A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

3d,Rendering,X,And,Y,Chromosome,With,Telomeres

Flip open a high-school biology textbook, and the rule seems tidy: two X chromosomes mean girl, and an X paired with a Y means boy. That much smaller Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which is the switch for testis development. 



For the last 300 million years or so, this system has been working very well. Now, however, chatter in genetics circles hints that something is amiss. 



Over time, the Y chromosome has been losing pieces of itself, and computer models suggest the last scraps could vanish in roughly 11 million years. 



Y chromosome loss (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6996334/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LOY</a>) no trivial matter, because what it holds - or drops - can sway everything from cancer risk to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-with-two-dads-survives-to-adulthood-major-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how future humans reproduce</a>.



Would that erase men from the planet, or would life simply shrug and invent a new plan? Rodents on remote islands and subtle changes inside aging human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bone marrow</a> are now providing clues. 



One story shows how a mammal kept producing males after its LOY disappeared entirely. The other warns how men already pay a price when some of their cells drift away from the chromosome during middle age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosome-fade-away">Y chromosome fade away</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-pass-down-x-chromosomes-that-accelerate-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The X chromosome</a> carries about 900 genes that do everything from wiring nerves to repairing DNA. Its partner, the Y, keeps only about 55. 



Comparative work across mammals shows that, once our lineage split from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platypus</a> some 166 million years ago, the Y began dropping about five genes every million years. Run that line forward, and the ledger hits zero in 11 million years - a geological heartbeat.



Most biologists once chalked that outcome up to hype. After all, many species never shed their sex chromosomes. 



But the idea gained traction when researchers found the Japanese spiny rat and a few mole vole species thriving today without any Y chromosome at all. Somehow, they had rewired the traditional circuit for making testes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodents-changed-the-rules">Rodents changed the rules</h2>



In 2022, scientists found a duplicated piece of DNA near a gene called <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a> in the spiny rat. Usually, another gene (SRY) turns SOX9 on to make male traits develop. 



But in this rat, the new DNA copy does that job on its own - even without a Y chromosome - so a genetically female animal (XX) can still develop as male.



Drop the fragment into lab mice and testes still form. Evolution, it seems, can lay a new cable when the old one burns out.



That discovery hints that, should the human Y fizzle out one distant day, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> could promote an alternative trigger. 



Different populations might even settle on different triggers, eventually splitting into separate species that cannot interbreed. The idea sounds like science fiction, but the rodent reality shows it is genetically feasible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosomes-and-men-s-health">Y chromosomes and men's health</h2>



Long before any species-wide overhaul, countless men are already losing the Y chromosome cell by cell. Starting in their fifties, bone-marrow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-mouse-created-with-stem-cells-that-predate-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a> sometimes mis-segregate it during division. 



The resulting white-blood-cell lineages, missing their Y, multiply quietly. By 80 years old, more than 40 percent of men carry sizable pockets of this “mosaic loss of Y” in their blood.



Tracking 1,153 Swedish men in their seventies and eighties, researchers found that those with the loss died 5.5 years earlier, suffered more solid tumors and heart disease, and faced a seven-fold rise in Alzheimer’s. 



Kenneth Walsh of the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a> then bred mouse blood stem cells without the Y chromosome and transplanted them. The recipients developed fibrosis, failing hearts, and early death, showing the loss is the culprit, not a bystander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-cancer-risk">Enhanced cancer risk</h2>



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09071-2#Sec8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">In another study</a> released in June 2025, researchers mapped LOY across thousands of individual cells from human cancers and matched mouse models. 



They found that Y-negative cells were not limited to the tumors themselves; they also dominated the surrounding immune landscape. 



CD4⁺ helper T cells shifted toward a regulatory identity that dampens attack signals, while CD8⁺ killer T cells lost much of their punch.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-disappearance-study-finds-direct-link-to-much-greater-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The degree of LOY in the bloodstream</a> mirrored what the team saw inside the tumor. Patients whose blood showed a high percentage of Y-negative white cells tended to harbor tumors rich in LOY and faced poorer outcomes. 



Those correlations held across lung, bladder, and head-and-neck cancers, hinting at a common mechanism rather than a disease-specific quirk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-link-to-the-immune-system">Direct link to the immune system</h2>



A gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/7404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UTY</a> helps control the immune system. Without it, some immune cells stop working properly - one kind makes more scar tissue, and another becomes weaker, which helps cancer grow and spread. 



In mice, tumors grow twice as fast without the Y. In men, bladder cancers missing the Y chromosome are more dangerous - except they respond better to a certain kind of cancer treatment called checkpoint inhibitors.



The picture is complicated: a chromosome that underpins male development also tames inflammation and restrains tumors, yet its selective absence can make some drugs shine. 



Medicine and evolution rarely share the same bottom line. Natural selection prizes reproductive success over a lifetime, while clinicians care about the here and now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-offsetting-y-chromosome-loss">Offsetting Y chromosome loss</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-vaping-help-people-quit-smoking-cigarettes-new-study-breaks-it-down/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cigarette smoke</a>, air pollution, and certain industrial chemicals add extra DNA damage and accelerate the Y chromosome loss. Kicking tobacco, breathing cleaner air, and limiting exposure to mutagens therefore rank as simple defenses - all it takes is willpower.



General habits that slow genomic wear - regular exercise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-may-be-a-fountain-of-youth-for-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean-style</a> meals, and solid sleep - may also keep the Y chromosome in more cells for longer.



Antifibrotic drugs cleared for lung disease are being tested to blunt heart damage from the loss. Oncologists already use chromosome status in bladder tumors to steer checkpoint therapy. 



As single-cell sequencing gets cheaper, your physical exam might soon include a “Y-loss score” beside cholesterol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



The Japanese spiny rat proves that mammals can reinvent the rulebook after the ‘puny little chromosome’ disappears. That prospect keeps evolutionary biologists buzzing. 



Yet the rodent’s triumph offers little comfort to a 60-year-old man whose marrow has already shed Y in a third of his white-blood-cell army. 



Species-level salvation and individual-level hazard can coexist. That dichotomy - long-term adaptability versus immediate personal cost - will likely guide both medical practice and evolutionary debate in the years ahead.



The Y chromosome is quirky but crucial. It shapes male development, steadies immunity, and may also be plotting its own disappearance. 



However, the good news is that the practical advice is simple: dodge mutagens, stub out cigarettes, consider a mid-life test for loss, and keep an eye on new research as this chromosome writes its final chapters.



Let's go, men, you got this!



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(23)00646-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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The Y chromosome is disappearing, a fact that is already causing problems for men

Flip open a high-school biology textbook, and the rule seems...

NASA’s Perseverance rover has rolled across a bright carpet of dust and bedrock for more than four years, but few sights have stopped the team in its tracks quite like a charcoal‑colored boulder perched on Witch Hazel Hill. 



<a href="https://assets.science.nasa.gov/dynamicimage/assets/science/missions/mars2020/2025/perseverance-rover-updates/Mars_Perseverance_ZR0_1472_0797612737_331EBY_N0711018ZCAM04115_1100LMJ.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The oddity</a>, dubbed “Skull Hill,” sits alone against tan sandstone, pocked with shallow pits and angled facets.



The rover first photographed the stone on April 11 while crossing a contact where light and dark units meet along the rim of Jezero Crater. 



<a href="https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/people/stackmorgan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Katie Morgan</a> of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>) says that every fresh turn in the rim campaign has produced surprises, and Skull Hill is “all we had hoped for and more.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skull-hill-interrupts-the-crater-rim">Skull Hill interrupts the crater rim</h2>



Skull Hill is no pebble; <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> rover's Mastcam‑Z images show a block roughly 1 ft tall and 1.6 ft wide that casts a sharp shadow at noon. 



Its basalt‑black skin contrasts so strongly with the surrounding deposits that researchers immediately tagged it as a foreigner to the site.



<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-perseverance-rover-reaches-top-of-jezero-crater-rim/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Jezero rim</a> preserves a cross‑section of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-water-reservoir-discovered-medusae-fossae-formation-two-miles-deep/">Mars’s crust</a>, making it an ideal place to inventory rock types carried in by <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl4051" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>, glaciers, or impacts. Each stray clast offers clues to terrains now eroded or buried elsewhere on the planet.



“We’ve found a few of these dark‑toned floats in the Port Anson region,” the mission blog reports. 



Mission scientists call such wanderers “floats” because they lie loose on the surface, having been transported far from their birthplace by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/">water</a>, wind, or blast waves. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-rocks-like-skull-hill-float">How rocks like Skull Hill "float"</h2>



Three billion years ago <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/">Jezero held a lake</a> nearly 28 miles across, fed by rivers that spilled over its rim and left a fan‑shaped delta now famous in orbital photos. 



Floods likely moved cobbles from the crater’s southern highlands into the basin before water vanished.



Later impacts churned up deeper layers and hurled projectiles across the landscape, peppering the delta with foreign stones. 



Models show that a 0.6‑mi‑wide crater can scatter ejecta more than 12 mi downrange, easily reaching Witch Hazel Hill.



After the water was gone, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128182345700290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aeolian abrasion</a> took over. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169555X08004340" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ventifacts</a> identified elsewhere on Mars develop when sand‑laden winds grind rock faces, sculpting facets and shallow pits. Skull Hill’s dimples could record the same relentless sandblasting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meteorite-or-volcanic-fragment">Meteorite or volcanic fragment?</h2>



At first glance the boulder’s metallic sheen suggested it might be an iron meteorite like “<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/curiosity-mars-rover-checks-odd-looking-iron-meteorite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Egg Rock</a>,” which <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/curiosity-mars-rover-checks-odd-looking-iron-meteorite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity</a> zapped in <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/a-guide-to-gale-crater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a> in 2016. Meteorites are rich in nickel‑iron alloys and often survive entry as glossy, fist‑size lumps.



Perseverance tested the idea within hours using its turret‑mounted <a href="https://an.rsl.wustl.edu/help/Content/About%20the%20mission/M20/Instruments/M20%20SuperCam.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SuperCam laser</a>. Early spectra showed scant nickel, pushing investigators toward an igneous origin instead.



Dark‑toned units elsewhere in Jezero, such as the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02329-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Máaz formation</a>, carry abundant <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/msa/elements/article/19/3/138/627700/Olivine-The-Little-Green-Science-Machine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">olivine</a> and <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/earth-sciences-museum/resources/detailed-rocks-and-minerals-articles/pyroxenes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroxene</a>, minerals that crystallize from cooling magma. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Mars-Perseverance_rock_spherules_closeup_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This image from NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover shows part of the “St. Pauls Bay” target, acquired from the lower Witch Hazel Hill area of the Jezero crater rim. The image reveals hundreds of strange, spherical-shaped objects comprising the rock. Perseverance acquired this image on March 11, 2025, or sol 1442 — Martian day 1,442 of the Mars 2020 mission. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/IRAP" class="wp-image-1974527"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"> This image from NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover shows part of the “St. Pauls Bay” target, acquired from the lower Witch Hazel Hill area of the Jezero crater rim. The image reveals hundreds of strange, spherical-shaped objects comprising the rock. Perseverance acquired this image on March 11, 2025, or sol 1442 - Martian day 1,442 of the Mars 2020 mission. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/IRAP</figcaption></figure>



If Skull Hill is a chipped piece of that volcanic crust, it may have been excavated by impacts or fractured during ancient quakes.



Still, the team has not ruled out a stony meteorite made of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/chondrite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chondritic material</a>, which contains far less nickel than iron meteorites. 



Ongoing <a href="https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/new-study-reveals-how-nasa-s-perseverance-rover-uses-libs-for-precise-mars-rock-analysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIBS measurements</a> will refine elemental ratios to better than 5 percent, a precision demonstrated in recent instrument tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-that-read-martian-rocks-dna">Tools that read Martian rocks' DNA</h2>



SuperCam fires a five‑nanosecond pulse that heats surface grains to plasma, and detectors then parse the glow to identify elements. 



Combined with the rover’s LIBS capability, the system can analyze spots smaller than a pencil eraser from up to 23 ft away.



Chemistry is married to context by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0584854721003049" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mastcam‑Z stereo imaging</a>, panoramic mosaics, and microscopic color close‑ups that reveal textures as fine as 0.05 in. That detail lets geologists match mineralogy to grain size and erosional features.



“Luckily for us, the rover has instruments that can measure the chemical composition of rocks on Mars,” the operations team wrote. 



Perseverance has so far probed 83 targets with its laser on Witch Hazel Hill alone, a record pace for the mission. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-skull-hill-rock-matter">Why does Skull Hill rock matter?</h2>



Floats like Skull Hill extend the rover’s reach beyond its wheels. A single exotic sample can point to rock layers tens of miles away, offering a geologic telegram from terrains the rover will never visit.



If the boulder proves volcanic, it could anchor the age of eruptions <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo2196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggested</a> by orbital mapping of the crater floor. In situ dating with returned samples might then calibrate crater‑count chronologies used across the Red Planet.



A meteorite identification would be equally valuable. Weathered fusion crust, corrosion rinds, and impact pits would reveal how metals rust under Martian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/">climate cycles</a>, information vital for future human hardware.



The pits themselves chronicle present‑day <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1801.04222" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind power</a>. Models of crater‑slope circulation predict gusts exceeding 40 mph at midday, fast enough to loft sand and abrade exposed rocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-sample-return-in-doubt">Mars sample return in doubt</h2>



Skull Hill lies only yards from a planned cache site where the rover could seal core samples in titanium tubes for a future pickup. 



Yet the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-sets-path-to-return-mars-samples-seeks-innovative-designs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Sample Return</a> program faces a shrinking budget and an $11 billion cost cap that Administrator <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/people/nasa-administrator-bill-nelson/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bill Nelson</a> called “too expensive” in 2023.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-gold-mission-unexpectedly-finds-x-shaped-structures-in-earths-upper-atmosphere/">NASA</a> has asked industry teams to redesign the mission for launch later this decade while trimming billions from the price tag. 



If the schedule holds, tubes dropped in Jezero could reach Earth in the mid‑2030s. Until then, Perseverance will keep trundling along the crater rim, zapping floats and drilling cores. 



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02329-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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NASA rover finds a rock on Mars named 'Skull Hill' that doesn't belong where it was found

NASA’s Perseverance rover has rolled across a bright carpet of...

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape conservation efforts. From cartoons to fundraising campaigns, giving animals human emotions and faces makes them more relatable. But this seemingly harmless trick has deeper consequences. 



A new study in the journal iScience&nbsp;explores how cultural, personal, and social factors shape our willingness to see animals like ourselves. This impacts which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/">species</a> we choose to protect.



“Unfortunately, anthropomorphism significantly influences conservation efforts... Species that appear more human-like or exhibit human-like behaviors usually tend to receive more attention, funding, and public support,” said Federica Amici of <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-responses-to-animals">Emotional responses to animals</h2>



The research team surveyed 741 adults from Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, and Spain. Each participant rated how much they agreed with statements about animals’ emotions, minds, intentions, and even their ability to distinguish good from evil. 



Respondents also reported their religious beliefs, education level, social networks, and personal experiences with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/">animals</a>.



Participants with less education tended to assign more human-like free will to animals. In contrast, those with more structured scientific learning were more cautious. 



Interestingly, urban experiences like owning pets or seeing animals in media predicted more emotional connections. These people were more likely to believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/">animals</a> had minds, emotions, and intent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lonely-humans-humanize-animals">Lonely humans humanize animals</h2>



Social isolation played a powerful role. People with weaker social ties were more likely to see animals as emotionally complex and similar to humans. 



