication in the animal kingdom. It might even offer fresh perspectives on how humans first learned to talk.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/99474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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What secrets are hidden in the babbling of bats?

Pups of the greater sac-winged bat have been recorded spending...

The,Theatre,Of,Aspendos,Ancient,City,In,Antalya

Archaeologists working at Driffield Terrace, a well-preserved Roman cemetery in York, have uncovered the first direct physical evidence of gladiatorial combat between a human and fierce, wild animal. 



The breakthrough came through a close forensic analysis of bite marks found on one of the 82 robust male skeletons excavated at the site.



This discovery reshapes our understanding of Roman entertainment beyond the walls of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-romans-made-such-incredibly-durable-concrete-is-no-longer-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colosseum</a>. The cemetery first made headlines in 2010 when experts revealed that the men buried there were young, muscular individuals who had likely undergone intense physical training. 



Their skeletons also bore signs of violent trauma, and their unusual burial practices hinted at lives lived, and often ended, in combat.



However, until now, the idea that these men were gladiators had remained a compelling theory - lacking one final piece of evidence. That final piece came in the form of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-lions-have-different-social-strategies-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lion</a>’s bite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gladiator-combat-confirmation">Gladiator combat confirmation</h2>



Malin Holst, a lecturer in Osteoarchaeology at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> and managing director of <a href="https://yorkosteoarchaeology.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York Osteoarchaeology</a>, led the analysis that definitively linked the bite marks to a large feline predator.



“The bite marks were likely made by a lion, which confirms that the skeletons buried at the cemetery were gladiators, rather than soldiers or slaves, as initially thought and represent the first osteological confirmation of human interaction with large carnivores in a combat or entertainment setting in the Roman world,” she explained.



This new insight stems from research that began in 2004, when the first of these 1,800-year-old skeletons was excavated along a Roman road leading out of York. Experts determined that many of these individuals had come from different parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-may-have-caused-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Empire</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/gladiator-bones_bite-marks_lion_romans_credit-PLOS-One_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/gladiator-bones_bite-marks_lion_romans_credit-PLOS-One_1s.webp" alt="Lesions on the left iliac spine of 6DT19. Credit: PLOS One (2025)" class="wp-image-1967179"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Lesions on the left iliac spine of 6DT19. Credit: PLOS One (2025)</figcaption></figure>



An analysis of their bones suggested high levels of physical strain and repeated injuries - markers typical of gladiators. The man in question was aged between 26 and 35 at the time of death. 



His skeleton, found buried with two others and overlaid with horse bones, bore evidence of a tough life - spinal issues likely from strain, inflammation in the lungs and thigh, and signs of early malnutrition that he had recovered from.



However, the lion bite - unhealed and fatal - was what sealed his fate. After death, he was also decapitated, a ritual observed in several other burials of the same period, though the cultural reasoning behind this remains uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lions-in-combat-with-gladiators">Lions in combat with gladiators</h2>



Professor Tim Thompson from <a href="https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maynooth University</a> in Ireland highlighted the significance of the discovery. “For years, our understanding of Roman gladiatorial combat and animal spectacles has relied heavily on historical texts and artistic depictions," he said.



"This discovery provides the first direct, physical evidence that such events took place in this period, reshaping our perception of Roman entertainment culture in the region,” he continued.



Analysis of the remains suggests the man may have been a Bestiarius, a type of gladiator tasked with fighting wild animals. These roles were often filled by volunteers or enslaved individuals. 



What’s particularly notable is that the combat involving this individual likely did not take place in Rome but in Roman York - a major provincial city. Although the city’s amphitheater has yet to be discovered, this evidence strongly suggests one existed.



“We often have a mental image of these combats occurring at the grand surroundings of the Colosseum in Rome, but these latest findings show that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/youth-sports-are-more-accessible-to-privileged-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sporting events</a> had a far reach, well beyond the center of core Roman territories,” Holst said. “An amphitheatre probably existed in Roman York, but this has not yet been discovered.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gladiators-combat-and-the-roman-empire">Gladiators, combat, and the Roman Empire</h2>



York’s importance as a political and military hub during the Roman period - home to influential figures including Emperor Constantine - meant it would have had the cultural infrastructure to support such spectacles. 



Gladiatorial games were not merely brutal displays; they were high-stakes entertainment, tied into the social and political fabric of Roman cities. Interestingly, despite their expendability, gladiators were valuable assets. 



Owners would invest in their success, and when they did die, some were given burial gifts to serve them in the afterlife, as seen at Driffield Terrace. 



Owners of gladiators would most likely not have wanted them to die, since they were expensive ‘sports people,’ similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/college-athletes-have-lasting-brain-changes-after-concussion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">footballers</a> today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-roman-history-in-the-north"><a></a>Rewriting Roman history in the north</h2>



According to David Jennings, CEO of <a href="https://yorkarchaeology.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York Archaeology</a>, this finding is crucial in expanding the story of the Roman world beyond its capital. 



“This latest research gives us a remarkable insight into the life - and death - of this particular individual, and adds to both previous and ongoing genome research into the origins of some of the men buried in this particular Roman cemetery,” he said.



“We may never know what brought this man to the arena where we believe he may have been fighting for the entertainment of others, but it is remarkable that the first osteo-archaeological evidence for this kind of gladiatorial combat has been found so far from the Colosseum of Rome, which would have been the classical world’s Wembley Stadium of combat,” Jennings added.



Visitors to <a href="http://www.digyork.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DIG: An Archaeological Adventure in St Saviourgate</a> will soon have the chance to come face-to-face with history, as the lion-bitten skeleton will be displayed there alongside a reconstructed model of the gladiator’s face - bringing a forgotten chapter of Roman Yorkshire vividly back to life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319847" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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First physical evidence found of gladiators fighting fierce animals in Roman arenas

Archaeologists working at Driffield Terrace, a well-preserved Roman cemetery in...

Long before humans roamed the Australian continent, the land teemed with giants. Towering reptiles, thunderous birds, and hulking marsupials defined a wild and ancient world of sprawling rainforest ecosystems. Among these formidable creatures was&nbsp;Protemnodon, a now-extinct genus of giant kangaroo.



Despite its size - some individuals tipped the scales at 170 kilograms (375 pounds) - it wasn’t a long-range wanderer.



