A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Life in orbit has always intrigued scientists, but few expected to find a microbe that had never been seen on Earth. A bacterium named niallia tiangongensis has popped up aboard China’s Tiangong station, sparking curiosity and concern.



The new species was identified by Dr. Junxia Yuan, from the <a href="https://www.cast.cn/3g/english/channel/wid/1823" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shenzhou Space Biotechnology Group</a> in Beijing, following detailed genetic and biochemical tests. 



Early research suggests that this tiny organism is well suited to the environment hundreds of miles above Earth’s surface and might offer fresh perspectives on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-have-become-immune-to-radiation-and-live-in-microwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> adapt to low gravity and high radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-space-bacteria-was-discovered">How the space bacteria was discovered</h2>



Space stations host people, plants, and countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enough-water-to-fill-trillions-of-earths-oceans-found-circling-black-hole-quasar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>. Many come from crew members or cargo, so it can be tough to figure out if a microbe has simply stowed away or developed new traits during the mission.



This odd finding has prompted more investigation into whether the microbe was originally part of Earth’s enormous microbial pool. Experts say that the next step is to confirm if it acquired extra survival skills once exposed to orbital conditions.



There’s a lot of interest in how microorganisms behave when contained in a sealed cabin with limited resources. Crew members took swab samples back in May 2023 for the China Space Station Habitation Area Microbiome Program (CHAMP). 



Scientists hope these samples will explain how bacteria adjust to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-unexpected-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> and whether such shifts could pose hazards in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-traits-help-the-bacteria-survive">Strange traits help the bacteria survive </h2>



The microbe is microscopic and rod-shaped, but that’s not the only special quality it has. The bacteria appears to form spores, which are resilient structures known to help some organisms get through harsh conditions. "This aids their survival in the space environment,” wrote the authors of the study.



According to the researchers, the bacteria also breaks down gelatin in a unique way, which might be critical in nutrient-poor environments.



Experts looking at microbial behavior on crewed space stations have examined how certain species can form <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2732559/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofilms</a>. These structures can make the bacteria more resistant to stress.



One NASA-led <a href="https://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-015-0116-3">study</a> on the International Space Station showed how microbes sometimes endure high radiation levels in orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-bacteria-may-affect-astronaut-health">Space bacteria may affect astronaut health</h2>



Space travelers already face risks from radiation, microgravity-induced health problems, and psychological stress. The presence of new microbes with uncertain health implications adds another layer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-microbiome-health-is-crucial-to-future-space-exploration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complexity</a>.



Some strains might be harmless, but scientists worry about infections if a species learns to thrive in low-gravity settings. Future missions to the Moon or Mars could last for months or even years, so it’s crucial to understand any microbial surprises that might appear along the way.



Investigations into the microbe’s genetic profile suggest it is akin to a known bacterium called <a href="https://microbe-canvas.com/Bacteria/gram-positive-rods/cells-with-spores/facultative-anaerobic-1/lecithinase-negative/bacillus-circulans.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">niallia circulans</a>, which can cause sepsis in immunocompromised individuals. It remains unclear whether the variant on Tiangong carries the same risks.



Researchers plan to compare genetic data, growth patterns, and resilience to radiation in both microbes. The hope is to figure out if the station-based bacterium has gained additional traits that make it more threatening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-effects-on-spacecraft-systems">Potential effects on spacecraft systems</h2>



Past missions have shown that bacteria on station surfaces can hinder machinery. Equipment may be exposed to microbial films that could degrade important materials and introduce safety issues.



Maintaining reliable cleaning processes becomes essential in confined habitats. If this new microbe proves challenging to remove, engineers might have to rethink how surfaces and components are protected.



Experts say consistent surveillance and swift responses are vital. Identifying and isolating unfamiliar species prevents damage and reduces any potential health hazards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-for-upcoming-missions">Questions for upcoming missions</h2>



No one is sure if niallia tiangongensis emerged spontaneously in space or hitchhiked from Earth. The bacteria's robust nature suggests it might survive more than just a few weeks in orbit.



This uncertainty highlights how little we know about the huge array of microorganisms around us. Tens of thousands of bacterial species have been cataloged, but billions more remain undiscovered.



Scientists also wonder what happens when humans travel beyond low-Earth orbit. If longer missions encounter microbes that adapt quickly, protocols for disinfection and waste management will need serious upgrades.



The next generation of space explorers might deal with concerns involving multiple resistant bacteria. Studies like this aim to stay ahead of potential surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Investigations plan to zero in on the bacterium’s stress response and its ability to repair radiation damage. One part of the research covers how certain proteins may help these cells handle oxidative challenges.



Researchers are also analyzing how the bacterium’s unique gelatin-hydrolyzing properties could be harnessed. If this trait has commercial applications, there might be spinoffs for biotechnology here on Earth.



“It is still too early to determine whether the space bacterium poses any danger to taikonauts aboard Tiangong,” stated the original press release. Its full significance will likely become clearer when scientists complete further assessments of its virulence.



Nonetheless, space agencies around the globe will keep watching such developments. The safety of astronauts and station hardware is on the line.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-more-strange-bacteria-in-space">Finding more strange bacteria in space</h2>



Experts predict more unusual microbes turning up as space exploration advances. Closed-loop living quarters and reliance on limited resources create a setting where bacteria can mutate in unexpected ways.



Efforts like CHAMP are part of a broader plan to gather data on microbial diversity during missions. Observing these organisms throughout long flights should clarify how they adapt and evolve.



Better detection tools and advanced gene sequencing help scientists act quickly once a newcomer is spotted. Quick responses might prevent problems if the microbe turns out to be invasive or harmful.



For now, the story of niallia tiangongensis stands as a reminder that space remains full of puzzles. The research is still unfolding, and more surprises may lie ahead.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.006693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</a>.



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Mysterious bacteria found on Chinese space station has never been seen before

Life in orbit has always intrigued scientists, but few expected...

The woolly mammoth once trudged across what is now Colorado, its shaggy bulk casting long shadows on windswept steppe. Saber-toothed cats prowled the edges, and herds of giant bison kicked up dust that settled on early human camps. 



These outsized creatures, known collectively as megafauna, vanished roughly 13,000 years ago, leaving researchers with a puzzle and a patchwork of broken bones.



The mystery of their disappearance still drives debates at conferences and around lab benches. After all, settling whether people, climate, disease, or some mix of forces pushed the giants over the edge may refine our understanding of extinction in a warming world.



Scientists at the Smithsonian <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Natural History</a> decided to tackle the problem from a fresh angle - by revisiting the museum’s own drawers.



Now, molecular clues from collagen in old bones are teaching us about the lives, movements, and demise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-americans-relied-on-mammoths-for-food-and-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Age megafauna</a> like mammoths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-forgotten-bone-fragments">Analyzing forgotten bone fragments</h2>



Natural history museums curate millions of bones, but much of the stock never makes it into glass cases. The less glamorous bits - bleached splinters, edge-rounded chips, weather-pocked shards - sit in boxes that smell faintly of old cardboard. 



Many were dug up in Colorado between 1934 and 1981 and later tagged as "unidentifiable." Conventional methods could not assign them to species, genus, or sometimes even family.



That anonymity holds the investigation back. If a chipped tibia could belong to a mammoth or a camel, its position in a layer tells us little about which creature lumbered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">through that campsite</a>. 



Multiply that confusion across thousands of samples, and the result is a grainy timeline that keeps any theory on shaky ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collagen-in-mammoth-bones">Collagen in mammoth bones</h2>



Enter Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry, or <a href="https://iaas.gea.mpg.de/2021/07/27/zooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooMS</a>. The technique treats collagen - the tough protein that lingers in bone long after DNA degrades - as a kind of barcode. 



By clipping a pea-sized sample, dissolving it in acid, and running the solution through a mass spectrometer, researchers read the unique pattern of collagen fragments that distinguishes bison from mammoth, camel, or ground sloth. 



Unlike ancient-DNA sequencing, ZooMS works on heavily weathered specimens and leaves only a light scar.



The whole procedure takes hours, not weeks, and costs a fraction of full genomic workups. 



That speed means entire boxes of fragments can be run through the pipeline, turning a hodgepodge of "bone" into a spreadsheet of animal names ready for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological analysis</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bits-of-collagen-on-mammoth-ribs">Bits of collagen on mammoth ribs</h2>



The Smithsonian team sampled material from five late-Pleistocene sites. Some fragments looked hopeless: sun-bleached surfaces, river-rolled edges, even hints of chemical decay. Yet collagen hung on in most of them. 



"A remarkable 80 percent of the bones sampled yielded sufficient collagen for ZooMS identifications," they report. Of those, "Seventy-three percent could be identified to genus level." 



The method flagged Bison, Mammuthus, Camelidae, and a probable mastodon among the scraps. Tiny clues, big payoff.



Those identifications already sharpen maps of ancient ranges. A camelid shard in a layer dated to 11,500 years ago suggests the lanky browsers survived later in the Rockies than some models predict. 



Collagen found on a mammoth rib beside early human tools hints at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting or scavenging</a> rather than harmless coexistence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-cracked-bones-hold-big-clues">Tiny cracked bones hold big clues</h2>



Those microscopic barcodes do more than tidy up a catalog. Knowing exactly which animals turned up at each layer lets archaeologists map when the giants retreated and whether people followed in lockstep. 



If mammoth remains vanish from a site just as spear points appear, that strengthens a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-woolly-rhinoceros-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting hypothesis</a>. 



If camel bones persist well into a warmer interval, that weakens an argument centered on rapid climate swings.



Protein identifications also feed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-climate-shifts-changed-early-human-migration-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a>. By matching dated layers to animal presence, ecologists can test how temperature or vegetation shifts tracked population declines. 



The work acts like a time-lapse film stitched from static photos, revealing whether the megafauna fade-out was an abrupt crash or a slow, uneven ebb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The study underlines the value of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term collection care</a>. Old excavation notes may be scant and storage boxes may sag, but the bones inside still whisper. 



Throwing them out because they look unpromising would erase information we have yet to imagine. 



Museums need stable humidity, proper labeling, and, yes, funding, to keep those whispers audible for future scientists armed with tools we have not yet invented.



There is a broader moral, too: data security is not only digital. 



A chipped mammoth molar cradled in acid-free tissue is a data point that could change the way children learn prehistory. Discard it, and that future chapter of the story is gone for good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zooms-mammoth-fossils-and-collagen">ZooMS, mammoth fossils, and collagen</h2>



Reference libraries for North American species remain thin, so some collagen signatures remain unnamed. 



Expanding those databases could let ZooMS sort <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mastodon from mammoth</a> at a glance, or differentiate ancient camel from its llama cousins. 



Couple that with emerging protein-sequencing techniques and the story of Ice Age extinction may finally gain the clarity of a high-definition photo - one chipped rib at a time.



Museum shelves, once considered quiet archives of yesterday’s digs, are turning into active laboratories. 



The next breakthrough in Paleo-American research may not come from a windswept canyon but from a gray archival box, opened under fluorescent lights and examined with a tool that sees information hidden for millennia.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/mammal-science/articles/10.3389/fmamm.2024.1399358/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers</a>.



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North America was ruled by large mammals 50,000 years ago, now we know why they vanished

The woolly mammoth once trudged across what is now Colorado,...

Antidepressants are commonly associated with improving mood and mental health. But recent research suggests they may also have an unexpected effect: helping the immune system fight cancer.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) found that a class of antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) significantly boost the cancer-fighting abilities of T cells.



In both mouse and human tumor models, SSRIs were shown to suppress tumor growth across multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-linked-to-32-cancer-types-that-could-drive-40-of-cases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">types of cancer</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-serotonin-s-cancer-fighting-role">Serotonin's cancer-fighting role</h2>



“It turns out SSRIs don’t just make our brains happier; they also make our T cells happier - even while they’re fighting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-research-ai-will-change-the-way-we-see-tumors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tumors</a>,” said Dr. Lili Yang, UCLA professor of Microbiology, Immunology &amp; Molecular Genetics. 



“These drugs have been widely and safely used to treat depression for decades, so repurposing them for cancer would be a lot easier than developing an entirely new therapy.”



SSRIs, which include well-known medications like Prozac and Celexa, work by blocking a protein called serotonin transporter (SERT). This action increases levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-dance-of-dopamine-and-serotonin-influences-social-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serotonin</a>, often called the “happiness hormone,” in the brain. However, serotonin also plays a vital role in other bodily functions, including digestion, metabolism, and immune responses.



The team began exploring serotonin’s connection to cancer after noticing that immune cells from tumors had more serotonin-regulating molecules than expected. Their attention turned to an enzyme called MAO-A, which breaks down serotonin and other neurotransmitters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-depression-drugs-to-tumor-fighters">Depression drugs to tumor fighters</h2>



Back in 2021, the team discovered that when T cells detect tumors, they produce MAO-A, which limits their effectiveness. 



In mouse models with melanoma and colon cancer, treating with MAO inhibitors (MAOIs) - another class of antidepressants - improved the T cells’ cancer-fighting abilities.



But MAOIs come with risks. They can cause severe side effects and interact dangerously with certain foods and medications. That concern led the team to explore SERT, a molecule with a simpler role - transporting serotonin.



“Unlike MAO-A, which breaks down multiple neurotransmitters, SERT has one job - to transport serotonin,” explained Dr. Bo Li, assistant researcher at UCLA. “SERT made for an especially attractive target because the drugs that act on it - SSRIs - are widely used with minimal side effects.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antidepressants-tested-on-cancer">Antidepressants tested on cancer</h2>



To test the theory, the researchers used SSRIs in models of melanoma, breast, prostate, colon, and bladder cancer. 



The results were promising. Tumors shrank by more than 50% on average. At the same time, T cells became more efficient at killing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-each-day-at-any-speed-lowers-the-risk-of-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a>.



“SSRIs made the killer T cells happier in the otherwise oppressive tumor environment by increasing their access to serotonin signals, reinvigorating them to fight and kill cancer cells,” Yang said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mood-drugs-aid-immunotherapy">Mood drugs aid immunotherapy</h2>



The study didn’t stop there. The researchers also wanted to see if SSRIs could improve the effects of existing cancer treatments. 



The experts combined an SSRI with an immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy -specifically, an anti-PD-1 antibody. ICB therapies remove the brakes from immune cells, helping them target tumors more aggressively.



The combination had dramatic results. Tumor size was significantly reduced in all test cases, and some mice went into complete remission.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Immune</a> checkpoint blockades are effective in fewer than 25% of patients,” said James Elsten-Brown, a researcher and PhD student at UCLA. “If a safe, widely available drug like an SSRI could make these therapies more effective, it would be hugely impactful.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-antidepressant-side-benefit">Rethinking antidepressant side benefit</h2>



The researchers now plan to study cancer patients who are already taking SSRIs, especially those undergoing ICB therapy. The goal is to determine whether these patients show improved outcomes.



“Since around 20% of cancer patients take antidepressants - most commonly SSRIs - we see a unique opportunity to explore how these drugs might improve cancer outcomes,” Yang said. “Our goal is to design a clinical trial to compare treatment outcomes between cancer patients who take these medications and those who do not.”



This approach could also lower the cost and speed up the development of cancer treatments. Because SSRIs are already FDA-approved, they don’t need the same rigorous testing as new drugs.



“Studies estimate the bench-to-bedside pipeline for new cancer therapies costs an average of $1.5 billion,” Yang added. “When you compare this to the estimated $300 million cost to repurpose FDA-approved drugs, it’s clear why this approach has so much potential.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00502-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Antidepressants may help the immune system fight cancer

Antidepressants are commonly associated with improving mood and mental health....

Adolescence is often called the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.3177" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bridge</a> between childhood and adulthood. It can involve mood swings, growing independence, and new pressures that push people to question who they are becoming.



Researchers have been zeroing in on changes in the brain between ages 11 and 25 to find out how these years shape patterns of choice. 



Fresh insights suggest that certain neural circuits shift to manage temptations, rewards, and impulses in ways that can have lifelong effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clarity-and-brain-changes">Clarity and brain changes</h2>



This effort is led by <a href="https://cablab.umn.edu/sam-klein" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Samuel Klein</a>, a researcher at the University of Minnesota who studies how our minds reorganize during youth. 



He proposes that changes in communication among brain regions may determine how we control urges and plan our next moves.



Experts say <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/neuro.09.006.2010/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reward processing</a> becomes more reactive in the teenage years, partly because areas that generate excitement grow busier. 



If those pleasure signals overshadow caution, it can lead to impulsive decisions that feel good in the moment but cause trouble later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-one-path-over-another">Choosing one path over another</h2>



As these years go by, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-mapping-research-mouse-neurons-revolutionary-advance/">brain</a> zones handling executive function, which includes self-control, planning, and flexible thinking, start to change and balance out that chase for excitement. 



Young people gradually learn to consider potential outcomes, so their judgments become more deliberate and less driven by spur-of-the-moment desires.



“We demonstrated that the ventral and dorsal aspects of the striatum exhibit distinct age-related changes, which predicted improvements in the development of reward-related decision-making and executive function,” said Klein. 



This observation suggests that even if teens lean toward thrills, their maturing networks help them weigh the upsides and downsides more accurately over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connections-that-shape-mental-health">Connections that shape mental health</h2>



Specialists note that certain <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2513" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychiatric disorders</a> often appear in adolescence, hinting at a link between neurodevelopment and emotional regulation. 



If the wiring that balances rewards and control grows out of sync, it might open the door to intense mood swings or anxiety.



Understanding these details can help professionals design better supports before harmful patterns grow deeper. 



Proactive methods, like teaching mindfulness or structured decision-making, can step in when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-is-constantly-making-predictions-about-the-world-and-your-place-in-reality/">brain’s</a> development briefly favors short-term gain over careful thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-frontostriatal-links">Adapting frontostriatal links</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4729321/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fronto-striatal circuits</a> tie portions of the frontal lobes with the striatum, which interprets rewards and emotions. 



By the mid-twenties, these pathways often settle into a more stable state that blends curiosity with sensible control.



Some researchers believe that when fronto-striatal connections develop at different rates, it can drive risky habits in certain adolescents and overly cautious behavior in others. 



Identifying these patterns might open the door to guidance that respects a person’s unique pace of growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here</h2>



“The specific networks that promote reward versus behavioral control differentiate throughout adolescence, which is a novel discovery,” stated <a href="https://cla.umn.edu/about/directory/profile/lucia003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monica Luciana</a>, a co-investigator at the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a>. 



She sees this knowledge as a chance for caregivers and educators to offer timely advice on coping strategies that encourage thoughtful decision-making.



Pinpointing how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-gut-brain-communication-affect-emotional-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain communication</a> evolves may also help professionals predict who might need extra resources. 



Some teens handle stress well, while others struggle with impulsivity or negative moods, so early insights can make a difference in redirecting behavior.



Researchers hope these findings will shape community programs, family discussions, and clinical strategies. 



The more we recognize the built-in changes of adolescence, the more we can assist young people on their path to adulthood.



These emerging ideas remind us that growing up is not just about hitting milestones. It is also about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/researchers-successfully-restore-sugar-in-the-brains-sweet-layer-and-recover-memory/">brain</a> learning to juggle excitement and caution in a way that ultimately benefits health and happiness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-changes-and-adolescence">Brain changes and adolescence</h2>



Schools might incorporate lessons that teach sensible risk assessment. Parents can also promote open conversations, so teens learn to voice concerns instead of giving in to peer pressure or emotional impulses.



Mental health professionals could tailor approaches based on whether someone leans more toward impulsivity or caution. 



By mapping these developmental markers, interventions can be more personalized and effective. These discoveries give us a more precise look at why so many big shifts happen between ages 11 and 25. 



The study is published in <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/45/15/e1233232025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JNeurosci</a>.



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Big changes happen in the brain between the ages of 11 and 25, they dramatically influence our decisions

Adolescence is often called the bridge between childhood and adulthood....

In the wild heart of Yosemite National Park, nights once echoed with the loud, unrelenting calls of American bullfrogs. Their voices were more than just noise. They were a sign of imbalance, an invasive species overpowering native life. 



These frogs, introduced decades ago, spread widely and disrupted delicate ecosystems. Hidden beneath their croaks was a much quieter story: the disappearance of California’s only native freshwater turtle.



The northwestern pond turtle, a shy and ancient species, once thrived in these waters. But it began to vanish silently. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Ph.D. candidate Sidney Woodruff, set out to understand why. 



The researchers uncovered a powerful link between the invasive frogs and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a> decline. What followed was a years-long effort to remove the intruders and give the native species room to breathe again.



“At night, you could look out over the pond and see a constellation of eyes blinking back at you,” said Woodruff. “Their honking noise is iconic, and it drowns out native species’ calls.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-turtles-declined-as-bullfrogs-invaded">Native turtles declined as bullfrogs invaded</h2>



The northwestern pond turtle is one of two subspecies of the western pond turtle. The other, the southwestern pond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a>, shares similar challenges. 



Together, they represent the only native freshwater turtles in California. Historically, these turtles inhabited areas from Baja California to Washington state. But over the last century, they have lost more than half their habitat.



The decline is not random. It correlates closely with the introduction of American bullfrogs, voracious predators native to the eastern United States.



Introduced across the West in the 20th century, often as food or fishing bait, bullfrogs adapted quickly. They preyed on insects, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, small birds, rodents, and critically, young turtles.



“One reason American bullfrogs are among the top worst globally introduced pests is because they eat everything - anything that fits into their mouth,” said Brian Todd, senior author and UC Davis professor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bullfrogs-wiped-out-young-turtles">Bullfrogs wiped out young turtles </h2>



To investigate the turtles’ disappearance, the researchers focused on four pond sites in Yosemite from 2016 to 2022.



Two sites hosted bullfrogs. Two did not. What they found was striking: where bullfrogs thrived, turtle populations were older and significantly larger, while young turtles were almost entirely absent.



Scientists captured 12,317 bullfrogs from one site and 4,067 from another. Inside their stomachs, they discovered a disturbing menu. They found six young pond turtles, newts, garter snakes, birds, rodents, and dozens of frogs. Hatchlings were the most common turtle victims.



Bullfrogs, being gape-limited predators, cannot eat adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-have-genomes-unlike-any-other-animal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a>. But hatchlings and juveniles, with shells as small as 25 mm, remained at risk for years. Their slow growth and high hatchling mortality made them especially vulnerable. 



This prolonged pressure explained the eerie silence of turtle recruitment in bullfrog territories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-coexistence">The cost of coexistence</h2>



Even in sites where adult turtles persisted, their populations skewed older and top-heavy. Researchers noted that young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> simply did not survive long enough to join the population. Their absence indicated a collapsing system.



In bullfrog-infested areas, adult turtles were 26 to 36 percent longer and 75 to 97 percent heavier than their counterparts elsewhere. These metrics painted a picture of isolated, aging groups. The researchers referred to this as the “perception of persistence” where adults linger for decades while juveniles quietly disappear.



Without intervention, such populations face local extinction. Though they seem stable, their future hinges on the survival of the next generation. That generation, in bullfrog-occupied waters, never arrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-returned-after-bullfrog-removal">Turtles returned after bullfrog removal</h2>



The team’s multi-year effort to remove bullfrogs reached its peak between 2017 and 2019. By 2019, the team had achieved near-complete eradication at the two bullfrog-present sites. And then, something changed. They began to see young turtles again.



“We captured the first juvenile turtles at bullfrog present sites only after reaching near complete bullfrog eradication in 2019,” noted the researchers. These were not the doomed hatchlings found in stomachs. They were alive, active, and growing. Their presence was a hopeful sign that turtle recruitment had resumed.



The absence of bullfrogs did not just benefit turtles. Other native species began to reappear. Salamanders, native frogs, and aquatic insects became visible and audible again.



“As bullfrog presence declined, we started to hear other native frogs call and see native salamanders walking around,” said Woodruff. “It’s nice to be able to go back to these sites and hear a chorus of native frogs calling again that previously would not have been heard.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-removing-bullfrogs">Challenges of removing bullfrogs</h2>



Removing invasive species is never easy. It demands time, manpower, and patience. In this case, the work included day and night field efforts, capturing frogs with nets, spears, and sometimes even pellet rifles. Egg masses were collected by hand. Adult frogs were humanely euthanized under approved protocols.



Despite logistical hurdles - including remote locations, changing weather, and the COVID-19 pandemic - the team remained committed.



Their removal of more than 16,000 bullfrogs represents one of the largest such efforts documented in a national park setting. The biomass removed, over 300 kilograms, was immense and redirected energy back into native food webs.



At one site, over 6,000 bullfrogs were removed in a single year. Compared to similar efforts across North America, Yosemite’s project stands out not only in scale but in success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-what-was-lost">Rebuilding what was lost</h2>



Western pond turtles have long lifespans and low reproductive rates. They lay just a few eggs each year. Hatchlings face predation from fish, mammals, and other reptiles. Add bullfrogs to the mix, and very few survive to adulthood.



This makes each successful recruitment, each young turtle, deeply significant. It signals not only a reduction in predation but also the possibility of future generations. 



The data show clear demographic differences. At bullfrog-free sites, juvenile turtles made up 19 to 35 percent of captures. At bullfrog sites, there were virtually none before 2020.