This tendency was even more pronounced in allocentric individuals, who see themselves as part of a group rather than independent. 



These individuals often attributed more free will and emotions to animals, perhaps to meet their own need for companionship



“People who feel lonely or aren’t well connected to others often try to meet their need for social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/">connection</a> by seeing human-like qualities in animals or other non-human things,” noted Amici. 



This helps explain why pet owners or animal lovers may assign deeper personalities to their pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-anthropomorphism">Understanding anthropomorphism</h2>



The attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to non-human entities, including animals, objects, deities, or abstract concepts, is known as anthropomorphism. 



This tendency is deeply ingrained in human cognition and language, often used to make the unfamiliar more relatable or comprehensible. 



From ancient myths where gods possess <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">human emotions</a> to modern cartoons where animals talk and act like people, anthropomorphism plays a key role in storytelling, religious belief, and even scientific interpretation. 



It serves as a cognitive shortcut, allowing individuals to empathize with and interpret the actions of non-human entities through a human lens.



In scientific and philosophical contexts, anthropomorphism can be both a useful heuristic and a source of bias. For instance, in animal behavior studies, attributing intentions or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions to animals</a> can aid observational insight, but it also risks oversimplifying or misrepresenting their true nature. 



Similarly, in technology and artificial intelligence, people often perceive machines as having intentions or feelings, a phenomenon that shapes user experience and ethical concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-religion-shapes-human-view-of-animals">Religion shapes human view of animals</h2>



Religious belief had a noticeable effect. Participants from monotheistic traditions like Islam and Christianity were less likely to attribute free will, emotions, and pain to animals. 



In contrast, those from non-monotheistic faiths such as Hinduism and Buddhism were more open to the idea that animals could feel, think, and even deceive.



“Non-monotheistic religions appear to contribute more strongly to envisioning a space of coexistence between humans and other species,” said Amici. This supports the idea that religions emphasizing interconnection nurture deeper empathy toward non-human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-monkeys-as-moral-agents">Seeing monkeys as moral agents</h2>



The study included special focus on monkeys. People with greater exposure to monkeys were more likely to believe monkeys could deceive, plan, or act with intent but paradoxically, less likely to think monkeys felt pain.



Why the contradiction? The researchers suggest a possible reason. When animals are seen as threats, such as crop raiding monkeys, humans may still judge their behavior but downplay their suffering. 



This type of moral distancing may help humans justify their actions when conflicts arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-and-understanding-emotions">Feeling and understanding emotions</h2>



The survey measured traits like the ability to feel primary emotions such as anger or fear, secondary emotions like guilt or shame, and understand others’ intentions. 



Most people saw monkeys as capable of feeling basic emotions and having minds of their own.



However, beliefs about more complex traits like distinguishing good from evil were more variable. These attributions often reflected a blend of religion, social closeness, and urban experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assigning-human-traits-to-animals">Assigning human traits to animals</h2>



Assigning human traits to animals can help conservation efforts. It can boost empathy, raise funds, and build support. 



But it can also skew public concern toward cute or familiar species. That may leave less attractive yet ecologically vital creatures out of focus.



“I think anthropomorphizing species can be an effective approach, but it should be used with caution,” said Amici.



This study shows that conservationists must consider social context. Campaigns that resonate in one culture may fall flat in another. 



Customizing messaging based on local beliefs, education, and exposure to animals can make programs more effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-sympathy-to-strategy">From sympathy to strategy</h2>



This research uncovers how deeply our personal lives shape what we see in animals. By recognizing those patterns, conservation can become more inclusive and impactful. 



Instead of relying only on emotion or charisma, strategies can balance human connection with ecological urgency. When we see animals clearly, through both empathy and science, we might finally protect them wisely.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00954-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Why we see some animals as more human than others

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape...

Most of us know our birthday, but our brains may not follow the same calendar. Scientists now compare a scan-based brain age with our actual age to find what’s called a “brain age gap.” A larger gap can hint at slower thinking and weaker memory.



The study included 1,437 Southeast Asian adults, all without dementia, with an average age of 66. Of this group, 60 percent showed no signs of cognitive impairment.



Each participant provided medical history through interviews, questionnaires, and medication reviews. They also underwent physical exams, lab tests, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-imaging-method-will-unravel-mysteries-of-neural-processes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain imaging</a>.



“As we get older, our brains change," said study co-author Dr. Saima Hilal of the <a href="https://nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of Singapore</a>. 



"With less brain volume and fewer blood vessels that support brain tissue, diseases can worsen these changes, profoundly affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-brain-age-is-calculated">How brain age is calculated</h2>



Using modern MRI scans, scientists fed data into a machine-learning model trained to estimate the biological age of a person’s brain. 



The experts then subtracted the individual’s real age from this predicted age to find the brain age gap. A positive number meant the brain appeared older than the person’s actual age. 



The research team also looked at each person’s brain scans for tiny signs of cerebrovascular disease - such as microbleeds or areas of dead tissue - caused by reduced blood supply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-factors-and-cognitive-performance">Risk factors and cognitive performance</h2>



To understand the likelihood of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-mild-covid-can-cause-prolonged-cognitive-impairment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive impairment</a>, the researchers assigned each participant a risk score.



This score factored in age, ethnicity, education level, past and current smoking, body mass index, depressive symptoms, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, and any history of stroke. A higher score indicated a greater risk of impaired thinking and memory.



The participants then completed a series of cognitive tests. These measured various mental skills including executive function, attention, language, and memory. 



The experts also assessed <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10265306/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visuoconstruction</a> (such as the ability to copy a drawing) and visuomotor speed, which involves processing visual information and responding with movement.



The researchers found that higher risk scores consistently aligned with lower scores on these tests -especially in tasks involving visuoconstruction and visuomotor speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-links-brain-age-and-risk">AI links brain age and risk</h2>



Once the researchers had each participant’s brain age, they explored whether the brain age gap played a role in how health risks affected thinking and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>. In many cases, it did.



Among participants with more signs of cerebrovascular disease, the brain age gap had a stronger influence. It appeared to magnify how much health risks affected areas like executive function and language. 



Researchers calculated how much of the connection between risk factors and cognition could be explained by the brain age gap. They found that it accounted for 20 percent of the overall link.



It explained 34 percent of the link to executive function and 27 percent of the link to language skills.



“The brain age gap may be a helpful biomarker in determining a person’s risk of cognitive decline,” said Hilal. 



“Our findings suggest that accelerated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-detect-if-your-brain-is-aging-too-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a> may serve as an important factor linking cognitive impairment risk factors to thinking and memory skills in adults with cerebrovascular conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-brain-age-to-guide-treatment">Using brain age to guide treatment</h2>



This research could help doctors spot early warning signs of cognitive decline, especially in people with known health risks. 



A simple scan that shows the brain is aging faster than it should could encourage earlier treatment or lifestyle changes. It may also help identify individuals who are more vulnerable to rapid cognitive decline, even if they currently show no outward symptoms. 



Over time, brain age analysis could become a useful tool alongside traditional checkups, offering a more complete picture of neurological health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-few-limits-to-consider">A few limits to consider</h2>



It’s worth noting that the study focused only on Southeast Asian participants, so the results may not apply to all populations. 



Also, data on diet, exercise, and certain genes tied to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-benefits-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s disease</a> were not available for all individuals, limiting some of the analysis.



Longer studies will be needed to see how brain age gaps change over time and whether they can help predict future memory decline.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000213815" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Your brain’s age might be older than your body, creating a "brain age gap"

Most of us know our birthday, but our brains may...

Hydrogen,Power,Plant.,Gas,Storage,Equipment.,Spherical,Tanks,For,H2

Hydrogen carries about 120 megajoules of energy per kilogram, roughly triple the punch of gasoline. Yet producing it without carbon emissions still hinges on squeezing every last electron through water.



Global electrolyzer capacity doubled to 1.4 gigawatts in 2023, but the <a href="https://www.iea.org/energy-system/low-emission-fuels/electrolysers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Energy Agency</a> says the world needs 560 gigawatts by 2030 to meet net‑zero goals. 



That gap keeps chemists awake at night. <a href="https://www.wpi-aimr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/research/researcher/liu_h.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heng Liu</a> of <a href="https://www.wpi-aimr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a> just gave them a reason to sleep better. His team reports a cobalt–molybdenum catalyst that turns nearly every electron into hydrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precatalysts-set-the-stage">Precatalysts set the stage</h2>



Many industrial catalysts begin life as a precatalyst that reshapes under voltage. That makeover, called reconstruction, can raise or wreck performance.



“It’s hard to design a catalyst that works well when that catalyst itself can change,” explained Liu, noting the challenge of hitting a moving target. His group decided to steer the change rather than fight it.



When an electrode drives <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-electrolysis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrolysis</a>, water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen. The half‑reaction that releases hydrogen is the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/hydrogen-evolution-reaction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen evolution reaction</a>.



During that reaction Liu’s cobalt‑rich <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.0c20271" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Co2Mo3O8</a> precursor sheds molybdenum into the liquid. The exposed cobalt atoms then bind hydroxide ions and reorganize into a nanoscale shell of Co(OH)₂.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cobalt-and-clean-hydrogen">Cobalt and clean hydrogen</h2>



Cobalt holds a sweet spot on the periodic table when it comes to catalytic activity. It has just the right balance of electron density to attract and release protons during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-forming-hydrogen-cloud-discovered-surprisingly-close-to-earth-eos/">hydrogen</a> production.



When combined with <a href="https://periodic-table.rsc.org/element/42/molybdenum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molybdenum</a>, the alloy forms a conductive and stable surface that resists corrosion in alkaline solutions. That durability is essential for keeping large-scale electrolysis running without constant maintenance.



Voltage control lets the shell wrap the crystal core evenly, creating a tidy <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780122341243500069" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heterostructure</a>. Laboratory tests show the interface speeds the step in which water donates its first proton.



Meanwhile the dissolved molybdate anions drift back and perch on the shell. At slightly more negative potentials they pair up as Mo₂O₇²⁻, loosening hydrogen’s grip and letting bubbles escape faster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molybdate-ions-and-clean-hydrogen">Molybdate ions and clean hydrogen</h2>



The presence of MoO₄²⁻ (molybdate anion) and Mo₂O₇²⁻ ions isn't just a side effect of the reconstruction process, it plays a direct role in performance. 



These ions alter the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-hydrogen-source-could-power-earth-for-170000-years/">hydrogen</a> sticks to and leaves the surface, which is key to keeping the reaction fast and efficient.



When Mo₂O₇²⁻ forms under slightly more negative voltage, it encourages weaker <a href="https://css.umich.edu/publications/factsheets/energy/hydrogen-factsheet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen binding</a>. This makes it easier for hydrogen atoms to pair up and detach as gas, rather than staying stuck on the surface.



Faradaic efficiency measures what fraction of current produces the desired product. The new catalyst reaches 99.9 percent at –0.4 volts versus the reversible hydrogen electrode, with a hydrogen output of 1.85 moles per hour.



Those numbers hold for more than a month at about 100 milli‑amps per square centimeter, a current density relevant to alkaline industrial cells. 



Commercial <a href="https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/product/aldrich/205958?srsltid=AfmBOor7Ndg-C1bxkj2_PhvkoRgvM6UjC_VVeid6RB8KrshpsZmhdHau" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platinum‑on‑carbon</a> electrodes in the same test lost three‑quarters of their activity within a day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-lab-bench-to-factory-floor">From lab bench to factory floor</h2>



The study showed the material keeps working after sitting on the shelf for weeks. That stability lowers shipping and storage costs for large‑scale projects. 



Cobalt and molybdenum are already mined for batteries and steel, so supply chains exist. Even so, recycling plans will be needed to prevent price spikes if demand climbs sharply.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57056-6/figures/4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/clean-hydrogen-production_efficiency-model_graphic_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Theoretical calculation of clean hydrogen energy production at 99% efficiency. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1974516"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Theoretical calculation of clean hydrogen energy production at 99% efficiency. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



<a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/05/22/3086846/0/en/Hydrogen-Electrolyzer-Market-Projected-to-Hit-USD-40-12-Billion-by-2032-Amid-Surging-Demand-for-Clean-Energy.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analysts</a> expect the hydrogen‑electrolyzer market to jump from $1.75 billion in 2025 to $40 billion by 2032, a 56 percent annual growth rate. Near‑perfect catalysts like Liu’s could help those projections stick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-difficulty-of-clean-hydrogen-scaling">Difficulty of clean hydrogen scaling</h2>



Scale‑up still faces hurdles such as heat management and electrode fouling. The Tohoku group plans pilot studies that pair their catalyst with intermittent wind power on Japan’s Pacific coast.



A separate challenge lies in sourcing alkaline electrolytes at the volumes gigawatt systems demand. Recycling potassium hydroxide and capturing stray molybdenum will be part of the engineering brief.



Researchers outside the project welcome the mechanistic insights. By tracking both the solid surface and the changing liquid, the team underscored that chemistry never happens in isolation.



Every efficiency gain cuts electricity bills, the biggest cost in green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-hydrogen-reserves-discovered-beneath-earths-mountains/">hydrogen</a>. That is why a single decimal point (99.9 instead of 99.0) echoes far beyond the laboratory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-hydrogen-infrastructure">Changing hydrogen infrastructure</h2>



If scaled successfully, this catalyst could lower the cost of producing hydrogen by cutting energy waste and extending equipment life. 



That kind of savings makes on-site <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-natural-hydrogen-deposit-discovery-is-worth-a-staggering-184-billion/">hydrogen</a> generation more practical for industries like shipping, steelmaking, and fertilizer.



It also opens the door for smaller, distributed electrolyzer units that could plug directly into local solar or wind farms. 



More localized production would mean less reliance on pipelines or cryogenic transport, simplifying the hydrogen supply chain.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57056-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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New catalyst improves clean hydrogen production to 99.9% efficiency

Hydrogen carries about 120 megajoules of energy per kilogram, roughly triple...

Everyone’s tried a diet at some point - counting calories, skipping dessert, cutting carbs. But here’s the catch: most of it doesn’t last. That’s where intermittent fasting comes in. Instead of limiting what you eat, it focuses on when you eat.



Now, scientists have tested whether it really works. A huge review published in&nbsp;The BMJ&nbsp;looked at 99 trials. Over 6,500 adults took part. Most had health issues. Most were women. Their average body mass index was 31, which falls under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-a-popular-weight-loss-drug-are-finally-revealed/">obesity</a>.



This wasn’t a small review. It compared different types of fasting with standard calorie-cutting diets and unrestricted eating. And the results? Pretty interesting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-these-diets-work">How these diets work</h2>



Let’s break down the main strategies. Time-restricted eating (TRE) means eating during a set time window each day, like 8 hours on, 16 off.



Alternate-day fasting (ADF) is exactly what it sounds like: you fast one day, eat the next. Whole-day fasting (WDF) usually follows a 5:2 plan - five days of regular eating, two days of fasting.



These were compared with daily calorie restriction and completely unrestricted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-unexpectedly-help-people-drink-less-alcohol/">diets</a> (called ad-libitum). 