Instead, Protemnodon lived a curiously local life. New research reveals that these megafaunal marsupials stayed close to home, navigating only a small stretch of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> terrain. That fateful trait may have doomed them when the land began to dry. 



A study led by Christopher Laurikainen Gaete at the <a href="https://www.uow.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wollongong</a> uncovers how restricted mobility, climate change, and the loss of rainforest habitats converged to erase these kangaroos from the map.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-kangaroos-stayed-close-to-rainforests">Giant kangaroos stayed close to rainforests</h2>



In the animal kingdom, large herbivores tend to move over vast areas to meet their dietary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-species-act-faces-its-biggest-legal-shift-in-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">needs</a>. Scientists use this trend to predict how extinct animals might have behaved. 



Based on this logic, Protemnodon, with its substantial mass, should have had a home range exceeding 11 square kilometers. The research team, using a regression model anchored in data from living macropods, estimated a predicted home range of 11.6 ± 5.8 km² (4.5 ± 2.2 square miles).



But when they examined fossilized teeth from eight individual Protemnodon collected from the limestone caves of Mt Etna in central Queensland, they found something surprising. The chemical signatures etched into these ancient teeth told a different story. 



Strontium isotopes, which reflect the geology of the area where an animal foraged, revealed the kangaroos fed within a narrow band of territory. Their enamel contained isotopic ratios matching only the local limestone of the Mount Alma Formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-teeth-prove-they-lived-locally">Fossil teeth prove they lived locally</h2>



The findings relied on a cutting-edge approach. The researchers conducted strontium isotope analysis using laser ablation mass spectrometry. This technique allowed them to trace where each individual likely lived and ate during enamel formation.



Surprisingly, the vast majority of samples matched strontium levels from the immediate area <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surrounding</a> the Mt Etna caves.



Only one individual showed signs of a slightly wider movement pattern. This tooth, labeled WIGL8550, held isotope signatures more consistent with nearby formations like Alton Downs Basalt, suggesting a movement of about 1.5 km (0.9 miles) to the east or south.



However, the researchers can’t confirm whether this movement occurred in life or after death. One theory suggests scavengers, such as Thylacoleo carnifex or Sarcophilus, may have dragged the body to the cave after the animal died elsewhere.



In most other specimens, the teeth recorded a remarkably stable pattern. These kangaroos didn’t roam widely. They seemed to live and die within the same small patch of forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforests-gave-kangaroos-food-and-shelter">Rainforests gave kangaroos food and shelter</h2>



The study explored three main reasons why Protemnodon might have avoided long-distance travel. The first was environmental. 



For over 200,000 years, the Mt Etna region maintained a stable rainforest ecosystem. This lush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> offered abundant food and shelter, meaning the kangaroos didn't need to search far for survival.



Second, the species’ feeding habits likely played a role. While modern kangaroos like Macropus are grazers, feeding on grasses across open landscapes, Protemnodon probably browsed. 



Its low-crowned teeth and long forelimbs suggest a diet of leaves, fruits, and soft vegetation, more easily found in dense forest environments. Browsers often have smaller foraging ranges compared to grazers of similar size, and this pattern seems to hold true here.



Third, locomotion appears to have been a limiting factor. Unlike their hopping cousins, Protemnodon may have moved on all fours. Its anatomy - including elongated forelimbs and robust humeri - points toward a quadrupedal gait.



This form of movement, although efficient in forests, restricts the speed and distance an animal can cover. Without the ability to hop long distances, these kangaroos were naturally more sedentary within rainforests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforests-disappear-so-do-the-giants">Rainforests disappear, so do the giants</h2>



These limited movement patterns became a fatal flaw when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-honors-success-in-clean-energy-and-wildlife-recovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> began to shift. Around 280,000 years ago, the once-stable rainforest began to decline. Increasing aridity transformed the landscape into dry woodlands. The thick vegetation Protemnodon relied upon began to vanish.



Because these kangaroos were so tightly tied to their habitat, they couldn’t adjust. They couldn’t migrate to find new rainforests. The kangaroos lacked both the physical capability and behavioral tendency to move long distances. In effect, they became stranded in an ecological trap. The resources they needed evaporated around them.



New dating methods, including thermally transferred optically stimulated luminescence (TT-OSL) and uranium-thorium dating, confirmed that these individuals lived between 280,000 and 330,000 years ago. Their extinction coincided with the local collapse of rainforest ecosystems. 



Over time, the rainforest fauna of Mt Etna gave way to animals adapted to dry, open conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-ideas-about-extinct-species">New ideas about extinct species</h2>



The implications of this research stretch beyond a single species, challenging the assumption that body size alone predicts home range in extinct animals.



Instead, the study suggests that environment, diet, and movement style must also be considered. The idea that Australia’s megafauna had flexible ranges similar to African elephants or North American bison may not apply across the board.



“Using data from modern kangaroos, we predicted these giant extinct kangaroos would have much larger home ranges. We were astounded to find that they didn’t move far at all, with ranges mirroring smaller modern kangaroo species,” said Laurikainen Gaete.



“These new isotopic techniques have blown our field wide open. Imagine ancient GPS trackers - we can use the fossils to track individuals and know where they moved, what they ate, who they lived with and how they died. It’s Palaeo Big Brother,” added Dr. Scott Hocknull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-giant-kangaroos">The fate of giant kangaroos</h2>



The Protemnodon case reveals how extinction can creep up slowly. The kangaroos didn’t die out in a dramatic, singular event - the loss of rainforests sealed their fate. 



Rather, they were slowly cornered by environmental changes they couldn’t outrun. Their highly specialized biology, once perfectly suited to rainforest life, became a burden.



These findings offer a cautionary tale. Species adapted to narrow niches are often the first to go when habitats shrink. For scientists studying extinction, understanding those ancient patterns helps anticipate what modern species might face as climate shifts intensify.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0319712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Giant kangaroos died out when rainforests disappeared

Long before humans roamed the Australian continent, the land teemed...

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors, but their habit of shining during daylight is still surprising to many. They refuse to hide and instead display bright spots, stripes, or swirling hues that some predators quickly learn to avoid.