Their recovery will not be instant. But the return of young turtles proves that the system, once unbalanced, is stabilizing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-beyond-yosemite">Lessons beyond Yosemite</h2>



The implications go far beyond this one park. Bullfrogs have been introduced across the globe. Their impact on freshwater systems, especially turtles, frogs, and salamanders, is widespread and severe. 



The Yosemite project shows that where reinvasion risk is low, sustained removal can work.



“Our study shows the potential benefit of reversing species declines and restoring freshwater ecosystems,” concluded the researchers.



Other efforts, like reintroducing California red-legged frogs after bullfrog removal, further support this strategy. Yosemite’s experience can guide similar actions elsewhere and offer hope for beleaguered native species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quiet-victories-and-new-beginnings">Quiet victories and new beginnings</h2>



Thanks to years of effort, the ponds of Yosemite now sing a different song. Bullfrogs no longer dominate the soundscape. In their place are the quiet rustlings and chirps of species that belong.



“All across the state we have one native freshwater turtle, and it’s the western pond turtle,” said Todd. “If it disappears, we have no other freshwater turtles that are supposed to be here. It’s part of our natural heritage.”



The battle is not over, but it is no longer silent. With vigilance and care, the ripples of this recovery can spread beyond Yosemite and bring back what was nearly lost.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725001272?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



Image Credit: UC Davis



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Scientists save native turtles by removing thousands of bullfrogs

In the wild heart of Yosemite National Park, nights once...

We often picture plastic pollution floating in oceans or strewn across beaches. But a less visible, more dangerous form of pollution lies beneath us. Agricultural soil, once seen as a safe space for food growth, has become the planet’s largest reservoir of microplastics. 



A recent review from <a href="https://www.murdoch.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Murdoch University</a> reveals that these soils now contain nearly 23 times more microplastics than the oceans.



Unlike the visible bottles and bags we discard, these tiny plastic particles are microscopic and easily overlooked. Yet, they carry with them a chemical complexity that could reshape how we view food, farming and health. 



“These microplastics are turning food-producing land into a plastic sink,” noted PhD candidate Joseph Boctor, who led the study.



This contamination does not stay in the dirt. It travels through roots, into crops, and onto our plates. Without a shift in awareness and policy, the health of humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> may face irreversible harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-in-agricultural-soil">Plastic in agricultural soil </h2>



One of the most disturbing findings from Boctor’s review is that these plastics may contain up to 10,000 different chemical additives. Many of them remain completely unregulated in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-pollution-is-harming-worms-and-bugs-to-an-unknown-degree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural</a> contexts. 



These chemicals are not just inert fillers. They actively interact with the soil, the plants growing in it, and eventually, the people consuming those plants.



Plastic packaging proudly labeled “BPA-free” might provide a false sense of safety. “And BPA-free does not equal risk free,” Boctor clarifies. 



Substitute chemicals like BPF and BPS, often used in place of BPA, have been shown to cause similar or even worse endocrine disruption. These additives interfere with the body’s hormonal balance, which is critical for everything from metabolism to fertility.



Research cited in the review confirms the presence of these compounds in lettuce, wheat and carrot crops. These plastics do not need to be visible to be harmful. They move from the soil into plant tissues, continuing the cycle of contamination that begins in the field and ends in our bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-agricultural-soil-into-food-crops">From agricultural soil into food crops</h2>



The movement of microplastics and nanoplastics into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> is not hypothetical. It is now a documented fact. These particles enter plants through the roots, especially via cracks and pores, or even through a biological process known as endocytosis.



The analysis reveals that some particles can even be absorbed through leaves and move downward into the plant’s root system. This translocation means that no part of the plant is entirely safe from plastic intrusion.



The review gives an example of peanut plants, where microplastics caused a 35 percent reduction in nitrogen uptake. This decline directly affects the plant’s health and its nutritional value.



Besides impacting plant growth, these plastics interfere with key biological processes. They can hinder photosynthesis, slow down water uptake, and create oxidative stress in plant tissues. The result is a silent degradation of crop quality long before harvest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bioplastics-in-soil-may-still-harm-crops">Bioplastics in soil may still harm crops</h2>



In response to rising concerns, some researchers and companies have turned to bioplastics. These are marketed as eco-friendly alternatives that should degrade naturally without harming the environment. But Boctor’s team cautions against blind trust in this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-changing-the-entire-earth-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solution</a>.



The researchers found that not all bioplastics are benign. Some, like PLA and PBAT, still reduce plant growth and disrupt soil microbial communities.



That means even “greener” plastics may contribute to environmental toxicity, just in a different form. This complexity suggests that replacing traditional plastic with any bioplastic is not enough.



Still, Boctor’s team has not abandoned hope. They are developing a more advanced, safe solution through their Smart Sprays Project. This involves a bioplastic-based spray that acts as a water barrier. It helps retain rainwater and reduce evaporation, without harming the soil or plants. 



Most importantly, it can be applied with existing farm equipment, making adoption easier for farmers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agricultural-soil-pollution-is-a-global-issue">Agricultural soil pollution is a global issue</h2>



This is not a regional issue. The review compiles data from over 30 countries. Agricultural soils everywhere from Europe to Asia are affected. 



The study reveals that plastic particle densities range from a few hundred particles per kilogram in rural zones to more than 200,000 particles per kilogram in highly industrialised areas.



This widespread contamination affects not just plant health, but the entire ecosystem beneath the soil. Earthworms exposed to microplastics have shown stunted growth, impaired reproduction, and internal damage. Insects like springtails avoid soil contaminated with plastics and fail to reproduce in those environments.



The long-term effects on biodiversity could be devastating. Microplastics can alter the delicate microbial balance that keeps soil fertile. Once disrupted, this balance is hard to restore. Healthy soil is not just dirt. It is a living system, and it is now under threat from pollution we can barely see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-disrupt-agricultural-soil-chemistry">Plastics disrupt agricultural soil chemistry</h2>



Microplastics alter the very chemistry of soil. They do not decompose like organic matter. Instead, they accumulate. Over time, they interfere with how carbon and nitrogen cycle through the soil.



While some types of microplastics have been shown to increase greenhouse gas emissions like methane and carbon dioxide, others may appear chemically inert. This variability makes the problem harder to study and solve. 



The one clear outcome is that microplastics reduce nitrogen fixation and interrupt the microbial activity responsible for keeping soil fertile.



Plants in plastic-contaminated soil may grow more slowly, absorb fewer nutrients, and yield less food. With nitrogen cycles disrupted, farmers may rely more on synthetic fertilisers, which create another cycle of pollution. This means a degraded soil base, poorer crops, and further contamination. It becomes an unending loop of decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-reach-human-food-and-organs">Plastics reach human food and organs</h2>



Contamination does not stop at the farm gate. Microplastics have been found in nearly every type of food, including fruits, vegetables, meat, milk, and seafood. Apples, according to recent data, can contain as many as 233,000 plastic particles per gram.



Adults may unknowingly ingest more than five grams of plastic every week. That is about the weight of a credit card. And this plastic does not just pass through the body. It stays. Researchers have found plastic particles in the human bloodstream, lungs, heart, semen, placenta, and even arterial plaque.



“This makes the plastic crisis unchecked, and human health exposed,” Boctor said. The scope of contamination is not only widespread but deeply personal. 



What we eat, drink, and breathe is now laced with plastic fragments. These are not just pollutants, they are intruders in our most sensitive biological systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-in-regulation-and-toxicity-testing">Gaps in regulation and toxicity testing</h2>



Boctor’s review exposes glaring regulatory failures. There are no global or national limits for microplastics in agricultural soil or food. Testing is inadequate and often misleading. 



Many laboratory studies use unrealistic plastic concentrations, underestimating the threat in real-world agricultural soil settings.



Toxicity assessments tend to ignore the combined effect of additives and environmental conditions. This piecemeal approach masks the cumulative harm caused by long-term, low-dose exposure to plastic pollution.



Even regions with some regulations fall short. The <a href="https://european-union.europa.eu/index_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Union</a> has taken steps to limit BPA use, but most plastic additives still escape oversight. In the United States, the <a href="https://www.fda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> has not revised BPA guidelines since 2013. In agriculture, the regulatory vacuum is even more severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solutions-for-safe-agricultural-soil">Solutions for safe agricultural soil</h2>



Boctor’s team at the Bioplastics Innovation Hub is not waiting for regulation to catch up. They are working on alternatives designed to break down safely and nourish rather than pollute the soil. But innovation alone will not solve the problem.



“This review highlights the urgent need for coordinated scientific and regulatory efforts,” Joseph said. “Regulators, scientists and industry must collaborate to close the loopholes before plastic pollution further entrenches itself in the global food chain.”



The review is not just a warning. It is a call for immediate, united action. The soil is the foundation of life. We cannot afford to let it become a toxic reservoir. The choices we make now will determine whether future generations inherit fields of nourishment or beds of plastic.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-025-01104-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Sciences Europe</a>.



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Agricultural soil is now the world’s biggest plastic dumping ground

We often picture plastic pollution floating in oceans or strewn...

Holding global warming to the Paris Agreement’s 1.5°C threshold may not be enough to protect Greenland and Antarctic ice locked in place.



A new synthesis finds the “safe” temperature limit for polar ice sheets is lower than previously thought. It’s likely closer to the early 1990s level - about 1°C above pre-industrial levels - rather than the 1.5°C political target.



The analysis comes from an international team led by <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> and including specialists from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> in the United Kingdom and the Universities of <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wisconsin-Madison</a> and <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Amherst</a> in the United States.



The authors drew on satellite data showing current ice loss at 370 billion tons yearly - four times faster than in the 1990s. They compared today’s trends with ancient warm periods and models projecting future ice loss over coming centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-rise-locked-in">Sea-level rise locked in</h2>



Taken together, the lines of evidence suggest that stabilizing at 1.5°C would still initiate several meters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a> over the coming centuries as air and ocean temperatures continue to destabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-putting-many-unique-ecosystems-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a>.



Greenland and Antarctica jointly store enough frozen water to lift global seas by almost 65 meters. Even partial ice loss threatens 230 million people living within one meter of today’s shoreline in coastal cities and island nations.



“There is a growing body of evidence that 1.5°C is too high for the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica,” said lead author Chris Stokes, a professor at Durham University.



“We’ve known for a long time that some sea-level rise is inevitable over the next few decades to centuries, but recent observations of ice sheet loss are alarming, even under current climate conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-degree-matters-for-ice">Every degree matters for ice</h2>



The study stresses that halting warming sooner rather than later will make it easier to return to safer conditions.



“Limiting warming to 1.5°C would be a major achievement and this should absolutely be our focus,” Stokes said. Even if targets hold, sea levels could still rise 1 cm yearly - posing major challenges for today’s younger generations. 



“We are not necessarily saying that all is lost at 1.5°C, but we are saying that every fraction of a degree really matters for the ice sheets - and the sooner we can halt the warming the better, because this makes it far easier to return to safer levels further down the line,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-past">Lessons from the past</h2>



Paleoclimate archives show that the planet’s polar ice sheets were healthier only a few decades ago. “Put another way, and perhaps it is a reason for hope, we only have to go back to the early 1990s to find a time when the ice sheets looked far healthier,” Stokes noted.



At that time, global temperatures were around 1°C above pre-industrial levels. Atmospheric carbon dioxide stood near 350 ppm, a level many scientists consider safer than today’s 424 ppm.



“Evidence recovered from past warm periods suggests that several meters of sea-level rise – or more – can be expected when global mean temperature reaches 1.5°C or higher," said co-author Andrea Dutton, a geoscientist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 



She also pointed out that the longer warm temperatures persist, the greater the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speed-of-greenland-ice-melt-confirmed-to-be-rapidly-increasing-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice melt</a> and resulting sea-level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-sheet-loss-outpaces-models">Ice sheet loss outpaces models</h2>



For decades, computer models struggled to reproduce the rapid ice-sheet losses now captured by satellites.



“Recent satellite-based observations of ice-sheet mass loss have been a huge wake-up call,” said co-author Jonathan Bamber from the University of Bristol.



Models haven’t captured the rapid polar ice sheet changes seen in real-world observations over the past 30 years.



“It is important to stress that these accelerating changes in the ice sheets and their contributions to sea level should be considered permanent on multi-generational timescales," said senior author Robert DeConto, a professor of geosciences at UMass Amherst.



"Even if the Earth returns to its pre-industrial temperature, it will still take hundreds to perhaps thousands of years for the ice sheets to recover."



If too much ice melts, sea-level rise could become irreversible for millennia - underscoring the urgent need to limit global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-climate-questions-remain">Urgent climate questions remain</h2>



The authors stress that policymakers must grapple with the possibility that the Paris ceiling may be insufficient to secure coastlines. They call for more precise research to pin down a truly safe threshold, likely nearer 1°C, and urge rapid emission cuts that can eventually pull temperatures back below today’s level.



Ambassador Carlos Fuller of Belize is a veteran climate negotiator for a country already retreating from rising seas. 



“Findings such as these only sharpen the need to remain within the 1.5°C Paris Agreement limit, or as close as possible, so we can return to lower temperatures and protect our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-coastal-cities-around-the-world-could-disappear-under-rising-seas-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal cities</a>,” said Fuller.



The study’s central message is stark yet actionable. Every tenth of a degree averted this century could spare future generations from centimeters - or meters - of relentless sea-level rise.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02299-w">Nature </a><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02299-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications: Earth and Environment</a>.



Image Credit: Richard Jones



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Earth's polar ice sheets can't withstand 1.5°C warming target

Holding global warming to the Paris Agreement’s 1.5°C threshold may...

What if the secret to eating less wasn’t portion control or calorie counting, but chili peppers? For centuries, spice has added excitement to meals. Now, it may also offer a simple way to manage how much you eat. 



New research from <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> shows that a small boost in spiciness can lead to reduced calorie intake without affecting how much you enjoy your food.



Eating behaviors are influenced by many things - taste, texture, aroma, and even how fast you chew. Most strategies aimed at reducing food intake focus on controlling portions or changing food composition. But this study highlights a different path: tweaking oral burn. 



That warm, tingly sensation from capsaicin - the compound in chili peppers - might be doing more than just making your tongue tingle.



Researchers conducted three controlled experiments to understand if chili heat could reduce energy intake. Their findings were clear: a little heat slows you down and helps you <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plastic-food-packaging-contains-9936-harmful-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eat</a> less.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spicy-food-slows-eating">Spicy food slows eating</h2>



Paige Cunningham, a postdoctoral researcher at Penn State who led the study, said that her team suspected that making a meal spicier might slow people down.



"We thought, let's test, under controlled experimental conditions in the lab, if adding a small amount of spice, but not so much that the meal is inedible, will make people eat slower and therefore eat less,” explained Cunningham.



The research team designed three experiments using two familiar meals: beef chili and chicken tikka masala. Each participant consumed both a mild and a spicy version of the meal across different visits. 



The key manipulation involved adjusting the ratio of hot to sweet paprika while keeping everything else - flavor, texture, macronutrients - constant. Every session was recorded to track bite size, eating rate, meal duration, and more.



They found that adding spice didn’t make the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-food-day-fighting-global-hunger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meal</a> unpleasant. Instead, it changed how people ate. The spicy meals were consumed more slowly. Eating rate dropped, and participants took fewer bites per minute. Interestingly, participants still liked the spicy meals just as much.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spicy-beef-and-tikka-led-to-eating-less-food">Spicy beef and tikka led to eating less food</h2>



In Experiment 1, participants consumed about 46 grams less of the spicy beef chili compared to the mild version. That’s a 13% reduction in intake, which also meant 53 fewer kilocalories. 



The eating rate was 11% slower during the spicy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meal</a>, and the bite rate dropped as well. However, total meal duration and bite size didn’t change significantly. Participants simply took more time between bites, eating more thoughtfully.



“This points to added chilies as a potential strategy for reducing the risk of energy overconsumption,” said John Hayes, professor of food science and co-author on the study. “Next time you're looking to eat a little less, try adding a blast of chilies, as it may slow you down and help you eat less.”



Experiment 2a used chicken tikka masala instead of chili. Here, the manipulation failed - the spicy version was not perceived as much spicier than the mild one. As a result, there was no significant difference in intake or eating behavior. 



This outcome stressed an important point: the effect depends on the perceptible level of heat. Mild differences won’t move the needle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-stronger-spice-yields-stronger-results">A stronger spice yields stronger results</h2>



To address the failed manipulation in Experiment 2a, the researchers revised their approach in Experiment 2b. They increased the paprika content in the chicken tikka and ensured the spicy version delivered a noticeable burn. 



This time, the result mirrored the chili experiment. Participants ate 64 grams less spicy tikka, a reduction of 18%. Eating rate dropped by 17%, and bite frequency also decreased.



The spice didn’t make the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-fusion-turning-food-waste-into-culinary-delights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> less enjoyable. In both chili and tikka trials, liking scores remained stable. Appetite ratings before and after meals also stayed roughly the same. What changed was how people interacted with the food. The spicy versions encouraged slower, more mindful eating.



Notably, water consumption didn’t vary between mild and spicy versions. This ruled out a common assumption: that drinking more water fills people up. “This is why we need to do empirical studies of behavior, because what you might intuitively expect is often not the case,” Hayes remarked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-and-possible-thresholds">Mechanisms and possible thresholds</h2>



So, what’s actually happening here? The likely mechanism is increased oro-sensory exposure. Spicy foods stay in the mouth longer, allowing time for fullness signals to reach the brain. This has been linked with reduced energy intake in earlier studies involving texture changes. 



But here, the change was chemical, not physical. That makes it a novel method for influencing eating behavior.



Interestingly, the data suggests a potential threshold effect. The spicy version in Experiment 2a didn’t yield any change because it wasn’t spicy enough. In contrast, Experiment 2b used a 4% hot paprika blend, producing a spiciness rating around 68 out of 101. 



That version led to real behavior changes. The spicy beef chili in Experiment 1, rated at 54, also caused a measurable reduction. Meals that reached a certain burn intensity consistently led to slower eating and lower intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-and-tolerance">Individual differences and tolerance</h2>



The study also explored how personal traits affect response to spice. Participants with higher levels of neuroticism and openness were less responsive to spice changes. 



However, traits like age, BMI, and frequency of eating spicy food didn’t seem to affect outcomes. That said, the researchers did recruit only moderate spice consumers. This reduced variability and helped maintain experimental control.



No participants reported discomfort, and the spice levels used fell well below extreme intensity. 



This suggests there’s a “sweet spot” for oral burn - strong enough to affect eating, but not so strong that it reduces meal enjoyment or causes distress. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Meals</a> rated around 50–70 on the spice scale seem to hit that balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adding-spice-can-change-eating-habits">Adding spice can change eating habits</h2>



The broader implications of this research are promising. Spicy food is widely used around the world, and the ingredients - like chili pepper and paprika - are affordable and accessible. 



As capsaicin gains attention for its potential health benefits, including improved metabolism and satiety, these findings add another layer: it can reshape how we eat.



In daily life, eating occurs in varied environments. While this study happened in a lab, it still shows a robust effect across different dishes. The results also challenge the idea that we must alter what we eat to eat less. Instead, we may just need to adjust how we experience it.



“This reduction in intake occurred without negatively impacting how much participants liked the food,” said Hayes. That’s a significant point. No one wants to sacrifice enjoyment for control. Here, you don’t have to.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adding-chili-to-your-plate">Adding chili to your plate</h2>



From chili con carne to tikka masala, a little extra heat might be a gentle nudge toward eating less. The key lies in slowing down the eating process. That pause between bites, triggered by oral burn, gives your body time to say, “I’m full.”



These findings invite more exploration. Can this strategy help long-term? Will it work in more diverse populations or in social eating situations? And what is the best spice level to use at home? 



While those questions remain, one thing is clear - adding a little chili might do more than wake up your taste buds. It might just help you regain control over your plate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950329325001417?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Quality and Preference</a>.



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Spicy foods can slow down eating and cut calorie intake

What if the secret to eating less wasn’t portion control...

When we think of Antarctica, we picture vast white deserts, towering glaciers, and resilient creatures like penguins surviving in the cold. But beyond the majestic icebergs and snow-covered expanses lies a much more complex picture. 



Climate change is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-intense-heat-waves-affecting-life-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> the region faster than most other parts of the planet. Sea ice is retreating. Weather patterns are shifting. And species like the Adelie penguin are under severe threat.



At first glance, penguins seem like helpless bystanders in this planetary crisis. But what if they were doing more than surviving? What if their biology and behavior - specifically their droppings - had the power to affect clouds, air chemistry, and even climate? 



New research suggests exactly that. Penguin guano, often seen as just a smelly by-product of seabird life, may play a much larger role in Antarctica’s climate than anyone expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguin-poop-helps-clouds-form">Penguin poop helps clouds form</h2>



The study, led by Matthew Boyer, Mikko Sipilä, and colleagues from <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en/admissions-and-education/apply-bachelors-and-masters-programmes?mtm_campaign=Brand-All_target_countries-Helsingin_yliopisto&amp;mtm_kwd=university%20of%20helsinki&amp;mtm_source=google&amp;mtm_medium=cpc&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=1381187276&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw3MXBBhAzEiwA0vLXQT600ZXuQaYCZ0OrUzMBj1GpUFJwXxvC-WScvFbmHIvEZv6E2nLGihoCF48QAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>, investigates how ammonia from penguin guano contributes to atmospheric processes in Antarctica.



The team measured ammonia concentrations at a coastal site near Marambio Base during the austral summer of 2023. They found that penguin colonies - particularly one containing around 60,000 Adelie penguins - acted as massive sources of gaseous ammonia.



Ammonia in the atmosphere is a key ingredient in forming aerosols. These particles are essential for creating cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), which allow water vapor to condense and form clouds. 



More clouds can reflect sunlight and reduce surface temperatures, making this process highly relevant for sea ice retention and climate regulation in the polar environment. But ammonia has long been underrepresented in climate models, especially in remote areas like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-lasting-ammonia-emissions">Long-lasting ammonia emissions</h2>



The study recorded ammonia levels between January 10 and March 20, 2023. When the wind blew from the penguin colony, ammonia concentrations surged to as high as 13.5 parts per billion - more than 1,000 times the background levels. 



Even after the penguins migrated at the end of February, the ornithogenic soil - enriched with guano - kept emitting ammonia for weeks.



This long-lasting emission surprised the researchers. Their data confirmed that these penguin hotspots around the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-may-fully-recover-by-2066/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic</a> coast could release ammonia levels comparable to those found in agricultural fields during summer. 



The emissions are not evenly spread but come in strong bursts, especially when the wind shifts direction toward nearby colonies. This means penguin guano can create regional plumes of cloud-forming particles even after the birds have left.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ammonia-triggers-cloud-forming-particles">Ammonia triggers cloud-forming particles</h2>



To assess the impact on particle formation, the researchers recorded detailed chemical data. 



On days when winds came from penguin colonies, the team observed sharp increases in both the number and size of aerosol particles. These particles eventually grew to the size needed for cloud condensation - above 30 nanometers - within a matter of hours.



On February 1, 2023, a major event occurred. A strong new particle formation (NPF) event was followed by fog at the measurement site. The researchers found that the fog formed from the same air mass rich in ammonia and sulfuric acid. 



Analysis of the cloud droplet composition revealed ammonium sulfate - a direct signature of the penguin-driven chemical processes.



The persistence of particle formation before and after the fog confirmed that this wasn’t a one-off incident. The authors believe that their work emphasizes the importance, and benefits, of protecting seabirds and their habitats from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-patterns-point-to-rapid-melting-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-gases-also-boost-particle-growth">Other gases also boost particle growth</h2>



Ammonia wasn’t acting alone. Dimethylamine (DMA), another nitrogen-rich gas, was also detected in the cluster formation process. 



Although present at lower levels, DMA greatly enhances the rate at which sulfuric acid forms aerosols. Laboratory studies have shown that even tiny amounts of DMA can accelerate particle formation by factors of up to 10,000.



Interestingly, the researchers noted that sulfuric acid and ammonia dominated the cluster composition. DMA appeared only in trace quantities - just enough to stabilize clusters during early formation stages. This suggests a multicomponent mechanism, with both ammonia and DMA contributing in different ways.



Iodine oxoacids like HIO₂ and HIO₃ also played supporting roles. These compounds, sourced from ocean life and sea-ice chemistry, have been known to influence particle formation during spring and autumn. But in this summer study, ammonia and sulfur dominated the process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-formation-and-regional-impacts">Cloud formation and regional impacts</h2>



New particle formation events like these are not just chemical curiosities. They affect the formation of CCN and cloud droplets.



Clouds, in turn, control how much sunlight reaches the surface and how much heat escapes into space. In the polar climate system, these clouds can mean the difference between melting ice and stable conditions.



The study’s measurements showed that penguin-driven ammonia emissions initiated a cascade of chemical events. These culminated in visible cloud formations, including fog. T



he resulting particles could last for days and travel inland or over the ocean, influencing weather patterns far beyond the colony’s location.



Cloud brightness, lifetime, and height all depend on the number of available CCN. In areas like Antarctica, where background particle levels are low, even small increases can make a noticeable difference. 