Participants followed these plans for anywhere from three weeks to a year. Most trials lasted about three months. Some were high quality. Others, less so. But together, they gave us a clearer picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternate-day-fasting-works-best">Alternate-day fasting works best</h2>



Among all the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-could-save-an-enormous-number-of-lives/">diets</a>, alternate-day fasting came out on top. People following ADF lost around 3.4 kg more than those who ate freely. Compared to daily calorie restriction, ADF showed an extra 1.29 kg drop in weight. That’s not a huge difference, but it’s something.



ADF also did better than the other fasting types. It beat TRE by 1.69 kg and WDF by 1.05 kg. But here’s the twist: none of these differences reached 2 kg. That’s the threshold researchers say matters for people that are above weight.



Still, ADF had some extra perks. It helped lower triglycerides and “bad” cholesterol more than the other diets. Blood sugar? No changes there. Same for “good” cholesterol. But weight and lipids did shift a bit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-result-fades-over-time">Result fades over time</h2>



For the first few months, all fasting plans helped people lose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-foods-promote-weight-loss-regardless-of-processing/">weight</a>. But after six months, those differences faded. Only people eating without restrictions kept showing a clear gap.



Longer trials also showed another pattern: people dropped out. ADF had the highest dropout rate. In one year-long trial, only 22% stuck with it. The rest gave up.



Were there side effects? Yes. Mild ones. Hunger, constipation, maybe some dizziness. Nothing dangerous, but not exactly fun either.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-quality-matters">Food quality matters</h2>



Here’s what the team from Colombia pointed out. A diet isn’t just a plan. It’s also the support, the structure, the advice, and what you eat on non-fasting days.



“The current evidence provides some indication that intermittent fasting diets have similar benefits to continuous energy restriction for weight loss and cardiometabolic risk factors. Longer-duration trials are needed to further substantiate these findings,” noted the study authors.



“Intermittent fasting does not aim to replace other dietary strategies but to integrate and complement them within a comprehensive, patient centered nutritional care model.”



In other words, it’s not about picking sides. Intermittent fasting isn’t better or worse by itself. It can work - if it fits the person.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-alternate-day-fasting">The reality of alternate-day fasting</h2>



Intermittent fasting works. So does <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spicy-foods-can-slow-down-eating-and-cut-calorie-intake/">calorie</a> restriction. ADF may give you a slight edge. But none of these are magic. And none of them guarantee long-term success without real change and support.



The numbers aren’t mind-blowing, but they tell us something. If you can stick with fasting, especially ADF, you may lose a little more weight and lower some risk markers. If you can’t, you’re not alone.



In the end, the most effective diet isn’t the trendiest or the one that shows the biggest weight drop in studies. It’s the one you can keep doing without burning out. 



If you can follow a plan for a week, then a month, then maybe a year - without feeling miserable or deprived - then that’s a good sign.



The meals you eat should feel normal, not like a punishment. Your routine should fit around your life, not take it over. When your eating habits make sense, and you don’t dread sticking to them, that’s when real, lasting change has a chance to happen.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/389/bmj-2024-082007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The BMJ</a>.



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Alternate day fasting might be worth trying for weight loss

Everyone’s tried a diet at some point - counting calories,...

Men inherit their Y chromosome much the way families pass down a favorite pocketknife - practically unchanged from father to son. For decades, biologists treated this tiny stretch of DNA as little more than a switch for making testes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/">Recent work flips that idea on its head</a>. The Y chromosome turns out to influence immune function, cancer risk, and even how long a man might live.



Scientists once assumed its limited gene set made it a genetic lightweight. The X chromosome carries more than a thousand genes, yet the Y chromosome contains only about fifty to seventy protein-coding genes. 



Size, however, doesn’t tell the whole story. By following the Y’s trail through aging blood cells, researchers are charting an unexpected route from missing DNA to stubborn tumors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-y-chromosome-matters">Why the Y chromosome matters</h2>



The Y chromosome sprang into the spotlight a century ago when geneticists linked it to male sex determination. 



Its <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY gene</a> directs an embryo’s early tissues to form testes, setting off a hormonal cascade that produces typical male anatomy. 



Beyond that first task, the Y shoulders other jobs - guiding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-testicles-created-in-a-lab-will-eventually-produce-sperm/">sperm formation</a>, shaping certain brain circuits, and engaging with immune genes on the X chromosome.



Because the Y is passed down intact, it serves as a molecular time capsule. Anthropologists trace paternal lineages back tens of thousands of years by decoding tiny changes in its sequence. 



Clinicians, meanwhile, focus on what happens when the Y goes missing altogether in some cells - a phenomenon called loss of Y, or LOY.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-y-loy">Loss of Y (LOY)</h2>



LOY rises steeply after middle age. Surveys of European and American blood banks show that fewer than 2 percent of men under forty carry Y-negative blood cells, but the figure balloons past 40 percent by the late seventies. 



Smokers hit those levels even sooner. Despite its frequency, LOY often flies under the radar because routine blood panels do not look for mosaic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/">chromosomal loss</a>.



The disappearing Y appears to chip away at healthy aging. Population studies link LOY to higher mortality from cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer’s-like dementia. 



One Swedish project calculated that men with heavy LOY lived, on average, 5.5 years less than peers whose cells kept their Y. 



The chromosome’s dwindling presence seems to impair immune surveillance, setting the stage for rogue cells to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-cancer-and-y-chromosome-loss">Link between cancer and Y chromosome loss</h2>



In the new study co-authored by <a href="https://cancercenter.arizona.edu/person/dan-theodorescu-md-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Dan Theodorescu</a>, director of the Cancer Center at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, researchers mapped Y chromosome loss across thousands of individual cells from human cancers and matched mouse models.



They found that Y-negative cells were not limited to the tumors themselves; they also dominated the surrounding immune landscape. 



CD4⁺ helper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-learns-how-cancer-cells-highjack-the-immune-system-t-cells/">T cells</a> shifted toward a regulatory identity that dampens attack signals, while CD8⁺ killer T cells lost much of their punch.



The degree of LOY in the bloodstream mirrored what the team saw inside the tumor. Patients whose blood showed a high percentage of Y-negative white cells tended to harbor tumors rich in LOY and faced poorer outcomes.



Those correlations held across lung, bladder, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-directly-linked-to-head-and-neck-cancer/">head-and-neck cancers</a>, hinting at a common mechanism rather than a disease-specific quirk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-loy-in-the-cancer-ecosystem">Watching LOY in the cancer ecosystem</h2>



The work was led by <a href="https://www.uu.se/en/contact-and-organisation/staff?query=N9-750" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lars A. Forsberg</a> at Uppsala University’s Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, with collaborators at <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.broadinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Broad Institute</a> of MIT and Harvard. 



His group has spent the last decade cataloging how the vanishing Y shapes male health beyond reproduction. 



By combining single-cell RNA sequencing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR-engineered</a> mouse tumors, the researchers could watch LOY spread through the cancer ecosystem in real time.



Forsberg’s earlier epidemiological studies set the stage, but the present findings move from pattern spotting to mechanistic insight. 



The team now proposes that Y-negative tumor cells may release vesicles carrying factors that nudge nearby immune cells toward the same chromosomal loss, blunting the body’s response on multiple fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-care-and-the-lost-y-chromosome">Cancer care and the lost Y chromosome</h2>



Immune-based therapies such as CAR-T cells rely on harvesting a patient’s own T cells, engineering them to recognize cancer, and then infusing them back. 



If those starting cancer cells already lack the Y chromosome, their fighting spirit may be compromised before treatment even begins. 



Routine LOY screening could help oncologists decide whether to enrich for Y-positive cells or explore alternative strategies.



The study also raises the possibility of a simple blood test that flags men at higher risk years before a tumor forms. 



By tracking LOY alongside traditional markers like PSA or C-reactive protein, clinicians might refine screening schedules and lifestyle advice, especially for heavy smokers or men with family histories of cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-open-questions-that-need-answers">Open questions that need answers</h2>



Although the association between LOY and worse survival is strong, causality still needs proof. Lab groups are now using gene-editing tools to delete the Y in naïve T cells and watch how tumor control changes in animal models. 



Others are probing whether antioxidants, exercise, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-vaping-help-people-quit-smoking-cigarettes-new-study-breaks-it-down/">smoking cessation</a> can slow the march of LOY in circulating blood cells.



Another unknown is why certain chromosomes - particularly the Y - drop out more readily than others. 



One theory points to its structure: lacking a second copy for recombination, the Y may struggle to repair damage from oxidative stress or environmental toxins. 



Pinning down the exact triggers could open doors to interventions that keep the chromosome intact longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosomes-cancer-and-the-future">Y chromosomes, cancer, and the future</h2>



The Y chromosome may be small, but its absence echoes throughout a man’s biology. Loss of Y tampers with immune cells, helps tumors dodge attack, and shortens healthy years. 



As laboratories refine single-cell tools and clinicians adopt more personalized cancer therapies, checking whether the Y is present or missing could become as routine as measuring blood pressure. 



From sex determination in the womb to survival in old age, this pint-sized chromosome punches well above its weight, reminding us that in genetics, size isn’t everything.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09071-2#Sec8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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New study on Y chromosome disappearance finds direct link to much greater cancer risk

Men inherit their Y chromosome much the way families pass...

Pregnancy is a delicate time, and fresh evidence shows that wildfire smoke and extreme heat may add extra risk - especially for families in climate-stressed neighborhoods. 



The study suggests that exposure even a month before conception can shape a baby's weight at birth.



Researchers at the University of Southern California tracked more than 700 pregnancies across Los Angeles between 2016 and 2020. 



Study lead author Roxana Khalili is a researcher in the Department of Population and Public Health Sciences at the Keck School of Medicine of USC.



“We already know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-air-quality-linked-to-cognitive-problems-in-infants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poor air quality</a> is associated with adverse health outcomes, and that pregnant women and fetuses are especially vulnerable,” said Khalili.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-location-impacts-pregnancy-outcomes">Location impacts pregnancy outcomes</h2>



“Where you live makes a difference in your health,” said Khalili. “So does the timing of your exposure during or immediately before pregnancy."



"We wanted to better understand how these risks might differ for women who lived in neighborhoods that experience more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-the-hidden-casualty-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate related stressors</a> and have fewer resources to deal with them.”



Using detailed smoke maps from CalFIRE and NOAA, the team estimated how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fine-particle-pollution-may-cause-children-to-develop-asthma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fine particle pollution</a> reached each participant’s home on every day. 



The researchers paired the fire pollution data with weather data to capture heat, humidity, and wind. Together, those numbers revealed when each mother faced high smoke or heat stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnancy-risks-rise-with-wildfire-days">Pregnancy risks rise with wildfire days</h2>



“Overall, we found consistent associations between increased exposure to wildfire smoke and heat stress during preconception and the first trimester with the odds of having an SGA infant,” Khalili said. 



Babies classified as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-new-trees-brings-hope-for-healthier-babies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small-for-gestational-age</a> (SGA) weigh below the 10th percentile for their age.



The team linked moderate smoke exposure in early pregnancy to low birth weight under five pounds, eight ounces.



Living in the hottest, most climate-vulnerable parts of the city raised the stakes. For women in these areas, the effect of heat stress before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moms-health-shapes-how-well-an-embryo-develops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conception</a> on the chance of an SGA birth nearly doubled. 



Fenton Z-scores, a marker of how an infant’s size differs from the average, also fell as wildfire days piled up during pregnancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-staying-indoors">More than just staying indoors</h2>



“Understanding what’s happening to women during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-threaten-the-recovery-of-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> and excessively hot days could help us identify protective measures, develop guidance, and plan interventions,” said Khalili.



Staying indoors, running air filters, and using air conditioning can help. However, the researchers stress that broader community solutions are needed.



“As the recent Los Angeles fires have demonstrated, infrastructure, socioeconomic, and health vulnerabilities can combine with excessive climate and environmental factors to magnify health risks,” said Rima Habre, director of USC’s&nbsp;CLIMA Center. 



“It is only by looking at the cumulative impacts of burdens communities are facing, now and into the future, that we can start to truly quantify health risks of climate hazards and target interventions to strengthen community resilience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-stress-linked-to-surroundings">Pregnant stress linked to surroundings</h2>



Pregnancy is shaped by more than genetics or individual behavior. The surrounding environment - both physical and social - plays a powerful role in maternal and infant health. 



Factors like air quality, temperature, housing conditions, and access to health care can all affect outcomes.



For families in under-resourced communities, these stressors often overlap, compounding the risks during pregnancy.



Public health experts are increasingly calling for a more holistic approach to prenatal care. This means looking beyond clinical checkups to also consider neighborhood-level interventions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-planning-protects-expectant-mothers">Better planning protects expectant mothers</h2>



Expanding access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/safe-levels-of-air-pollution-can-negatively-impact-the-developing-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clean air</a>, cool spaces, nutritious food, and mental health support can help ease the burden on expectant mothers. 



Another crucial step is preparing communities for climate-related challenges with better urban planning and emergency response systems.



Pregnancy is a vulnerable time, but it’s also an opportunity to make meaningful change. By protecting the health of pregnant people today, we’re investing in the well-being of future generations. 



As climate-related hazards grow more frequent, ensuring healthier pregnancies will require more than individual action. 



Protection for expecting mothers will demand community-wide support, informed policies, and sustained attention to the environments in which people live, work, and grow families.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.4c10194">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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Pregnancy risks rise with heat and smoke exposure

Pregnancy is a delicate time, and fresh evidence shows that...

Prescriptions for antibiotic medications have fallen in recent years. Yet the genes that let bacteria shrug off these drugs remain stubbornly common in rivers and streams. 



A new investigation shows that less medicine in people does not always mean less antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-antibiotic-resistance">Tracking antibiotic resistance </h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a> traced both antibiotic use and AMR genes by sampling wastewater from four treatment plants in southwest England. 



The researchers studied two years of samples taken during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-disrupts-gut-health-increasing-risk-of-other-infections/">COVID-19</a> pandemic and compared them with data gathered before 2019. The team matched every sewage sample to medical prescription records from the same period.



The experts noted a clear seasonal dip in prescriptions between 2017 and 2019. Drug levels in wastewater decreased too. But the load of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-and-humans-are-sharing-antibiotic-resistance-genes/">resistance genes</a> in the wastewater remained high. 



Even a sharp drop in prescriptions during the 2020 lockdown brought only a brief fall in AMR genes in wastewater. Once social contact rose, both prescriptions and resistance genes bounced back up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-antibiotic-use-isn-t-enough">Reducing antibiotic use isn’t enough</h2>



“The spread of antimicrobial resistance is a huge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/">threat</a> to all our lives - we rely on antibiotics for treating common infections and to safely carry out surgical procedures," said Professor Barbara Kasprzyk-Hordern, director of CWBE.



“The main focus globally on combatting AMR has been to reduce the amount of antibiotics used, but our research findings show that this alone might not be enough to tackle the problem."



She pointed out that once resistance genes are out there in the environment, they can be transferred between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-can-jump-between-healthy-pets-and-owners/">bacteria</a>, increasing the populations of microbes that are resistant to treatment with antibiotics.



“This is really worrying because we had previously assumed that less usage would result in less AMR, but our results show the problem is more complex than that,” noted Professor Kasprzyk-Hordern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-resistance-spreads-without-antibiotics">How resistance spreads without antibiotics</h2>



Bacteria swap genes with each other in soil, water, and the human gut. Once a resistance gene enters that pool, it can spread even when antibiotic pressure falls.



The study suggests that public-health plans must look beyond prescribing habits and consider farming, wastewater treatment, and environmental cleanup.