Dr. Cedric van den Berg from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> and his team examined 45 species of <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/collage-nudibranch-colors" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nudibranch slugs</a> to see how color patterns might work as predator deterrents. 



The researchers looked at how certain slugs appear to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-slugs-use-sunlight-to-survive-just-like-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> with trichromatic vision, finding that being active under bright conditions helps highlight toxic or stinging defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-slugs-flash-bright-colors">Sea slugs flash bright colors</h2>



“Sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-mollusk-glowing-sea-slug-found-in-the-deep-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slugs</a> use bright, contrasting color patterns to send messages to potential predators like ‘Don’t eat me, I’m poisonous,’” noted Dr. van den Berg.



Sea slugs often rely on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/aposematism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic signals</a>, which are bright or bold patterns that suggest they’re not worth a predator’s time.&nbsp;



Animals with chemical defenses, such as irritating toxins or stinging cells, appear to flaunt thick stripes or glowing spots. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_Risbecia-apolegma_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma" class="wp-image-1966961"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug, species name Risbecia apolegma. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Those colors can look intense to fish that rely on sight, so it’s a clear communication strategy in well-lit environments.



Nocturnal slugs, by comparison, usually stick to calmer patterns. Their prey time is after sunset, so they’re less likely to advertise threats that won’t be easily seen in the dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-avoid-slugs-that-shine-in-sunlight">Fish avoid slugs that shine in sunlight</h2>



The researchers used specialized imaging to simulate how these patterns register with a fish’s eyes. A quick flash of white or dark stripes against a colorful background can make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inspired-by-sea-slugs-microneedles-could-transform-health-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> think twice about an easy meal.



“We can even use the fingerprint to successfully classify the daytime activity of almost 90% of all the species we looked at,” said Dr. van den Berg. This suggests a strong link between how slugs look and when they move around each day.



Some slugs have more than just bright colors at their disposal. They also pack potent chemicals that might taste awful or damage a predator’s tissues on contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunlight-strengthens-sea-slug-colors">Sunlight strengthens sea slug colors </h2>



Light is crucial for these color patterns to send the right message. Bold outlines or high-contrast spots fade in dim conditions, but under direct sun, the same hues scream for attention.



A fish that tries nibbling a slug with toxins might get a nasty mouthful. That experience can teach predators to avoid the next brightly spotted slug they see.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slug_nudibranch_Favorinus-mirabilis_1s.webp" alt="Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis" class="wp-image-1966959"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Color nudibranch sea slug, species name Favorinus mirabilis. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Scientists call these patterns and body outlines essential parts of the slug’s warning display. It’s like wearing a vibrant outfit that signals danger to those who might otherwise bite first and ask questions later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-chemicals-and-warning-colors">Toxic chemicals and warning colors</h2>



These creatures store or produce toxic compounds, depending on their diet and species-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a>. A few absorb nasty elements from what they eat, then load them into stinging cells on their backs.



Not all sea slugs rely on chemical deterrents, though. Some have mild or no toxins and instead hide or blend with the environment at night.



Other slugs team multiple strategies. One group even uses <a href="http://www.seaslugforum.net/showall/biolumin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioluminescent flashes</a>, but that tends to happen if they get harassed after dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-as-survival-strategies">Colors as survival strategies</h2>



Colorful warnings are common in reef environments filled with fish that spot <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/know-your-ocean/did-you-know/why-are-corals-so-colorful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright objects</a> from many angles. Sea slugs are only one example of creatures that play this card.



These slugs aren’t alone in teaching predators to step back. Some marine animals sport bright polka dots or bold stripes, but the principle is the same: let attackers know a nasty surprise awaits them.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sea-slugs_Costasiella-Kuroshimae-nudibranch_1s.webp" alt="Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae" class="wp-image-1966963"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Colorful sea slug nudibrance, species name Costasiella Kuroshimae. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Biologists are keen to see how these patterns might shift as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> conditions change. If waters get murkier or fish populations decline, it could alter what signals remain effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bold-colors-help-sea-slugs-survive">Bold colors help sea slugs survive</h2>



Future research may reveal more about how brightness levels in shallow waters affect slug survival. Since some species rely on colorful hints to broadcast their poison, changes in light could tilt the scales in favor of camouflage instead.



Learning more about daytime patterns might also explain how certain toxins develop. If a slug’s flashy outfit reliably stops attacks, chemical defenses might grow stronger over time.



It’s a balancing act. Slugs can’t be so bold that hungry predators want to test them, yet they have to be bold enough for the signal to stand out in daylight.



Studying sea slugs provides a glimpse of how clever visual signals shape daily routines. Their reliance on sunshine to amplify threats is a neat twist on survival.



Most species in this research project seem to embrace the idea of risking daylight for the payoff of a loud warning. The few that prefer darkness skip the bright stripes and trust stealth to keep them off the menu.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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Sea slugs are very tiny, but they might also be the most beautiful creatures in the seas

Sea slugs are famous for their unusual shapes and colors,...

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests they might be less tolerant when rewards are split unequally. Researchers set out to see if these apes would walk away from deals that favored a partner and shortchanged them.



This insight emerges from the work of first author Kia Radovanović from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>. A team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology collaborated on these trials to gauge bonobos’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> to unequal treats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-recognize-unfair-rewards-and-protest">Bonobos recognize unfair rewards and protest</h2>



Some experts use the phrase <a href="https://www.behavioraleconomics.com/resources/mini-encyclopedia-of-be/inequity-aversion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inequity aversion</a> for patterns in animals that refuse to cooperate when they get a raw deal. Human <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/114/3/817/1848113?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have noted how people often protest if someone else is given better benefits for the same effort.



Bonobos share close ties with people on the <a href="https://evolution-outreach.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s12052-008-0035-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>. Their social lives revolve around interactions where resources and tasks are commonly exchanged. 



When tested in a token-exchange setting, they faced a scenario where one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">participant</a> got a higher-value treat, while the other settled for a lesser option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-turn-down-free-snacks">Why turn down free snacks?</h2>



“We found that bonobos more often refused to participate when faced with inequitable rewards,” said Radovanović. This outcome goes against the idea that they simply expect the same tasty morsel and quit if disappointed.



There were instances where an automated contraption handed out the treats. Bonobos avoided interacting if the gadget gave them a lower reward, yet spared a friend something tastier. 