By emitting ammonia at such high levels, penguins effectively modulate local cloud properties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-penguins-mean-fewer-clouds">Fewer penguins mean fewer clouds</h2>



There’s a dark twist to this story. If penguin populations decline due to shrinking sea ice or food scarcity, their contribution to ammonia emissions will also drop. That means fewer particles, fewer clouds, and possibly faster warming.



The researchers warn that declining penguin populations could create a feedback loop. Less ice leads to fewer penguins. Fewer penguins mean less ammonia and cloud cover. That leads to even more ice loss. 



This idea is supported by earlier modeling work in the Arctic, where seabird emissions were shown to affect regional temperatures. The Antarctic case now adds real-world measurements to support similar conclusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-penguins-quietly-shape-the-climate">Penguins quietly shape the climate</h2>



These findings reveal a remarkable complexity in the Antarctic climate system. Tiny molecules from penguin droppings can influence clouds and temperature. It’s a reminder that the Earth’s systems are interconnected in ways we’re only beginning to understand.



In places like Antarctica, where human emissions are minimal, biological processes take center stage. Penguins are not just part of the scenery. They shape the air we breathe and the clouds we see.



If we want to protect the poles - and slow global warming - we may need to start with something as simple as protecting the penguins.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02312-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Penguin poop helps form clouds that could slow Antarctic warming

When we think of Antarctica, we picture vast white deserts,...

Many of us have experienced the familiar frustration of reaching for fresh produce - such as leafy greens - only to find it wilted or discolored before use.



This is more than a personal inconvenience. Post-harvest food loss accounts for over 30% of global production. This equates to approximately 1.3 billion tons of food annually - enough to feed more than one billion people each year.



While refrigeration helps, it isn’t always available. Many parts of the world lack the infrastructure to keep crops fresh during transport and storage. This reality makes reducing food waste a global challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-crops-fresh-longer">Keeping crops fresh longer</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) and the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART) have come up with a unique way to address this issue. 



The experts use biodegradable microneedles made from silk to deliver <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharp-increase-in-melatonin-use-among-children-raises-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melatonin</a> - yes, the same compound that helps us sleep - into crops after harvest. These microneedles can pierce the tough outer layer of plants without triggering stress.



Benedetto Marelli is the study’s senior author and an associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at MIT. “This is the first time that we’ve been able to apply these microneedles to extend the shelf life of a fresh-cut crop,” he said.



The team targeted pak choy, a popular and highly perishable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leafy-green-vegetables-improve-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leafy green</a>. Injecting melatonin at the plant base extended shelf life by four days at room temperature and ten days when refrigerated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melatonin-s-plant-power">Melatonin's plant power</h2>



Melatonin isn’t just for sleep - it plays a role in plant growth and aging too. The researchers tested whether introducing small doses of the hormone could slow the plant’s natural senescence, or aging process.



“The dose of melatonin we’re delivering is so low that it’s fully metabolized by the crops, so it would not significantly increase the amount of melatonin normally present in the food,” Marelli said. “We chose pak choy because it's a very important crop in Asia, and also because pak choy is very perishable.”



The researchers used fluorescent dye to show that substances delivered at the plant base reached all tissues. They then applied melatonin using sprays and dips but found no impact. That’s when the microneedles came in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treated-fresh-crops-last-longer">Treated fresh crops last longer</h2>



When researchers applied the melatonin-loaded patches by hand to the shoot base of pak choy and monitored changes over time, the results were clear.



Untreated plants started yellowing within two to three days. By day four, they were no longer suitable for sale. Treated plants stayed green longer - still looking fresh on day five and even into day eight at room temperature.



“We clearly saw we could enhance the shelf life of pak choy without the cold chain,” Marelli said.



Refrigeration made the results even more dramatic. The treated vegetables maintained their color and quality up to day 25 - about five days longer than untreated ones.



Monika Jangir is&nbsp;co-first author and a former postdoc&nbsp;at&nbsp;the Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory.



“Spectrophotometric analysis of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> indicated the treated plants had higher antioxidant activity," she said. "While gene analysis showed the melatonin set off a protective chain reaction inside the plants, preserving chlorophyll and adjusting hormones to slow senescence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-stress-less-waste">Less stress, less waste</h2>



By helping the plant cope with the stress of being cut, melatonin keeps it alive and fresh longer.



Yangyang Han is co-first author and a research scientist&nbsp;at the Disruptive and Sustainable Technologies for Agricultural Precision (DiSTAP) interdisciplinary research group at SMART.



“We studied melatonin’s effects and saw it improves the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-new-way-to-measure-stress-in-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress response of the plant</a> after it’s been cut, so it’s basically decreasing the stress that plants experience, and that extends its shelf life,” she said.



This method could be a game-changer in regions that don’t have reliable refrigeration. It may also open new doors in food logistics and global supply chains, where every extra day of freshness counts.



Sarojam Rajani, co-senior author of the study, is a principal investigator at the Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory in Singapore.&nbsp;



“Post-harvest waste is a huge issue. This problem is extremely important in emerging markets around Africa and Southeast Asia, where many crops are produced but can't be maintained in the journey from farms to markets,” said Rajani.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-to-other-produce">Expanding to other produce</h2>



Although the current method is manual, researchers aim to use tractors, drones, or other machines for more efficient patch application in the future.



“For this to be widely adopted, we’d need to reach a performance versus cost threshold to justify its use,” Marelli explains. “This method would need to become cheap enough to be used by farmers regularly.”



The team is also planning to test other plant hormones and different fresh crops. Their goal is to not only extend shelf life, but possibly even improve texture, shape, and nutritional value.



“We’re going to continue to analyze how we can increase the impact this can have on the value and quality of crops,” said Marelli. 



“For example, could this let us modulate the nutritional values of the crop, how it’s shaped, its texture, etc.? We're also going to continue looking into scaling up the technology so this can be used in the field.”



With more research and development, these tiny silk needles could be a big step toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-food-waste-greater-food-security-less-environmental-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing food waste</a> and getting more fresh produce to more people. One patch at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00487" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



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Sleep hormone can keep crops fresh and reduce food waste

Many of us have experienced the familiar frustration of reaching...

For centuries, botanists have pondered the oddities of reproduction in plants. Among them, Charles Darwin expressed a clear distrust for species that relied solely on self-fertilization. “It is hardly an exaggeration to say that Nature tells us, in the most emphatic manner, that she abhors perpetual self-fertilization,” he wrote. 



Darwin’s concerns were rooted in the belief that such a strategy would lead to genetic stagnation and eventually, extinction. Yet deep in Japan's Ryukyu Islands, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> seems to have bent this rule.



A pair of orchid species, Gastrodia takeshimensis and Gastrodia kuroshimensis, have evolved to reproduce in complete isolation. Their flowers never open, and their genes carry the quiet imprint of an evolutionary gamble: total reproductive independence. 



This floral silence is more than just a botanical oddity. It challenges long-held ideas about survival, isolation, and how plants persist in the absence of genetic mixing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchids-survive-without-blooming">Orchids survive without blooming</h2>



These orchids live on the islands of Kuroshima, Takeshima, and Yakushima. Botanist Suetsugu Kenji of <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, who led a ten-year investigation into their lives, found these orchid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-orchids-have-fingers-to-pollinate-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowers</a> both elusive and revolutionary.



“I’ve long been captivated by Darwin’s skepticism about plants that rely entirely on self-pollination,” he said. “When I found those non-blooming orchids, I felt this was a perfect chance to directly revisit this issue.” Suetsugu and his colleagues spent a decade observing more than a hundred individuals. None of them ever opened their flowers. 



The team’s observations, supported by partnerships with local plant lovers, confirmed what no one had confidently documented in the wild before: complete cleistogamy, or self-pollination without any floral opening.



These flowers don’t just avoid blooming. Their very structure is built to bypass it. Genetic tests, including SSR marker analysis and MIG-seq SNP profiling, revealed that these plants show extreme genetic uniformity. 



In short, they are genetically identical clones. The absence of variation confirmed that they have been self-pollinating for generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchid-flowers-that-self-pollinate">Orchid flowers that self-pollinate</h2>



The genomic findings added another layer to the mystery. Despite the high mutation rates of the genetic markers used, G. takeshimensis and G. kuroshimensis had near-identical genotypes across individuals. This suggested that the evolutionary shift to selfing happened recently, within the last 100 to 200 generations.



Considering that each orchid generation spans about five to ten years, this puts the origin of these lineages within the past 2,000 years. Suetsugu’s team believes that this timing is more than a coincidence. 



The analysis showed that the ancestors of these orchids, although once insect-pollinated, already had low genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solenangis-impraedicta-new-orchid-species-sets-world-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>. This means that even when cross-pollination occurred, the genetic mixing was minimal.



Their pollinators, primarily drosophilid flies, do not travel far. The flies often move from one orchid flower to another on the same plant or to a nearby one, limiting true genetic exchange.



As a result, self-pollination, though theoretically limiting, offered little additional cost and instead delivered a reliable method of reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-survival-strategy">A survival strategy</h2>



The benefits of this approach are clear in harsh or isolated environments. Reproductive assurance, the ability to reproduce without relying on pollinators, is a strong evolutionary advantage. This is particularly relevant for plants living on islands where populations are small and pollinators are often scarce or unreliable.



The research showed that even the chasmogamous relatives, G. foetida and G. fontinalis, exhibit signs of selfing. Their genomes, while more diverse than their cleistogamous cousins, still bear the marks of inbreeding. 



These include low heterozygosity and a buildup of deleterious mutations. This discovery points to a broader trend: selfing may be more common and more tolerated among island orchids than previously thought.



Interestingly, the genomic selfing syndrome, characterized by high loads of harmful mutations and low genetic variation, was not significantly different between cleistogamous and chasmogamous species. 



This suggests that the genetic load already existed before the shift to full selfing. In effect, the orchids were already halfway down the selfing path before they sealed their flowers shut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchid-flowers-block-hybrids">Orchid flowers block hybrids</h2>



One of the most significant outcomes of cleistogamy is its role in maintaining species identity. In the wild, these selfing orchids often grow near their relatives. 



Yet, no hybrids have ever been observed. “Darwin’s statement was motivated by the idea that a purely self-pollinating lineage would accumulate harmful mutations and eventually face an evolutionary dead end,” Suetsugu said.



In this context, cleistogamy acts as a strict genetic gatekeeper. It eliminates gene flow entirely. Even in sympatric habitats where two related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asparagus-and-orchids-share-surprising-similarities-in-their-cell-walls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> coexist, the orchids show no signs of introgression. 



The research team confirmed this through rigorous genomic testing. Each orchid species has remained genetically distinct, suggesting that flower closure serves not just reproduction but also isolation.



This separation may help explain how such species can coexist without eroding their genetic identities. Autonomous selfing ensures that reproductive interference, such as competition for pollinators or accidental hybridization, is completely avoided.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clones-in-island-isolation">Clones in island isolation</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-migrations-to-the-ryukyu-islands-were-led-by-explorers-not-drifters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryukyu Islands</a> offer a natural laboratory for these patterns. Many island populations show traits of founder effects: reduced diversity, small sizes, and limited gene flow.



These islands are home not just to G. takeshimensis and G. kuroshimensis, but also to other cleistogamous Gastrodia species. The repeated emergence of self-pollination across this genus hints at a broader ecological pattern.



In these remote environments, reproduction through selfing allows plants to persist even when conditions are poor. 



The capacity to establish a population from a single seed without waiting for mates or pollinators gives selfing species a crucial edge. It explains why G. takeshimensis and G. kuroshimensis are found on islands with and without their sister species.



However, this strategy comes at a cost. “The fact that these orchids truly never outcross raises intriguing questions about their long-term viability, especially under pressures like habitat fragmentation and climate change,” noted Suetsugu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-shortcut-with-consequences">Evolutionary shortcut with consequences</h2>



Suetsugu’s findings reinforce the idea that cleistogamy might be more of a temporary fix than a long-term solution. 



With no way to introduce new genetic material, these orchids may be vulnerable to sudden environmental changes. Once a lineage becomes genetically uniform and cut off from outcrossing, it risks extinction from even minor disturbances.



Despite these risks, cleistogamy has evolved multiple times in Gastrodia. Its repeated emergence suggests that for short periods, it offers enough benefits to persist. 



The study proposes that the low mobility of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-have-a-new-weapon-to-defend-against-parasitic-wasps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit fly</a> pollinators, reduced genetic diversity from past events, and the need for reproductive assurance all combined to push some species toward complete floral closure.



While it remains unclear how long such lineages can survive, their existence helps clarify the evolutionary pressures at play. These orchids aren’t evolutionary failures. They are snapshots of strategy under constraint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchid-flowers-rewrite-the-rules">Orchid flowers rewrite the rules</h2>



Though Darwin doubted the long-term success of selfing plants, he also recognized nature’s capacity for surprises. 



The Gastrodia orchids of Japan have shown that even evolutionary warnings can be skirted, if only briefly. Their quiet, unblooming lives challenge what we know about survival, isolation, and the bounds of genetic resilience.



Suetsugu Kenji and his collaborators continue to unravel these mysteries. “Each new data point, each newly described species, brings me closer to grasping the full spectrum of evolutionary possibilities,” said Suetsugu.



As the orchids remain sealed in silence, their genetics speak loudly. They remind us that in the margins of biology, life often writes its own rules.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0574" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Some orchids can reproduce without ever opening their flowers

For centuries, botanists have pondered the oddities of reproduction in...

Every evening, the Zwicky Transient Facility’s wide-field camera clicks through hundreds of exposures, comparing each pixel with last night’s view. If something new pops up - a sudden spark inside a distant galaxy - the system beams an alert to astronomers within seconds. 



The steady rhythm of these scans, soon to be amplified by the Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s Legacy Survey of Space and Time, has turned the sky into a real-time laboratory where cosmic heavyweights occasionally step into the spotlight.



In December 2019, one such notice pointed to SDSS1335+0728, a modest spiral galaxy in the Virgo constellation, roughly 300 million light-years away. 



The galaxy’s core, quiescent for more than two decades, suddenly brightened by orders of magnitude. 



At the center sits a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> about one million times the Sun’s mass, and researchers realized they were watching either a star being shredded or a black hole tasting its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-feast-black-hole-at2019qiz-seen-eating-one-star-then-attacking-another/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first steady meal</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wake-up-call-for-sdss1335-0728">Wake up call for SDSS1335+0728</h2>



Follow-up measurements show the rise hasn’t leveled off even after more than four years - a duration far longer than the brightest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-cosmic-rays-from-supernova-sparked-rapid-earth-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova flares</a> or typical star-eating tidal disruption events. 



The persistence alone makes the source an outlier, yet its overall luminosity still falls short of the blazing quasars that dominate textbooks, leaving SDSS1335+0728 in a gray zone between well-defined categories.



“Imagine you’ve been observing a distant galaxy for years, and it always seemed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-black-hole-is-seen-taking-a-nap-after-eating-too-much/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calm and inactive</a>,” says Paula Sánchez Sáez, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.eso.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a> in Germany and lead author of the study accepted for publication in Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics. 



“Suddenly, its core starts showing dramatic changes in brightness, unlike any typical event we've seen before.” The surprise spurred a global observing campaign aimed at pinning down the cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sorting-cosmic-flashes">Sorting cosmic flashes</h2>



Astronomers file nuclear flares into several bins. A tidal disruption event flares when a star wanders too close to the black hole’s maw. 



A turning-on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-active-black-holes-discovered-where-it-was-believed-they-couldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">active galactic nucleus</a> marks the moment gas first spirals inward, lighting up magnetic fields and hot disks. 



Changing-look AGNs swing between bright and dim states, while ambiguous nuclear transients sit in limbo until further data arrive.



Classification hinges on timing, color, and, crucially, spectra. <a href="https://www.ztf.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sky surveys such as ZTF</a> already stream millions of measurements each night, and LSST is expected to increase that torrent by an order of magnitude. 



Automated software will sift most of it, yet unusual cases like SDSS1335+0728 still demand old-fashioned follow-up on larger telescopes capable of splitting the light across wavelengths. Human review remains vital when robots raise a cosmic eyebrow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closely-watching-sdss1335-0728">Closely watching SDSS1335+0728</h2>



Teams pulled archived images, then pointed instruments - including the X-shooter spectrograph on the European Southern Observatory’s <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Very Large Telescope</a> - toward the galaxy. 



Ultraviolet, optical, and infrared emission all rose sharply, and in February 2024, the source turned on in X-rays for the first time. 



The spectrum now bears the broad emission lines that announce fast-moving gas only a few light-hours from the black hole.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/galaxy_SDSS1335-0728_waking-up_black-hole_agn_comparison_credit-ESO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/galaxy_SDSS1335-0728_waking-up_black-hole_agn_comparison_credit-ESO_1s.webp" alt="This artist’s impression shows two stages in the formation of a disc of gas and dust around the massive black hole at the center of the galaxy SDSS1335+0728. The core of this galaxy lit up in 2019 and keeps brightening today — the first time we observe a massive black hole become active in real time. Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser" class="wp-image-1970925"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist’s impression shows two stages in the formation of a disc of gas and dust around the massive black hole at the center of the galaxy SDSS1335+0728. The core of this galaxy lit up in 2019 and keeps brightening today - the first time we observe a massive black hole become active in real time. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser</figcaption></figure>



“This behavior is unprecedented,” says Sánchez Sáez, who is also affiliated with the <a href="https://astrofisicamas.cl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Millennium Institute of Astrophysics</a> in Chile. 



“The most tangible option to explain this phenomenon is that we are seeing how the galaxy's core is beginning to show activity,” says co-author Lorena Hernández García of MAS and the <a href="https://uv.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Valparaíso</a> in Chile. “If so, this would be the first time that we see the activation of a massive black hole in real time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-a-monster-rise-in-real-time">Watching a monster rise in real-time</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> finished their growth billions of years ago, and the nearest examples appear dormant today. 



Watching one light up now gives astronomers a front-row seat to processes that usually unfolded when the universe was young. 



Energy pumped into the host galaxy can shape star formation and regulate future mergers, so the event offers more than a curiosity; it is a laboratory for galaxy evolution.



“These giant monsters usually are sleeping and not directly visible,” explains co-author Claudio Ricci from the <a href="https://diegoportalesuniversity.udp.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diego Portales University</a> in Chile. 



“In the case of SDSS1335+0728, we observed the awakening of the massive black hole, which suddenly began feasting on nearby gas and became very bright. This process has never been observed before,” Hernández García explained.



Ricci adds, “This could also happen to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-formed-through-a-merger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our own Sgr A*</a>, the massive black hole at the center of our galaxy,” but it is unclear how likely that is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-sdss1335-0728">What's next for SDSS1335+0728</h2>



Researchers continue to gather spectra, radio maps, and high-energy observations to decide whether the flare stems from a very slow tidal disruption, a newborn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/x-ray-radiation-from-black-holes-explained-after-50-year-struggle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accretion disk</a>, or an entirely new class of outburst. 



Each scenario would revise models of how material settles into a black hole and how often these awakenings occur in the present-day universe.



“Regardless of the nature of the variations, this galaxy provides valuable information on how black holes grow and evolve,” Sánchez Sáez says. 



“We expect that instruments such as MUSE on the VLT and those on the upcoming Extremely Large Telescope will be key to understanding why the galaxy is brightening.” 



Future facilities promise deeper looks, but for now SDSS1335+0728 serves as a timely reminder that even nearby galaxies can spring surprises. 



As survey telescopes keep watch, more sleepy giants may stir, turning the routine nightly scan into a treasure hunt for cosmic firsts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/08/aa47957-23/aa47957-23.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



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Astronomers watched an entire galaxy 'turn on the lights' in real-time

Every evening, the Zwicky Transient Facility’s wide-field camera clicks through...

Etosha National Park in Namibia is home to one of Africa’s most iconic animals, the lion. These big cats roam the open grasslands and woodlands, thriving in what should be a sanctuary. Yet, beyond the park’s protective boundaries, the landscape turns deadly. 



A recent long-term study from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a> reveals the extent and complexity of human-lion conflict in this region. Between 1980 and 2018, 698 lions were killed due to interactions with people in the areas surrounding Etosha.



This number likely doesn’t reflect the full picture. Many deaths go unreported, making the crisis even graver than it seems. Why are lions dying in such large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honoring-the-king-of-the-jungle-on-world-lion-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">numbers</a>? What makes Etosha’s borders so perilous? 



The study uncovers the layers of environmental change, historical injustice, and social tension that now shape the future of one of Africa’s top predators.



“It was environmental. It was cultural. It was climatic," said Dipanjan Naha of the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lions-in-an-ecological-trap">Lions in an ecological trap</h2>



Etosha National Park serves as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steller-sea-lions-threatened-by-rising-mercury-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> source for lions. But the areas beyond its perimeter, farmlands, conservancies, and village lands, act like population sinks. 



These surrounding zones draw lions with the promise of prey and water, only to deliver lethal encounters with people. The study identifies this as an ecological trap, a place that appears rich in resources but is ultimately dangerous.



Lions often cross Etosha’s perimeter fence during the cold dry season, which runs from May to August. Water sources inside the park shrink. Prey becomes scarce. Lions, driven by hunger, head into neighboring farmlands where livestock and game animals graze.



“As soon as the lions get out of the park, they are in trouble with the farmers," noted Naha.



Conflict flares as lions attack livestock, and farmers respond with deadly force. With no system to compensate livestock loss, shooting becomes a survival strategy for many landowners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflict-related-lion-deaths">Conflict-related lion deaths</h2>



The roots of this conflict go deep. Prior to the establishment of Etosha, the Greater Etosha Landscape (GEL) was inhabited by indigenous Hai//om and !Xun San communities. 



These hunter-gatherers had long coexisted with lions. But by the early 20th century, European settlers displaced these communities. They introduced firearms and private farms, viewing predators as threats to be eliminated.



Land once used communally turned into private holdings. Over time, tolerance for carnivores eroded. The cultural shift from cohabitation to confrontation hardened the region’s approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-lions-have-different-social-strategies-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>. 



This legacy continues today, as conflict-related lion deaths remain concentrated in private freehold farms owned by descendants of those settlers.



Seventy-seven percent of conflict-related lion deaths between 2001 and 2018 occurred on farms. Another 13 percent occurred in conservancies, and only 7 percent in private game reserves. 



Most lions didn’t die in deep wilderness but on the edges, where the wild and human worlds meet uncomfortably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-lethal-response-to-lions">Farmers' lethal response to lions</h2>



From 1980 to 2000, rainfall in the GEL region declined. Droughts became frequent, forcing a shift in farming practices. Many farmers transitioned from raising livestock to managing game farms. These new farms needed less water but had even less tolerance for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lion-numbers-have-reached-a-critical-low-in-uganda/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>.



Game animals are valuable. Losing one to a lion is costlier than losing livestock. With this economic pressure, farmers responded quickly and lethally to any lion sighting. As lions continued to roam outside Etosha in search of prey, the frequency of fatal encounters grew.



The study revealed that lion deaths were highest during the cold dry season, the same time that lions most often left the park. It also found a troubling increase in lion deaths over the decades, peaking in 2017 with 67 deaths. 



Younger male lions were especially vulnerable. These lions leave their natal territories in search of new ones and often end up in risky, unfamiliar zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-male-lions-died-more-often">Male lions died more often</h2>



Sixty percent of reported lion deaths were males. This reflects the natural behavior of male dispersal. Males travel widely, often through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-have-a-big-impact-on-the-hunting-behavior-of-lions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farmlands</a> and conservancies. They face increased danger during this journey, especially in human-dominated areas.



The loss of males isn’t just a numbers issue. It disrupts social structures within lion populations. Without stable coalitions, prides become vulnerable. Infanticide may rise. Cubs are left unprotected. 



Entire prides may even abandon safer areas to escape aggressive newcomers, increasing their chances of conflict with humans.



These effects ripple across generations, weakening the lion population over time. Removing even a few males can trigger cascading damage to pride stability and reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-danger-zones-exist-around-etosha-s-borders">Danger zones exist around Etosha’s borders</h2>



Using spatial modeling, researchers identified hotspots of lion mortality around the park. These included parts of the eastern, southern, western, and north-western edges of ENP. 



Many of these danger zones overlap with wildlife corridors that lions use to move between Etosha and regions like the Skeleton Coast and Kunene.



Interestingly, areas with more vegetation such as dense woodlands and shrubs had fewer lion deaths. Woody cover provides concealment, allowing lions to move undetected. But most farmlands lacked this vegetation. This made it easier for humans to spot and shoot lions.



The study also found that ecological traps often formed in areas that contained both livestock and wild prey. To a lion, this looks like prime habitat. But it comes with an invisible cost, human hostility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fences-and-a-fractured-future">Fences and a fractured future</h2>



Etosha’s perimeter fence, built to stop disease, added another layer of complexity. It cut off migration routes for herbivores, concentrating prey within the park. 



At the same time, it left the surrounding lands exposed to hungry predators. "Areas around the park are kind of an ecological trap for them.” Dipanjan Naha



The fence also intersects with the Veterinary Cordon Fence, locally known as the Red Line. This line divides commercial farms from communal areas and restricts meat trade across it. 



The economic divide fuels further intolerance. Farmers south of the line, under more trade pressure, are more likely to resort to lethal action.