The research team urges policy makers to adopt a One Health approach. That means looking at people, animals, and ecosystems together in an any attempt to reduce populations of resistant microbes.



Better drug stewardship in hospitals and clinics is still vital. But it must be joined by limits on antibiotics in livestock, upgrades to sewage plants, and surveillance of rivers and soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-real-world-lab">Building a real-world lab</h2>



The Bath group and partners have launched the Centre of Excellence in Water-Based Early-Warning Systems for Health Protection. 



The team's first “living lab” will follow microbes and chemicals from wastewater to human health outcomes over many years. This long view should reveal how resistance moves through entire communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antibiotic-resistance-genes-in-wastewater">Antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater</h2>



“Our work shows that wastewater-based epidemiology is an innovative and cost-effective monitoring tool that can be used to understand antibiotic usage and how antibiotic-resistant genes spread,“ said Dr. Like Xu, first author of the&nbsp;study.



Antimicrobial resistance is a growing concern and the presence of persistent concentrations of antibiotic-resistant genes in the environment could potentially lead to serious and widespread health issues. 



“Through wastewater analysis, this approach helps identify new resistance patterns, understand their transmission and establish baselines at community level," confirmed Dr. Xu.



“This evidence can support decision makers in developing coordinated interventions and assessing their effectiveness in near-real time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-responsibility">A shared responsibility</h2>



Antibiotic resistance isn’t just a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antimicrobial-resistance-projected-to-kill-10-million-people-each-year/">problem</a> for doctors or scientists - it affects everyone. The study shows that resistance can spread in ways we don’t always see or expect.



To reduce the threat, we need to focus on where resistance is hiding and how it travels - not just how we can reduce the use of antibiotic medications. 



This also calls for broader action. Clean water systems, responsible farming, and better tracking of resistance in communities all play a role. It’s not just about changing how we use antibiotics - it’s about changing how we think about the connections between health, the environment, and society.



Everyone has a part to play, from governments and hospitals to farmers and families. If we want to protect the power of antibiotics for the future, we’ll need to take a smarter, more connected approach today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213716525001092?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance</a>.



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Genes for antibiotic resistance lurk in our wastewater and streams

Prescriptions for antibiotic medications have fallen in recent years. Yet...

Brain,Neurons,,Synapses,,Reasoning

When you juggle a phone number, an address, and directions - all while driving - you will notice that stray memory details, like the jingle on the radio, try to muscle their way in and vie for space and attention in your brain.



Neuroscientists have long suspected that the brain employs an internal "memory janitor" that's able to sweep that clutter away, and a new study finally catches the cleanup crew in action.



The evidence comes from cognitive neuroscientists <a href="https://postlab.psych.wisc.edu/staff/shan-jiangang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jiangang Shan</a> and <a href="https://psych.wisc.edu/staff/postle-brad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bradley Postle</a> at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, who traced how volunteers intentionally dropped one memory item to make room for another and then mapped the electrical ripple that followed the internal command.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-brain-clears-memory-space">Why the brain clears memory space</h2>



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11515286/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Working memory</a> is famously stingy, holding only about four independent chunks before performance crashes. Because that ceiling never grows across adulthood, clearing stale or distracting content is the only way to keep goals on course.



The idea that we can store seven plus or minus two items dates to <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4486516/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Miller’s 1956 essay</a>, but later work shows that number shrinks once chunking tricks and rehearsal are stripped away. 



Active deletion therefore matters even more than passive forgetting when the cognitive stakes are high.



Failing to clear the cache can feed <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11122689/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rumination</a> and other intrusive thought loops tied to depression, anxiety, and hallucinations. 



Pinning down the neural broom that prunes irrelevant data may expose a direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-has-a-meal-memory-that-controls-hunger/">therapeutic target</a> for disorders that hijack the mind’s limited spotlight.



A 2019 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31054444/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meta‑analysis</a> found that intrusive memories dog 76 percent of adults with major depressive disorder, underscoring how common and stubborn unwanted recollections can be. An efficient erase signal could help break that cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-waves-that-erase-memory">Brain waves that erase memory</h2>



Using scalp electroencephalogram (<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.01.09.632207v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EEG</a>) sensors, Shan and Postle spotted an anterior‑to‑posterior traveling wave that surged down the cortex roughly 160 milliseconds after a “forget” cue. 



The rapid sweep looked like a top‑down shout from executive regions toward the visual areas that first encoded the now‑irrelevant detail.



That directional burst was markedly stronger than the weak hum seen when participants simply ignored an item, hinting that active deletion is a distinct operation rather than a slow fade powered by neglect. 



A separate analysis showed that stronger waves predicted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/">cleaner recall</a> of the surviving item, tying the electrical surge to practical memory benefits.



Early animal studies link traveling waves to attention shifts, but the new human data confirm that the same mechanism can serve a more radical purpose, silencing content outright. 



By converting an attention tool into a forgetting tool, the cortex re‑uses existing circuitry instead of inventing a bespoke system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-test-showed-memory-deletion">How the test showed memory deletion</h2>



Twenty‑nine adults stared at two colored bars on a screen, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">memorizing</a> their orientations, and then received a cue naming which bar to discard before a third bar appeared. 



The tricky part: all bars shared the same format, so participants had to surgically erase only the flagged target while preserving everything else.



Because EEG captures brain rhythms at millisecond resolution, the team watched the decision and its aftermath unfold in real time. 



They also fired a brief “ping,” a flash matching the banished color, during the delay to probe any lingering excitability in the relevant neural channels.



A control condition left forgetting to happen passively, giving the researchers a baseline trace for comparison. That contrast let them separate mere inattention from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/">active‑removal process</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-silences-old-info">How the brain silences old info</h2>



“Active removal led to decreased excitability in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-time-and-space-interact-in-the-brain/">perceptual circuits</a> centered on the unwanted information,” report Shan and Postle. 



After active removal, the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482504/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual cortex</a> barely flinched at the ping, evidence that its circuits had been deliberately dampened. 



That engineered silence contrasts with passive forgetting, where the same probe evokes a modest after‑shock that slowly decays, suggesting the trace lingers and can still meddle with new material. 



The neural hush also predicts smaller interference effects on later trials, confirming that the brain’s tidy‑up translates into cleaner behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-brain-memory-deletion-beats-fading">Active brain memory deletion beats fading</h2>



Passive forgetting starves a detail of attention until it slips below awareness, much like muting a television you no longer watch. 



Active forgetting uses the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36072093/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation‑hijacking</a> mechanism, throttling neuronal gain so the discarded feature cannot compete later.



Behaviorally, items erased in this way leave a measurable repulsive after‑effect on subsequent perception, a fingerprint that never appears after passive withdrawal and one that further underscores the existence of two cleanup tools inside the same brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-for-mental-health">Why it matters for mental health</h2>



People who ruminate struggle to swap out emotional memory information and commit more false alarms in brain memory tasks, underscoring how sticky thoughts hamper cognitive control. 



Training the brain’s active‑removal memory circuit could give these individuals a concrete method to quench spirals of negativity.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10658640/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hallucinations</a> in psychosis, intrusive memories in post‑traumatic stress disorder, and even compulsive cravings might also flare when unwanted content refuses eviction. 



Boosting the frontal wave, or mimicking its effect with targeted stimulation, could tip the balance back toward flexible, goal‑directed thinking.



Clinical teams already experiment with cognitive‑control exercises and non‑invasive brain stimulation; the new findings supply a physiological marker to gauge whether those interventions truly engage the forgetting pathway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-works-in-daily-life">How this works in daily life</h2>



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9400626/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ABC‑retrocuing task</a> uses abstract shapes, yet the principle probably scales to everyday situations, such as clearing a coworker’s outdated instructions before a meeting pivots to a new agenda. 



Ordinary forgetfulness may hinge less on storage capacity and more on how quickly the cleanup signal fires when priorities flip.



Understanding that signal could even inform workplace design: regular micro‑breaks might allow the brain to issue its erase order before the next demand floods in, shaving off mistakes rooted in lingering clutter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-in-brain-and-memory-research">What’s next in brain and memory research</h2>



Shan and Postle now plan to pair <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/transcranial-magnetic-stimulation/about/pac-20384625" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a> with EEG to test whether amplifying the anterior‑to‑posterior wave speeds forgetting and improves downstream recall accuracy. 



Meanwhile, computational neuroscientists are adding adaptive gain control to artificial networks, hoping to build machines that forget with the same finesse as humans.



“It is surprisingly hard to teach an algorithm to know what not to remember,” Postle notes in a university briefing. 



If that memory challenge is cracked, voice assistants and self-driving cars could avoid brain overload by erasing sensor snapshots the instant they become obsolete.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/06/04/JNEUROSCI.2414-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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Scientists find a built-in 'memory janitor' that helps your brain forget some things on purpose

When you juggle a phone number, an address, and directions...

A visual feast of galaxies

It is astounding how a single image can hold such a wealth of information. This new view from the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) showcases a crowded landscape of stars and galaxies, each one shedding a little more light on the story of the universe.



The scene includes objects that lie near and far, stretching across billions of years in cosmic time. 



The <a href="https://cosmos.astro.caltech.edu/page/cosmosweb" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COSMOS-Web group</a>, led by Dr. Ghassem Gozaliasl from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>, has focused on the largest concentration of galaxies seen in the central region, where a cluster dazzles with a white-gold glow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-captures-unknown-galaxies">Webb captures unknown galaxies</h2>



Scientists use the term "light-year" to describe the distance light travels in one year, roughly 5.88 trillion miles (9.46 trillion kilometers). Because light takes time to travel, instruments like Webb can glimpse conditions that existed eons ago.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-finds-uranus-full-of-surprises-after-20-years-of-observations/">Hubble</a> and other observatories have contributed to this deep-sky survey, yet Webb’s infrared detectors are revealing structures that were previously unseen. 



Observing so many diverse galaxies in a single region helps researchers trace how these mighty star cities evolve over cosmic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamics-of-new-galaxy-clusters">Dynamics of new galaxy clusters</h2>



Over half of all galaxies in our universe exist in groups, making these <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1205.5556" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clusters</a> valuable for understanding galactic evolution. 



When galaxies interact in such close quarters, gravity can pull them into surprising shapes or even merge them altogether.



Many such groups in the COSMOS-Web sample likely formed alliances that shifted their histories forever, resulting in collisions or new star-forming bursts.



Some of these groupings are so large that they can significantly bend the path of light from objects behind them. 



Researchers studying these systems piece together patterns that help explain how matter is distributed across huge stretches of space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxies-in-a-crowded-neighborhood">Galaxies in a crowded neighborhood</h2>



When galaxies live in crowded settings like groups, their environments tend to strip gas away from the outer edges. This gas loss limits future star formation and can cause galaxies to grow old faster. 



Researchers have seen this process, called <a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/*/Ram+Pressure+Stripping" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ram pressure stripping</a>, in many nearby clusters.



In some cases, galaxies that pass through the dense center of a group get pulled apart by gravity or collide with neighbors. 



These events often trigger sudden starbursts or reshape galaxies completely. Over time, the group’s conditions shape what each member becomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-the-glow-of-ancient-objects">Detecting the glow of ancient objects </h2>



The X-ray data gathered by older telescopes captures scorching clouds of gas in these galaxy groups. That hot gas would be invisible without specialized instruments. 



Separately, Hubble's visible and infrared <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/image-detail/hubble-monkeyhead-ngc2174-vis-ir-stsci-01evvkxvw1mwr1g6h844xm5p03/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> capture stars within closer galaxies and the shimmering cores of far-off ones. 



Webb pushes even deeper by detecting the faint infrared glow from ancient objects that might otherwise slip by unnoticed.



Scientists compare all these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-detected-in-the-most-distant-and-primitive-galaxy-ever-analyzed/">observations </a>to identify each galaxy’s distance, shape, and star content. Younger stars shine with a bright blue appearance, while older stars glow red.&nbsp;



“The more distant a galaxy, the redder it appears,” noted the COSMOS-Web team. Each color variation helps confirm ages and reveals star formation rates across vast eras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-of-the-early-universe">A glimpse of the early universe</h2>



The COSMOS-Web initiative spans 0.54 square degrees of sky, which may sound small, but it covers an area over twice the size of three full moons put side by side. 



This 255-hour program employs <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/nircam/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb’s Near-InfraRed Camera</a> to gather data that can support multiple studies on galaxy assembly, <a href="https://elt.eso.org/science/cosmodm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, and star formation.



Researchers want to pinpoint galaxies born during the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en/gc/research/epoch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epoch of reionization</a>, a critical era when early stars reionized hydrogen in the young universe. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/COSMOS-Web_thousands-galaxies_Webb-telescope_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/COSMOS-Web_thousands-galaxies_Webb-telescope_NASA_1s.webp" alt="An area of deep space with thousands of galaxies in various shapes and sizes on a black background. Most are circles or ovals, with a few spirals. More distant galaxies are redder in color and smaller, down to being mere dots, while closer galaxies are a bit larger and white or blueish. A few gold-colored galaxies are bunched closely together in the center. Bright stars surrounded by spikes lie in our galaxy. Credit: NASA/ESA" class="wp-image-1973689"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An area of deep space with thousands of galaxies in various shapes and sizes on a black background. Most are circles or ovals, with a few spirals. More distant galaxies are redder in color and smaller, down to being mere dots, while closer galaxies are a bit larger and white or blueish. A few gold-colored galaxies are bunched closely together in the center. Bright stars surrounded by spikes lie in our galaxy. Credit: NASA/ESA</figcaption></figure>



This project also seeks insights on how the mass of a galaxy’s stars connects with the mass of its broader <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/galactic-halos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic halo</a>.



Unraveling that relationship can illuminate how galaxies stay stable and where new stars might spring up. While many questions remain open, this collaborative effort has enlarged our ability to examine the vast landscape of space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxies-change-over-time">Galaxies change over time</h2>



The sheer variety of galactic forms in Webb’s new image stands out. Some swirl elegantly with spiral arms, others are smooth like bright blobs, and still others appear to interact or overlap in intricate ways. 



Each arrangement tells a story of turbulence, star birth, or gravitational tug-of-war that shaped its final outline.



Astronomers <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-galaxies-discovery-would-upend-current-understanding-of-universe/">track</a> these structural clues to see how galaxies change with time. Observing group environments is part of that puzzle. 



When multiple galaxies crowd together, they can share resources or disrupt one another’s development, adding layers to the cosmic tapestry unfolding across billions of light-years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-galaxy-evolution">Future research on galaxy evolution</h2>



Future research will keep refining distance measurements, star formation histories, and the distribution of dark matter across these new galactic groupings. 



Webb is already inspiring new hypotheses about how quickly galaxies reach maturity, and fresh data can confirm or correct these early models.



Experts rely on synergy among instruments like the NASA/ESA <a href="https://esahubble.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a>, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory</a>, and <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/XMM-Newton" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA’s XMM-Newton</a>, making each mission’s contribution vital. 



Piecing together all of these perspectives enriches our understanding of the galactic web that stretches beyond our home in the Milky Way.



You can find more photos from this study <a href="https://esawebb.org/images/potm2504a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">on the ESA website here...</a>



Image Credit: ESA



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Thousands of galaxies captured in a single photograph by the Webb telescope

It is astounding how a single image can hold such...