This trend did not appear to stem from dissatisfaction with the human caretaker but instead from the unequal handouts themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-unfairness-can-bonobos-tolerate">How much unfairness can bonobos tolerate?</h2>



Cooperative behavior in this species is often viewed as a key characteristic. Some pairs seemed more tolerant of small imbalances, especially if they had strong social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonds</a>.



The closer pairs of bonobos sometimes accepted the mismatch without walking away. These differences in how each ape responds hint that personal relationships might play a role in how big a difference in goodies they are willing to allow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-chimps-and-unfair-rewards">Bonobos, chimps, and unfair rewards</h2>



Unlike bonobos, chimpanzees in similar tests often show refusal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orphaned-bonobos-can-regain-social-skills-and-empathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> that seem tied more to the person handing out the food than to fairness itself. 



When chimpanzees received lesser rewards, they reacted more strongly if the distributor was a human instead of a machine. That suggests they may be expressing frustration with the person, not necessarily protesting the unfairness of the trade.



Bonobos didn’t follow that same pattern. Their refusals were strongest when a machine was involved and their partner still got something better. 



This detail sets them apart and raises the possibility that bonobos might have developed a clearer internal barometer for fairness, while chimpanzees may lean more toward social expectations or experimenter-based cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-tests-to-explore-fairness-in-apes">More tests to explore fairness in apes</h2>



Fair-minded behavior might develop from social structures that value harmony.



"This study provides new insights into how fairness may have evolved, but further research is needed,” said Daniel Haun, Director at the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.



Researchers continue to plan follow-up tasks that offer group-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-thriving-in-salonga-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a> and broader test groups. They hope to see whether living conditions or group composition shape each individual’s perception of what is or is not an acceptable share.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-value-rewards-and-fairness">Bonobos value rewards and fairness</h2>



People once believed that only humans show strong objections when rewards are lopsided. Bonobo evidence suggests some apes may notice these imbalances too. 



This pattern could reinforce cooperation over time, because no one wants to keep playing with a partner who always gets the bigger prize.



These observations add a new perspective on how a sense of fair play might have taken shape in diverse primate lineages. Focusing on bonobos’ responses could clarify the complexities of social ties and resource division in living groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bonobos-fix-unfairness-themselves">Can bonobos fix unfairness themselves?</h2>



Researchers propose testing different tasks where bonobos can actively equalize outcomes. Deeper analysis may also reveal if other apes respond similarly in varied settings. 



Questions remain about how environment and familiarity influence the readiness to leave an unfair arrangement.



If bonobos keep showing that they can detect and reject unequal rewards, the idea of fairness in non-human species grows stronger. That could shift how we talk about morality and ethical conduct in the broader animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Bonobos say no to unfair trades, even if it costs rewards

Bonobos are known for gentle interactions, yet recent work suggests...

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of thumb: species that live over huge swaths of territory and boast large populations are usually safer from extinction than creatures confined to small patches of habitat. 



However, a new global analysis of roughly 1,500 bird species has revealed that there's no comfortable rule when it comes to climate change.



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>, shows that a wide geographic footprint can hide an unexpectedly narrow dependence on climate. In a warming world, that hidden fragility could make certain familiar birds surprisingly vulnerable.



“Because that region is so big, species that occupy it tend to have large populations and large geographic range sizes - two characteristics that are often associated with lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> risks,” explained Carlos Botero, an associate professor of integrative biology and senior author of the study.



“The problem here is that because many of those species are adapted to a very narrow range of climates, those seemingly large populations can be quite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">susceptible</a> to collapse when climate patterns begin to change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-paradox-from-the-arctic"><a></a>A paradox from the Arctic</h2>



One of the clearest examples comes from the Arctic, where a single broad climatic regime stretches across thousands of miles. The Bohemian waxwing is emblematic: its breeding distribution spans an immense arc from Scandinavia to Alaska.



Yet the Arctic’s uniform environment means that the waxwing’s entire life cycle is tied to cold temperatures and consistent snow cover. Even minor warming or shifts in precipitation could push the species outside its comfort zone - no matter how far it can fly within that chilly belt.



In their analysis, Botero’s team contrasted the waxwing with the chestnut-crowned laughingthrush. The laughingthrush is restricted to a sliver of montane forest in Nepal, Bhutan, and neighboring parts of Asia - an area a fraction of the waxwing’s extent.



But the Himalayan foothills expose that small-ranged bird to a wider palette of temperatures and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> patterns throughout the year. The laughingthrush therefore occupies a broader “climate niche,” potentially giving it more room to maneuver as conditions shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-brains-and-climate-specialization">Bird brains and climate specialization</h2>



The surprises did not stop with range maps. Analyses also revealed an unexpected relationship between brain size and climate flexibility. 



Larger-brained birds, long celebrated for their resourcefulness, tended to be the very species most tightly wedded to specific climate regimes. “Larger brain sizes correlate with more flexible behavior, so `big-brained birds are usually expected to be more adaptable,” Botero said. 



“However, it turns out that many big-brained birds are climate specialists - meaning that they have evolved to thrive in very particular climate types and may therefore also be more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-are-more-at-risk-from-climate-change-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable</a> to climate change than we expected.”



Why would an animal capable of problem-solving and tool use paint itself into a narrow climatic corner? Botero and coauthor João Fabrício Mota Rodrigues (now at <a href="https://unicamp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brazil’s University of Campinas</a>) suspect that cognitive prowess helps species exploit highly specific environments with great efficiency. 



Over evolutionary time, that specialization can lead to tight physiological tolerances - exactly the trait that becomes risky when the planet’s thermostat creeps upward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-two-dimensional-climate-map"><a></a>Building a two-dimensional climate map</h2>



To quantify each species’ niche, the team merged two huge datasets. First came detailed range maps created from hundreds of thousands of sightings submitted by volunteer birders to the <a href="https://ebird.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBird</a> platform. 



Second, the researchers developed a simplified, yet powerful, climate classification that captures two axes of environmental hardship. The first axis - “temperature harshness” - rises as places become colder, more variable, and less predictable. 



The second - “xeric harshness” - ratchets upward with drier, more erratic rainfall. Plotting Earth’s land areas across those twin axes produced a two-dimensional climate space. 