High livestock density, low vegetation, and poor compensation schemes all increase the chances of lions getting killed. Combined with colonial land policies and climate change, these factors make conservation intensely difficult.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-sharing-spaces-with-lions">Farmers sharing spaces with lions</h2>



“There has to be more integrated conservation where humans and wildlife can share spaces," said Naha. 



Fencing alone will not save Etosha’s lions. In fact, it may increase their risk. Lethal control methods are also proving ineffective. Instead, the study suggests a blend of land sparing, protected reserves, and land sharing, sustainable cohabitation with humans.



Local communities should be included in monitoring, ecotourism, and conservation efforts. Lions bring potential income through wildlife tourism. Creating incentives for people to protect rather than kill lions is key.



With better planning, compensation schemes, and education, it's possible to reduce human-lion conflict. Spatial risk maps from the study can help direct conservation action to the most affected areas.



This research, published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425001155?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>, paints a sobering picture. Yet, it also offers a path forward. If we can understand the intersecting forces of ecology, culture, and economy, we might yet build a future where lions and people both thrive on the edges of Etosha.



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Can lions and farmers coexist? Experts are cautiously optimistic

Etosha National Park in Namibia is home to one of...

In terms of pollination, much of the spotlight shines on the color and scent of flowers. These features attract insects, especially bees, who help transfer pollen and ensure plant reproduction. But beneath this visual and olfactory spectacle, another sense may quietly shape this relationship: sound.



Scientists have long studied how flowers use color and scent to communicate with their pollinators. But could they also be listening?



For years, researchers overlooked the possibility that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowers</a> might respond to the sounds of visiting pollinators. The low-volume acoustic signals created by insects during flight and foraging were simply too subtle, they thought.



However, a growing body of evidence suggests that these floral visitors generate more than just physical contact. They bring with them a unique sound signature. And now, thanks to a recent international collaboration, the science community is finally beginning to hear what the flowers may already know.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-respond-to-pollinator-sounds">Flowers respond to pollinator sounds</h2>



Francesca Barbero, a professor of zoology at the <a href="https://en.unito.it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turin</a>, is leading a new wave of research into how flowers detect and respond to vibroacoustic signals. 



Her work brings together an unusual alliance: entomologists, plant physiologists, and sound engineers from Spain and Australia. Their shared mission is to understand how the faint buzzes and wing flaps of pollinators influence plant biology.



This novel approach centers on using sound recordings instead of intrusive instruments. By capturing the natural buzz of pollinators and replaying them near flowers, the team can observe how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-new-window-into-the-early-evolution-of-flowering-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> react without physically disturbing them. 



The results offer a new method for monitoring pollinator activity. They also suggest that the link between plants and insects is more complex than previously imagined.



Barbero and her team will present their findings at the joint 188th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America and the 25th International Congress on Acoustics, taking place May 18 to 23.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-change-nectar-and-sugar-levels">Flowers change nectar and sugar levels</h2>



To study how flowers respond to sound, the researchers focused on a specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flower</a>-pollinator pairing: snapdragons and Rhodanthidium sticticum, a bee species also known as the snail shell bee.



This insect is a known pollinator of snapdragons, making it an ideal subject for testing acoustic communication between these species.



The researchers recorded the buzzing of this bee and played the audio back in the vicinity of blooming snapdragons. What happened next surprised even the seasoned scientists.



The flowers responded to the buzzing by increasing the amount of sugar in their nectar. They also boosted overall nectar volume. On a molecular level, the plants even altered their gene expression, particularly the genes involved in sugar transport and nectar production.



This reaction suggests that flowers can perceive and act on sound cues, adjusting their internal processes to match the identity of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator</a> they anticipate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-use-sound-to-boost-pollination">Flowers use sound to boost pollination </h2>



“Plant-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator</a> coevolution has been studied primarily by assessing the production and perception of visual and olfactory cues, even though there is growing evidence that both insects and plants can sense and produce, or transmit, vibroacoustic signals,” Barbero explained.



This shift toward understanding acoustic signals opens a new chapter in coevolution. It proposes that plants are not just responding passively to insects but actively modifying themselves based on the specific visitor. 



If a plant recognizes a pollinator by its buzz, it may enhance its attractiveness by adjusting nectar rewards. In doing so, it may increase the time that pollinators spend within its flowers and build pollinator loyalty.



“The ability to discriminate approaching pollinators based on their distinctive vibroacoustic signals could be an adaptive strategy for plants,” Barbero added.



“By replying to their proper vibroacoustic signal, for instance, an efficient pollinator’s, plants could improve their reproductive success if their responses drive modifications in pollinator behavior.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-flowers-call-pollinators-using-sound">Can flowers call pollinators using sound?</h2>



While the evidence for plants detecting and responding to pollinator sound is growing, the reverse question now arises. Can plants themselves use sound to influence insects?



The answer is not yet clear, but the implications are compelling. “If this response from insects is confirmed, sounds could be used to treat economically relevant plants and crops, and increase their pollinators’ attraction,” Barbero noted.



In agricultural settings, this idea could revolutionize how we manage crops. If scientists can learn to replicate the right buzzing sounds, they might coax more pollinators to visit key crops without needing chemical attractants. 



It opens the possibility of acoustic farming, where soundscapes become tools for boosting yields and biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-pollinators-to-nectar-robbers">From pollinators to nectar robbers</h2>



The team’s work does not stop with one type of bee. They are now examining how snapdragons react to other visitors, including nectar robbers. These insects take nectar without providing any pollination service. 



The comparisons may reveal whether plants can distinguish helpful insects from freeloaders using sound alone.



“The multitude of ways plants can perceive both biotic factors, such as beneficial and harmful insects, [and] other neighboring plants, and abiotic cues, like temperature, drought, and wind in their surroundings, is truly astonishing,” Barbero said.



This line of inquiry reveals that plants are far more perceptive than we assumed. They do not simply react to light and water. They sense their environment in complex, dynamic ways, including listening to the sounds of insects that surround them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-listen-and-adapt-to-insect-sounds">Flowers listen and adapt to insect sounds</h2>



This innovative research is part of a larger project titled “Good Vibes: How do plants recognise and respond to pollinator vibroacoustic signals,” and it is supported by the Human Frontier Science Program.



It involves multiple international partners: the&nbsp;University of Turin,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.i2sysbio.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">I²SysBio in Valencia</a>, and the&nbsp;Centre for Audio, Acoustics and Vibration at the <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Technology</a>, Sydney.



Their work highlights how sound can be a bridge between species. In a world filled with pesticides, habitat loss, and climate stress, understanding how flowers communicate through vibrations may offer new tools for protecting pollinators and the plants they serve.



Through these discoveries, sound is being given its rightful place in the story of pollination. Flowers, it turns out, are not just beautiful - they are also listeners. And what they hear may shape their survival.



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Flowers 'hear' bee sounds and make sweeter nectar in response

In terms of pollination, much of the spotlight shines on...

Native bees need our attention. These tiny wonders pollinate flowers that we cherish, support a variety of ecosystems, and ensure plants survive for future generations.



Their presence is closely tied to our everyday <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20188434/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-being</a>, from the fruit on our plates to the wildflowers that decorate natural habitats.



“Every single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> is a unique product of evolution, like a work of art,” noted Dr. Kit Prendergast, a pollination ecologist at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a>. There is a growing focus on researchers who study native bees in Australia.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-bees-reflect-nature-s-diversity">Native bees reflect nature’s diversity</h2>



Some scientists discover their calling at a young age. For Dr. Prendergast, an early fascination with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-are-the-latest-victims-of-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> sparked a lifelong interest in biodiversity.



She considered academic research the perfect path to protect wildlife. Her excitement only grows when describing how native bees can be key players in maintaining healthy ecosystems.



The motivation to protect native bees also comes from human connections. People sometimes think of pollinators only in terms of honey bees, but each <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26621730/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native species</a> has different habits, special nesting needs, and distinct floral preferences.



Highlighting these differences invites more people to see the broader picture of biodiversity, from small solitary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> to those that nest in timber or hollow stems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-bees-in-australian-ecosystems">Native bees in Australian ecosystems</h2>



Australia is often celebrated for its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-vision-reveals-a-hidden-world-that-we-cannot-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>, yet not everyone realizes the importance out pollinator diversity. These insects help fertilize both native and cultivated plants across dry forests, grassy meadows, and coastal zones.



They interact with specific blossoms that honey bees may ignore, allowing countless wildflowers to flourish. Preserving these native pollinators can keep entire food webs in balance, which ultimately affects birds, reptiles, and even soil quality.



Some local bees can excel in pollination scenarios that honey bees struggle with. Certain plant families are more efficiently pollinated by small, solitary foragers that visit blooms in the morning or in cooler conditions.



Well-adapted native species can pick up where introduced honey bees leave off. This complementary <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Native_Bees_on_Wildflowers_in_Western_Au.html?id=4tsuAAAACAAJ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> helps maintain a healthy variety of flowering plants across wide areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-bee-species-has-a-role-in-nature">Every bee species has a role in nature</h2>



Is it worth worrying about pollinators beyond honey bees? Every species contributes to nature’s balance in one way or another.



Some native bees provide specialized services to rare plants, while others are more general and visit flowers in gardens or along city walkways. Their presence can indicate the overall health of the environment.



Bee scientists see these creatures as part of a larger puzzle, with each species representing a different piece. This variety strengthens local ecosystems, giving them a better chance to withstand climate shifts or invasive plants.



In turn, that resilience often benefits human activities like gardening, farming, and landscape restoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-support-bee-communities">Simple ways to support bee communities</h2>



A mix of local flowering plants is a good step for those who want to help. Gardens with diverse blooms, especially plants indigenous to a region, give native insects a reliable buffet.



Avoiding pesticides also helps, because chemical sprays may harm not just unwanted pests but also the gentle pollinators that pass through each day.



Experts advise caution about backyard honey bee hives. A hive can be fun for hobbyists, yet its inhabitants may add stress to surrounding native bees by competing for nectar and pollen.



Broadening floral resources can reduce that strain, but a thoughtful approach to hive placement helps keep things balanced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-native-bees-and-biodiversity">Protecting native bees and biodiversity</h2>



Some of the strongest voices for native pollinators are motivated by a desire to guard Australia’s unique biodiversity. The country is known for unusual species that are found nowhere else, and wild bees are no exception.



They are cornerstones of many delicate habitats and can signal changes in local environments if their numbers dip too low. Noticing such shifts early allows for protective measures before problems spiral into larger crises.



Dr. Prendergast studies how to safeguard these important insects. Her <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1508958/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> aims to create pollinator-friendly spaces in both urban and rural settings.



Collaboration among neighbors, councils, and farmers can lighten the load on those small pollinators that might otherwise vanish from certain spots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-saving-honey-bees-is-not-enough">Why saving honey bees is not enough</h2>



Some folks believe that honey bees are at risk worldwide. Scientists stress that managed honey bees, while facing diseases and pests, are often better supported than wild species.



In many cases, feral honey bees outcompete local pollinators for food, which can reduce diversity around flowering sites. When people assume saving honey bees alone solves pollinator troubles, they overlook the wide range of other pollinator species.



Educational outreach is also a focus for researchers. Clear messages on how backyard actions can add up to a meaningful impact often motivate families, schools, and local groups.



Simple lawn changes, garden expansions, and native hedgerows can gradually boost wild bee numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research-and-hope">Ongoing research and hope</h2>



These studies encourage positive community steps. Polls in many regions show rising public interest in pollinator gardens.



Dr. Prendergast believes that proper knowledge and local action can make a lasting difference. Sometimes, just understanding that insects can share our spaces leads to fresh ideas for gardens, parks, and farms.



Support for such research is growing. Though more funding is needed, each new survey or citizen-led project helps uncover ways to protect these pollinators.



By mapping bee habitats, testing different flower mixes, and encouraging nest sites, experts hope to maintain a safe haven for the many tiny species that live among us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uniting-people-and-pollinators">Uniting people and pollinators</h2>



Bridging gaps between science, policy, and public involvement paves the way for healthier environments. Researchers remain eager to expand local pollinator habitats, while citizen groups press for pesticide reductions and nature-friendly landscaping.



When communities come together to protect wild pollinators, they also invest in their own future.



“Once lost, can never be replaced,” said Dr. Prendergast. That warning underscores the serious risk for bee species that fall through the cracks.



Each local species matters in ways we’re still discovering. Preserving native pollinators can be a worthy mission for anyone who cares about vibrant landscapes and stable food resources.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1508958/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bee Science</a>.



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Backyard bee hives compete with native bees for resources

Native bees need our attention. These tiny wonders pollinate flowers...

Dogs aren’t the only animals that seem curious about melodies. Birds sway to rhythms, cows gather near speakers, and even cats perk up when they hear familiar tunes.&nbsp;Some zoo animals have even been seen responding to background music with calmer behavior or increased play. 



From barns to living rooms to enclosures, animals across species seem to pick up on patterns and tones that affect how they feel.



Dr. Katrina Meinkoth, an assistant professor at <a href="https://go.okstate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oklahoma State University</a>’s College of Veterinary Medicine, found that gentle music helped her own anxious dog settle down. 



She was surprised to discover that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">certain harmonies</a> may reduce nervous pacing and whining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-helps-animals-stay-calm">Music helps animals stay calm</h2>



Mild background music appears to reduce sudden startles in many animals. A 2017 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28093218/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> from the <a href="https://www.gla.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Glasgow</a> revealed that dogs exposed to certain songs had lower cortisol levels and steadier heart rate variability.



The results align with older <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/ufaw/aw/2002/00000011/00000004/art00002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> from <a href="https://www.queensu.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen’s University</a> in Belfast, where soft classical pieces triggered calmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-brain-plays-our-behaviors-like-a-music-box/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> and less barking in kenneled dogs. 



Some veterinarians suggest that these gentle tunes can mask jarring background noises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-affects-large-and-small-animals">Music affects large and small animals</h2>



Slow tempo chords can also influence farm species. Several <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/laban.162" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a> hint that dairy cows produce more milk in calm settings with soothing melodies.



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347550706_Effects_of_long-term_exposure_to_music_on_behaviour_immunity_and_performance_of_piglets" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swine</a> show interest in audio played at moderate volumes, though fast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-music-help-plants-grow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhythms</a> sometimes boost their restlessness. For shelter animals, stable background tunes can lessen reactivity and help staff manage daily chores.



Small pets often respond to familiar pitches. Parrots and parakeets have been documented bobbing heads or becoming more alert when they hear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-causes-similar-emotional-experiences-and-sensations-in-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">certain tunes</a>.



Studies in laboratory settings have noted that sudden noise spikes cause birds to startle, but consistent lower-pitch chords can <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8472833/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduce fear responses</a>. This calmer state might promote better feeding patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pitch-and-tempo-matter">Pitch and tempo matter</h2>



Gorillas and elephants in captivity sometimes appear more relaxed with select <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music playing</a>, though researchers emphasize the importance of volume and tempo. 



A <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-16424-001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> of captive elephants found fewer repetitive motions during soft classical pieces.



In zoo habitats, moderate tones can provide a distraction from loud visitors. It is still unclear how often playlists should change, since repeated exposure may lead to boredom in some species.



Some scientists propose that animals do not perceive all musical elements the way humans do. A review at the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> reported that animals appear to respond most positively to lower pitches and slower tempo.



These structural details may mirror natural vocal calls and help regulate emotional states. Pets or captive creatures under stress might settle more quickly when they hear a style of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a> that matches their hearing range.



High-volume music can agitate skittish animals. Volume spikes or heavy metal may raise tension and spark pacing or vocal outbursts.



Experts warn that continuous loud tracks might block meaningful signals animals rely on, such as subtle calls or caretaker cues. Keeping a balanced decibel level can maintain a calm backdrop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-animals-respond-to-live-music">How animals respond to live music </h2>



<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/posts/nibu-thomas_amazing-how-music-catches-attention-and-activity-7329346628237123585-np-z?utm_medium=ios_app&amp;rcm=ACoAACAhL9IBs9K5RHCqoSxjuR2WPJHF0BZJDsM&amp;utm_source=social_share_video_v2&amp;utm_campaign=copy_link" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Several videos have surfaced</a> on social media and video platforms showing animals approaching live music performances, even when a person is physically present and playing the instrument.



In many of these clips, animals such as elephants, horses, cats, or even wild deer appear to be drawn toward musicians playing guitar, piano, violin, or flute in outdoor or barnyard settings.&nbsp;



The animals often stand still, approach slowly, or display relaxed body language, suggesting curiosity or calmness in response to the live sound. 



While anecdotal, these moments have captured widespread attention and add to growing public interest in how animals respond to music made in real time by humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-custom-music-for-each-species">Custom music for each species </h2>



Some animals show no reaction to ordinary human songs. However, targeted “species-appropriate” music uses frequencies close to each animal’s own calls.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> observed that specially composed <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016815911500060X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cat music</a> drew more interest from felines than standard classical tunes. This concept might extend to other species with unique vocal ranges.



Gradual exposure is often best. Start with short sessions of gentle harmonies at a moderate level.



If an animal shows signs of increased rest or decreased agitation, the chosen style may be working. Watch closely for signs of stress, such as panting, freezing, or attempts to flee the area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-calming-music-wisely">Use calming music wisely</h2>



Not every animal needs constant sound. For some, bursts of mellow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-music-can-heal-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music can soothe</a> anxious behaviors, especially in new or chaotic environments.



Farm caretakers sometimes rotate playlists to maintain novelty and keep animals engaged. Each environment has unique acoustic challenges, so small adjustments can make a big difference.



Owners can experiment with classical, reggae, or specially crafted pieces, checking for calmer posture or quieter vocalizations. Veterinary behaviorists suggest playing music while leaving the house or during events like <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/dog-scared-of-thunder/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>.



For wild species in sanctuaries, short intervals may reduce monotony and help staff with medical or feeding routines. The immediate payoff is often fewer stress-related issues among the animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-moves-all-forms-of-life">Music moves all forms of life</h2>



Music will not fix every problem, but it might bring a welcome shift in many creatures’ routines. 



Domestic pets, farm animals, and exotics all show varied responses, yet the shared theme is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/classical-music-orchestrates-a-mood-lifting-dance-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improved well-being</a> when the notes hit the right frequency.



The key is to remain open to each animal’s signals. A small dose of tunes and a careful eye on behavior can reveal surprising benefits.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28093218/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physiology &amp; Behavior</a>.



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Music reduces anxiety in dogs, cats, and most other animal species

Dogs aren’t the only animals that seem curious about melodies....

Team,Of,Ants,Delivers,Red,Currant,With,Trailer,Of,Sunflower

Sneaking aboard a minivan or clinging to the bumper of a delivery truck, small creatures like ants hitch rides on cars every day for long-distance trips across continents.



Tires roll through soil, doors brush against tree limbs, and before anyone notices, a living stowaway is on its way to a brand-new zip code. 



Seeds, moth eggs, and even mosquitoes have taken advantage of this free transit, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> may be the most surprising passengers of all.



Those trips can reshape local nature. 



When a species lands far from its old haunts, it meets plants and animals that have never learned to handle its tricks. Some newcomers fizzle out, yet others spread fast and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-few-ants-can-change-an-entire-colonys-social-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shove resident species aside</a>. 



Hitchhiking turns vehicles, built for human convenience, into silent partners in a biological shuffle that plays out across parking lots and interstates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-invading-by-cars">Ants invading by cars</h2>



After watching ants scurry onto car tires in Taipei, entomologist Scotty Yang, an assistant professor in Virginia Tech’s <a href="https://www.ento.vt.edu/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Entomology</a>, decided to document the behavior. 



Between 2017 and 2023, he logged nine species hitching rides on everyday vehicles; seven were invasive in the places where they appeared. His notes mark the first systematic look at ants using personal cars as moving vans.



Seeds have hung on for rides of well over 200 miles, and the spongy moth is infamous for planting eggs on freight containers. 



Tiger mosquitoes have been spotted inside cars cruising across Spain. Ants add another twist: whole colonies, queen included, can march up a tire and disappear under the chassis before the driver turns the key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-on-wheels">Citizen science on wheels</h2>



Yang’s project leaned on social-media posts from drivers around Taiwan who snapped photos of cars suddenly coated in ants. 



“We saw social-media posts where people were devastated about finding their cars covered in ants,” Yang said. “Although we felt sorry for them, we wanted to examine whether these events had anything in common.” 



Reports poured in about ghost ants, black cocoa ants, and several other species. Observers recorded the month, the weather, the type of car, how long it had been parked, and how many insects they counted.



Patterns emerged. 



A successful trip required three conditions: the insects had to climb the vehicle’s surface, the colony needed to be in a restless foraging or nesting mood, and the chosen nook - often a wheel well - had to remain within their preferred temperature range. 



When all three boxes were ticked, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">family of ants</a> could roll out like seasoned travelers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-invasive-ants-on-cars-matter">Why invasive ants on cars matter</h2>



In a new neighborhood, invasive ants tangle with local species for every crumb and hiding place. Native insects often lose those fights, and the dominoes keep falling. Birds, reptiles, and small mammals that rely on the displaced insects go hungry. 



Some ants act as bodyguards for plant-sucking pests that drip sugary honeydew, allowing the pests to damage crops longer than usual.



Urban life does not escape the trouble. Large colonies can swarm kitchens, chew insulation, or short-circuit traffic lights. 



Farmers face yield losses when ants protect sap-sipping bugs in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchards and fields</a>, while homeowners pay for repairs after surprising electrical outages. 



Each unplanned trip in a car, then, is more than an odd anecdote; it is a potential spark for ecological and economic headaches that can stretch for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-team-learned">What the team learned</h2>



Of the 100 worst invasive species on the planet, five are ants, and two of those - the red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-red-fire-ants-have-made-their-way-to-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">imported fire ant</a> and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Argentine ant</a> - are already established in Virginia. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-not-properly-adapting-to-warming-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer winters</a> over the past decade have let both inch farther north. 



Yang warns that casual rides in pickup trucks and family SUVs could speed that push. Personal vehicles, once dismissed as biologically unimportant, might be handing these tough insects fresh territory one rest-area stop at a time.



Virginia’s experience serves as a cautionary note for the broader Eastern United States. If motorists keep arriving from infested zones without checking their fenders and cargo, colonies can pop up beyond their previous limits. 



Yang hopes to launch a citizen-science network similar to the Taiwanese project so residents can flag outbreaks early, long before fire ants find a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-ants-use-earths-magnetic-field-for-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foothold in new counties</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-check-your-car-for-ants">Check your car for ants</h2>



Drivers can cut the odds of giving ants a lift. Parking away from overgrown curbs, brushing loose soil from tires, and rinsing wheel wells after off-road jaunts help deny the insects a foothold. 



On long trips, a quick inspection during fuel stops catches roving workers before they settle in.



Communities can pitch in, too. Local extension offices may distribute identification cards, while schools host weekend “bug check” events in parking lots. 



Early warnings from sharp-eyed citizens let pest managers respond before an ant metropolis takes root. Each small action, repeated by thousands of travelers, keeps one more invasive colony from racing down the highway.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/een.13336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Entomology</a>.



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Invasive ants have found a new way to spread across the globe

Sneaking aboard a minivan or clinging to the bumper of...

Sharks have glided through oceans for more than 450 million years, relying on skeletons made not of bone but of stiff, mineralised cartilage.



Their vertebral columns act like coiled springs, storing and releasing energy with every tail beat, even as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-threaten-electric-sensitive-sharks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> reach speeds of twenty miles per hour or vault clear of the water in spinning leaps.



Scientists have long known that this mechanical efficiency stems from a cleverly reinforced spine, yet only now are researchers imaging those reinforcements at the nanoscale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-cartilage-in-3d">Mapping cartilage in 3D</h2>



A team from <a href="https://www.fau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU), the <a href="https://www.desy.de/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Electron Synchrotron</a> (DESY), and <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a> used synchrotron X-ray nanotomography to map the internal architecture of blacktip shark vertebrae in three dimensions.



They paired scans with mechanical tests, squeezing tiny segments while tracking how they bent and cracked. The images revealed two layers inside the mineralized cartilage: a hard outer shell (corpus calcareum) and a softer inner core (intermediale).



Both zones are packed with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> fibers infused with bioapatite, the same calcium-phosphate mineral that stiffens human bone. Yet their arrangements differ.



Porous plates of mineralized tissue are supported by thick struts, allowing the shark skeleton to resist forces from many directions. This is essential for an animal that swims continuously and bends its body thousands of times each hour.



At even higher magnification, the scientists saw needles of bioapatite aligned with the collagen strands. They also discovered helically wound fiber layers that resemble plywood on a microscopic scale. 



Under load, those helices hinder cracks from running unchecked, distributing stress through a web of stiff mineral and stretchy protein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-recipe-for-resilience">Nature’s recipe for resilience</h2>



Study senior author Vivian Merk is an assistant professor of chemistry, ocean and mechanical engineering, and biomedical engineering at FAU.



“Nature builds remarkably strong materials by combining minerals with biological polymers, such as collagen - a process known as biomineralization," said Merk. "This strategy allows creatures like shrimp, crustaceans, and even humans to develop tough, resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-coral-skeletons-prevent-reefs-from-recovering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skeletons</a>.”