Nearly every modern gadget relies on metals that behave exactly as textbooks predict. Gallium refuses to play along. Nearly 150 years after French chemist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul-%C3%89mile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran</a> added the element to the periodic table, researchers are still sorting out why this silvery liquid shifts its personality when the heat is on. 



A spoon made of gallium will liquefy in a cup of tea, yet the same element anchors semiconductors, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floating-solar-panels-could-power-every-home-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar panels</a>, and laser diodes that withstand scorching factory conditions.



For more than 30 years, physicists have wrestled with gallium’s structure in the liquid state. Competing studies have offered clashing explanations, especially around the role of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/covalent-bond" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">covalent bonding</a> - a type of electron-sharing connection that metals rarely show. 



Fresh simulations have now stitched the puzzle pieces together and point to what scientists believe to be the decisive proof they've been searching for.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-gallium-melts-early">Why gallium melts early</h2>



Gallium melts at 85 °F, far below the temperature of a warm summer day. That quirky transition happens because solid gallium forms tiny two-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chemistry-of-wine-what-actually-shapes-its-texture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atom pairs</a> called dimers, and those pairs pack less densely than the liquid. The moment the dimers break apart, density rises and the metal flows. 



The story becomes stranger at higher heat. At temperatures well above the phase change, the dimers re-form, but not in ways scientists expected.



“Thirty years of literature on the structure of liquid gallium has rested on a fundamental assumption that is evidently not true,” says Professor Nicola Gaston of Waipapa Taumata Rau, <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a>, and the <a href="https://www.macdiarmid.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MacDiarmid Institute</a> for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology. 



Her team combined ab initio molecular-dynamics data with decades of experimental records to see how individual atoms mingle at several checkpoints on the thermometer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-gallium-myths-overturned">Liquid gallium myths overturned</h2>



Conventional wisdom held that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecule-discovery-will-force-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">covalent bonds</a> fade out once gallium liquefies and play only a minor role afterward. 



The fresh computational work shows the opposite: covalency matters more as the temperature climbs. In other words, the tighter electron sharing that disappears at 85 °F re-emerges and strengthens when the metal is pushed hundreds of degrees hotter.



The insight explains a long-standing electrical oddity. Gallium’s resistivity dips as it first passes the melting line - counter to most metals - then creeps upward in a nonlinear fashion. 



If covalent bonds regroup at elevated heat, they create a conduction bottleneck that raises resistivity, squaring experimental curves with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atomic-level theory</a>.



Textbook melting points depend on the tug-of-war between internal order and random motion. When the dimers dissolve, entropy shoots up, giving atoms the freedom to shift. 



That entropy spike accounts for gallium’s unusually low melt point without invoking mysterious bonding tricks at 85 °F. 



Once the liquid sits comfortably above the transition, the atomic sea settles just enough for bonds to snap back together - only this time within a looser, more disordered framework.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zinc-crystals-from-liquid-gallium">Zinc crystals from liquid gallium</h2>



Gallium’s renewed covalency at high temperatures also clarifies why the liquid can pull other metals into solution with minimal energy input. 



The shared-electron environment encourages elements such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zinc-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-ocean-processes/">zinc</a>, copper, and tin to mix, forming room-temperature liquid alloys that engineers mold into stretchable circuits, heat-free solders, and microfluidic pumps.



A few years ago, researchers crystallized zinc inside a bath of molten gallium and watched delicate six-sided plates snowball outward. That project hinted at liquid gallium’s knack for directing complex shapes without external templates. 



The new structural roadmap shows that covalent rebonding supplies the subtle forces that align dissolved atoms as they solidify, making it easier to predict - and exploit - growth patterns.



Gallium-based liquids already act as catalysts that shuffle reactants into greener chemical pathways. The updated model will help chemists tune alloy recipes for faster charge transfer or sharper selectivity. 



In battery prototypes, thin films of gallium alloys spread across electrodes, filling microscopic cracks that normally kill capacity. Knowing when the liquid switches bonding modes could lengthen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-created-carbon-14-battery-that-lasts-5700-years-without-a-recharge/">battery lifetimes</a> and lower manufacturing temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quirks-in-fabrication">Quirks in fabrication</h2>



Gallium’s solid compounds, including gallium arsenide and gallium nitride, drive radio-frequency amplifiers, high-brightness LEDs, and fast chargers. 



Fabricating those compounds sometimes involves droplets of pure gallium that remove heat or transport precursor atoms. 



Process engineers need precise viscosity, density, and conductivity data at every stage, and the re-emergence of covalent links at high heat feeds directly into those parameters.



Understanding gallium’s behavior also safeguards supply chains. The metal is mined as a by-product of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposing-the-hidden-climate-costs-of-everyday-materials/">aluminum production</a>, mainly from bauxite ore. 



Global output hovers around 460 tons per year, and demand surges whenever display or photovoltaic markets expand. Tailoring alloys that use less gallium, yet keep its liquid perks, will ease strain on future inventories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Beyond Earth, gallium could help planetary scientists sniff out ancient microbes. Because the element forms stable bonds with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-volcanoes-left-sparkling-clues-behind-in-form-of-tiny-glass-beads/">oxygen and sulfur</a>, it may lock biosignatures into Martian rock layers. 



Some geochemists argue that gallium traces could outlast fragile carbon compounds, providing a longer-lived clue to life. The revamped structural picture supplies the chemical logic behind that durability.



As liquid metals step into flexible electronics, soft robotics, and low-carbon chemistry, knowing exactly how gallium’s atoms dance under heat will pay dividends.



Gallium still bends spoons for party tricks, but its greater trick lies in how a simple temperature dial rewrites atomic rules. 



By showing where covalent bonds vanish and return, the research clears fog from a field that fuels countless technologies, from phone screens to satellite links. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2024/mh/d4mh00244j/unauth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Materials Horizons</a>.



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Previously unknown properties discovered in a metal that is crucial to modern life

Nearly every modern gadget relies on metals that behave exactly...

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones in the night are more than cinematic symbols of death - they are the planet’s front-line sanitation crew. By devouring carcasses quickly and completely, large scavengers deny dangerous microbes a foothold.



A wide-ranging study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that these underappreciated scavengers are declining at an alarming pace.



The work draws on population assessments for more than 1,300 vertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavengers-clean-up-wetlands-and-boost-their-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scavenger</a> species and reveals a worrisome pattern.



The steepest rates of scavenger decline were found among the biggest, most specialized carrion eaters, while adaptable opportunists such as rats and feral dogs surge in their absence.



“The evidence we found is very clear,” said senior author Rodolfo Dirzo, a professor of biology and environmental science at Stanford. "Scavengers are in decline, but it’s not homogeneous. It is particularly the large and specialized ones.”



“At the same time, this allows space for the smaller scavengers, which are problematic because they are themselves sources of zoonotic diseases.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-cleaners-to-contaminators">From cleaners to contaminators</h2>



The researchers cataloged everything from famous scavengers - Old World <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-vultures-may-threaten-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vultures</a>, spotted hyenas, condors - to less obvious diners such as pond turtles, catfish, even great white sharks.



Cross-referencing each species against the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List</a> and regional studies, they found that 36 percent of the world’s scavenger populations are threatened or already shrinking.



When those dominant consumers disappear, their ecological niche is rapidly filled by smaller generalists in a process ecologists label “ecological release.” In temperate suburbs, that might mean raccoons and crows; in tropical villages, perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> and village dogs.



These newcomers rarely match the efficiency of an eagle or a vulture, leaving more rotting flesh on the landscape. Worse, many thrive near humans, turning carcasses into pathways for diseases to jump from wildlife to people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-scavenger-decline-in-india">Effects of scavenger decline in India</h2>



Few episodes capture the stakes so vividly as India’s vulture crisis in the 1990s. Veterinary use of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac proved fatal to vultures that scavenged treated cattle. Populations plummeted, opening a niche for free-roaming dogs.



With vultures gone, feral dog populations surged, leading to an estimated 39 million extra dog bites and 48,000 human deaths from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rabies-is-spreading-among-marine-animals-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rabies</a> between 1992 and 2006.



Once India banned diclofenac in 2006, vulture numbers began to inch upward. This reminded scientists and policymakers that timely intervention can halt or even reverse a downward spiral.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-quietly-protect-health">Scavengers quietly protect health</h2>



The study emphasizes that these issues are not confined to the Global South. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of the United States, eagles and ravens consume elk carcasses and even aborted fetuses.



By removing potential bacterial incubators within hours, scavengers help curb brucellosis, a livestock disease that can spill over to ranchers. A drop in scavengers there could raise veterinary costs and public-health risks despite the region’s strong infrastructure.



Lead author Chinmay Sonawane, a doctoral student in Dirzo’s lab, underscored humanity’s reliance on species most of us rarely notice: “We’re starting to understand exactly how we depend on each individual species.”



“As we become more aware of these connections, we're going to be more inclined to protect these species, because we are ultimately protecting our health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-driving-scavenger-decline">Factors driving scavenger decline</h2>



Three forces repeatedly surfaced in the team’s analysis. Expanding agriculture and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> fragment habitats, making it harder for wide-ranging birds and mammals to find carcasses or safe nesting sites.



Intensive livestock production brings direct conflict when ranchers poison or shoot scavengers they suspect of killing calves. At the same time, wildlife trade and trophy hunting remove lions, eagles, and other predators that double as high-capacity scavengers.



These pressures often overlap. Clearing forest for pasture, for instance, strips vultures of roosting trees while putting them nearer cattle treated with toxic veterinary drugs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-function-and-human-well-being">Ecosystem function and human well-being </h2>



Public suspicion of scavengers compounds their plight. “There is this prejudice that these scavengers are nasty animals and that we should get rid of them, but they are important for the functioning of ecosystems, also for human well-being,” Dirzo said.



The authors call for multi-layered solutions. Conservationists must protect nesting cliffs and den sites and enforce tighter regulation of pharmaceuticals known to poison birds.



Outreach programs can dispel myths, showing local communities how vultures actually protect livestock by removing disease hotspots. Financial incentives or livestock-guarding measures could reduce retaliatory killings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> and jackals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-are-public-health-allies">Scavengers are public health allies</h2>



Rather than tracking a handful of charismatic species, the Stanford team focused on a functional group - animals bound by what they do rather than by taxonomic labels.



That lens, they argue, reveals how losing one slice of biodiversity can disrupt entire healthcare networks in nature. If carcasses linger, fly populations balloon, dog packs expand, and viruses gain new hosts.



Scavengers may lack the appeal of pandas or coral reefs, yet their economic and public-health value is immense. The world’s oldest waste-management system runs on wings, paws, and powerful stomach acids.



Letting it collapse means footing a growing medical bill - one paid in outbreaks, veterinary losses, and human lives. Protecting vultures in India reduced rabies deaths; hyenas curb anthrax in Africa; condors help keep Americas’ pastures cleaner.



Ultimately, the study offers a simple equation: conserve the big eaters of the dead, and you safeguard the living. Ignore them, and the costs arrive on hospital ledgers and in destabilized ecosystems. The choice is clear - and action is urgently needed to halt scavenger decline. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417328122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Scavenger decline is a threat to ecosystems  - and human health

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones...

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects like dragonflies long before they take flight. 



A sweeping analysis of 87 <a href="https://dragonflies.online/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European dragonfly</a> species now shows that the temperatures and seasonal rhythms a larva faces underwater matter more to adult trait variety than the climate the insect meets in the air, challenging long‑held conservation habits.



“This is really useful going forward, as the results will provide a new general rule to guide how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">biodiversity</a> scientists forecast climate responses,” said Professor Lars L. Iversen of <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-life-shapes-adult-function">Dragonfly larva life shapes adult function</h2>



Early stages often happen out of sight, yet they leave lasting biological fingerprints that show up in community‑wide patterns.



The new work argues that <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> cannot be understood only by watching visible adults because carryover effects ripple from submerged childhoods into the adult population’s body sizes, wing shapes and flight ranges.



Functional biogeographers have long mapped where <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1415442111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits cluster</a>, but they usually assume those traits respond directly to the present environment. Iversen’s team instead found that underwater experiences set constraints that later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/">environments</a> can only tweak rather than erase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pond-temperatures-shape-body-traits">Pond temperatures shape body traits</h2>



A dragonfly begins life as a bold little <a href="https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/dragonfly-larvae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nymph</a> clinging to stems or burrowing in mud for up to two years before it ever unfurls a wing. 



The study linked cooler waters, steep temperature swings and irregular water levels with narrower adult trait ranges, while warmer, more stable ponds produced adults with a broader toolkit for dispersal.



“This is a really important study, as many predictions for how climate might affect diversity are based on observations of adult stages,” noted Lesley T. Lancaster of the University of Aberdeen.&nbsp;



To capture nuance across thousands of 31‑mile‑wide grid cells, the researchers calculated each community’s trait space as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-dimensional-hypervolume_fig3_4201499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three‑dimensional hypervolume</a>. This is a statistical shape that shows how body length, wing size and other measurements spread out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-shape-adult-traits">Dragonfly larva shape adult traits</h2>



Mean annual temperature emerged as the single strongest predictor of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.12525" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult trait diversity</a>, and most of that link flowed indirectly through its impact on larvae rather than adults themselves.&nbsp;



Topography, forest cover and the ratio of permanent to seasonal water bodies nudged the numbers too, but their direct and indirect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">effects</a> often pulled in opposite directions, dampening what surface observations alone would suggest.



Classic <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1938285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> show that overcrowded larvae shift strategies when food or space runs short, sharpening interference or exploitative tactics that later echo in adult sizes. 



By folding such legacy effects into structural‑equation models, the team could explain two‑thirds of the variation in adult functional diversity across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrying-larval-traits-into-adulthood">Carrying larval traits into adulthood</h2>



Similar carryover <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> crop up in mosquitoes, mayflies and even beetles whose larvae face drying pools, hinting that early‑stage filters may be a widespread driver of community change. 



Because many freshwater insects are hemimetabolous, meaning they do not enjoy a complete makeover during metamorphosis, the traits they build early cannot be fully rebuilt later.



In systems where water is warming fastest, lake <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0067-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already record shifts in mixing regimes and ice cover that alter larval conditions, foreshadowing trait reshuffles in the flying stage. 



Understanding those lags may help explain why some species expand poleward quickly while others stall despite suitable adult habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advice-for-conservation-planners">Advice for conservation planners</h2>



Restoring riparian shade or managing water levels in breeding ponds can give juveniles the thermal and oxygen buffers they need, indirectly widening adult trait portfolios that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">population</a> resilience. 



Policies that focus only on adult foraging grounds or migration corridors risk missing these upstream levers and may underestimate vulnerability under rapid warming.



By targeting nursery habitats, managers may also help a suite of terrestrial predators, birds, bats and spiders, that rely on the timing and size structure of dragonfly emergences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-forecasting-tools">Biodiversity forecasting tools</h2>



Most current biodiversity models assume that traits are shaped in real time by adult habitat features, with little room for past influences. But these new findings show that such models may be incomplete.



To improve accuracy, researchers suggest future climate impact models should include developmental carryover effects as core parameters. 



Incorporating early-life trait-environment links could allow forecasts to anticipate shifts not just in where species live, but how they function once they arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-pathways-of-dragonfly-larva">Biological pathways of dragonfly larva </h2>



Researchers now want to see whether the same indirect pathways exist in tropical species, where seasonality is muted yet temperature ceilings are high.



Experts are also exploring genetic clues that might reveal how much of the carryover effect is plastic adjustment versus hard‑wired evolution. 