Points near the center represent benign zones: warm, moist, and seasonally steady. Farther out lie the extremes: parched deserts, storm-prone tropics, or frigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-changing-tundra-landscapes-affect-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra</a>. 



By overlaying each bird’s distribution onto that grid, the researchers measured how much of the climate space the species actually uses. A small ellipse located at one edge of the diagram signals trouble. 



Birds confined to that limited set of conditions may find it hard to track shifting isotherms or precipitation belts. Conversely, a large swath cutting across multiple quadrants suggests climatic breadth and, potentially, resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-interactions-hidden-risks"><a></a>Hidden interactions, hidden risks</h2>



The latest study adds to a growing chorus urging conservation planners to reconsider single-factor threat lists. 



“We need to stop looking at individual risk factors in isolation, but evaluate how these complex factors combine,” Botero emphasized. “Sometimes, it is the unexpected interactions that matter most.”



Indeed, a species can check all the traditional “safe” boxes - huge range, big population, high intelligence - yet still sit on a climatic knife-edge. Arctic breeders are just one illustration. 



Tropical forest birds with large brains and tight humidity requirements could face similar hazards if droughts intensify. Even desert specialists might falter if rainfall becomes too unpredictable for reliable breeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-and-big-picture-insights">Citizen science and big-picture insights</h2>



According to Rodrigues, the analysis was made possible by citizen scientists. Data derived from eBird gave the experts an unprecedented global snapshot.



Without hundreds of thousands of observers recording where they saw even the most common species, they couldn’t have mapped climate niches with this precision. Such an approach is quickly becoming a backbone of ecological forecasting. 



By harnessing real-time, geo-tagged records from amateurs, researchers can update models as species ranges expand, contract, or fragment - often faster than traditional field surveys could manage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-species-conservation">Smarter species conservation</h2>



Recognizing climate specialization where none was suspected may reshape conservation priorities. Agencies often triage limited funds toward charismatic, range-restricted species. 



But Botero’s work suggests that some cosmopolitan birds deserve equal attention, precisely because their “bigness” masks a slender climatic lifeline. Future investigations will probe whether similar patterns hold for mammals, reptiles, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>. 



For now, the message is clear: size - of range, of population, of brain - does not guarantee safety. In a rapidly changing climate, ecological nuance matters. 



Understanding that nuance could spell the difference between proactive protection and costly rescue missions when numbers suddenly plummet. As policymakers craft strategies for the coming decades, studies like this remind us that vulnerability isn’t always where we expect it. 



Sometimes it hides beneath vast northern skies, in flocks that seem abundant - until the weather shifts just a little too far, and the invisible boundaries of their climate niches close in.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58815-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Big brains and wide ranges can't save birds from climate change

Conservation scientists often reassure themselves with a simple rule of...

Not all birds migrate. Some stay put. Some, like the Lesser Goldfinch, go where conditions allow them to thrive. These tiny songbirds, once mostly limited to the Southwest, are now appearing in increasing numbers far north of their traditional range. What’s more surprising is the speed and consistency of this shift.



New research published in the journal Ornithology offers fresh insight into this striking expansion. It’s a story that touches climate, urbanization, and our relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. It’s also a reminder that sometimes, change isn’t just visible - it’s audible in birdsong that wasn’t there before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinch-surge-across-the-northwest">Goldfinch surge across the Northwest</h2>



The study comes from a collaboration between Washington State University (<a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=Washington+State+University&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>. 



The researchers relied on observations submitted by everyday birdwatchers through two Cornell initiatives: Project <a href="https://feederwatch.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FeederWatch</a> and <a href="https://ebird.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBird</a>. These programs collect real-time data, creating a massive network of people watching and logging birds.



The analysis revealed that Lesser Goldfinch populations have grown dramatically between 2012 and 2022.



In Washington, the number rose by 110.5%. Idaho saw a 66.3% increase, while Oregon had a more modest but still notable 16.9%. These numbers suggest more than a seasonal visit. They point to full-scale colonization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-experience-sparks-a-major-discovery">Personal experience sparks a major discovery</h2>



For Mason Maron, the lead author of the study, the change wasn’t just academic - it was personal.



"When I first arrived in eastern Washington I was pretty new to birding and Lesser Goldfinches were new to me. I was seeing groups of 30 or 40 at a time and I sort of assumed that was normal, until I started meeting local birders who said, '10 years ago we never had Lesser Goldfinches,’ so I started to investigate what was going on,” said Maron.



That moment of curiosity eventually led to this landmark study. It highlights how individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> can turn into powerful scientific discoveries, especially when supported by large-scale data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinches-are-moving-with-intention">Goldfinches are moving with intention </h2>



Lesser Goldfinches are not just randomly moving. The researchers discovered clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>.



"What's fascinating is how these birds are adapting to human-modified landscapes," said Maron. 



"They're not just moving north randomly - they're following specific corridors, particularly along rivers and through urban areas where temperatures are warmer and where both native and non-native plants provide food."



These zones offer warmer microclimates and a diverse range of food sources, making them ideal for expansion. The urban heat island effect plays a role too, buffering the birds from harsher northern winters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-linked-to-goldfinch-expansion">Factors linked to goldfinch expansion </h2>



The study pinpointed four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental factors</a> most closely linked with the birds’ expansion. Maximum annual temperature and rainfall topped the list. Urban development and proximity to rivers also played strong roles.



Although these birds often appear at backyard feeders, Maron and his team were surprised by one finding: bird feeders don’t make a meaningful difference in helping establish new populations.



"There wasn't really a significant association with bird feeders," Maron said. The first individuals to arrive in a new area might go to feeders because they provide easy to access food, but Maron explained that “it's not going to be enough to sustain a whole population."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rivers-act-as-goldfinch-highways-nbsp">Rivers act as goldfinch highways&nbsp;</h2>



Rivers stood out as essential channels. They don’t just provide water. They also bring life in the form of seeds, insects, and disturbed soil - perfect conditions for opportunistic birds like the Lesser Goldfinch.



"These rivers carry weedy plants and seeds really well," said Maron. "We, as people, like to live along the river, so we disturb the soil and that really creates this sort of chain of the perfect conditions for them."