“Sharks are a striking example. Their mineral-reinforced spines work like springs, flexing and storing energy as they swim. By learning how they build such tough yet adaptable skeletons, we hope to inspire the design of next-generation materials.”



Under compression, vertebrae yielded slightly on the first cycle and cracked only after a second round of stress. Even then, the fracture plane remained confined to one mineral layer, evidence that the helices and porous scaffolds localize damage rather than letting it propagate.



“After hundreds of millions of years of evolution, we can now finally see how shark cartilage works at the nanoscale - and learn from them,” said co-author Marianne Porter, an associate professor of biological sciences at FAU.



“We’re discovering how tiny mineral structures and collagen fibers come together to create a material that’s both strong and flexible, perfectly adapted for a shark’s powerful swimming. These insights could help us design better materials by following nature’s blueprint.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-skeletons-inspire-design">Shark skeletons inspire design</h2>



Blacktip sharks roam warm coastal waters worldwide. Their quick turns and aerial spins place punishing loads on the spine, making them ideal models for impact-resistant design. 



The layered “sharkitecture” identified in the study could guide the development of everything from lighter body armor to longer-lasting joint implants.



“This research highlights the power of interdisciplinary collaboration,” said Stella Batalama, dean of FAU’s College of Engineering and Computer Science. “By bringing together engineers, biologists, and materials scientists, we’ve uncovered how nature builds strong yet flexible materials.”



“The layered, fiber-reinforced structure of shark cartilage offers a compelling model for high-performance, resilient design, which holds promise for developing advanced materials from medical implants to impact-resistant gear.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cartilage-wins-in-evolution">Cartilage wins in evolution</h2>



Unlike bony fish, sharks never switch to a calcium-phosphate skeleton during development. Their cartilaginous framework, reinforced by bioapatite only at strategic sites, saves weight without sacrificing stiffness.



The new nanoscale images suggest evolution achieved that balance through multiscale ordering. Collagen fibrils form bundles, which twist into helices. These helices embed in mineral plates, which then stack into porous columns that combine load-bearing strength with flexibility.



Because collagen and bioapatite are common to many vertebrates, the principles observed in sharks could be translated to human health.



Engineers might mimic the helical layering to make fracture-resistant composites, or apply the plate-and-strut motif to maximize strength while retaining lightness in aerospace parts.



Surgeons could one day use customized implants modeled on shark cartilage to promote bone integration and reduce fatigue failure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-tech-from-the-deep">Shark tech from the deep</h2>



The study adds to a growing inventory of marine organisms whose microstructures inspire technology, from manta-ray-inspired filters to cephalopod-inspired <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">camouflage</a>. Shark spines now join that list, revealing how evolution transforms humble ingredients - protein and mineral - into a mechanical masterpiece.



Further research will probe other species, life stages, and environmental stresses. Mixed-phase cartilage from hammerheads or deep-sea lantern sharks may reveal different configurations tuned to unique swimming styles or pressure regimes.



Each discovery will refine the emerging field of deep-sea biomimetics, where ancient adaptations inform tomorrow’s materials. 



For engineers seeking to reconcile strength, flexibility, and damage tolerance, few tutors rival the blacktip shark. It has been perfected by 450 million years of relentless motion through saltwater and time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.5c02004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Nano</a>.



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Shark skeletons could lead to technological innovations

Sharks have glided through oceans for more than 450 million...

A massive exploration of ocean life has revealed 866 new species that most people never knew existed. This achievement ranks among the largest efforts ever to document organisms dwelling in some of the most secluded underwater zones.



Many surprises have surfaced from <a href="https://oceancensus.org/publications/press-release-the-ocean-census-discovers-over-800-new-marine-species/?ftag=YHF4eb9d17" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these findings</a>, including a curious new guitar shark species. 



This creature was first recorded at approximately 650 feet below the surface by <a href="https://mlml.sjsu.edu/research-faculty/david-ebert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Ebert</a>, the “Lost Shark Guy” from the Pacific Shark Research Center at Moss Landing Marine Laboratories (<a href="https://mlml.sjsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MLML</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-marine-species-among-ocean-life">Hidden marine species among ocean life</h2>



“The ocean covers 71% of our planet, yet it is said that only around 10% of marine life has been discovered so far, leaving an estimated 1-2 million species still undocumented," said Executive Director <a href="https://oceancensus.org/team-member/mitsuyuku-unno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mitsuyuki Unno</a> of <a href="https://www.nippon-foundation.or.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Nippon Foundation</a> representing the founding partner of the Ocean Census. "



"These latest findings demonstrate how international collaboration can advance our understanding of ocean biodiversity."



Experts say learning about unexplored species can spark fresh approaches to conservation. Documenting them quickly is critical since cataloguing can take over a decade, which creates risks for vulnerable marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/filter-feeders-transform-microplastics-into-a-bigger-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-snail-with-hidden-value">A snail with hidden value</h2>



A standout discovery involves the turrid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-yellow-margarita-snails-discovered-in-florida-keys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gastropods</a> known as Turridrupa magnifica. It was found between about 650 and 1,600 feet in waters off New Caledonia and Vanuatu. 



Scientists note these snails carry venomous barbs used to capture prey, and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17932414/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">related snail compounds</a> have inspired pain relief drugs, including some tested for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-cancer-cells-have-a-molecular-switch-that-could-be-rewired-to-behave-normally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> treatment.



Its potential medical applications symbolize the practical significance of identifying new lifeforms. 



Locating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-tree-snake-with-completely-black-eyes-is-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare species</a> can lead to breakthroughs in human health, especially if researchers can examine the biochemical secrets behind their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fresh-octocoral-in-the-maldives">A fresh octocoral in the Maldives</h2>



A newly found Octocoral genus in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drowning-mangroves-climate-change-is-pushing-nature-past-its-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maldives</a> drew excitement from specialists at the Maldives Marine Research Institute. 



This is the first known record of its type in that area. <a href="https://www.abebooks.com/Shallow-Water-Octocorallia-West-Indian-Region-Manual/31967855712/bd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Octocorals</a> help shore up reef structures and create habitats for countless fish and invertebrates.



Additional research could clarify how these corals protect shorelines from erosion and benefit local fisheries. They highlight the functional roles that relatively unknown organisms can play in underwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ecosystem-sea-creatures-never-before-seen-revealed-antarctica-iceberg-breakup/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-new-marine-species">Understanding the new marine species</h2>



“Too many species remain in limbo for years because the process of formally describing them is too slow," stated <a href="https://oceancensus.org/team-member/prof-lucy-woodall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Lucy Woodall</a>, Head of Science at <a href="https://oceancensus.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Census</a>.



"We urgently need to change that and adding the Species Discovery step gives us a way to rapidly start the process. Every new species - whether a shark or a sponge - deepens our understanding of marine ecosystems and the benefits they provide for the planet.” 



Taxonomists are taking new steps to expedite this framework by adding interim documentation. The <a href="https://dataplatform.oceancensus.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Census Biodiversity Data Platform</a> allows researchers and the public to see entries while more detailed scientific descriptions continue behind the scenes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-global-mission">Refining the global mission</h2>



“We’ve pioneered new methods, forged key partnerships, established a global network of participating scientists, and overcome the hurdles of a truly global mission," said <a href="https://oceancensus.org/team-member/oliver-steeds-obe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oliver Steeds</a>, Director of the Ocean Census.&nbsp; 



Steeds also suggests, "We are laying the groundwork to make large-scale species discovery a reality, but our impact will ultimately be determined by how this knowledge is used to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-have-spillover-benefits-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protection</a>, climate adaptation, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-leaks-conservation-efforts-may-shift-harm-elsewhere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity conservation</a>."



Leaders of the Ocean Census maintain that collaborative strategies are vital. Collective efforts from more than 400 institutions feed into this decentralized network. 



By grouping different skill sets and resources, they cut the time required to identify new lifeforms in waters from the tropics to the icy poles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uniting-innovators-and-organizations">Uniting innovators and organizations</h2>



“<a href="https://schmidtocean.org/">Schmidt Oc</a><a href="https://schmidtocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e</a><a href="https://schmidtocean.org/">an Institute</a> is proud to be a partner of the Ocean Census, whose strength lies in its vast network," said Executive Director of Schmidt Ocean Institute, <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/person/dr-jyotika-virmani/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jyotika Virmani</a>.



"By uniting governments, philanthropic supporters, and leading marine research organizations, we can accelerate the discovery of ocean life at an unprecedented scale,” 



Research institutes, philanthropic foundations, and government agencies are aligning to explore areas that have never been systematically sampled. 



These partnerships allow scientists to map remote habitats with advanced tools, gather specimens with submersibles, and build shared databases for faster and more accurate species registration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-ocean-and-marine-life">Looking ahead: Ocean and marine life</h2>



The campaign plans to keep expanding its scope. More expeditions and workshops are slated for 2025, stretching from the Pacific to the Indian and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Oceans</a>. 



Their findings will funnel into the network’s biodiversity platform, reinforcing collective knowledge of hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-cool-the-climate-more-than-previously-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> life.



Experts stress the importance of channeling these discoveries into actions that protect fragile habitats. 



Once researchers confirm a species, that opens doors for environmental policies tailored to safeguard threatened populations or preserve essential ocean corridors.



New developments at the frontier of taxonomy also create opportunities for local communities. 



Some of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-antarctic-waters-are-cooling-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> serve as essential fishing grounds, so tracking new inhabitants can shed light on how to maintain long-term sustainability.



This study was published in the <a href="https://oceancensus.org/publications/press-release-the-ocean-census-discovers-over-800-new-marine-species/?ftag=YHF4eb9d17" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Census</a>. 



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Guitar-shaped ray species, discovered for the first time, lives in the deep ocean

A massive exploration of ocean life has revealed 866 new...

The ocean hosts bizarre organisms, but this newly studied worm outshines most oddities. It thrives in hidden spaces inside certain sea sponges.



A global team has now produced the first detailed map of this worm’s genetic activity. This work was led by Dr. Guillermo Ponz-Segrelles at IES El Burgo-Ignacio-Echeverría in Madrid, working with the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-worm-grows-many-branches">Marine worm grows many branches</h2>



Experts call this creature <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13127-021-00538-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ramisyllis kingghidorahi</a>. It has one anterior region but can form multiple body extensions that spread through its sponge host.



Each extension contains full sets of organs, yet they all connect back to the same head. Researchers say this arrangement creates hundreds of potential sites for reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-control-depends-on-body-part">Gene control depends on body part</h2>



The study measured which genes turn on in different body parts. More variation appeared between the head, midsection, and reproductive zones than between male and female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-animals-swim-at-the-perfect-depth-to-save-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a>.



That suggests body location matters more for genetic control than sex does. Yet the reproductive segments still showed distinct patterns when comparing males and females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-worm-s-midsection">Marine worm’s midsection</h2>



Unlike the head or reproductive segments, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-like-marine-life-found-on-underwater-mountains-includes-100-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worm’s midbody</a> showed very little unique genetic activity. This region had fewer upregulated genes, suggesting it may serve mainly as a passive conduit between active zones.



What’s puzzling is that, in female worms, the midbody still showed distinct expression patterns when compared to males and non-reproductive individuals.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/worm_Ramisyllis-kingghidorahi_male-stolen_credit-BMC-Genomics_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/worm_Ramisyllis-kingghidorahi_male-stolen_credit-BMC-Genomics_1s.webp" alt="Ramisyllis kingghidorahi Male stolon (right hand side): one of the independent reproductive units—growing at the tip of a branch of the worm's body. It has sprouted eyes and will go swimming free to find a stolon of the opposite sex with which to reproduce. The research showed stolons showed localized upregulation of genes related to eye development. Length of the stolon: approx. 1.5 millimeters. Credit: BMC Genomics" class="wp-image-1970650"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Ramisyllis kingghidorahi Male stolon (right hand side): one of the independent reproductive units—growing at the tip of a branch of the worm's body. It has sprouted eyes and will go swimming free to find a stolon of the opposite sex with which to reproduce. The research showed stolons showed localized upregulation of genes related to eye development. Length of the stolon: approx. 1.5 millimeters. Click image to enlarge. Credit: BMC Genomics</figcaption></figure>



The reason for this is unclear, and scientists believe future work will be needed to figure out what, if anything, the midbody contributes to reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-each-part-shows-focused-gene-activity">Each part shows focused gene activity</h2>



Scientists report that these worms seem to juggle shared anatomy with focused gene <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-impacts-marine-life-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> in each section. 



Investigators also note that<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sparkling-worm-discovered-deep-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> male and female worms</a> both rely on key signals, although each sex shows subtle differences in reproductive regions.



Molecular data indicate that many standard body processes are shared, even if actual egg or sperm production diverges. This insight reshapes how specialists think about mature segments



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-marine-worms-activate-more-genes">Female marine worms activate more genes</h2>



Across every body region, female worms showed the most distinct patterns of gene expression. 



Their reproductive segments, midbodies, and even heads activated more unique genes than those of males or non-reproductive individuals.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/worm_Ramisyllis-kingghidorahi_female-stolen-eggs_credit-Autonomous-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/worm_Ramisyllis-kingghidorahi_female-stolen-eggs_credit-Autonomous-University_1s.webp" alt="Close-up of female stolen – one of the independent reproductive units – from the worm Ramisyllis kingghidorahi. It has already sprouted eyes and is swimming free to find a stolon of the opposite sex with which to reproduce. Total length of the stolon: approx. 1.5 millimeters. Credit: Maria Teresa Aguado and Guillermo Ponz-Segrelles" class="wp-image-1970648"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Close-up of female stolen – one of the independent reproductive units – from the worm Ramisyllis kingghidorahi. It has already sprouted eyes and is swimming free to find a stolon of the opposite sex with which to reproduce. Total length of the stolon: approx. 1.5 millimeters. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Maria Teresa Aguado and Guillermo Ponz-Segrelles</figcaption></figure>



This might mean that developing female stolons requires a more complex genetic process. It could also reflect earlier or more intense reproductive activity, though the exact reason for this stronger gene response is still unclear. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-hormones-barely-showed-up">Reproductive hormones barely showed up</h2>



Researchers expected to see strong genetic signals related to known reproductive hormones like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305049196003379" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methyl farnesoate</a>, dopamine, and serotonin. But those signals were weak or almost absent in the data.



One explanation is that these hormones may act earlier in the worm’s development, before the stage when samples were collected. 



Another possibility is that Ramisyllis kingghidorahi uses a different set of molecular tools entirely, which would set it apart from its relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-worm-genome-duplication">Marine worm genome duplication</h2>



Some genetic patterns hint at a deeper evolutionary backstory. Researchers found signs that Ramisyllis kingghidorahi may have experienced partial genome duplication in its past.



This duplication could help explain the worm’s high number of active genes across different body parts. If confirmed, it might also reveal how this species evolved such a complex reproductive system compared to its unbranched relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-on-every-reproductive-unit">Eyes on every reproductive unit</h2>



Each specialized reproductive segment, or <a href="https://forages.oregonstate.edu/regrowth/how-does-grass-grow/developmental-phases/vegetative-phase/rhizomes-and-stolons" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stolon</a>, sprouts temporary eyes before it separates. These eyes likely help the stolons navigate for mating.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/worm-brainching_Ramisyllis-kingghidorahi_sponge_credit-BMC-Genomics_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/worm-brainching_Ramisyllis-kingghidorahi_sponge_credit-BMC-Genomics_1s.webp" alt="The branching worm, Ramisyllis kingghidorahi, at home. This sponge is its underwater natural habitat. Credit: BMC Genomics" class="wp-image-1970652"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The branching worm, Ramisyllis kingghidorahi, at home. This sponge is its underwater natural habitat. Click image to enlarge. Credit: BMC Genomics</figcaption></figure>



This unusual adaptation highlights the worm’s skill at sensing its surroundings. Researchers hope further experiments will reveal how these newly formed eyes develop in such a short time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-decides-when-to-reproduce">Who decides when to reproduce?</h2>



One of the biggest mysteries is how a single anterior end, essentially one head, can control hundreds of reproductive sites. Even more confusing, not all of the worm’s branches produce stolons at the same time.



The study suggests that some branches might receive different signals or respond at different times, but the exact trigger remains unknown. 



Scientists are still trying to figure out what cues cause some branches to go ahead and create stolons while others stay dormant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-worm-s-control-system-is-still-unclear">Marine worm’s control system is still unclear</h2>



“We were surprised to find that the head of the worm, which was previously thought to house a sex-specific control system, didn’t show the dramatic differences we expected between males and females,” said Dr Guillermo Ponz-Segrelles, former researcher at the <a href="https://www.uam.es/uam/inicio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Autonomous University of Madrid</a>. 



With each new revelation, the puzzle of how these worms fine-tune such a strange body plan keeps growing.



Scientists suggest that further work with advanced genomic methods could reveal more about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-marine-worms-found-living-under-the-ocean-floor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine invertebrates</a> adapt to intricate symbiotic habitats. 



Such data might also offer deeper insights into the evolution of reproductive strategies among annelids.



The study is published in <a href="https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12864-025-11587-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Genomics</a>.



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One head of this worm controls hundreds of bodies for one of the world's strangest creatures

The ocean hosts bizarre organisms, but this newly studied worm...

Somewhere, right now, a bee pollinates a flower. A bird builds a nest from twigs. A fungus helps a tree breathe. Most of us don’t notice these moments - but life depends on them. That's why the International Day for Biological Diversity was established.



Each year, May 22 reminds us of something deep and often forgotten. We are not separate from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-pressure-is-changing-biodiversity-faster-than-we-realize/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. We are part of it. Cities may rise, and technologies may evolve, but the soil beneath our feet and the forests in the distance sustain all life.



The International Day for Biological Diversity is more than a date. It’s a wake-up call. The campaign urges us to protect the rich web of life on Earth - before it unravels.



This year's theme, “Harmony with nature and sustainable development,” captures the need for balance. It’s about shifting from dominance to coexistence. As we race toward growth and innovation, we must also pause and ask - what are we leaving behind?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-biological-diversity-really-means">What biological diversity really means</h2>



Biodiversity means variety - not just of animals, but of plants, microorganisms, and entire ecosystems. It covers coral reefs, mountain ranges, lakes, deserts, grasslands, and even urban green spaces.



Biodiversity also includes the genetic differences between species - like the many kinds of rice we eat or the thousands of breeds of livestock around the world.



Every part of biodiversity plays a role. Forests purify air. Wetlands filter water. Bees pollinate crops. Microorganisms maintain soil fertility. These functions keep our planet alive. 



Losing biodiversity isn’t just about losing animals. It’s about weakening the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">system</a> we depend on every day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-diversity-supports-life">Biological diversity supports life </h2>



We often forget how much our lives depend on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. Over 80% of the human diet comes from plants. Fish provide protein for about 3 billion people. 



Plant-based medicines are still the first line of healthcare for 80% of people in rural areas of developing countries.



Biodiversity also influences weather patterns, regulates disease, and supports mental well-being. Time spent in biodiverse environments - forests, gardens, mountains - reduces stress and improves health. 



The natural world is not a luxury. It is the foundation of everything we know.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-damage-we-have-done">The damage we have done</h2>



Despite its importance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> is under severe threat. Human actions have changed three-quarters of land-based environments. Two-thirds of marine environments are also affected. One million animal and plant species are now at risk of extinction.



Pollution, deforestation, overfishing, habitat destruction, and climate change are driving this crisis. Many species are vanishing before we even discover them. 



We lose potential medicines, crop varieties, and ecosystem functions every time a species disappears. This is not just a nature problem. It’s a human survival problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-biological-diversity">Protecting biological diversity</h2>



In December 2022, countries around the world agreed on a new plan - the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. 



This plan sets 23 targets for 2030 and five overarching goals for 2050. Among them: restore 20% of degraded ecosystems and cut the spread of invasive species by 50%.



The framework connects biodiversity with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For example, preserving forests helps fight poverty, ensures clean water, and mitigates climate change. Healthy ecosystems are essential to reaching nearly every SDG.



The message is clear: biodiversity and development must progress together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-is-running-out">Time is running out</h2>



The urgency is real. We have less than five years until 2030 targets become unreachable. Delaying action could push us past ecological tipping points. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-earths-biodiversity-can-be-tracked-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">damage</a> will be irreversible. Species don’t come back. Forests don’t regrow overnight. Oceans don’t heal in a year.



Education, innovation, and collaboration are vital. Governments must invest in conservation. Businesses must reduce waste and rethink supply chains. 



Communities must protect local biodiversity. Individuals must reconsider consumption habits. Every decision - big or small - carries weight in this global effort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-domino-effect-of-biodiversity-loss">Domino effect of biodiversity loss</h2>



Biodiversity loss triggers a chain reaction. When insects vanish, pollination falters. Without pollination, crops fail. Without crops, food security crumbles. That’s how delicate the balance is. One missing piece causes others to fall.



This phenomenon affects climate systems, migration patterns, disease outbreaks, and even global economics. 



For instance, as habitats shrink, animals move closer to human settlements. This increases the risk of zoonotic diseases - like COVID-19. Maintaining biodiversity isn’t just an environmental goal. It’s a health safeguard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-awareness-about-biodiversity">Raising awareness about biodiversity</h2>



Living in harmony with nature means respecting limits. It means learning from ecosystems, not conquering them. Indigenous communities worldwide have practiced this for centuries. Their wisdom is now more relevant than ever.



Urban areas can embrace biodiversity too. Green rooftops, urban forests, and restored wetlands show how modern development can align with nature. 



Schools can teach biodiversity from early years. Films, books, and games can spread awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-with-purpose">Celebrate with purpose</h2>



The International Day for Biological Diversity is not just symbolic. It’s a chance to learn, share, and commit. The <a href="https://www.un.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UN</a> offers free online biodiversity courses through the Learning for Nature platform. 



The courses teach skills like green entrepreneurship, conservation storytelling, and data use in policy-making.



Across social media, artists and creators share biodiversity-themed content. Local organizations hold cleanups and workshops. Every conversation sparked today can ripple into real change tomorrow. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-what-protects-us">Protecting what protects us</h2>



We stand at a crossroads. One path leads to more loss, more imbalance, and more suffering. The other offers hope, health, and harmony. The choice is ours.



This International Day for Biological Diversity, let’s remember that the Earth doesn’t need saving from us - it needs saving with us. When we protect biodiversity, we protect ourselves. 



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International Day for Biological Diversity 2025: Bonding with nature

Somewhere, right now, a bee pollinates a flower. A bird...

As oceans warm and coral reefs bleach, marine life must respond fast or disappear. Among the reef's colorful residents, clownfish have shown an unexpected way to survive. These fish, famous from Finding Nemo, shrink their bodies during heatwaves. 



This is not just about losing weight. Clownfish actually reduce their length, and it helps them stay alive.



A new study published in the journal Science Advances documents this discovery. Researchers from <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Newcastle University</a> and partner institutions tracked 134 clownfish in Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea.



The study lasted five lunar months, during a time when water temperatures rose well above average. Researchers measured each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> and recorded the heat they experienced. The results were surprising and important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-shrink-their-bodies-to-survive">Clownfish shrink their bodies to survive</h2>



Shrinking in adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vertebrates</a> is rare. Yet during this study, 71 percent of dominant females and 79 percent of subordinate males shrank at least once. Most of these shrinkages happened during a single lunar month. 



However, 41 percent of the fish shrank more than once. These were not accidents or isolated events. The response was consistent and widespread.



“This is not just about getting skinnier under stressful conditions, these fish are actually getting shorter. We don’t know yet exactly how they do it, but we do know that a few other animals can do this too," noted Melissa Versteeg, the study’s lead author.



"For example, marine iguanas can reabsorb some of their bone material to also shrink during times of environmental stress."



The shrinking was reversible. Some fish even showed catch-up growth later. This reveals a flexible growth system that adjusts based on current conditions. It allows fish to temporarily shrink and then grow again when conditions improve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-higher-ranked-clownfish-shrink-more-often">Higher-ranked clownfish shrink more often</h2>



The chance that a clownfish would shrink depended on its size and its social role. Larger dominant females started shrinking at around 80 mm (about 3.15 inches). Subordinate males began shrinking at about 61 mm (about 2.40 inches). 



Larger fish have higher metabolic needs. Shrinking may help lower those demands during heat stress.



Shrinking also helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-populations-are-boosted-by-ocean-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> manage social tension. Within clownfish pairs, size ratios are important. If those ratios shift too much, conflict can arise. 



Dominant fish were less likely to shrink when their partners were much smaller. This indicates a strategy that balances both physical survival and social peace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-together-helps-fish-survive">Shrinking together helps fish survive </h2>



The study observed eleven deaths during the heatwave. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish</a> that shrank were more likely to survive. A single shrinking event improved survival chances by 78 percent. 



All fish that shrank multiple times survived the entire study. The best survival rates occurred when both fish in a breeding pair shrank. Coordinated shrinking helped preserve social structure and reduced conflict.



“It was a surprise to see how rapidly clownfish can adapt to a changing environment and we witnessed how flexibly they regulated their size, as individuals and as breeding pairs, in response to heat stress as a successful technique to help them survive,” Versteeg said.