For now, the message is clear: if you want to protect an animal’s future, start where it begins, not where it ends.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/geb.70056" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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Dragonfly larvae expose climate’s hidden influence on biology

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects...

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at least 112 million years. When blue light hits their skin, these animals absorb it and re-emit it as green, yellow, orange, or red.



Fish biofluorescence is invisible to us in daylight, but under the right light it turns reefs into underwater neon signs. It is a natural light show that has evolved silently beneath the waves, largely unnoticed by human eyes until recently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-glowing-fish">Tracing the origins of glowing fish </h2>



Two new studies by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a> trace how and when this glow took hold.



The research maps biofluorescence across 459 species and shows just how varied the colors have become.



The team combed through every known case of glowing bony fish, then added 48 previously unreported species. The analysis suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/">biofluorescence</a> first showed up in ancient eels and has evolved on its own more than 100 times since.



“Researchers have known for a while that biofluorescence is quite widespread in marine animals, from sea turtles to corals, and especially among fishes,” said Emily Carr, lead author of both studies. 



“But to really get to the root of why and how these species use this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapta</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ion</a> - whether for camouflage, predation, or reproduction - we need to understand the underlying evolutionary story as well as the scope of biofluorescence as it currently exists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-speed-up-the-glow">Coral reefs speed up the glow</h2>



Life on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral reef</a> seems to speed up this evolutionary trick. Reef-dwelling fish acquire biofluorescence about ten times faster than species that stay in open water. 



After the mass extinction 66 million years ago, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> vanished and reefs rebounded, glowing species multiplied quickly, taking advantage of newly available habitats and ecological niches.



“This trend coincides with the rise of modern coral-dominated reefs and the rapid colonization of reefs by fishes, which occurred following a significant loss of coral diversity in the K-Pg extinction,” Carr said. 



"These correlations suggest that the emergence of modern coral reefs could have facilitated the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fishes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-color-spectrum-widens">The color spectrum widens</h2>



In a second set of experiments, the team photographed museum specimens under special lights. Some families flashed at least six distinct peaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/">fluorescence</a> - far more variety than scientists had documented.



“The remarkable variation we observed across a wide array of these fluorescent fishes could mean that these animals use incredibly diverse and elaborate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns,” said study co-author John Sparks.



“As these studies show, biofluorescence is both pervasive and incredibly phenotypically variable among marine fishes. What we would really like to understand better is how fluorescence functions in these highly variable marine lineages, as well as its role in diversification.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-glowing-fish-could-help-medicine">How glowing fish could help medicine</h2>



Fluorescent proteins borrowed from jellyfish transformed molecular biology. The many new hues found in fish could lead to the next generation of imaging tools, helping doctors spot tumors or guide surgery with light.



For now, the ocean keeps many of its secrets hidden in plain sight. But every flash of color brings us closer to understanding how fish communicate, hide, hunt, and find mates - turning a midnight reef into a silent conversation of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-fish-biofluorescence">Future research on fish biofluorescence </h2>



While these findings shed light on the deep history and diversity of glowing fish, there is still a lot more to uncover.



Scientists are now working to understand how different species actually see and use these colors in their everyday lives. Do they glow to blend in, to attract mates, or to send messages we can’t decode yet? 



The answers could not only explain how these fish thrive in their underwater environments but also help us develop new tools in optics, communication, and even biotechnology.



Each discovery adds a small piece to a much bigger puzzle - one where light doesn’t just brighten the ocean, but also points the way to future innovation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316789">PLOS One</a>.



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How fish started glowing over 100 million years ago

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at...

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This morning ritual, known as the dawn chorus, can drown out every other sound. A new study from India reveals that some species dominate that pre‑sunrise concert, while others stay quiet.



The researchers recorded 69 species in the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a>, a mountain chain recognized for exceptional biodiversity. They <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> that 20 of the species sing far more at dawn than dusk, while only one shows the opposite pattern, pointing to social traits as the primary drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-dawn-chorus">Decoding the dawn chorus</h2>



Vijay Ramesh, a postdoctoral biologist at Cornell University’s <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/">K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics</a>, led the microphone‑array campaign that captured months of continuous audio in the Ghats.



Past theories claimed that cool, still air at sunrise lets high‑pitched songs travel farther, giving early risers an acoustic advantage.



 A 2019 <a href="https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-019-0328-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> showed that song timing is remarkably consistent within individuals, suggesting a behavioral cause rather than improved sound transmission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-which-birds-sing-first">Predicting which birds sing first</h2>



Sound scientists once assumed that humid morning air slows high frequencies less than dry mid‑day air, effectively lengthening a whistle’s reach. 



Field <a href="https://malagr.de/hutch/hutchpub/anbe3.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> with playback speakers, however, show that vegetation scatter and competing insects erase most of the theoretical gain by breakfast time. 



The new Indian dataset supports the behavioral view by showing no correlation between dawn singing and light level, wind speed, or transmission quality. Instead, two traits (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/territoriality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">territoriality</a> and broad diets) predict which birds sing first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-territories-matter-at-sunrise">Why territories matter at sunrise</h2>



Territorial birds declare their claims at sunrise when rivals and potential mates are alert but still hidden by shadow. Acoustic contests at that hour reduce the risk of physical fights, a pattern <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19337589/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> in banded wrens and other songbirds.&nbsp;



The idea fits evolutionary logic: a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> that joins the dawn chorus before foraging advertises overnight survival, discourages trespass, frees daylight hours for feeding young, and reduces exposure to midday heat that hampers long songs. 



In the Ghats study, species ranked as highly territorial were 1.2 times more likely to sing in the dawn chorus than their less combative relatives - a statistically robust edge.



“We found that highly territorial birds and omnivorous species were much more likely to be active singers during dawn hours,” said Ramesh. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-tells-another-story">Diet tells another story</h2>



Diet adds another clue because omnivores that split meals between fruit and insects also dominated the early soundscape. Ramesh suggests that their flexible menu keeps them in mixed‑species foraging flocks that rely on constant chatter to coordinate movement. 



Omnivory also widens the calendar window for feeding because fruit crops peak at different times than insect hatches, giving versatile foragers an incentive to keep group members updated on shifting resources across seasons or plantations.



“Omnivores might sing more at dawn because these species are often members of mixed‑<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">species</a> foraging flocks where vocal communication is essential,” explained Ramesh. 



<a href="https://www.macaulaylibrary.org/2019/01/09/mixed-species-flocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of such mobile flocks show that vocal leaders broadcast frequent contact and alarm calls, letting dozens of companions share information about food and predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dawn-chorus-was-recorded">How dawn chorus was recorded</h2>



All those insights rest on <a href="https://bou.org.uk/blog-metcalf-pass-acou-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">passive acoustic monitoring</a>, a technique that stations weather‑proof recorders in the canopy and lets algorithms sort every chirp. The Ghats project collected simultaneous tracks from 43 forest sites, multiplying human survey capacity.



Each recorder about the size of a paperback ran on rechargeable batteries and captured 20‑kHz audio files that later fed into machine‑learning software trained to identify species from their calls, trimming weeks of manual listening into automated minutes, an advance highlighted by open‑source projects like <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.17.613451v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdNET</a>.



“Passive acoustic monitoring allowed us to collect simultaneous acoustic data for 43 locations, over several months. We could not have done this study without it because we needed a lot of data to answer our questions,” said Ramesh.



Other researchers echo that enthusiasm. “Passive acoustic monitoring allows us to continuously take the pulse of bird populations without having to be physically present in the field,” explained Jorge Velásquez, Director of Science for Audubon Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-voices-and-ecosystem-health">Bird voices and ecosystem health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/western-ghats-and-sri-lanka/species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a> stretch nearly 1,000 miles along India’s west coast and rank among the planet’s eight biodiversity hotspots, hosting hundreds of globally threatened animals and plants. Mountaintop forests there funnel monsoon rains and sustain thousands of endemic species.



Acoustic surveys give conservationists a low‑cost way to track those communities in real time. A dawn chorus rich in specialist voices flags healthy habitat, while a shift toward generalists may warn of logging or climate stress.



The Ghats data will now feed into regional monitoring dashboards that guide reserve boundaries and restoration priorities. Managers can rerun the same code next year and instantly see whether bird territories are shrinking or expanding.



Climate <a href="https://india.mongabay.com/2019/01/changing-monsoonal-rainfall-patterns-in-the-western-ghats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a> predict that monsoon timing in the Ghats could shift by several weeks this century, and long acoustic time series will let ecologists see whether dawn song calendars move in lockstep or resist the change across altitudinal gradients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-bird-breaks-the-dawn-chorus-rule">One bird breaks the dawn chorus rule</h2>



One puzzle remains: the <a href="https://ebird.org/species/dafbab1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dark‑fronted Babbler</a> sang more at dusk than dawn, bucking every social rule observed. Future studies that pair microphones with visual tracking may reveal whether its roosting ecology or predator pressure flips the timetable.



Answering that question would help determine whether birds tailor song schedules to evade particular predators, mirror daily light cycles, or coordinate with insect emergence.



Ramesh hopes to repeat the approach on other continents to see whether territoriality and diet steer the chorus in temperate woodlots as strongly as they do in tropical forests. The answer could turn dawn song into a global barometer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">ecosystem</a> change.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Territorial birds rule the dawn chorus in tropical forests

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This...

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups tend to follow the majority. But biologists and social scientists have found that a vocal minority - sometimes just 5 to 10 percent - can sway the final decision if they’re persuasive, energized, or well-connected. This effect is known as “minority influence.”



A new study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-ants-can-teach-us-how-to-create-stronger-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire ants</a> offer a dramatic, gene-driven version of the same principle. A handful of workers carrying a particular stretch of&nbsp;“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selfish DNA</a>” can push their nest-mates to welcome extra queens, transforming the colony’s entire social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-and-ant-colony-structure">Selfish DNA and ant colony structure</h2>



The invasive red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, dominates swaths of the southeastern United States and is spreading on multiple continents. 



Ecologically and economically, it is one of the most impactful insects on Earth. It also comes in two distinct social forms.



Single-queen colonies (monogyne) recognize and defend one egg-laying monarch. Workers in these nests are intensely territorial, killing any foreign queen that dares enter.



Multiple-queen colonies (polygyne) tolerate several unrelated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">queens</a> and spread by budding - new queens and escorts walk a short distance and start satellite nests.



The social form matters: monogyne nests are aggressive but slower to spread; polygyne nests can carpet landscapes with interconnected supercolonies.



A single gene complex, dubbed Gp-9, largely decides whether a colony embraces one queen or many. The variant known as Gp-9 B promotes single-queen structure; the variant Gp-9 b pushes toward multiple queens.



Only workers with the b allele accept extra royalty - and that gene acts in strikingly “selfish” fashion, ensuring its own propagation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-roots-of-ant-behavior">Genetic roots of ant behavior</h2>



Takao Sasaki, now an associate professor in the <a href="https://www.sas.rochester.edu/bcs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester’s Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences</a>, teamed with postdoctoral researcher Haolin Zeng and Professor Kenneth Ross at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>. Together, they tested how small a minority of b-bearing workers could tip an entire colony.



Most previous work had examined stable nests already committed to one form or the other. The new experiments created mixed groups from scratch, mirroring the early stages of an invasion when different ant lineages collide.



“Our research may help us understand how other animals make consensus decisions,” Sasaki said.



Using DNA markers, the team first verified each ant’s social-genotype - B B for single-queen preference or B b for multiple-queen preference. They then built experimental colonies of 3,000 workers and a single B-type queen.



Into these colonies they introduced B b workers in varying proportions, from zero to 30 percent, along with test queens carrying either genotype. Continuous video monitored how workers treated potential newcomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-can-shift-the-ant-colony">DNA can shift the ant colony </h2>



With no B b workers present, resident ants killed any stranger queen in the colony within hours, matching monogyne behavior in the wild. But once the minority of B b workers reached roughly 10 percent, the colony’s stance softened.



Those few workers began grooming and feeding extra queens that carried the same b allele, escorting them safely into the brood chambers. 



Over the following days, B B workers joined the caretaking - even though the shift ultimately lowers their own inclusive fitness. The single-queen colony had morphed into a multi-queen society, simply because a genetic minority rewrote the ground rules.



“By looking at their genes, we know their preferences for having one queen versus multiple queens,” Sasaki said. “By manipulating the proportion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">workers</a> with certain genes, we can test if and how a minority can convince the rest of the group members.”



Chemical communication is the likely mechanism. Fire ants rely on pheromones to tell friend from foe and to decide which queens belong.



Additional tests showed b-bearing workers alter queen pheromones or change how nest-mates respond to those chemical signals. Whichever the pathway, the outcome favors any queen - and thus any gene - matching the minority’s genotype.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-shapes-behavior">Selfish DNA shapes behavior</h2>



The study highlights an evolutionary twist known as an indirect genetic effect: one individual’s traits are molded not just by its own DNA and environment, but by the genes carried by its social partners.



Here, the selfish DNA in roughly a tenth of the ants drives an outcome (polygyne structure) that benefits copies of that same element, even though it may not help the colony at large.



“This knowledge is important not only for understanding the biology of social insects like fire ants but also for broader insights into the evolution of cooperation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sociality</a> in animals, including humans,” Zeng said.



Because multi-queen colonies bud readily and thus expand invasion fronts, the ability of a genetic minority to flip nest behavior could accelerate the spread of fire ants worldwide. Evolutionary models will need to account for such feedback between genes and group dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-think-like-neurons">Ants think like neurons</h2>



Sasaki frames the findings in terms of “collective cognition,” his broader research focus. Just as neurons exchange signals to create unified thoughts, social insects exchange chemical and tactile cues to make group decisions.



If a small cluster of neurons can trigger a mental state, why not a small cluster of genetically distinct ants triggering a social state?



“The brain is a good example,” Sasaki explained. “Each neuron talks to other neurons. A brain is a cognitive unit. Ants as colonies make collective decisions like brains do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-help-outvote-majority-rule">Genes help outvote majority rule</h2>



The fire-ant case suggests that minority influence may have a deeper biological foundation than previously realized. In some cases, it’s encoded in selfish stretches of DNA that manipulate social systems like ant colonies from within.



Whether similar elements lurk in other species, subtly guiding flock movements, pack hierarchies, or even aspects of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-social-lives-pandas-have-their-own-version-of-facebook/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social networks</a>, remains an open question.



What is clear is that in complex societies, majority rule is never absolute: under the right genetic and social conditions, the few can still lead the many.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501740122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Selfish DNA' can result in minority influence in social animal groups, including humans

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups...

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago did more than erase a charismatic animal; it severed an ancient partnership that once spread the seeds of large-fruited trees across the continent.



A new study shows that these elephant-like creatures were habitual fruit-eaters and indispensable couriers of botanical life. This helps explain why several modern tree species now teeter on the brink of extinction.



An international research team examined ninety-six fossil molars of Notiomastodon platensis collected along a 1,500-kilometer sweep of Chilean coastline.



Using microscopic wear patterns, chemical fingerprints locked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth</a> enamel, and residues trapped in dental calculus, they pieced together the animal’s menu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-traces-reveal-fruit-diet">Fossil traces reveal fruit diet</h2>



Florent Rivals is a researcher at the Catalan Institute for Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution (<a href="https://cerca.cat/en/centres-cerca/iphes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPHES-CERCA</a>).



“We found starch residues and plant tissues typical of fleshy fruits, such as those of the Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis),” he said.