This overlap between human settlement and bird habitat is not just a coincidence. It shows how species can align their movements with our built environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-in-new-regions">Stability in new regions</h2>



It’s one thing for a species to explore new territory. It’s another to settle in and grow. The researchers found that once goldfinches arrive, they tend to stay - and even thrive.



"Our results are suggestive of this species being able to pretty rapidly colonize new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>," said Jordan Boersma, co-author and research associate at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 



"It's not just that Lesser Goldfinches are exploring these new areas…they are moving in and typically turning into stable populations or even increasing populations."



This kind of success story is rare. Many species that encounter environmental change don’t survive, much less expand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southward-decline-mirrors-northward-growth">Southward decline mirrors Northward growth</h2>



Even as they thrive in the north, Lesser Goldfinches appear to be declining in the south. The Cornell Lab’s eBird Status and Trends project notes losses in the species’ traditional southwestern strongholds.



This suggests that the northward shift may not be a pure gain. Instead, it reflects an underlying pressure - possibly driven by heat, drought, or changing vegetation - that is making the southern part of their range less hospitable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nuanced-view-of-adaptation">A nuanced view of adaptation</h2>



While this study shows how adaptable the Lesser Goldfinch can be, the researchers urge caution in drawing wide conclusions. Most species are not so fortunate.



"What it really shows is that we know a lot of species are declining and struggling because of these changes. Some species can survive and adapt and do better, but it's not necessarily a trade-off," said Maron.



Adaptability varies. For every bird that expands, others may retreat or vanish. It’s a reminder that environmental change rarely distributes benefits equally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfinches-moving-in-response-to-change">Goldfinches moving in response to change</h2>



Boersma sees deeper meaning in the goldfinch’s journey. "This species has proven remarkably adaptable to environmental change," he said. 



"Understanding how birds like the Lesser Goldfinch respond to climate change and urbanization helps us predict how other species might also be impacted."



Birds are sensitive indicators of ecological shifts. Watching them closely reveals how ecosystems are changing - sometimes before we notice anything else.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-public-participation">Power of public participation</h2>



None of this research would exist without everyday people recording what they see in their yards, parks, and neighborhoods. Through Project FeederWatch and eBird, citizens contribute millions of observations that build into something far greater than the sum of its parts.



"When we understand how wildlife responds to environmental change, we're better equipped to make informed decisions about urban planning, conservation, and climate adaptation," said Maron.



The goldfinches remind us that even small birds can carry big messages - if we’re paying attention.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/auk/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/ornithology/ukaf013/8116731?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithology</a>.



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Goldfinches are moving to new homes in unusual places

Not all birds migrate. Some stay put. Some, like the...

Step outside on a warm summer evening, and you’ll likely notice something missing - fewer buzzing bees, fluttering butterflies, or humming beetles. Across the globe, insect numbers are crashing.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small creatures</a> may not grab headlines like tigers or elephants, but they play vital roles in pollination, decomposition, and supporting ecosystems. Without them, life on Earth would unravel in quiet but devastating ways.



The concern isn’t new, but recent efforts to grasp the scale and causes of insect decline are painting a clearer, more complex picture. 



A research team at Binghamton University, State University of New York (<a href="https://www.suny.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SUNY</a>), has taken a sweeping look at how scientists explain this crisis. Their work doesn’t just identify the usual suspects - it shows a deeply interconnected web of causes, some obvious, many ignored, and all urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-are-disappearing-fast">Insect are disappearing fast</h2>



In 2017, a shocking <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> revealed a 75% drop in insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> in under 30 years. That single paper stirred a global scientific response, triggering waves of new research.



Scientists began investigating the reasons behind this collapse, with studies emerging across fields from agriculture to climate science.



Despite this burst of attention, understanding the full picture has remained elusive. Many studies focus on specific regions, stressors, or insect groups. 



This fragmented view has made it difficult to see how the various factors combine or overlap. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linked-causes-of-insect-population-loss">Linked causes of insect population loss</h2>



To capture the breadth of expert opinion, the <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton</a> researchers examined over 175 scientific review papers. These reviews included more than 500 hypotheses about why insects are disappearing. The team read and analyzed them all, building a network of over 3,000 linked ideas.



“It's really hard to talk to everybody about what everyone thinks. And so instead of getting 600 people into a room, we decided to take an approach where we read every paper that's either a review or a meta-analysis,” said Christopher Halsch, a post-doctoral researcher at Binghamton and lead author of the paper.



This network approach allowed them to trace how one cause leads to another. For instance, agriculture may lead to pesticide use, which harms insects. Urban sprawl might increase pollution and fragment habitats. 



Every driver connects to others, forming a dense mesh of stressors that influence insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agriculture-the-dominant-driver">Agriculture: The dominant driver</h2>



When the team looked at which drivers showed up most often, agricultural intensification topped the list. This includes land-use changes, monocultures, and pesticide applications. These practices reduce natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-uniquely-adapted-to-withstand-harsh-winter-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> and expose insects to toxic chemicals.



But Halsch and his colleagues caution against seeing this as a simple ranking. Agricultural practices often interact with other forces, amplifying the damage. 



For example, land cleared for farming may also face climate pressures or pollution. One driver rarely acts alone.



The network map shows that stressors don’t exist in isolation. They create a feedback loop, where one issue triggers another. This interdependence complicates conservation, which often focuses on single threats or single species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-pressures-and-disappearing-insects">Climate pressures and disappearing insects</h2>



Among the other stressors, climate-related changes play a major role. Extreme precipitation, wildfires, rising temperatures, and seasonal shifts all affect insect life cycles, behavior, and habitats. But even within this broad category, complexity reigns.



Each climatic factor may worsen another threat. For example, hotter summers can increase pesticide use, while floods can destroy fragile habitats. These interactions mean that insects face stress from multiple fronts at once.



Despite the importance of these factors, many are still overlooked. The Binghamton study highlights that much of the scientific literature misses critical threats that aren’t easy to quantify or observe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-literature-misses-entirely">What the literature misses entirely</h2>



Perhaps the most startling finding was what the researchers didn’t find. Entire categories of known threats were nearly absent from the literature. Natural disasters, war zones, railways, and human intrusions - none appeared in any of the reviews examined.