This behavior shows how social and environmental factors interact. Clownfish are not just reacting to heat. They are responding as pairs, and that cooperation improves their chances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-stress-triggers-the-change">Heat stress triggers the change</h2>



The research found a direct link between local heat stress and growth changes. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-impacts-wild-fish-much-more-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish</a> exposed to higher temperatures during the same month showed some growth. 



However, those who experienced high heat the previous month were more likely to shrink. This shows that shrinking can be a delayed reaction to stress.



“Our findings show that individual fish can shrink in response to heat stress, which is further impacted by social conflict, and that shrinking can lead to improving their chances of survival,” noted Dr. Theresa Rueger, senior author of the study. 



“If individual shrinking were widespread and happening among different species of fish, it could provide a plausible alternative hypothesis for why the size many fish species is declining and further studies are needed in this area.” 



This points to a new explanation for shrinking fish sizes across the world. It may not just be about juvenile growth or food shortages. Adult fish could be shrinking to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-offs-of-being-smaller">Trade-offs of being smaller</h2>



While shrinking helps individuals survive, it may have long-term costs. In clownfish, reproductive output depends on body size. Smaller fish lay fewer eggs. So even if more fish survive a heatwave, fewer offspring may be produced.



Smaller fish may also offer less protection or nutrition to their host anemones. However, current evidence suggests that the number of fish matters more than their size in these partnerships. That means shrinking may not harm mutualism in the short term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-fish-species-might-also-shrink">Many fish species might also shrink </h2>



Across ecosystems, scientists are seeing body sizes shrink. This is now considered one of three universal responses to climate change, along with changes in migration patterns and shifts in species distributions. 



Most studies focus on changes across generations. But this research shows that adult fish can also change their size.



This means that shrinking might be happening more often than we think. The clownfish offers a clear, measurable example. Other reef fish that are site-attached and exposed to temperature extremes may do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-shrinking-is-not-fully-understood">Clownfish shrinking is not fully understood</h2>



The exact mechanism behind clownfish shrinking remains unknown. It may involve tissue resorption or hormonal changes. In other animals, thyroid hormones drop during heat stress and affect growth. These possibilities need to be tested in lab conditions.



The gill-oxygen limitation theory also provides a clue. Larger bodies require more oxygen, but fish gills have a limited surface area. 



Shrinking may help balance oxygen demand when temperatures rise. Alternatively, food shortages during heatwaves may make smaller bodies more energy-efficient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-show-new-ways-of-adaption">Clownfish show new ways of adaption</h2>



Clownfish have shown that survival in a warming world might involve unexpected changes. They shrink in response to heat, and coordinate that change with their partner. 



The fish adapt quickly and reversibly. This flexible response may help their populations persist, even as oceans grow hotter.



This discovery opens new questions. Are other reef fish using similar strategies? Can this plasticity be passed to future generations? And can we use this knowledge to better protect vulnerable reef communities?



One thing is clear. In the battle against climate change, even the smallest fish are making bold moves. Shrinking may not seem like much. But for the clownfish, it could be the difference between survival and extinction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt7079" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>. 



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Clownfish physically shrink their bodies to survive heatwaves

As oceans warm and coral reefs bleach, marine life must...

Not all traditions make sense. That’s true for humans, and maybe even monkeys, as we are about to learn. We humans are experts at passing down habits, rituals, and cultural quirks that don’t always have a clear purpose. 



Why do we knock on wood or toss salt over our shoulder? Half the time, we’re just copying what we’ve seen others do. 



Scientists have long wondered: do animals do this too? Can they pass along behaviors that seem… well, pointless?



Turns out, maybe they can. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capuchin-monkeys-and-baby-howlers">Capuchin monkeys and baby howlers</h2>



On a remote island in Panama, researchers spent over a year watching a group of young male capuchin monkeys do something bizarre: they started grabbing and carrying around baby howler monkeys from another species. 



This wasn't a one-off event - it happened again and again, involving five different capuchins from the same group. Even more fascinating, these are the same monkeys known for a rare tradition of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capuchin-monkeys-use-clever-tools-to-access-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">using stone tools</a>. 



The scientists tracked how this odd “howler abduction” behavior began with one curious monkey and slowly caught on with others. 



And here's the kicker: this trend, strange as it seems, may have spread the same way their more practical tool-use habits did - through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-tolerance-helps-monkeys-pass-along-new-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social learning</a>, imitation, and the powerful pull of monkey see, monkey do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-capuchin-baby-abduction">Studying capuchin baby abduction</h2>



Researchers from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior (<a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-AB</a>) and other institutions began monitoring these capuchins in Coiba National Park back in 2017.



Their camera traps were designed to capture the tool-using behaviors of the primates. But in 2022, something unexpected showed up in the footage.



“It was so weird that I went straight to my advisor’s office to ask him what it was,” remembered Zoë Goldsborough, who is conducting her dissertation at MPI-AB.



What she saw was a capuchin carrying an infant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/howler-monkeys-use-mental-maps-for-route-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">howler monkey</a>. Nothing like it had appeared before in five years of data. Curious and concerned, the researchers decided to dig deeper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-observation-of-unusual-behavior">First observation of unusual behavior</h2>



Goldsborough began reviewing the footage from every motion-triggered camera on the island. She found more than just a single instance. 



There were actually four different howler infants being carried. And in most of the clips, the carrier was the same capuchin: a young male they nicknamed “Joker.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/capuchin-monkey_abduction_howler-monkey-baby_credit-MPI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/capuchin-monkey_abduction_howler-monkey-baby_credit-MPI_1s.webp" alt="A young male white-faced capuchin monkey carrying a baby howler monkey, caught by a remote camera trap on Jicarón. Credit: Brendan Barrett / Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior" class="wp-image-1970602"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A young male white-faced capuchin monkey carrying a baby howler monkey, caught by a remote camera trap on Jicarón. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Brendan Barrett / Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</figcaption></figure>



This raised new questions. How did Joker get the babies? And why was he carrying them?



“At first, we thought it could be adoption,” said Goldsborough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cross-species-adoption">Cross-species adoption </h2>



There are rare stories of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bonobos-adopt-infants-outside-of-their-social-group/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals adopting</a> babies of other species. In one famous case, a pair of capuchins adopted a marmoset and raised it to adulthood. 



But there was a catch. Adoption is typically done by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-monkeys-with-strong-friendships-survive-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">females</a>, often as a way to practice mothering. This made Joker’s behavior especially unusual.



“The fact that a male was the exclusive carrier of these babies was an important piece of the puzzle,” she adds.



For a while, nothing else surfaced. The team assumed it was an isolated case. Capuchins are known for trying new things, so one monkey acting oddly wasn’t too surprising.



“We’d decided that it was one individual trying something new,” said Brendan Barrett, a group leader at MPI-AB.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-capuchins-start-stealing-babies">Other capuchins start stealing babies</h2>



Five months later, the researchers hit pay dirt. The cameras captured more footage of howler infants being carried - this time by multiple monkeys. The infants were verified as separate individuals by a howler monkey expert from Ithaca College.



And now Joker had company. Four other young male capuchins were also carrying howler babies.



In a span of just 15 months, five capuchins carried a total of 11 howler infants. Each baby clung to the back or belly of its carrier. 



The monkeys didn’t change their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-cultural-legacy-of-wild-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">daily routines</a>. They kept traveling and using tools, even with a baby howler in tow.



“The complete timeline tells us a fascinating story of one individual who started a random behavior, which was taken up with increasing speed by other young males,” said Barrett.



The team documented the entire timeline on an interactive website. What emerged was a new kind of social tradition - what the researchers described as a cultural fad. 



Like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photographer-captures-killer-whales-wearing-fish-hats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales wearing salmon hats</a> or chimpanzees sticking blades of grass in their ears, the capuchins appeared to be mimicking one another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sad-side-of-animal-research">Sad side of animal research</h2>



But unlike other animal fads, this one had troubling consequences. The howler infants were very young - less than four weeks old. 



Their parents were seen nearby, calling to them from the trees. Four of the babies died. The researchers believe none of them survived.



"The capuchins didn’t hurt the babies,” stressed Goldsborough, “but they couldn’t provide the milk that infants need to survive.”



So what did the capuchins get out of it? Nothing obvious. They didn’t eat the infants, interact with them playfully, or receive any extra attention from others in their group.



“We don’t see any clear benefit to the capuchins,” said Goldsborough, “but we also don’t see any clear costs, although it might make tool use a little trickier.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



This may be the first recorded case of a social tradition where animals repeatedly abduct and carry the young of another species - without any benefit to themselves. 



It also shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-animals-that-create-their-own-culture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culture in animals</a> isn’t always functional or harmless.



“We show that non-human animals also have the capacity to evolve cultural traditions without clear functions but with destructive outcomes for the world around them,” commented Barrett.



This opens up a deeper question.



“The more interesting question is not ‘why did this tradition arise?’ but rather ‘why here?’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-capuchins-innovate-out-of-boredom">Do capuchins innovate out of boredom?</h2>



These same capuchins are also the only ones known to use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capuchin-monkeys-use-clever-tools-to-access-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools</a> on Jicarón Island. They crack nuts and shellfish with stones. And just like the howler-carrying behavior, this tool use is performed only by males.



Why these traditions? Why only males?



“Survival appears easy on Jicarón. There are no predators and few competitors, which gives capuchins lots of time and little to do,” said Meg Crofoot, managing director at MPI-AB.



“It seems this ‘luxurious’ life set the scene for these social animals to be innovators. This new tradition shows us that necessity need not be the mother of invention. For a highly intelligent monkey living in a safe, perhaps even under-stimulating environment, boredom and free time might be sufficient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-howler-monkeys">Potential impact on howler monkeys</h2>



The camera trapping period ended in July 2023. It’s still unclear if the behavior is continuing. If it spreads or begins to impact the local howler monkey population, which is an endangered species, it could become a serious conservation issue.



“Witnessing the spread of this behavior had a profound effect on all of us,” said Crofoot. 



“We therefore feel even more responsible to keep learning from this natural population of primates who, to our knowledge, are the only ones on earth to be practicing this strange tradition.”



The story unfolding on Jicarón Island is a reminder that animals, like humans, can be deeply influenced by their peers. 



Sometimes, those influences lead to remarkable adaptations. Other times, they can lead to something far more puzzling.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225003720" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Capuchin monkeys have developed a very disturbing 'social tradition' of abducting babies

Not all traditions make sense. That’s true for humans, and...

What do chickens and women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have in common? Quite a lot, it seems. A common diabetes drug - metformin - may bridge their reproductive challenges.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have made an unexpected discovery. Metformin, often prescribed for type 2 diabetes and PCOS in humans, can boost egg-laying in aging chickens. 



The findings could change poultry farming while offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sperm-have-a-heat-activated-switch-that-may-be-key-to-fertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive health</a> across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-hens-lose-fertility-fast">Older hens lose fertility fast</h2>



Broiler breeder hens are specially bred for one goal: producing the chickens people eat. These hens give birth to fast-growing offspring, allowing the meat industry to meet global demand. 



But this intense selection has a downside. As these hens age, they struggle to lay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertile</a> eggs. Their reproductive efficiency drops sharply after a certain point.



The decline in egg production has puzzled researchers for years. It mirrors certain characteristics of PCOS in women - a disorder marked by irregular cycles and hormonal imbalances. 



Scientists began to ask whether a treatment effective in women could also improve egg-laying in chickens. Their attention turned to metformin.



PCOS is the most common endocrine disorder in women. It affects an estimated 4% to 12% of the female population. Many women with PCOS experience infertility due to hormonal disruptions and insulin resistance. 



Metformin, while not originally developed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-and-traffic-noise-increase-risk-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive health</a>, has become a key treatment option for managing PCOS symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metformin-boosts-hormone-health">Metformin boosts hormone health </h2>



In a 2023 study published in Reproduction, Penn State researchers tested metformin on broiler breeder hens. Over a span of 40 weeks, a group of hens received small daily doses of the drug. 



The team monitored their reproductive performance and physiological changes. What they found was striking.



The hens on metformin laid significantly more fertile eggs. They also had reduced body fat and more stable reproductive hormone levels compared to untreated hens. 



These findings thrilled the researchers, who saw not only a performance boost but a meaningful biological shift.



“These findings suggest that metformin can significantly improve ovarian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">function</a> in broiler breeder hens,” said Ramesh Ramachandran, senior author on the study and professor of reproductive biology in the College of Agricultural Sciences.



The next step was to figure out how metformin caused these changes. The team had a hunch the liver played a key role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metformin-alters-genes-in-chickens">Metformin alters genes in chickens</h2>



In birds, the liver is central to reproduction. It is the site where egg yolk proteins are produced before being transported to developing eggs. If metformin could influence liver function, it might explain the broader improvements seen in the hens. 



To test this, the research team examined liver samples using gene sequencing tools at Penn State’s Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences. They analyzed RNA from the liver - material that controls which genes are active or silent. The sequencing results told a compelling story.



Metformin activated genes tied to yolk protein production and blood sugar regulation. At the same time, it suppressed genes associated with fat buildup, a known disruptor of hormone balance.



“Essentially, metformin helps older hens stay metabolically healthier, which lets them keep producing eggs well beyond their usual decline,” said Evelyn Weaver, postdoctoral researcher and lead author on both studies. Her explanation captured the study’s essence in plain terms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-implications-for-poultry-farming">Wider implications for poultry farming</h2>



These findings could reshape how poultry farms manage their flocks. When hens lose their fertility early, farmers must replace them often, increasing both costs and stress on the animals. Metformin’s ability to prolong egg production offers a new approach - one that is both practical and humane.



By keeping hens reproductively active longer, farms can reduce the frequency of flock turnover. This could improve animal welfare and lead to more efficient use of resources. Importantly, metformin is quickly broken down by chickens, so it poses no threat of entering the human food chain.



Weaver emphasized that safety aspect, assuring that the drug does not leave residue in eggs or meat. This makes it a promising tool for farms looking to improve production without compromising safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-the-lives-of-people-and-chickens">Improving the lives of people and chickens</h2>



This research shows how biological pathways can overlap across species. Chickens and humans might seem unrelated at first glance, but their reproductive systems respond to the same drug in surprisingly similar ways. 



The hormonal, metabolic, and genetic responses observed in hens may offer clues for improving PCOS treatment strategies in people. While the goal was to support poultry farming, the outcomes also prompt deeper reflection. 



Could further study of animal models like hens refine our understanding of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive health</a>? The evidence suggests it’s worth investigating.



Metformin has already improved the lives of countless people with diabetes and PCOS. Now, it’s helping hens produce eggs more consistently. In the process, it’s also helping scientists understand the rich tapestry of life where chickens and humans unexpectedly meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-funding">Collaborations and funding</h2>



The work was conducted in the Ramachandran lab&nbsp;at&nbsp;Penn State’s Department of Animal Science. The research team included Professor Ramesh Ramachandran, Professor Tae Hyun Kim, and undergraduate researcher Nathan Connolly.



The experts published two studies - one focused on egg production and another on liver gene expression. Funding came from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a>&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a>.



Ultimately, the project connects food production with broader biological questions. By exploring how a human medication interacts with avian biology, the researchers have opened new doors for science and farming alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolreprod/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/biolre/ioaf072/8099357?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology of Reproduction</a>.



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Common drug humans take is found to boost fertility in both women and chickens

What do chickens and women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)...

It's widely known that elephants are intelligent. Their deep family bonds, tool use, and emotional awareness have fascinated humans for generations. But despite being one of the animal kingdom’s most admired creatures, their brains remain largely understudied. 



That’s starting to change. In a recent study led by researchers at the Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin</a> and the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, scientists took a closer look at elephant brain. 



The team analyzed the brains of both Asian and African elephants using dissections, MRI scans, and data from past studies. What they found offers new insights into the differences between the two species and raises new questions about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-behavior-linked-to-brain-size/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain size connects to behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-size-differences">Surprising size differences</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-asian-elephants-exhibit-strong-capacity-for-innovation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asian elephants</a> tend to be smaller than their African counterparts. They have shorter ears, a single “trunk finger” instead of two, and most females don’t grow tusks. But inside their skulls, things get interesting.



Researchers found that adult female Asian elephants have brains weighing around 5,300 grams on average. In comparison, African females average just over 4,400 grams. 



That’s a substantial difference. While data for male Asian elephants is limited, it’s clear that males of both species generally have heavier brains.



One more surprise came from the cerebellum. In the African group, it makes up about 22% of total brain weight, compared to 19% in the Asian group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-expanding-intelligence">Elephants' expanding intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-cant-remember-being-babies-but-our-brains-might/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human babies</a> are born with brains that weigh only about 20% of their final adult size. Elephants aren’t far behind. 



The study found that elephant brains nearly triple in size from birth to adulthood. That’s more postnatal growth than any other primate besides humans. Why so much growth? The researchers believe social learning may be the key.



“Social factors and learning processes could explain the strong brain growth after birth, as elephants live in complex social structures and have an outstanding memory," said Michael Brecht and Thomas Hildebrandt, co-lead authors of the study.



"The experience and accumulated knowledge of adult elephants, especially matriarchs, is central to the group behavior of elephants, and the young animals are very closely cared for over a long period of childhood and adolescence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-elephants-two-brains">Two elephants, two brains </h2>



The two species of elephants behave very differently around people. Asian elephants have been working alongside humans for centuries, often in domesticated or semi-domesticated roles. 



In contrast, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-elephants-will-soon-become-extinct-without-immediate-international-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African elephants</a> rarely adapt to human presence. Domestication attempts have been largely unsuccessful.



Could brain weight be part of the reason? “The difference in brain weight is perhaps the most important difference between these two elephant species,” said Malav Shah, first author of the study. “It could explain important behavioral differences between Asian and African elephants.”



Motor control could also play a role. African elephants, with their two trunk fingers, have a more dexterous trunk. Scientists link this complexity to the larger cerebellum and the higher number of neurons dedicated to trunk movement.



“With their two trunk fingers, African elephants can perform more diverse movements, which is also reflected in a higher number of neurons in the trunk's control center in the brain,” said Brecht and Hildebrandt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-the-brain-mystery">Unlocking the brain mystery</h2>



The team analyzed a rare collection of 19 elephant brains, most from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-pandemic-lockdowns-affect-zoo-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zoo animals</a> or wild elephants that died naturally or were euthanized for welfare reasons. These specimens are extremely hard to come by, making the findings even more valuable.



Still, much remains unknown. Brecht and Hildebrandt acknowledge that many questions are left unanswered. 



The researchers plan to continue studying elephant brains to understand how structure affects social behavior, memory, and motor skills. As they put it, research into these massive “control centers” is only just beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-elephants-through-science"> Saving elephants through science</h2>



Understanding the elephant brain isn’t just about satisfying curiosity. It helps scientists learn more about intelligence, memory, and social behavior across species - including humans.



These animals share traits with us that are rare in the animal world: they grieve, they cooperate, and they learn from experience. 



By studying how their brains develop and differ between species, researchers are piecing together how these abilities are wired.



The study also raises important questions about conservation. As human activity continues to threaten wild elephant populations, knowing more about how these animals think and interact could play a vital role in shaping better protection strategies. 



If we want to ensure a future where these animals continue to roam, we need to understand what makes them who they are - inside and out.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/5/pgaf141/8138140" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Elephant brains reveal big differences among species

It's widely known that elephants are intelligent. Their deep family...

Humpback whales have long been thought to give birth in tropical waters, like the Great Barrier Reef. But sightings of newborn calves stretching all the way down to Tasmania are changing that narrative. 



The sightings of baby humpback whales suggest that some mothers are giving birth over 1,500 kilometers south of the expected calving grounds.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a> Sydney led the study that brought this discovery to light. The research was based on over 200 calf sightings reported by whale watching operators, government wildlife agencies, and everyday observers.



The sightings span from Queensland down to Tasmania and even across to New Zealand’s South Island. The findings challenge what we thought we knew about where these giant creatures begin their lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-humpback-whale-sightings">Baby humpback whale sightings</h2>



The idea for this research began when PhD candidate and whale watching skipper Jane McPhee-Frew saw something unusual off the coast of Newcastle.



“I was working part-time as a skipper on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loud-tourist-boats-endanger-the-long-term-survival-of-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale-watching boat</a> in Newcastle when I first spotted a calf in the area,” said McPhee-Frew.



“It seemed out of place. The calf was tiny, obviously brand new. What were they doing here? But none of my tourism colleagues seemed surprised."



That moment led to conversations with research colleagues. McPhee-Frew discovered there was a gap between what science had recorded and what people out on the water were witnessing.



“Eventually, we just ran out of land to see them from. So we don't actually know where the limit is. But we had reports right to the bottom of Tassie, the southernmost points of Western Australia and to the South Island of New Zealand.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-in-the-danger-zone">Whales in the danger zone</h2>



The first sighting in Newcastle came in a very busy shipping area - home to the largest coal export port on Earth. Many of the calf sightings in the study were recorded from 2016 onwards, with the bulk of them happening in 2023 and 2024.



“It’s not just the sightings themselves that are important,” noted McPhee-Frew. "The pattern we’re seeing is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-is-important-to-keep-young-right-whales-undetected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mother whales</a> with calves travelling through some of the busiest shipping lanes and urbanised regions.



“This means these vulnerable animals are exposed to risks like boat strikes, entanglements, pollution - and just general public unawareness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-baby-humpback-whales">Threats to baby humpback whales </h2>



Humpback whales were nearly wiped out in the 1960s. Conservation efforts have since helped their numbers bounce back to an estimated 50,000 today.



While the idea of baby humpback whales being born this far south may sound new, McPhee-Frew thinks it might be an old habit we’re only now seeing again.



She explored 19th-century whaling logs and old expedition notes that included reports of calves and mothers in similar southern locations.



The low population after decades of industrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-whaling-wiped-two-species-of-whales-in-the-eastern-atlantic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whaling</a> might have made this behavior invisible for years. Now, thanks to drones, social media, and booming whale tourism, people are noticing more than ever before.



According to McPhee-Frew, it’s vital to raise awareness about the dangers these young whales face as they travel thousands of kilometers north.



“Regardless of the health of population now, we can't be in a situation where we're putting any age of whales - especially baby whales - in a situation where they're getting caught in nets, being exposed to chemicals, being hit by boats and being harassed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newborns-in-busy-shipping-lanes">Newborns in busy shipping lanes</h2>



Study co-author Professor Tracey Rogers noted that newborn whales face unique challenges. 



“Newborns are like Great Dane puppies. They have those long, enormous fins that they need to grow into, and they’re not very strong swimmers. So they rest a lot of the time on their mum’s back,” said Professor Rogers.



“Imagine giving birth off Hobart and then swimming up the coast. It’s heartbreaking to think of these young whales traveling through busy ports and dangerous shipping lanes with those long, clumsy fins."



“And it's not just happening here in NSW - this is off WA, Victoria, Tasmania, New Zealand - it's something we just didn't know before.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-humpback-whales">Protecting humpback whales </h2>



Dr Adelaide Dedden from the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service says that while laws exist to protect humpbacks, many water users still aren't aware of them.



“The legislation to protect humpback whales, including mothers and calves, is already in place across all states,” said Dr Dedden. "But we do have a gap in public awareness, particularly among recreational water users."



“People need to be aware that calves are being seen not just on the southern migration but also on the northern one.”



Close-up photos may make it seem like baby whales are easy to spot, but these moments are rare and should happen on the whales' terms - not because a boat got too close.



“Humpbacks are charismatic and curious,” said Dr Dedden. “They're going to want to come and check out the boat.”



The recommended distance is 100 meters from adult whales and 300 meters from a mother-calf pair.



“We’ve been working hard to get this message out to the public and encourage boaters, surfers, kayakers and jet-ski operators to be aware of these guidelines,” noted Dr Dedden.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-excitement-and-curiosity-about-whales">Excitement and curiosity about whales</h2>



According to McPhee-Frew, collaboration between scientists, government agencies, tourism operators, and the public has made this research possible.



Whale watching crews often spot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-struggles-of-pregnant-humpback-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calves</a> and pass on vital information. They also help educate the public on how to safely enjoy watching whales.



Social media platforms have played a big role too. Photos and sightings shared by users help track where whales are seen - and when.



“The excitement and curiosity around whales are contagious,” said McPhee-Frew. "We’ve built a huge repository of data just by encouraging the public to share observations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



There’s still one big question that remains. Why are the mothers still traveling north after giving birth, especially when food is so scarce in tropical waters?



McPhee-Frew suggests we need to rethink the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale migration</a> has fixed start and end points. Maybe whales use different environments in different ways.



“We still have a lot to learn. But, you know what? It's such a privilege to see whales. It is such a fantastic aspect of living in Australia. We just need to follow the rules so everyone can enjoy.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1545526/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



Image Credit: © Vanessa Risku (Instagram: @droning_my_sorrows)



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Baby humpback whales are born in places we didn't expect

Humpback whales have long been thought to give birth in...

Climate change is rapidly joining overexploitation and habitat destruction as a third major driver of global biodiversity loss. 



A sweeping analysis has recently identified at least 3,500 animal species that are directly threatened by rising temperatures, intensifying storms, droughts, and other climate-related stresses.



The research, led by <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> ecologist William Ripple, draws on international databases to show that risk is especially acute for invertebrates, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-climate-impacts-threaten-key-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a> that cannot easily move away from warmer waters. 