Those tiny traces, preserved since the Pleistocene, provide the first direct evidence that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/student-discovers-a-34000-year-old-mastodon-fossil-by-accident-while-walking-around-a-farm/">mastodon</a> routinely swallowed whole fruit - and by extension the seeds buried inside.



Stable-isotope signatures reinforced the picture. “Through stable isotope analysis, we were able to reconstruct the animals’ environment and diet with great precision,” said Iván Ramírez-Pedraza, a researcher at IPHES-CERCA who helped chart the chemical trail.



The pattern points to a mixed woodland rich in fruit resources, the kind of landscape where a multi-ton mammal could feast while roaming long distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-a-forty-year-old-idea"><a></a>Testing a forty-year-old idea</h2>



Back in 1982, biologist Daniel Janzen and paleontologist Paul Martin suggested that many tropical trees evolved oversized, sugary fruits specifically to lure now-extinct megafauna.



These included mastodons, giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-of-giant-sloths-why-did-they-shrink-and-when-did-it-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloths</a>, and native horses - animals capable of gulping down the bounty and depositing viable seeds far from the parent plant.



Their “neotropical anachronism” hypothesis was ingenious but largely speculative. The new study supplies the hard proof those pioneers lacked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974219"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



Lead author Erwin González-Guarda of the <a href="https://www.uoh.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of O’Higgins</a> argued that the multi-proxy approach was crucial.



Conventional wear studies alone cannot distinguish leaves from soft fruit, while isotopes reveal diet breadth but not specific ingredients. Residual microfibers in dental plaque filled that gap, confirming that fruit made up a regular part of the mastodon’s meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastodons-spread-forest-seeds">Mastodons spread forest seeds</h2>



“Dental chemistry gives us a direct window into the past,” said co-author Carlos Tornero, an isotope specialist at IPHES-CERCA.



The team concludes Notiomastodon was a key long-distance seed disperser in late Pleistocene South America.



When the animals died out - probably under combined pressure from rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate shifts</a> and expanding human hunting - no substitute of equal size and wanderlust remained.



Tapirs, peccaries, and monkeys still disperse some fruit in tropical zones, but across central Chile, the ecological courier service is effectively bankrupt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-feel-the-absence">Forests feel the absence</h2>



The researchers ran a machine-learning analysis to gauge present-day risk for plants once dependent on megafaunal dispersers.



In central Chile, forty percent of those trees now sit on threatened or endangered lists - four times the proportion in regions where alternative animal carriers survive.



“Where that ecological relationship between plants and animals has been entirely severed, the consequences remain visible even thousands of years later,” said co-author Andrea P. Loayza, paleontologist at the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://ieb-chile.cl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEB</a>) in Chile.



Today the Chilean palm endures in a few fragmented groves. The monkey-puzzle tree, Araucaria araucana, iconic yet genetically impoverished, clings to high Andean ridges.



The gomortega, Gomortega keule, known locally as queule, hangs on in scattered coastal valleys. Its plum-sized fruit now mostly drops beneath the parent canopy, rather than being hauled kilometers away inside a mastodon’s gut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-seeds-and-mastodons">Forests, seeds, and mastodons</h2>



Beyond its detective work, the paper carries a cautionary message. Ecosystems retain the impact of lost species for millennia, and restoring their roles will be a major challenge.



Rewilding with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-are-not-always-harmful-in-new-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a> has been floated as one possibility, and the fresh Chilean data offer a benchmark for choosing modern analogues based on diet and ranging behavior, not just body mass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974221"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



“By combining different lines of evidence, we’ve been able to robustly confirm their frugivory and the key role they played in these ecosystems,” Tornero emphasized.



Conservation managers might use such findings to prioritize corridors that allow surviving mammals to move seeds. They could also experiment with human-mediated dispersal for tree species marooned by the mastodon’s absence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-bones-new-purpose">Old bones, new purpose</h2>



“Paleontology isn’t just about telling old stories,” Rivals concluded. “It helps us recognize what we’ve lost - and what we still have a chance to save.”



With climate change and habitat fragmentation tightening their grip, lessons from deep time may guide present-day action.



Protecting and, where possible, mimicking the ancient partnership between fruit-bearing trees and their gigantic gardeners could give endangered South American forests a second shot at resilience.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02713-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Mastodon extinction is still causing problems with South American ecosystems

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago...

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals, and penguins - sit at the heart of the Southern Ocean food web. Yet these tiny animals are also the target of a fast-growing commercial fishery.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> (AWI) and the <a href="https://www.hi.no/hi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute of Marine Research</a> used more than 30,000 hours of sonar recordings from krill-trawling vessels. 



The analysis pinpointed when and where fishing fleets overlap with natural krill predators. The results highlight seasonal hotspots of competition that managers can no longer afford to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sonar-for-krill-clues">Using sonar for krill clues</h2>



Fishing vessels routinely run powerful echo sounders to locate krill swarms. By repurposing those same acoustic logs, scientists gained an unprecedented view of the submarine “traffic” beneath the ships.



The team analyzed over 30,000 hours of sonar data from three krill fishing vessels, gathered over six years in the Southern Ocean. Machine learning algorithms filtered the files for the distinctive signatures produced when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-blow-bubble-smoke-rings-near-humans-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, penguins, or seals dive under a vessel.



“During such encounters, ships and krill predators pursue the same krill swarms," said lead author Dominik Bahlburg, a scientist at AWI. 



"This allowed us to analyze the spatial and temporal dynamics of this competition in order to identify locations and time periods where the interaction between the two groups is particularly intensive."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-penguins-seals-and-trawlers-converge"><a></a>Where penguins, seals, and trawlers converge</h2>



Patterns emerged once the detections were mapped. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penguins</a> and fur seals appeared alongside fishing gear in both summer and winter, especially around the South Orkney Islands and South Georgia. 



Whales appeared most near the Antarctic Peninsula in autumn, when they fatten for their long migration north.



“The South Orkney Islands seem to be a real hotspot for encounters with penguins,” Bahlburg said. “Compared to the Antarctic Peninsula, they have received far less attention in the debate on the impact of krill fishing and many of the colonies affected there are currently not regularly monitored.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-competition-with-penguins">Direct competition with penguins</h2>



The overlap is worrisome as trawlers fish near breeding colonies when adult birds must feed their chicks. Voluntary buffer zones aimed to ease this conflict, but sonar evidence reveals an unintended side effect.



This also suggests that fishing vessels continue to encounter penguins despite the voluntary restriction zones around the Antarctic Peninsula. 



The vessels also continue to compete directly with penguins for krill during the breeding season. Instead, the pressure appears to have shifted to the South Orkney Islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-overlaps-persist-in-winter">Fishing overlaps persist in winter</h2>



One assumption had been that moving effort into winter - when breeding pressures ease - would spare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-noise-is-disrupting-wildlife-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>. The new data challenge that view.



“We were able to show that fisheries and penguins as well as fur seals encounter each other just as frequently in the winter as in the summer season,” Bahlburg said.



Since animals roam farther from colonies in winter, the persistence of close encounters surprised the authors and may require a reassessment.



While penguins and seals were encountered less often near the Peninsula, autumn fishing there overlapped heavily with whales. These whales depend on krill to build blubber reserves before migrating to equatorial calving grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-fleet-data-goes-public">Krill fleet data goes public</h2>



The team found little year-to-year fluctuation in their maps. “Remarkably, these patterns were quite stable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, penguins and whales over a six-year period,” noted study co-author Sebastian Menze, a scientist at the Norwegian Institute.



Such consistency implies the method can deliver rapid, reliable diagnostics as fishing tactics or quotas change.



“Consequently, our results show that acoustic data from fishing vessels and machine learning can act as a reliable foundation for rapid and convenient assessments of fisheries' interaction with the ecosystem,” Menze added.



Collecting those data costs almost nothing extra; crews already archive echo-sounder files as part of normal operations. The largest krill harvester, <a href="https://www.akerbiomarine.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aker Biomarine</a>, even makes its records public through the <a href="https://www.hubocean.earth/platform" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUBOcean platform</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-changes-in-krill-management">Positive changes in krill management </h2>



Until now, scientists mainly used fishery sonar to estimate krill biomass. The study’s broader ecological application opens fresh possibilities.



Bettina Meyer of AWI represents Germany on the <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/home-page" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources</a> (CCAMLR).



“We are expanding the potential uses for ecological questions and demonstrating new, cost-effective ways in which fishing vessels can contribute to krill fishery management,” said Meyer, who's also a senior author of the study. 



“Acoustic data make it possible to quickly draw an initial picture of how changes in fishery management or fleet behavior impact on the Antarctic ecosystem.”



Supported by Germany’s <a href="https://www.bmel.de/EN/Home/home_node.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture</a>, the project feeds directly into CCAMLR deliberations on updated catch limits and dynamic closure zones.



By revealing when and where krill fishing most conflicts with wildlife, the acoustic approach offers a blueprint for fine-tuned regulations. This could help ensure that the Southern Ocean’s keystone crustacean can sustain both its natural predators and the fishery that now depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417203122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Sonar reveals how krill fishing is hurting Antarctic wildlife

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals,...

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most are killed for supper, not for overseas trade in their scales. A new field survey shows that nearly every pangolin taken from the wild ends up in a cooking pot.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> spent three years talking with more than 800 hunters and traders across 33 villages. 



The team estimates that about 21,000 pangolins die each year in the region. Hunters rarely set out to look for them. They pick the animals up by hand while checking snares or working in farm plots. 



Almost three-quarters of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-meat-paradox-people-care-about-animals-but-still-eat-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat</a> is eaten by the hunters’ own families, and the rest is sold locally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-is-the-motive-for-killing-pangolins">Meat is the motive for killing pangolins </h2>



Study lead author Dr. Charles Emogor conducted the research while pursuing his PhD in the Department of Zoology at Cambridge.



“Thousands of kilos of pangolin scales are seized at Nigeria’s ports, creating the impression that the international demand for scales is behind pangolin exploitation in West Africa,” said Dr. Emogor.



"When we spoke to hunters and traders on the ground around the Cross River forest, the largest stronghold for Nigeria’s pangolins, it was obvious that meat was the motivation for almost all of the pangolin killings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangolin-scales-often-hit-the-bin">Pangolin scales often hit the bin</h2>



Less than a third of the scales from those animals ever reach a trader. Most are tossed aside. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hunters</a> said meat earns three to four times more money per animal than scales do in local markets.



“We found that dedicated pangolin hunts are virtually non-existent. Most pangolins are killed by hunters out for any type of game,” said Dr. Emogor. 



"Around a third of pangolins are caught opportunistically, often while people are working in the fields. Pangolins curl into a ball when threatened, which sadly makes them easy to catch.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prized-taste-and-old-beliefs">A prized taste and old beliefs</h2>



Pangolin meat is considered more flavorful than beef, chicken, or even antelope in many villages. It’s sometimes prepared for pregnant women, based on the belief that it promotes strong, healthy babies. 



This cultural value, combined with the species’ slow reproductive rate, puts intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-mammals-show-how-humans-influence-animal-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> on the animal's survival.



“Pangolins face a lethal combination of threats,” said Dr. Emogor. “Pangolins are easy to hunt, breed slowly, taste good to humans, and are falsely believed to have curative properties in traditional medicines. In addition, their forest habitat is being destroyed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-solutions-to-save-pangolins">Local solutions to save pangolins </h2>



Because food is the real pull, the researchers argue that local solutions - better patrols, new bylaws, and help with food security - may cost less and work faster than trying to police international trafficking alone.



“Clearly in designing any intervention we need good information on what’s motivating the hunters,” said study co-author Professor Andrew Balmford. “That’s why studies such as this are vital for effective conservation of endangered species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-80-million-years-of-evolution">Losing 80 million years of evolution</h2>



Dr. Emogor now runs Pangolino, a volunteer network that helps villages write and enforce pangolin-friendly rules. His motivation is personal as well as scientific.



"If we lose the pangolin, we lose 80 million years of evolution,” said Emogor. “Pangolins are the only mammals with scales, and their ancestors existed when dinosaurs still roamed the planet."



Cameroon, Gabon, and other nations show similar habits: people value pangolins mainly for food. Until diets change or enforcement improves, Africa’s only scaly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> will keep slipping toward extinction - one meal at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-pangolins-and-forest-life">Protecting pangolins and forest life</h2>



Efforts to save pangolins must go beyond curbing international trade. Protecting these animals - and the ecosystems they live in - means addressing the local drivers of hunting. 



That includes improving food security, offering economic alternatives to bushmeat, and increasing public awareness about the role pangolins play in forest health.



Education and outreach are key. Many hunters don’t realize pangolins are at risk. Some may not know the animals help control insect populations and support ecological balance. 



Wildlife conservation groups are working to spread this knowledge, while local governments and partners explore ways to boost law enforcement in remote areas.



Ultimately, protecting pangolins also helps safeguard other species that share their shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-mammals-are-seeking-refuge-in-forest-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>. When forests are preserved and hunting is managed sustainably, entire ecosystems stand a better chance of survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02734-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Disturbing study finds the true reason this amazing creature is on the verge of extinction

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most...

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have emerged as a crucial conservation strategy. These regions are set aside to limit human interference and provide wildlife with a safe space. 



Conservationists often focus on species counts when measuring success. But are these protected zones doing enough to preserve the entire structure of ecosystems?



This question is at the heart of a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>. Instead of focusing only on species richness, the researchers examined how protected areas affect the complex interactions between species. 



These species interactions - especially predator-prey relationships - build the food webs that make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-by-design-should-we-genetically-erase-harmful-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> stable and functional.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-count-is-not-enough-nbsp">Species count is not enough&nbsp;</h2>



Species richness is important. However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-millions-of-fungal-species-still-remain-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are more than a list of species. The relationships between organisms play a key role in ecological balance. A hawk hunting smaller birds or a songbird feeding on insects reflects interactions that keep ecosystems working.



The Swansea team wanted to understand if protected areas help maintain this ecological balance. They examined the structure of food webs rather than just counting how many species lived in each location. 



A food web includes all the feeding relationships between animals in a region. It shows who eats whom and how energy flows through the environment.



To conduct this study, the researchers turned to citizen science. They used data from platforms like eBird, where volunteers record bird sightings. This allowed the experts to track 509 bird species across 45 ecological networks from Spain to Finland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-webs-inside-and-outside-reserves">Food webs inside and outside reserves</h2>



Using this large database, the team combined observational bird records with known predator-prey links. For example, if a particular raptor feeds on smaller birds, that relationship was mapped. Each network captured the structure of a local bird community and its food web.



The team compared food webs inside protected areas to those in surrounding, non-protected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-lynx-day-2025-protecting-the-silent-hunters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landscapes</a>. These comparisons were not simple. 



The researchers controlled for many variables. They looked at habitat diversity, the percentage of forest and agricultural land, and levels of human pressure.



The experts also considered the designation status of the protected areas. Some zones were part of the European Bird Directives, which provide stronger conservation measures. Others had more general protections. 



These different conservation levels allowed the team to ask whether clearer goals led to better ecological outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-help-in-some-places">Protected areas help in some places</h2>



So, what did the researchers find? In some cases, protected areas improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-for-biological-diversity-2025-bonding-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a> of food webs. The networks inside protected zones tended to have more species overall. Intermediate-level species - those neither top predators nor at the bottom - were more common. 