“None of the papers mentioned natural disasters,” said Professor Eliza Grames, who was part of a recent <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/news/story/5386/20-of-butterflies-in-the-u.s-have-disappeared-since-2000" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showing a 20% loss of butterflies in the United States.



“No papers looked at human intrusions and disturbance, or the effects of war on insects, or railroads.”



These threats are well known in biodiversity discussions. Yet, when it comes to insects, they vanish from view. This raises concerns about research blind spots and missed opportunities to address emerging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studies-mostly-focus-on-bees-and-butterflies">Studies mostly focus on bees and butterflies</h2>



Another problem is the overwhelming focus on bees and butterflies. These species are loved and easily recognized. They’re also valuable to agriculture, which means they attract research dollars and public support.



“Because people have focused so much on pollinators like bees and butterflies, we are limited in identifying conservation actions that benefit other insects,” said Grames.



This focus creates a loop. “Bees are agriculturally important and people care about them. So there is a lot of research priority towards funding research on bees. So you get this kind of feedback: if you prioritize research on bees, you learn more about bees," said Halsch.



Meanwhile, countless other insects remain poorly understood and unprotected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-towards-a-broader-conservation-vision">Towards a broader conservation vision</h2>



Focusing on well-known species risks missing the bigger picture. The vast majority of insects aren’t pollinators. Many play roles in soil health, pest control, and nutrient cycling. Ignoring them puts entire ecosystems at risk.



“One of the important points we're trying to make in the paper is that conservation actions overly biased towards certain insects or certain stressors will likely be negative for many other insects,” said Halsch. 



“If we focus too much on bees and butterflies and their conservation, we will miss a lot of other species, most of them in fact.”



The way forward, the researchers argue, is to adopt broader, more inclusive strategies. This means managing not just individual drivers, but their connections. It requires recognizing unseen threats and correcting biases in funding and focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crisis-of-disappearing-insects">The crisis of disappearing insects</h2>



Insects don’t inspire awe like whales or wolves. But their absence would mark the collapse of ecological foundations. This new research urges us to look beyond the familiar, to notice what the data - and our eyes - often miss.



By weaving together 3,000 hypotheses into a single map, the Binghamton team has made one thing clear: insect decline is a many-headed crisis. 



Addressing this issue of disappearing insects will take more than targeted fixes. It will take a shift in how we view the smallest lives on Earth - and how much we’re willing to do to protect them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf034/8115312?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>.



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Insects are still disappearing - and there are hundreds of reasons why

Step outside on a warm summer evening, and you’ll likely...

Chimpanzees,Couple,Sharing,Fruit

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a new discovery may be rewriting what we know about the social lives of our primate cousins. A team of researchers, led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, has documented a rare behavior: wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> eating and sharing fermented fruit that contains alcohol.



The finding, captured using motion-activated cameras, offers intriguing evidence that chimpanzees may not only consume ethanol naturally found in fruits but do so in a way that strengthens their social bonds. This echoes human traditions of sharing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drunk-animals-may-explain-humans-love-of-alcohol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol</a> during communal feasts.



“For humans, we know that drinking alcohol leads to a release of dopamine and endorphins, and resulting feelings of happiness and relaxation,” said lead author Anna Bowland, from the Center for Ecology and Conservation at Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“We also know that sharing alcohol - including through traditions such as feasting - helps to form and strengthen social bonds. So - now we know that wild chimpanzees are eating and sharing ethanolic fruits - the question is: could they be getting similar benefits?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-behavior-caught-in-the-act">Chimpanzee behavior: Caught in the act</h2>



The footage showed chimpanzees engaging with large, fibrous African breadfruit that had begun to ferment, naturally developing ethanol levels. Across ten recorded instances, chimps of various ages and sexes were seen actively sharing the fruit, sometimes ignoring larger, unfermented pieces in favor of smaller, fermented ones.



Two adult females, Chip and Até, opted for a ripe, alcoholic piece over a more substantial one. In another case, adult males Mandjambé and Gary approached a breadfruit with aggressive posturing, before Mandjambé laid claim to a piece. Though the initial interactions were tense, others nearby, including Bobby, also joined in and sampled the fruit.



The alcohol content of the fruit, measured at up to 0.61% alcohol by volume (ABV), is relatively low - roughly comparable to a light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-were-drinking-beer-in-china-over-10000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beer</a>. But as chimpanzees consume large amounts of fruit daily, the cumulative intake could be significant.



“They can feed on kilograms of the stuff every day. It’s probably analogous to us sipping on a light beer,” said senior author Kimberley Hockings, a lecturer at the University of Exeter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-sharing-alcoholic-fruit">Chimpanzees sharing alcoholic fruit</h2>



This isn’t the first time scientists have observed chimpanzees consuming alcohol. In 2015, Hockings and her colleagues published research showing that chimps in West Africa had learned to steal palm sap from human containers - sap that had undergone natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brewing-beer-in-space-the-future-of-fermentation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fermentation</a>. 



Some chimps even appeared tipsy afterward, delaying nest-building and displaying mischievous behavior. However, in the latest observations, there’s no evidence that the chimps reached a level of inebriation. 



The researchers note that becoming visibly drunk would likely impair a wild chimpanzee’s ability to survive, making such behavior evolutionarily disadvantageous. Still, the attraction to fermented fruits raises fascinating questions about cognition, behavior, and the potential benefits of mild alcohol consumption.



“Chimps don’t share food all the time, so this behavior with fermented fruit might be important,” said Hockings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-feasting-traditions">Fruit feasting traditions</h2>



The study explores the idea that our own traditions of communal eating and drinking may have ancient evolutionary roots. The researchers propose that the behavior seen in chimpanzees today could represent an early form of “feasting.”



“We need to find out more about whether they deliberately seek out ethanolic fruits and how they metabolise it, but this behavior could be the early evolutionary stages of feasting,” Hockings said. “If so, it suggests the human tradition of feasting may have its origins deep in our evolutionary history.”



The notion that humans aren’t alone in their penchant for alcohol isn’t entirely new. Biologists have speculated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> may have been drawn to fermented fruits both for their energy content and their intoxicating effects.