The experts warn that true vulnerability is likely far greater because most animal groups have never been formally assessed for climate danger.



“We’re at the start of an existential crisis for the Earth’s wild animals,” Ripple said. “Up till now, the primary cause of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> loss has been the twin threats of overexploitation and habitat alteration, but as climate change intensifies, we expect it to become a third major threat to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s animals</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-are-vulnerable-to-climate-change">Animals are vulnerable to climate change</h2>



Ripple and colleagues analyzed records for 70,814 species across 35 taxonomic classes, relying on the <a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>’s threat categories.



The researchers discovered that in six whole classes - arachnids, centipedes, anthozoans, hydrozoans, and two other invertebrate groups - at least one-quarter of species are judged vulnerable to climate change.



Other classes, including mammals, birds and reptiles, contain smaller but still significant proportions of climate-imperiled members. The oceans stand out as a danger zone because seawater absorbs most excess heat from greenhouse forcing.



“We are particularly concerned about invertebrate animals in the ocean, which absorbs most of the heat from climate change,” Ripple explained. “Those animals are increasingly vulnerable because of their limited ability to move and promptly evade adverse conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-mortality-events">Mass mortality events </h2>



In recent years extreme climate events have delivered dramatic proof of these vulnerabilities. Off Israel’s coast, a 90 percent crash in mollusk abundance followed a jump in sea-surface temperature.



During the 2021 Pacific Northwest heat dome, billions of intertidal mussels, clams, and snails died in a matter of days. A severe marine heatwave in 2016 bleached nearly 30 percent of Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a>.



Terrestrial and pelagic vertebrates have suffered too: an extreme warm spell in 2015-2016 altered the marine food web in the North Pacific, starving four million common murres, slashing Pacific cod numbers by 71 percent, and contributing to the loss of roughly 7,000 humpback whales.



Ripple noted that such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass mortality</a> events reverberate through ecosystems. “The cascading effects of more and more mass mortality events will likely affect carbon-cycle feedbacks and nutrient cycling." 



"Those effects also likely will have an impact on species interactions such as predation, competition, pollination and parasitism, which are vital for ecosystem function.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-data-on-a-massive-scale"><a></a>Missing data on a massive scale</h2>



Although the headline figures are sobering, the authors emphasize that they represent only a fraction of the problem. 



Sixty-six of the planet’s 101 recognized animal classes have not had any species evaluated for climate risk by the IUCN, and the 70,814 species examined in the study account for just 5.5 percent of all described animals.



“Our analysis is meant to be a preliminary effort toward assessing climate risk to wildlife species,” Ripple said. 



“Understanding the risk is crucial for making informed policy decisions. We need a global database on mass mortality events due to climate change for animal species in all ecosystems, and an acceleration in assessing currently ignored species.”



The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">Red List</a> itself is heavily skewed toward vertebrates, which make up fewer than six percent of named animal species, leaving the vast majority of invertebrates - essential to pollination, soil health, and marine food webs - largely unexamined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-and-biodiversity-policies">Climate and biodiversity policies</h2>



Ripple argued that improved risk assessments must be coupled with policies that synchronize biodiversity conservation and climate mitigation.



“There is also a need for more frequent climate risk assessments of all species and better consideration of adaptive capacity,” he added. “We need the integration of biodiversity and climate change policy planning on a global scale.”



He and his co-authors call for real-time monitoring of die-off events, expansion of citizen-science initiatives to cover overlooked taxa, and incorporation of species’ dispersal abilities and genetic diversity into risk models.



Only with such detailed knowledge, they contend, can land managers and lawmakers craft interventions that give vulnerable species a fighting chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgency-to-protect-animals">Urgency to protect animals</h2>



With global temperatures already flirting with the 1.5°C threshold that scientists warn will unleash accelerating hazards, the time for closing data gaps is rapidly shrinking. 



The new study shows that climate change is no longer a distant or incremental danger for wildlife; it is a present <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-the-largest-threat-to-u-s-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crisis</a> that compounds long-standing threats.



Whether governments heed the warning will decide how many species remain confined to the 3,500-strong endangered column - and how many more quietly slide into it as the planet continues to warm.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf059/8127685?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>.



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More than 3,500 animal species are directly threatened by climate change

Climate change is rapidly joining overexploitation and habitat destruction as...

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long timeline. Every chip of flint or shard of bone builds a narrative of how early humans used tools to feed themselves, cooperated, and thought about the places they called home. 



Fresh finds from two sites just northeast of today’s Tel Aviv - Jaljulia and Qesem Cave - add an eye-opening chapter to that story. 



They point to a moment, roughly 400,000 years ago, when hunters in the Levant not only pivoted to new prey but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tools-in-south-africa-reveal-early-human-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redesigned their tools</a> and, perhaps, their beliefs.



The discoveries revolve around a specialized flint implement known as a Quina scraper. 



At first glance the artifact looks modest - smaller than a modern smartphone. Its scalloped edge, though, is razor-sharp, built for slicing through muscle and hide with an efficiency that would have impressed any butcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flint-tools-and-shifting-appetites">Flint tools and shifting appetites</h2>



For nearly a million years, large game dominated dinner menus here - especially elephants that roamed plains stretching from Africa into Eurasia. 



When those giants dwindled, hunting parties had to recalibrate. 



The speedier, leaner fallow deer offered far less meat per kill, so hunters needed to process many more carcasses to match the calories once supplied by a single elephant. That change forced a rethink of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategy and gear</a>.



Fallow deer thrived in mixed woodlands along what are now the Samarian highlands. Their bones fill layers in Jaljulia and Qesem Cave, signaling a dietary shift that mirrors broader environmental turnover during the late Lower Paleolithic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-carved-with-flint-for-venison">Tools carved with flint for venison</h2>



Enter the Quina scraper. Unlike earlier, more rudimentary scrapers, this one features a stepped, scale-like working edge that holds a keen bevel. 



Microscopic wear marks reveal repeated motions suited to neatly removing skin and sinew. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool design</a> likely spared hunters valuable time at the kill site, reducing exposure to scavengers and rival predators that could steal a hard-won carcass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2s.webp" alt="A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020)" class="wp-image-1970089"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Modern experiments with replicas confirm that the tool excels at producing long, clean strips of hide - ideal for lashing shelters, wrapping meat, or even tailoring early garments. 



A single scraper could be resharpened several times, making it a portable workhorse on multi-day forays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-from-sacred-hills">Stone from sacred hills</h2>



The most unexpected twist lies not in the tool’s shape but in its raw material. Quina scrapers at both sites were made of flint hauled roughly 12.4 miles from the western slopes of the Samarian mountains, bypassing closer outcrops. 



That same upland served as a calving ground for fallow deer. Hunters, then, were linking an essential resource - flint - to the very landscape that provided their new staple food.



The study’s lead authors - Vlad Litov and Prof. Ran Barkai of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> - spell out what that pairing means. 



"In this study we tried to understand why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools changed</a> during prehistoric times, with a focus on a technological change in scrapers in the Lower Paleolithic, about 400,000 years ago," Litov explained. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forced-to-hunt-smaller-animals">Forced to hunt smaller animals</h2>



We found a dramatic change in the human diet during this period, probably resulting from a change in the available fauna: the large game, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particularly elephants</a>, had disappeared, and humans were forced to hunt smaller animals, especially fallow deer.



Clearly, butchering a large elephant is one thing, and processing a much smaller and more delicate fallow deer is quite a different challenge. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e)" class="wp-image-1970087"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Systematic processing of numerous fallow deer to compensate for a single elephant was a complex and demanding task that required the development of new implements. 



"Consequently, we see the emergence of the new Quina scrapers, with a better-shaped, sharper, more uniform working edge compared to the simple scrapers used previously," Litov added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-advancement-shown-in-flint-tools">Tech advancement shown in flint tools</h2>



Prof. Barkai explains that the study reveals “links between technological developments and changes in the fauna hunted and consumed by early humans.” 



While previous theories credited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advancements in stone tools</a> to biological evolution, he and his team suggest a “double connection, both practical and perceptual.”



Practically, tool sophistication evolved to meet the demands of hunting smaller, faster prey. Perceptually, Barkai points to a symbolic association between specific locations and resources. 



“We found a connection between the plentiful source of fallow deer and the source of flint used to butcher them,” he notes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prehistoric hunters</a> seemed to favor flint from the same region where the deer roamed - Mounts Ebal and Gerizim - suggesting a deep-rooted awareness of the landscape and its significance.



“This behavior,” he adds, “is familiar from many other places worldwide and is still widely practiced by native hunter-gatherer communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



According to Litov, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mountains of Samaria</a> held deep significance for prehistoric people living at Qesem Cave and Jaljulia. 



“We believe that the Mountains of Samaria were sacred to the prehistoric people… because that’s where the fallow deer came from,” he says.



As elephant populations declined, early humans in the region shifted their focus to fallow deer. Tools made from a variety of local stones have been found at Jaljulia, but something unique occurred when they began sourcing both their prey and tool-making materials from the Samarian highlands.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3s.webp" alt="A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1970091"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



“Identifying the deer's plentiful source, they began to develop the unique scrapers in the same place,” Litov explains. 



These specialized tools - first appearing in Jaljulia around 500,000 years ago - later spread more broadly, showing up at Qesem Cave between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago.



Archaeological evidence, including fallow deer bones from Mount Gerizim and other sites, suggests that the area supported deer populations well into the Holocene. 



“Apparently, the Mountains of Samaria gained a prominent or even sacred status as early as the Paleolithic period,” Litov concludes, “and retained their unique cultural position for hundreds of thousands of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-man-was-smarter-than-we-thought">Prehistoric man was smarter than we thought</h2>



Pairing a resource with a place crops up again and again in human history, from obsidian quarries in the American Southwest to jade rivers in ancient China. 



The Jaljulia and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qesem_cave" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qesem Cave</a> findings push that behavior deep into the past, showing that meaning and material were already intertwined long before written lore. Technology did not change in a vacuum; it mirrored environmental stress and social imagination.



Understanding how early communities adapted to shrinking megafauna offers a cautionary parallel for modern ecosystems losing key species. Innovation can soften the blow, but it also reshapes culture in ways that echo far beyond survival. 



A humble flint scraper, carried miles across rugged ground, reminds us that tools are never just tools. They are signatures of what people value, where they find sustenance, and how they make sense of their world.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11759-024-09493-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeologies</a>.



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Stone tools created 400,000 years ago show tech advancement of early humans

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long...

OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA

For years, the Signal Crayfish has carried a notorious reputation. It’s invasive, aggressive, and has spread far beyond its native habitat.



Found across Europe, Asia, and parts of the United States, this crustacean is often blamed for pushing native species toward decline. But in the rush to control it, something remarkable was overlooked right in its original home.



A team from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> took a fresh look at the Signal Crayfish in its native range. What they found was surprising - two entirely new species that had been hiding in plain sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-one-species-after-all">Not just one species after all</h2>



The two new species, now officially named the Okanagan Crayfish and Misfortunate Crayfish, had been long mistaken for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-fish-can-cause-ecosystem-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Signal Crayfish</a>. The discovery adds to the growing catalog of species around the world.



Study co-author Eric Larson is an associate professor in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences.



“I think we underestimate how rich the biological world around us can be,” said Larson. "People are surprised to learn that there are over 600 described species of crayfish globally, and now, there are two more.”



This wasn’t an overnight find. The process spanned years of fieldwork and careful analysis. 



Scientists first noticed unusual-looking species in the Pacific Northwest. Over time, with improved genetic tools, they began to piece together the truth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-confirms-the-new-species">DNA confirms the new species</h2>



To distinguish the new species, Larson and his colleagues used a method called genome skimming. It allowed them to sequence both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. 



By comparing these sequences with known crayfish lineages, the team confirmed that the odd specimens weren’t just variations - they were entirely separate species.



“Most research on the Signal Crayfish focuses on its role as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-could-cause-dramatic-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a>,” Larson said. “I think people would be surprised that within its native environment, we missed that this animal we thought was the Signal Crayfish was actually harboring multiple, undescribed species.”



Through DNA analysis, field sampling, and physical comparisons, the team finally gave these animals their own identities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unintended-effects-of-moving-crayfish">Unintended effects of moving crayfish </h2>



While the discovery is exciting, it comes with a serious warning. The newly identified crayfish species may already be in danger. 



Larson expressed concern that invasive species - especially the Rusty Crayfish and Virile Crayfish - are threatening the survival of these native animals. These invaders often displace native populations and damage aquatic habitats.



One of the biggest problems is human behavior. Moving crayfish from one waterway to another - whether for bait, farming, or even through classroom and aquarium releases - can have unexpected and long-lasting effects.



“There are unexpected consequences when we move crayfish from one place to another,” Larson said. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-crayfish-cannot-be-controlled-through-trapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive crayfish</a> can't easily be removed, and as they spread, they seem to be replacing these newly described crayfish species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-new-species">Protecting the new species</h2>



By giving these species official names, the researchers hope to spark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. Naming a species is often the first step toward protecting it. Recognition helps raise awareness and gives conservationists a reason to act.



“By the time we discovered the Misfortunate Crayfish, it had already lost much of its native range to the invasive Rusty Crayfish,” Larson said. “That’s what gave us the idea for its name. This animal went unrecognized by science until a fairly unlucky event had happened, and that seemed like a little bit of a misfortune.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-fish-to-crayfish">From fish to crayfish</h2>



Larson’s journey into crayfish research wasn’t planned. He started out in fisheries science but became more interested in crayfish during his doctoral work at the University of Washington.



“It’s funny, I didn’t intend to develop this interest,” Larson said. “But as it developed, studying crayfish gained momentum and took on a life of its own.”



What began as a side interest eventually became a central focus of his research career. Thanks to that unexpected turn, two long-overlooked native species now have names - and a real shot at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-and-wise-animals-are-essential-for-the-survival-of-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5632.3.4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



Image Credit: Eric Larson, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign



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Two new crayfish species discovered, but were they found too late?

For years, the Signal Crayfish has carried a notorious reputation....

Honey,Bee,,Apis,Mellifera,,Silhouette,Of,A,Bee,,Anatomical,Structure

This World Bee Day, a troubling message is buzzing through the air - bees and other pollinators face a wave of new and unexpected threats that could cause even more losses in the coming decade. 



War, plastic pollution, artificial light, and even well-meaning climate actions are creating new obstacles for pollinators already under strain.



Pollinators such as bees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>, moths, bats, and birds are essential to our environment and food production. Nearly 90% of flowering plants and over three-quarters of the world’s major crops depend on them.



Yet these species are already declining at alarming rates due to habitat loss, pesticide use, climate change, and invasive species. Now, researchers say even more risks are on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-scientists-are-saying-about-bees">What scientists are saying about bees</h2>



Experts from the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a> contributed to a new report commissioned by Bee:wild, a science-led global campaign to save pollinators. The report identifies 12 rising dangers that could further endanger pollinators in the next 5 to 15 years.



Professor Simon Potts, lead author and chair of Bee:wild’s Scientific Advisory Board, noted that identifying new threats and finding ways to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> early is key to preventing further major declines.



“By acting early, we can reduce harm and help pollinators continue their important work in nature and food production. Various conservation opportunities already exist and more are emerging," continued Potts. 



"This is not just a conservation issue. Pollinators are central to our food systems, climate resilience, and economic security. Protecting pollinators means protecting ourselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-and-pollinators-in-war-zones">Bees and pollinators in war zones</h2>



The report outlines a series of surprising new threats to pollinators that extend beyond the usual concerns like pesticides and habitat loss. For instance, war and conflict, such as the ongoing situation in Ukraine, are changing agricultural practices. 



Countries involved in or affected by conflict tend to grow fewer crop types, leading to a lack of diverse flowering plants that pollinators need throughout the season for proper nutrition and survival. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-and-artifical-light">Plastic and artifical light</h2>



Another troubling issue is the discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-are-the-latest-victims-of-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics in bee</a> colonies across Europe. Testing from 315 honey bee hives revealed the widespread presence of synthetic materials, including PET plastic. 



These microplastic particles are now contaminating hives, raising questions about their impact on bee health and the quality of honey.



Artificial light at night is also proving harmful. Studies show that nocturnal pollinators, such as moths and certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-impact-the-beetles-that-protect-our-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a>, visit 62% fewer flowers in areas with light pollution. 



This drastic reduction disrupts nighttime pollination, which is essential for many plant species and ecological cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-and-pollinator-behavior">Pollution and pollinator behavior </h2>



Antibiotic pollution is emerging as yet another hazard. Residues from antibiotics can contaminate both hives and honey. 



Worse still, they may interfere with pollinator behavior by reducing their foraging activity and visits to flowers, which are critical for pollination and plant reproduction.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-is-wiping-out-bees-and-other-wild-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Air pollution</a> is adding further stress, affecting the growth, reproduction, and overall survival of pollinators. Exposure to polluted air can impair navigation and reduce the chances of bees returning to their hives.



The use of pesticide cocktails - mixtures of various chemicals - is becoming more common, particularly in developing countries. These combinations can be more toxic than individual pesticides, weakening pollinators and making them more susceptible to disease and stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-threats-to-bees">Additional threats to bees</h2>



More frequent and intense wildfires are destroying vital habitats. As these fires become larger and harder to control, they not only remove food sources but also hinder the ability of pollinator populations to recover.



While climate action is critical, some approaches could unintentionally harm pollinators if not carefully managed. For instance, planting fast-growing non-flowering trees for carbon capture could reduce food for pollinators. 



Choosing a mix that includes flowering trees would help balance carbon storage with pollinator support.



Mining for materials like lithium - used in electric car batteries - can damage habitats rich in pollinators. Avoiding these areas and restoring land afterward could reduce long-term impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-ways-to-support-biodiversity">Smart ways to support biodiversity</h2>



Among the 12 strategies highlighted in the report, five stand out as particularly promising. First, introducing stronger regulations to reduce antibiotic pollution would help protect pollinator and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee health</a>. 



Moving toward electric vehicles can significantly reduce air pollution, which in turn benefits pollinators. In addition, breeding new crop varieties that produce more nectar and pollen can improve the diet of pollinators, boosting their health and resilience.



Furthermore, integrating flower-rich habitats into solar parks can transform these spaces into pollinator-friendly areas, supporting biodiversity while generating renewable energy. 



Finally, scientists are developing RNAi-based treatments that specifically target harmful pests without affecting beneficial insects like bees, reducing the need for broad-spectrum pesticides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-actions-big-difference">Small actions, big difference</h2>



Other opportunities include protecting stingless bees, which are vital to tropical ecosystems. This can be done by creating urban gardens, re-wilding spaces, and preserving natural habitats.



There's also growing interest in using artificial intelligence to monitor and track bee and other pollinator health and behavior more efficiently. Even AI tools to monitor pollinator populations could all make a big difference.



Dr. Deepa Senapathi is head of the Department of Sustainable Land Management at the University of Reading and co-author of the report.



“Meaningful action to protect bees is not a ‘nice-to-have’ future aspiration - practical solutions that we can implement now already exist and more are emerging. The most promising opportunities are ones that tackle multiple problems at once," said Dr. Senapathi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-bee-and-pollinator-decline">Reversing bee and pollinator decline</h2>



According to Dr. Senapathi, focused and determined action could significantly slow and even reverse pollinator decline while creating environments that benefit both nature and people.



“It will take effort from everyone to address these threats. We need to maintain, manage and improve our natural habitats to create safe spaces for pollinators," said Dr Senapathi.



"But policy changes and individual actions must work together so everything from gardens and farms to public spaces and wider landscapes can all become pollinator-friendly habitats.”



Razan Khalifa Al Mubarak, President of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Board Member of Re:wild, which helped launch Bee:wild, offers a hopeful reminder in the report’s foreword.



"The choices we make today will shape the future - not only for pollinators, but for all life on Earth. Together, we can ensure that these remarkable species continue their vital work, sustaining the natural world that sustains us all,” she said.



The full report, Emerging Threats and Opportunities for Conservation of Global Pollinators, is available <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1odhszqh-5-LJsJgidagHte_OW57Ke09x/view" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>. 



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Rising dangers threaten the survival of bees and pollinators

This World Bee Day, a troubling message is buzzing through...

Picture a mouse entering a narrow, transparent tube. Another mouse approaches from the opposite end. They meet in the middle, noses twitching, bodies tense. One mouse retreats, conceding the passage. The other presses forward, asserting dominance - a silent communication carried by scent.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Francis Crick Institute</a> have been using this simple setup to uncover something remarkable: mice don’t just react to physical strength or size. They rely on scent to gauge social rank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-use-scent-to-identify-social-rank">Mice use scent to identify social rank</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-smell-control-your-blood-pressure-new-research-says-yes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mice</a> live in social hierarchies, much like humans. Some lead, some follow, some are forever in between. For a long time, scientists assumed these roles emerged from physical aggression or fixed behaviors. But a study published in Current Biology suggests otherwise. 



Mice, it turns out, can read dominance through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odors-prompt-brain-cells-to-make-decisions-before-you-know-whats-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent</a>. They sniff out social status in the air and on the bodies of their peers. The researchers watched as mice encountered strangers and familiar cage mates.



They wanted to know whether a mouse could identify another’s rank without prior interaction. The answer was yes. The scent said it all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-based-rank-recognition-in-mice">Scent-based rank recognition in mice</h2>



In the tube test, two mice enter from opposite ends. The dominant mouse typically forces the other to back out. Researchers ranked mice within the same cage, creating a clear hierarchy. 



Then they introduced unfamiliar mice, testing whether the scent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-certain-odors-pheromones-speeds-up-aging-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a> still worked when the opponent was a stranger. The findings? Even without prior interactions, the mice accurately detected rank using only scent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-in-the-dark">What happens in the dark?</h2>



Mice can’t rely on vision in complete darkness. So, the researchers plunged the testing room into blackness to eliminate visual cues.



The results stayed the same. Mice still recognized dominant opponents, proving that scent carried all the necessary information. 



The team also castrated some mice to see if the removal of sex hormones affected scent signals. It didn’t. Dominance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-perform-first-aid-and-save-unconscious-peers-in-emergencies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a> remained intact, suggesting that scent signals aren’t tied to hormones but to other chemical compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manipulating-perception-through-scent">Manipulating perception through scent</h2>



The researchers didn’t stop there. They tried manipulating rank perception through urine. By painting subordinate mice with urine from dominant males, they created temporary rank shifts. 



Suddenly, the formerly submissive mice behaved like top dogs. Even strangers treated them as if they had climbed the social ladder. This powerful manipulation revealed that scent cues could override an individual’s actual social history. 



“Our work offers an interesting perspective on social mobility: humans, like mice, can enter a new group of people but still maintain understanding of own social rank and gauge the social status of unfamiliar people,” noted Neven Borak, the study’s first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-use-two-scent-systems">Mice use two scent systems</h2>



Mice use two chemosensory systems to read scent cues: the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) and the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB). To understand how these systems contribute to rank detection, the researchers disabled each one separately. 



Mice with impaired olfactory systems still recognized rank. The same held true for those with damaged contact scent systems.



But when both systems were disrupted, the mice lost their ability to distinguish dominant from subordinate opponents. This dual reliance on scent systems underscores the importance of both airborne and contact-based scent cues in social interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-cues-help-mice-avoid-conflict">Scent cues help mice avoid conflict</h2>



Social life can get messy when animals clash over resources or mates. In mice, scent provides a way to avoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-mice-turn-to-female-mice-to-avoid-fights-keep-social-peace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unnecessary fights</a>. A quick sniff can tell a subordinate mouse to back down before a confrontation even begins. 



By recognizing the scent of a dominant opponent, the mouse can retreat and avoid injury. This scent-based communication system not only maintains order but also reduces the risk of physical harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universal-scent-signals">Universal scent signals</h2>



Do mice only recognize familiar scents? The researchers tested this by introducing mice from separate cages. Despite having no prior interactions, the mice still detected rank differences. 



This ability to generalize rank recognition across groups suggests that scent cues carry universal signals of dominance. The implications are profound. Scent can act as a universal language, conveying social information without prior encounters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-scent-to-social-status">Linking scent to social status</h2>



While scent clearly plays a role in rank recognition, how does the brain process this information? Previous studies have identified brain regions involved in self-rank detection, like the anterior cingulate cortex and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. 



But how does the brain interpret opponent rank? The researchers suspect that sensory input from the MOE and AOB converges in areas like the medial amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. 



These regions receive inputs from both olfactory and contact scent systems, suggesting a possible neural pathway for integrating social rank information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-social-dynamics">Implications for social dynamics</h2>



Social hierarchies are not just a mouse problem. Humans also navigate complex social networks, constantly assessing their status relative to others. While humans rely more on visual and verbal cues, the underlying cognitive mechanisms for detecting rank may be similar across species. 



“Humans, like mice, can enter a new group of people but still maintain understanding of own social rank and gauge the social status of unfamiliar people,” Borak notes. 



The ability to perceive social status quickly can help avoid conflict, but it can also reinforce hierarchies, limiting social mobility and affecting health outcomes for those stuck at the bottom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study raises new questions. How do different brain regions work together to process scent cues and assess social rank? 