Recent genetic evidence supports this, revealing a molecular adaptation in the common ancestor of African apes that improved ethanol metabolism. Such adaptations may have allowed ancient species, including humans and chimpanzees, to safely consume small amounts of alcohol as part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-chimpanzees-seek-out-alcoholic-fruit">Do chimpanzees seek out alcoholic fruit?</h2>



Though the dataset is small - just 10 filmed instances - the findings open the door to a new area of primate research. 



Future studies may explore whether chimpanzees intentionally seek out fermented fruits, how their digestive systems process ethanol, and whether such behavior is widespread or localized to specific populations.



Hockings believes that more discoveries may be just around the corner. The number of observations was small but they could lead to an explosion of research into the topic, she argued.



At the very least, the study offers a glimpse into the social dynamics of chimpanzees and the complex behaviors they exhibit - ones that may not be so different from our own. 



Thus, perhaps chimpanzees feasting on alcoholic fruit provide a mirror to the earliest roots of human sociability - bonding over a shared snack and, possibly, a mild buzz.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00281-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Chimpanzees share alcoholic fruit to increase social bonding

In the forested cliffs of Guinea-Bissau’s Cantanhez National Park, a...

Nature can sometimes pull off the most amazing returns. A prime example is the Omiltemi cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus insonus), which recently reappeared in Mexico after staying out of official sight for over 120 years.



Scientists once believed this humble creature had vanished for good, especially since it was last formally <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/94450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> in 1904 and not observed again. Many people even doubted it was distinct from other rabbits until fresh evidence turned that skepticism around.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rabbits-that-are-difficult-to-track">Rabbits that are difficult to track</h2>



This comeback story is credited to ecologist José Alberto Almazán-Catalán, president of Instituto para el Manejo y Conservación de la Biodiversidad (<a href="https://www.inmacob.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INMACOB</a>). He led a five-year expedition that captured irrefutable images in the rugged forests of southwestern Mexico.



These large rabbits belong to the order lagomorpha, a group that includes hares and pikas. Their habitat in the <a href="https://lacgeo.com/sierra-madre-del-sur-mexico" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sierra Madre del Sur</a> mountains, a range in southwestern Mexico, has made them difficult to track.



"Just knowing that it had been 100 years, and no other scientist had seen a live [Omiltemi] rabbit is incredible,” said Almazán-Catalán. He noted that he initially struggled to confirm whether the rabbit was truly out there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-local-knowledge">Unraveling local knowledge</h2>



Local residents had whispered about a darker-tailed rabbit for decades, yet outside experts wrote off these reports as confusion with common cottontails. 



Community members eventually presented fresh carcasses from recent hunts, prompting scientists to reassess their assumptions.



"It's totally different from the regular cottontail, and I was completely amazed and very happy to have had that opportunity to see one,” said Almazán-Catalán. Researchers used these local leads to decide where to place their cameras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-rabbit-disappeared-for-so-long">Why the rabbit disappeared for so long</h2>



The Omiltemi cottontail’s long absence wasn’t entirely due to its rarity. It has a very small distributional range, restricted to the cloud forests on this particular range of mountains. 



These conifer forests are tough to access and haven’t been a high priority for past scientific surveys. Political instability, limited funding, and rugged terrain made the region one of the least studied biodiversity zones in Mexico.



Adding to the confusion, the subtle physical differences between the Omiltemi rabbit and other common species led to years of misidentification. Many scientists assumed that sightings involved the more widespread cottontail types. Without clear photos or fresh specimens, no one could confirm its survival - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-a-lost-rabbit">The search for a lost rabbit</h2>



Scientists placed camera traps, motion-activated devices that record images when animals pass by, in select conifer forests. These tactics verified that Omiltemi cottontails still live among the pines and firs at high elevations.



It turns out that the Omiltemi cottontail rabbit lacks the fluffy white tail that many associate with bunnies. Its short, black tail and compact frame clearly set it apart from other species in the region.



"This search was full of unexpected turns and employed everything from interviews to drones to find this little rabbit,” said Christina Biggs, lost species officer for Re:wild. She applauded the meticulous approach that kept the team on track despite many hurdles.



"Eighty percent of the objectives of this project have been achieved,” said Almazán. Additional surveys will be needed to uncover the breeding patterns and overall population dynamics of this elusive animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-conservation">Implications for future conservation</h2>



Local community members are amenable to adjusting hunting practices if research shows a threat to rabbit populations. Their willingness to collaborate might become the key to safeguarding a species that many had already dismissed.



Protecting this rabbit goes beyond preserving a single species. It also helps maintain the ecological web in these highland forests by keeping predator-prey relationships and soil quality in balance.



"They are important for seed dispersal. They are the base of the food chain for predators such as snakes, owls, tigrillos, ocelots, pumas, and coyotes," said Almazán.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-significant-efforts">Recognizing significant efforts</h2>



"We applaud these tenacious and comprehensive efforts as they provide crucial updates for our partner IUCN Red List assessors to better make recommendations for species survival," said Biggs. Her perspective emphasizes the value of accurate data in shaping future wildlife policies.



Experts believe that community awareness will play a crucial role in preventing any repeat disappearance. Clear guidance and ongoing research will help ensure that these rare rabbits remain firmly on the map.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-project-to-find-missing-animals">Global project to find missing animals</h2>



The rediscovery of the Omiltemi rabbit wasn’t just a local win - it was part of a broader mission. 



The effort was guided by <a href="https://www.rewild.org/press/hallado-saltando-por-una-sierra-en-mexico-cientificos-redescubren-especie-de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Re:wild’s Search for Lost Species</a>, a global project that is focused on finding animals that haven't been officially documented in over a decade. The Omiltemi cottontail is now the 13th species brought back into scientific awareness through this initiative.



Support from international conservationists, database tools, and remote monitoring technology made the search possible. By combining satellite data, community interviews, and drone flights, researchers were able to map out promising habitats in ways that weren't feasible even a few decades ago.



Information for this article comes from a Re:wild <a href="https://www.rewild.org/press/found-small-enigmatic-rabbit-with-black-tail-lost-to-science-for-more-than">press release</a>.



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Omiltemi rabbit comes back to life after 120 years without a trace

Nature can sometimes pull off the most amazing returns. A...

species in Aiptasiidae

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