What specific chemical compounds convey rank information? And how do physiological states, like stress or hunger, affect scent perception?



The researchers plan to use advanced imaging techniques and optogenetic manipulation to explore these questions, aiming to map the neural circuits that translate scent into social behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-redefines-hierarchies-in-mice">Scent redefines hierarchies in mice</h2>



Mice don’t need words or physical strength to assert dominance. A scent can say it all. This study from the Crick Institute highlights how chemical cues can reshape social hierarchies, allowing mice to recognize and respond to dominance without direct confrontation. 



For humans, the implications are equally intriguing. While we may rely less on scent, the underlying cognitive mechanisms for detecting social rank may still be at play, subtly influencing our interactions and shaping the way we navigate the social world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00560-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Mice use scent to determine who's the boss

Picture a mouse entering a narrow, transparent tube. Another mouse...

Inside dark, hidden burrows, mice rely on their whiskers to make sense of the world. For decades, scientists believed that whisking - the brushing of whiskers against surfaces - was purely a tactile process. 



But researchers at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a> have uncovered a surprising twist. Whisking doesn’t just involve touch. It generates sound.



Published in the journal Current Biology, the study shows that these tiny sounds activate the auditory cortex in mice, revealing a previously unnoticed sensory connection. 



The implications stretch far beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-beings-emit-a-subtle-light-that-fades-after-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a>. They hint at how brains might merge different senses to create a fuller picture of the surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-whiskers-make-sounds">Mice whiskers make sounds</h2>



“Whiskers are so delicate that no one had thought of checking whether they produce sounds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/klotho-s-kl-protein-discovered-boosts-lifespan-muscle-brain-power-with-one-dose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> are able to hear,” said Professor Ilan Lampl of Weizmann’s Brain Sciences Department.



Lampl’s team started by recording the sounds whiskers make when they brush against different surfaces. They used sensitive microphones capable of picking up ultrasonic frequencies - sounds beyond human hearing. The setup mimicked the distance between a mouse’s whiskers and ears.



Surprisingly, the microphones caught faint yet distinct sounds. Whiskers brushing against Bougainvillea leaves and aluminum foil each produced unique acoustic signatures. 



These whisker-generated sounds weren’t loud, but they were consistent enough for the researchers to wonder: Are mice actually listening to their own whiskers?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-brains-listen-to-whisker-sounds">Mice brains listen to whisker sounds</h2>



To answer that question, the researchers recorded neural activity in the auditory cortex of mice. They wanted to see if the brain responded to these whisker-generated sounds.



The results stunned them. The auditory cortex lit up every time a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-perform-first-aid-and-save-unconscious-peers-in-emergencies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mouse</a> whisked against a surface, even when the researchers blocked the pathways that convey touch. The brain wasn’t just feeling the whisker’s touch. It was listening to it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-listen-to-their-own-whiskers">Why listen to their own whiskers?</h2>



Mice navigate through dense, cluttered environments. They sniff, feel, and now, it seems, they also listen. This auditory feedback might help them distinguish between surfaces. 



The sound of whiskers brushing against a dry leaf may signal danger. The rustle of aluminum foil might mean food. Lampl suggests that mice may have developed this sensory connection to avoid predators.



“Since whisking generates much weaker sounds than walking, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-offer-first-aid-to-unconscious-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mouse</a> could rely on it when, for example, choosing whether to walk across a brittle, drier field of crops versus a fresher, quieter one, to avoid being detected by an owl,” said Lampl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-confirms-that-mice-identify-sounds">AI confirms that mice identify sounds</h2>



To confirm that these sounds mattered to the mice, the researchers brought in artificial intelligence (AI). They trained two machine-learning models.



One model analyzed the neural activity in response to whisker-generated sounds. The other analyzed the recorded sounds themselves. Both models accurately identified objects based solely on sound patterns. 



The takeaway? The mice’s brains were not just picking up sound. They were interpreting it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-trained-to-hear-whisker-sounds">Mice trained to hear whisker sounds</h2>



With AI results in hand, the researchers designed a behavioral test. They trained mice whose touch sensation had been blocked to recognize aluminum foil based solely on its whisker-generated sound.



The mice caught on quickly. When they heard the sound of whiskers scraping foil, they responded as if they were touching it. 



This finding confirmed that the auditory cortex could interpret whisker sounds as sensory information, even without tactile input.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-to-whiskers-helps-mice-survive">Listening to whiskers helps mice survive</h2>



Why would mice evolve to listen to their own whiskers? Lampl believes it’s all about survival. 



The sound of whiskers brushing against objects is subtle - much quieter than a mouse’s footsteps. This quiet feedback allows a mouse to navigate without attracting predators.



“Whisking could also help a mouse figure out whether a stem is hollow or sufficiently juicy and worthy of a bite,” Lampl explained. 



The ability to detect subtle acoustic differences might help mice decide what to bite, what to avoid, and where to hide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mouse-whisker-insights-for-robots">Mouse whisker insights for robots</h2>



The study’s findings have broader implications. If mice can merge sound and touch to perceive their environment, robots might do the same. 



Dr. Ben Efron, a lead researcher in the study, sees potential in collision-avoidance sensors that rely on sound.



“Integrating different types of sensory input is a major challenge in the design of robotic systems. The mouse brain’s whisking system might provide inspiration for technologies that would address this challenge,” said Dr. Efron.



In smoke-filled rooms, underwater environments, or other low-visibility conditions, sensors that interpret subtle sounds could prevent collisions. The mouse brain, it seems, may offer a blueprint for such systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-blind-people-could-benefit">How blind people could benefit</h2>



The study also opens doors for sensory rehabilitation. For people with sensory impairments, integrating touch and sound could enhance perception. 



Consider how blind individuals use the sound of a white cane tapping against a surface. Mice, it turns out, might be doing something similar with their whiskers.



If researchers can replicate this multisensory integration in prosthetic devices, they could create more intuitive feedback systems. Imagine a prosthetic hand that not only feels an object but also “hears” its texture through vibrations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-whiskers-big-sensory-impact">Tiny whiskers, big sensory impact</h2>



Mice whiskers are as thick as human hair at the base, ranging from 40 to 80 microns. 



As they extend outward, they become much thinner, ending at just 3 to 4 microns at the tip. This thin, sensitive structure helps them create tiny sounds and detect slight vibrations.



This study is just the beginning. If mice can use whisker-generated sounds to identify objects, what other animals might do the same? Could cats or rats also listen to their whiskers?



The researchers plan to explore how different animals might use touch-generated sounds. They also want to see if mice can learn to distinguish between even more complex sounds or if they can adapt to new auditory cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-mice-whisker-sounds">Significance of mice whisker sounds </h2>



What started as a simple investigation into whiskers has revealed a complex sensory connection. Mice don’t just feel with their whiskers - they listen to them. 



The implications stretch beyond the burrow, hinting at new ways to merge sound and touch in both nature and technology.



And for researchers like Lampl, the work is far from over. The brain’s ability to integrate multiple senses opens up a world of possibilities, from robotic sensors to prosthetic feedback systems. The whispers of whiskers might just be the start.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982225001241?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Mouse whiskers can actually "hear" the world by creating internal sounds

Inside dark, hidden burrows, mice rely on their whiskers to...

Every year on May 23, World Turtle Day serves not only as a celebration but also as an important reminder. It's a call to reflect on the lives of turtles and tortoises, whether they glide silently through the seas or wander slowly across the forest.



Founded in 2000 by American Tortoise Rescue, this day honors the calm, enduring creatures that have existed for more than 200 million years. Their ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legacy</a> offers a living glimpse into Earth’s prehistoric past.



Yet, despite their resilience, turtles now face mounting threats. From oceans filled with plastic to disappearing nesting sites, their survival hangs in the balance. World Turtle Day encourages people to reflect, learn, and act. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-world-turtle-day">Significance of World Turtle Day </h2>



Turtles don’t draw attention with loud sounds or flashy movements. They don’t need to. Their quiet actions keep ecosystems alive. They simply do what they’ve always done, year after year, century after century.



Sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-have-genomes-unlike-any-other-animal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a> graze on seagrass, keeping it short and healthy. That allows entire marine communities to thrive. They also eat jellyfish, helping balance populations in the ocean. Without them, jellyfish would overwhelm the seas.



Freshwater turtles act like cleanup crews. They feed on decaying plants and dead fish, keeping ponds and rivers clean. Their presence makes the water healthier for other species too.



In deserts and dry regions, tortoises dig into the earth to escape the heat. Their burrows don’t just serve them. Dozens of animals - rabbits, insects, reptiles - take shelter there.



Every turtle action holds weight. And when turtles disappear, their role disappears with them. Plants grow unchecked. Polluted waters stay dirty. Heat becomes deadly without cool hiding places.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Turtles</a> may move slowly, but their impact moves through entire food chains. Losing them doesn’t just mean losing a species. It means losing a balance, a rhythm, a piece of life that helps other life survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-faced-by-turtles-every-day">Dangers faced by turtles every day</h2>



The danger isn’t always loud. Turtles don’t scream when they get tangled in nets. They don’t protest when beaches vanish under buildings. But these things are killing them.



Some turtles travel thousands of miles and return to the exact beach where they were born. But now those beaches are crowded, polluted, or gone.



Tortoises get hit by cars while crossing roads they don’t understand. Some are taken from the wild and sold as pets. Some are eaten, while other just disappear.



Plastic, though, is the sneakiest killer. Floating bags look like jellyfish. Turtles eat them and starve with full bellies. They float when they should dive. They die without anyone noticing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-slowing-down-helps-us-see-turtles">How slowing down helps us see turtles</h2>



World Turtle Day isn’t only about admiring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leatherback-sea-turtles-where-the-worlds-largest-turtles-go-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a>. It’s about noticing them in a world that often doesn’t. Turtles live quietly, without noise or speed. But their stillness carries wisdom. They ask nothing from us except attention.



We move too fast. We scroll, swipe, skip ahead. In doing so, we miss small lives like theirs. Turtles don’t rush. They don’t need to. They’ve been around for over <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/13/1/17?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">200 million years</a> and their survival comes not from force, but from persistence.



When we stop and look, we begin to understand. That’s where education comes in. A school trip to a wetland, a short film about sea turtle migration, or seeing a baby turtle crawl to the ocean. Those simple experiences can shift perspectives forever.



Seeing a turtle struggle to move around a discarded bottle teaches more than a textbook. Watching one bask in sunlight teaches patience. These moments stay with us.



World Turtle Day reminds us to see better, not just do more. And once we truly see turtles, not just as animals but as ancient, vital beings, we start to care in deeper, lasting ways. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-help-on-world-turtle-day">Simple ways to help on World Turtle Day</h2>



Helping turtles doesn’t require a badge or a biology degree. It just takes awareness. You don’t need to work for a wildlife agency to make a difference. You simply need to notice what’s happening around you.



Turtles often cross roads slowly and quietly. Many don’t make it. If you’re driving and see one, slow down. If you can safely stop, help the turtle cross in the same direction it was heading. Don’t carry it the other way. Don’t take it home thinking you’ve rescued it. Wild turtles belong in the wild.



Trash is another silent threat. It clutters their habitats, traps their limbs, and poisons their food. Picking up litter near ponds, rivers, or beaches helps more than you think. Every wrapper removed is one less risk.



People sometimes buy turtles as pets, not knowing it’s harmful. If you hear someone planning to do this, say something. Turtles are not decorations. They’re living creatures with complex needs that glass tanks can’t meet.



Helping turtles doesn’t need fancy solutions. It needs people who act with care. The rules are simple. They only work when people follow them with kindness and consistency. Turtles thrive when we notice, when we care, and when we step in quietly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-acts-make-a-big-difference">Small acts make a big difference</h2>



World Turtle Day isn’t about making noise or hosting grand celebrations. It’s about caring. It’s about showing up with small, thoughtful actions that carry meaning.



Some people wear green to spark curiosity. Others draw turtles on sidewalks to make people smile. A few post stories and facts online to spread awareness. 



Teachers sometimes decorate classrooms with turtle themes, bringing books, crafts, and stories to young minds. These simple gestures invite attention, spark conversations, and make turtles visible.



We live in a fast, crowded world. Quiet creatures like turtles often go unnoticed. That’s why these small acts matter so much. They shine a light on animals that don’t ask for it, but need it more than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facts-to-explore-on-world-turtle-day">Facts to explore on World Turtle Day</h2>



Turtles have been around for more than 200 million years. That means they shared the Earth with dinosaurs and survived events that wiped out most life. Their design has barely changed over time, proving that nature got it right the first time.



Not all turtles live in water. Some prefer land. Tortoises, for example, can’t swim and live mostly in dry areas. Sea turtles, on the other hand, rarely leave the ocean except to lay eggs.



A turtle’s shell isn’t just protection. It’s part of its skeleton. It includes over 50 bones and is connected to the spine and ribs. A turtle can’t crawl out of its shell - it’s part of its body.



Sea turtles use Earth’s magnetic field to navigate. They can travel thousands of miles across oceans and still return to the same beach where they were born.



Turtles don’t have teeth, but they have strong beaks. Some can bite with surprising force. And turtles can live a long time. Some tortoises have reached 150 years or more. That’s a lot of birthdays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-carry-the-past-with-them">Turtles carry the past with them</h2>



Turtles aren’t stuck in the past, but they carry it with them. Their bodies are like living fossils, shaped by time. They’ve survived volcanic eruptions, moving continents, and mass extinctions.



Long before humans walked the Earth, turtles were already here. And they’re still here, slowly crossing beaches and rivers, carrying stories in their shells.



They’ve witnessed every chapter of Earth’s history. But even the most ancient creatures can’t keep going without support. Nature doesn’t always protect its oldest members. Sometimes, it forgets them. Sometimes, people do too.



That’s why World Turtle Day matters. It’s not a tribute to the past. It’s a promise to the present. It’s our chance to say we see them, we value them, and we won’t let them fade.



Turtles deserve clean oceans, safe nesting grounds, and freedom from harm. They deserve a world that doesn’t just let them live, but lets them live well.



Our actions today decide their future. If we care now, turtles will still be here long after us, carrying the story forward.



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World Turtle Day 2025: Ancient creatures with modern challenges

Every year on May 23, World Turtle Day serves not...

Waiting is hard. Whether it’s a child eyeing a cookie or a sea creature hovering above a crab, the tug between “now” and “later” shapes daily choices. Across species, holding off for a better payoff often pairs with sharper thinking and long-term success.



Scientists have tracked this link for decades in humans and chimpanzees, yet evidence in animals without fur or feathers has been thin.



A new study puts cuttlefish at center stage with the famous "marshmallow test," and shows that these soft-bodied hunters can summon patience - and brainpower - to rival some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-chimpanzees-take-risks-like-human-teens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flashiest vertebrates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patience-marshmallows-and-cuttlefish">Patience, marshmallows, and cuttlefish</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-can-recognize-geometric-patterns-in-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Self-control</a> is the mental brake that lets an individual pass up an immediate bite for a bigger meal down the road. In people, stronger self-control predicts better grades, steadier income, and healthier habits. 



Among animals, apes, parrots, and crows often wait, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-with-greater-social-tolerance-have-more-self-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a>, rats, and pigeons seldom do. Biologists think the variation reflects how each species makes a living.



Lifespan, growth rate, and food supply all shape patience. Long-lived creatures can afford to wait, and social animals may hold back until a partner arrives. 



Predators stalking elusive prey, from ravens to reef fish, also do well to bide their time. Untangling which factor matters most is tough because many well-studied vertebrates share several of those traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-undersea-cuttlefish-marshmallow-test">Undersea cuttlefish marshmallow test</h2>



The famous marshmallow test gave preschoolers one marshmallow right away or two if they waited 15 minutes. 



To translate that setup underwater, the team offered hungry cuttlefish a piece of ordinary shrimp and, behind a clear barrier, a tastier live grass shrimp. 



Sliding doors let each animal see both treats while controlling when each became reachable.



Some cuttlefish snatched the plain snack at once. Others hovered, watched, and resisted for more than two minutes, choosing the better catch when the moment came. 



Individual wait times ranged from 50 to 130 seconds, figures that match those reported for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parrots and crows</a> despite the cephalopods’ far shorter lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-they-perform">How did they perform?</h2>



The work comes from lead author Alexandra Schnell of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, who collaborated with <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> senior scientist Roger Hanlon and colleagues. 



“We used an adapted version of the Stanford marshmallow test, where children were given a choice of taking an immediate reward (1 marshmallow) or waiting to earn a delayed but better reward (2 marshmallows),” Schnell explained.



The cuttlefish that participated in the marshmallow study were able to wait for the better reward, tolerating delays of up to 50–130 seconds. 



This is comparable to what we see in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large-brained vertebrates</a> such as chimpanzees, crows, and parrots.



Patience alone would be interesting, yet the researchers also asked whether it linked to learning ability. They trained each animal to match a colored mark on the tank wall with food, then reversed the rule so the reward switched colors. 



“The cuttlefish that were quickest at learning both of those associations were better at exerting self-control,” Schnell continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patience-pays-off">Patience pays off</h2>



Reversal learning tests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-songbirds-are-masters-of-memory-and-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental flexibility</a> because an animal must suppress a habit and update its plan when conditions flip. 



In the study, individual cuttlefish that waited the longest in the marshmallow food test also adapted fastest when the color code changed. 



The pairing hints that the brain circuits holding an impulsive tentacle in check may also help rewrite memories on the fly.



The findings appeared in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, marking the first documented link between delayed gratification and intelligence outside the primate lineage. 



For researchers, that pushes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-demonstrate-an-unanticipated-level-of-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex cognition</a> deeper into the tree of life and invites fresh questions about how such abilities evolve among invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cuttlefish-wait-on-the-marshmallow">Why cuttlefish wait on the marshmallow</h2>



Cuttlefish spend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-is-much-more-complex-and-mind-boggling-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most of their time camouflaging</a>, sitting and waiting, punctuated by brief periods of foraging. 



“They break camouflage when they forage, so they are exposed to every predator in the ocean that wants to eat them," Schnell concluded. 



"We speculate that delayed gratification may have evolved as a by-product of this, so the cuttlefish can optimize foraging by waiting to choose better-quality food.”



That scenario fits their daily routine. A cuttlefish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-use-camouflage-to-stalk-unsuspecting-crabs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">can blend its skin</a> with pebbles or coral in less than a second, then freeze for hours. 



Every dash into open water risks a chase from cod, dolphins, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bigger cephalopods</a>, so selecting the richest prey while exposed could boost energy intake without extra danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-intelligence-everywhere-we-look">Finding intelligence everywhere we look</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sex-chromosome-discovered-in-octopuses-is-480-million-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Octopuses</a> and squids already headline stories for maze solving and coconut-shell shelter building, yet cuttlefish now join them as evidence that big brains are not the only route to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-form-false-memories-events-similar-human-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sophisticated behavior</a>. 



Similar challenges - avoiding predators while hunting nimble prey - can mold very different nervous systems into comparable solutions through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a>.



Self-control underpins planning, cooperation, and perhaps the roots of culture in vertebrates. 



Finding the same thread in a creature that last shared an ancestor with humans more than 500 million years ago suggests that patience is more than a moral virtue; it is a versatile strategy etched deep into the fabric of life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.3161" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Cuttlefish easily passed a test designed for kids, startling scientists with their intelligence

Waiting is hard. Whether it’s a child eyeing a cookie...

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved Darwin right - it links today’s birds to ancient dinosaurs. Even though the first specimen was discovered over 160 years ago, this iconic fossil continues to offer fresh insights into how birds came to fly.



One of the most revealing specimens yet, the “Chicago Archaeopteryx,” was recently studied by researchers from the Field Museum. 



Their findings, published in the journal Nature, were made possible thanks to remarkable preservation and advanced technology.



The fossil was put on public display in 2024 at the Field Museum, giving both scientists and the public a close look at one of the most complete Archaeopteryx fossils found to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smallest-archaeopteryx-fossil-ever-found">Smallest Archaeopteryx fossil ever found</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx was discovered in the Solnhofen limestone of Germany, a site well known for yielding all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx specimens</a>.



This particular fossil had been in private hands since before 1990. In 2022, it arrived at the Field Museum through a collective effort from fossil enthusiasts and supporters.



“When we first got our Archaeopteryx, I was like, this is very, very, very cool, and I was beyond excited," enthused Jingmai O’Connor, the Field Museum’s associate curator of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nothosaur-polar-sea-reptile-fossil-oldest-ever-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil reptiles</a> and lead author of the paper. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Credit: Michael Rothman" class="wp-image-1970311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Michael Rothman</figcaption></figure>



"But at the same time, Archaeopteryx has been known for over 160 years, so I wasn’t sure what new things we would be able to learn. Our specimen is so well-preserved and so well-prepared that we’re actually learning a ton of new information, from the tip of its snout to the tip of its tail.”



This specimen is the smallest known Archaeopteryx, being only about the size of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-so-dim-witted-pigeons-have-their-own-version-of-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pigeon</a>. Its tiny bones are embedded in extremely hard limestone, making extraction especially tricky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-the-archaeopteryx-fossil">Preparing the Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



Because the bones and soft tissues are nearly the same color as the surrounding rock, even identifying where the fossil ended and stone began was a major challenge. Preparing it took over a year. 



The Field Museum’s fossil prep team worked under UV light to avoid damaging delicate soft tissues and used CT scans to guide their work.



“A CT scanner is essentially a machine that takes a series of X-rays, which it uses to build a three-dimensional image, based on differences in density. It lets you see inside things,” explained O’Connor.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CT scanning</a> was very important for our preparation process - it let us know things like, the bone is exactly 3.2 millimeters (0.1 inches) below the surface of the rock, which let us know exactly how far we could go before we would hit the bone."



This is the first time a complete Archaeopteryx has been CT scanned and the data made available.



The UV lighting was equally important. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Previous studies</a> have shown that there’s something in the chemical composition of Solnhofen fossils that makes the soft tissues fluoresce, or glow under UV light,” said O’Connor.



“So, our amazing prep team utilized UV light periodically through the preparation process to make sure that they weren't accidentally removing any soft tissues that you can’t see with the naked eye.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-detail-in-this-archaeopteryx-fossil">Unprecedented detail in this Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



The result is a specimen that reveals more fine detail than any previous Archaeopteryx fossil.



“We’re lucky in that this specimen happens to be extremely well-preserved, but we can also see features that probably were preserved in other specimens, but which didn’t make it through cruder preparation processes in the past,” said O’Connor. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum." class="wp-image-1970309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Click image to enlarge. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum.</figcaption></figure>



“Having the preparation of this specimen done by scientists whose goal was to preserve as much tissue and bone as possible made a huge difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The new fossil has helped answer questions about several parts of Archaeopteryx anatomy - its skull, hands, feet, and wings.



“The bones in the roof of the mouth help us learn about the evolution of something called cranial kinesis - a feature in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern birds</a> that lets the beak move independently from the braincase," explained O'Connor.



She added that, although this may not sound exciting to the average person, to those who study bird evolution it is an important thing. 



It's been hypothesized that having <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialized skulls</a> for different ecological niches might have helped birds evolve into the more than 11,000 species present today.



Preserved soft tissues in the feet and hands suggest that this animal walked on the ground and possibly even climbed trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-archaeopteryx-took-flight">How Archaeopteryx took flight</h2>



One of the most debated topics in paleontology is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how flight evolved</a> in dinosaurs.



Archaeopteryx wasn’t the first feathered dinosaur, nor the first with wing-like structures, but it may have been the earliest to truly take flight. 



“We think it’s the earliest known dinosaur that was able to use its feathers to fly,” said O’Connor, who highlighted this as her favorite finding in the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Credit: Delaney Drummond" class="wp-image-1970313"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Delaney Drummond</figcaption></figure>



The key to its aerial ability may lie in a set of upper arm feathers known as tertials. Archaeopteryx had an unusually long upper arm bone, which could have created a disruptive gap in the wing's surface - problematic for flight. 



“If air passes through that gap, that disrupts the lift you’re generating, and you can’t fly,” O’Connor explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-modern-birds">Differences in modern birds</h2>



Modern birds evolved shorter upper arm bones and specialized tertial feathers to close this gap. 



Remarkably, the Chicago specimen of Archaeopteryx shows it had long tertial feathers too - something unseen in its flightless dinosaur relatives. 



“Our specimen is the first Archaeopteryx that was preserved and prepared in such a way that we can see its long tertial feathers,” she noted.



These feathers, absent in closely related non-avian dinosaurs, suggest those creatures couldn’t fly. 



“That tells us... Archaeopteryx could,” O’Connor added. “This also adds to evidence that suggests dinosaurs evolved flight more than once - which I think is super exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-more-to-learn-160-years-later">Still more to learn, 160 years later</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx has already helped scientists answer long-standing questions. But this study is only the start.



“We're learning something exciting and new from just about every part of the body that we have preserved. And this paper is really just the tip of the iceberg,” remarked O’Connor.



After 160 years, it’s clear that Archaeopteryx still has plenty to teach us. Thanks to the care and tools used in preparing this fossil, we’re seeing it in ways that past generations of scientists could only imagine.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08912-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Archaeopteryx fossil found with preserved soft tissue proves Darwin was right all along

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved...

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