Also, predators inside protected areas tended to be larger in body size, both at the top and middle levels of the food web.



However, not all of the results were encouraging. The length of food chains and the connectivity of species within the web did not show consistent improvement. In other words, simply having more species did not guarantee a healthier or more connected ecosystem.



The effects varied across Europe. Food webs in Spain responded differently from those in Finland or central Europe. This suggests that local conditions still matter greatly. Protection alone cannot guarantee the same results everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-food-web-differences">Factors behind food web differences</h2>



What caused the variation in results? Several environmental factors played a role. Areas that were more remote generally had healthier food webs. Places with higher habitat diversity also performed better. Human pressure and the amount of nearby farmland had a strong influence too.



Interestingly, areas under the European Bird Directives showed stronger positive trends. This suggests that clearer conservation planning makes a real difference. Just designating a region as "protected" is not enough. What matters is how that protection is implemented.



Study co-author Dr. Miguel Lurgi, who leads the Computational Ecology Lab, emphasized the significance of the research. 



“Studies like ours highlight the complexity of conservation action and the importance of considering key aspects of biodiversity beyond species richness, such as ecological interactions and the tangled networks that they form, into biodiversity assessments,” noted Dr. Lurgi.



“These networks not only structure communities and enable their persistence, but they also play important roles in the functions that ecosystems fulfil in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-must-protect-species-and-their-roles-nbsp">We must protect species and their roles&nbsp;</h2>



This study challenges a common assumption in conservation planning. Many projects measure success by the number of species saved. The research shows that relationships between species are equally vital. 



Protecting one bird species is good. Ensuring that it still plays its ecological role - as predator, prey, or pollinator - is better.



Protected areas clearly help in some ways. They offer space for species to live and grow. But without active planning, their impact on food webs may fall short. Conservation needs to think about networks, not just numbers.



By looking at predator-prey relationships, this research opens a path to more holistic conservation strategies. It also highlights the value of citizen science. 



Platforms like eBird make this kind of large-scale ecological work possible. Every birdwatcher’s observation helps build a clearer picture of how our ecosystems function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-need-better-plans">Protected areas need better plans</h2>



Europe's protected areas are not failing, but they are not universally succeeding either. They need tailored strategies, grounded in ecological data. Simple protection does not always support complex ecosystems.



This study gives policymakers a reason to refine their approaches. If the goal is to protect ecosystems, not just individual species, then conservation must shift. It must include ecological interactions, food web structures, and the subtle forces that hold nature together.



As this research shows, conservation cannot afford to stay simple. Nature is complex. Our strategies must match that complexity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Protected areas don't always protect food webs

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have...

A small team of researchers has reported a striking achievement: they succeeded in raising a mouse that came from two male parents, and it grew into a healthy adult. Their work unveils a set of genetic changes that overcomes the imprinting barriers that typically block such development.



Scientists in various fields have tried for years to figure out how paternal-only DNA could sustain a mammal through all stages of life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-gene-imprinting">Understanding gene imprinting</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Imprinting" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological imprinting</a> is an inherited pattern of <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Gene-Expression" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene expression</a>. It involves certain genes getting turned on or off depending on whether they come from the father or the mother. 



Researchers found that if you adjust a selection of these imprinting genes, you can open the door for unique reproductive feats, such as an embryo that starts with only paternal cells.



“This work will help to address a number of limitations in stem cell and regenerative medicine research,” explains <a href="http://english.ioz.cas.cn/sourcedb/scs/202310/t20231030_431101.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wei Li</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing. 



In this case, the scientists homed in on key sections of DNA that are known to control fetal growth and viability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-biology">What this means for biology</h2>



When a mouse embryo is formed in the usual way, paternal and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-stress-may-have-lasting-effects-on-fetal-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maternal DNA</a> come together. That combination produces a precise balance of imprinted genes. 



In paternal-only embryos, certain growth-related genes can become overstimulated, but the team was able to selectively modify them so these embryos could mature.



“These findings provide strong evidence that imprinting abnormalities are the main barrier to mammalian unisexual reproduction,” said Qi Zhou, co-lead of this study. 



By re-engineering the problematic gene regions, the researchers made it possible for two sets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">male chromosomes</a> to support a developing mouse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapeutic-ideas">Therapeutic ideas</h2>



A number of genetic and metabolic disorders in humans stem from errors in imprinting. Scientists have asked whether strategies used here might be adapted to correct imprinting problems that cause diseases in people.



One potential target is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK425128/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KCNK9</a>, which has been linked to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18678320/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birk-Barel syndrome</a>. Precise gene editing of such imprinting sites could help in the design of improved treatments for these rare disorders.



In practice, these ideas may take time to progress. Mouse models are often a first step in studying how imprinting influences development. 



The more scientists understand about restoring the right imprinting patterns, the closer they might come to tackling certain medical conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-imprinting-implications">Gene imprinting implications</h2>



The modified imprinting genes not only allowed bi-paternal mice to survive to adulthood, they also improved the efficiency of stem cells used in the process. 



The researchers reported that these <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1181832/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered embryonic stem cells</a> were about twice as likely to develop into full-term pups compared to unmodified cells.



This improved developmental stability could change how scientists approach cloning. Currently, cloned animals often suffer from low survival rates and severe abnormalities, in part due to faulty imprinting. 



Fixing imprinting errors ahead of time might make future cloning methods more reliable, especially in complex mammals like primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations">Ethical considerations</h2>



Questions often arise about how these approaches could extend to humans. 



According to guidelines from the International Society for Stem Cell Research (<a href="https://www.isscr.org/guidelines" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISSCR</a>), heritable genome editing is not currently allowed for human reproductive purposes because it is considered unsafe.



Researchers continue to examine these practices in animal models before even considering steps that approach human application. Investigators involved in this work remain cautious.&nbsp;



While a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-inject-40000-year-old-neanderthal-dna-gli3-gene-into-mice-with-incredible-results/">mouse</a> with two fathers has captured headlines, translating similar methods to people is a bigger leap. 



The focus remains on unraveling how imprinted genes function, and how targeted interventions might fix imprinting-related diseases down the road.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-questions">Next questions</h2>



There is still room to explore how best to refine these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-have-a-surprising-influence-on-their-babys-birth-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic strategies</a> to improve survival rates and lessen the chance of complications. 



Specialists are also looking at future animal models to see if placental differences, organ development, or immune responses undergo subtle changes when imprinting is modified. 



Some foresee that data gleaned from these methods will shape the next generation of gene-editing research.



Ongoing studies point to a need for caution. Issues like longevity, fertility, and normal physiology require much deeper evaluation. 



Still, scientists see value in applying these insights to refine cloning and enhance studies of embryonic stem cells. Even partial solutions could inform safer protocols for regenerating cells and tissues in healthcare settings.



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This <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/fulltext/S1934-5909(25)00005-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1934590925000050%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">breakthrough</a> was led by <a href="http://english.ioz.cas.cn/sourcedb/scs/202310/t20231030_431101.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wei Li</a> of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing</a> and Qi Zhou of the same institution, with further input from collaborators at <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun Yat-sen University</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1934590925000050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Stem Cell</a>.



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Scientists raised a mouse born from two male parents to adulthood for the first time

A small team of researchers has reported a striking achievement:...

Tiny mammals that weigh less than an ounce should not outlive German shepherds, yet many bats routinely do. Some even clock nearly thirty-five years in the wild, a lifespan that maps to about 180 human years and comes with an astonishing lack of tumors.



A <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> team set out to uncover why, zeroing in on four bat species spanning both major bat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-surf-the-winds-of-storms-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a>. 



Their findings point to a finely tuned partnership between an overachieving tumor suppressor gene, self-renewing chromosomes, and an immune system that fights hard but rarely overreacts.



The work was led by Vera Gorbunova and Andrei Seluanov of the <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/cancer-institute">Wilmot Cancer Institute and Department of Biology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-defy-aging-and-cancer-patterns">Bats defy aging and cancer patterns</h2>



Cancer risk usually rises with age because every round of cell division adds another chance for DNA damage, a pattern known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto's paradox</a>. 



Across most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> the equation holds, but bats are clear outliers, with at least four separate bat lineages independently evolving extreme <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30966896/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a>.



The new study shows that the “little brown” bat (<a href="https://www.fws.gov/species/little-brown-bat-myotis-lucifugus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myotis lucifugus</a>) carries two working copies of the key tumor suppressor gene <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22268/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">p53</a>, while humans carry only one. 



“High levels of p53 in the body can kill cancer cells before they become harmful in a process known as <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/apoptosis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apoptosis</a>,” said Gorbunova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-myotis-lucifugus-the-basics">Understanding Myotis lucifugus - the basics</h2>



Better known as the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus is one of the most widespread and familiar bat species in North America. You’ll often find them roosting in attics, barns, caves, and trees - basically anywhere cozy and dark. 



These bats are tiny, weighing less than half an ounce, but they pack a punch when it comes to eating insects. In a single night, one little brown bat can devour hundreds of mosquitoes and other bugs, making them natural pest controllers.



They usually hibernate during the winter, often gathering in large colonies where the temperature stays just right. Sadly, their populations have taken a major hit due to white-nose syndrome, a fungal disease that’s devastated colonies across the continent. 



Scientists and conservationists are working hard to figure out how to protect them, since losing these bats would ripple through entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-use-extra-p53-to-stop-cancer">Bats use extra p53 to stop cancer</h2>



Duplicating p53 is not unique to bats; <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/11994" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> stockpile roughly twenty versions of the same gene and show remarkably low cancer rates. 



Bats, however, balance extra p53 with regulatory tweaks so it prunes precancerous cells without wiping out healthy ones.



“Our animals can tolerate faster cell growth because their p53 is ready to pull the plug when things look suspicious,” said Seluanov. 



The Rochester team found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-rush-hour-without-crashing-into-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> cells need only two genetic “hits” to turn cancerous in a dish, far fewer than human cells, but the boosted p53 swiftly orders those rogue cells to self-destruct. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endless-telomeres-controlled-chaos">Endless telomeres, controlled chaos</h2>



Bats also keep their chromosome tips long thanks to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12034875/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constitutive telomerase</a>, an enzyme most adult human tissues silence. 



Earlier work in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29441358/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myotis</a> bats revealed that telomeres hardly shorten with age, helping tissues regenerate without sliding toward crisis.



Unfettered telomerase can fuel tumors in other species, yet bats avoid that pitfall. When telomere-powered cell divisions pick up speed, the same hyper-alert p53 system steps in, neutralizing any cell that crosses the line. 



“If cells divide uncontrollably, the higher p53 activity in bats compensates and can remove cancerous cells,” noted Seluanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bats-fight-disease">How bats fight disease</h2>



A third line of defense comes from a bat immune network that spots danger quickly but stays unusually calm. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03128-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bats</a> mute the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-019-0165-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NLRP3 inflammasome</a> and tone down <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri3787" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type I interferon</a> storms, preventing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493173/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic inflammation</a> that often seeds cancer in aging tissues.



This balanced <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/immunosurveillance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune surveillance</a> means viruses are cleared efficiently and damaged cells are flagged for destruction, yet surrounding tissue is spared collateral damage. 



Researchers also report expanded natural killer cell receptor families in several bat genomes, hinting at a surveillance squad that never sleeps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bats-can-teach-us-about-treating-cancer">What bats can teach us about treating cancer</h2>



Several experimental drugs already seek to boost human p53 activity in stubborn tumors, and the bat data give that strategy an evolutionary vote of confidence. 



Others aim to reactivate telomerase in aged tissues; the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-acoustic-mental-maps-to-navigate-total-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> blueprint suggests that pairing such therapies with stronger p53 safeguards could keep runaway cell growth in check.



<a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The National Institute on Aging</a> funded the study because it touches on two grand challenges: healthy longevity and cancer prevention. 



If scientists can replicate the bat trio of robust p53, restrained inflammation, and prudent telomerase, future therapies might tackle both aging and malignancy in one stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-other-animals-can-teach-us">What other animals can teach us</h2>



Scientists have long looked to other long-lived animals for answers. 



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10492090/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naked mole rats</a>, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11580846/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bowhead whales</a>, and elephants each have their own anti-cancer tricks, ranging from extra copies of tumor suppressor genes to unique cell death responses. 



Bats now join this elite group, and their diverse adaptations offer a different evolutionary path toward disease resistance.



These findings also support the case for cross-species genetic studies in humans. 



If p53 enhancements or telomerase tuning can be translated safely, it could lead to preventive therapies for high-risk populations or those with inherited cancer mutations. 



What bats seem to offer is not a miracle gene, but a blueprint for managing cellular risk while still allowing the body to repair, grow, and age slowly.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59403-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Bats don't get cancer, now scientists think they know the reason

Tiny mammals that weigh less than an ounce should not...

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes detect ultraviolet, blue, and green light. Bees often visit red flowers, but not for their color. They are drawn to ultraviolet reflections, not the red hue itself.



But two Mediterranean beetles break that pattern.&nbsp;Pygopleurus chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Pygopleurus syriacus&nbsp;can truly perceive red. They seek out red flowers, especially poppies, anemones, and buttercups, for pollen. Their eyes are uniquely tuned to do this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-with-a-four-color-vision-system">Beetles with a four-color vision system</h2>



‘To our knowledge, we are the first to have experimentally demonstrated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> can actually perceive the color red,’ said Dr Johannes Spaethe.



The researchers confirmed this by recording electrical activity from photoreceptors in beetle eyes. They discovered four photoreceptor types. These respond to ultraviolet, blue, green, and red wavelengths.



This tetrachromatic system is rare among beetles. Most have just two or three receptor types. Blue sensitivity, previously missing in some beetle lineages, reappears here. It likely evolved through a gene duplication event and a spectral shift from ultraviolet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-choose-red-over-grey">Beetles choose red over grey</h2>



Photoreceptors are light-sensitive cells in the eye. Just having them doesn't prove an animal can&nbsp;see&nbsp;colors. To show true color vision, an animal must tell colors apart even when they have the same brightness.



To test this, scientists used a trick from bee research by Von Frisch. They gave beetles a choice between red circles and grey ones that varied in brightness. If beetles picked red over all shades of grey, it meant they could see red as a distinct color - not just as a lighter or darker patch.



That’s exactly what happened. In every test, beetles chose red first. The researchers also ran a second test in the wild using traps in five colors. Almost all P. chrysonotus beetles ended up in red traps. This showed their natural color preference matched the lab findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opponency-and-complex-visual-processing">Opponency and complex visual processing</h2>



Recordings also revealed opponency signals. These occur when one receptor type’s signal suppresses another. It is a marker of complex color processing. 



For example, red receptors showed suppressed responses in green wavelengths. This confirmed interaction between channels.



This kind of opponency, previously seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>, suggests advanced neural processing. It likely helps the beetles make sharp color distinctions in complex natural environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-beetles-and-red-flowers">Evolution of beetles and red flowers </h2>



Why do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> care so much about red? It may reflect a mutual evolutionary pathway. Red flowers in the Mediterranean are mostly pollinated by Glaphyridae beetles. These flowers form the “poppy guild.”



‘The prevailing opinion in science is that flower colours have adapted to the visual systems of pollinators over the course of evolution,’ says Spaethe.



Yet this case flips that assumption. Glaphyrid beetles may have evolved their vision to match flower color diversity. 



Within their family, different genera prefer different flower colors such as yellow, white, violet, and red. This suggests their visual systems may be flexible and evolving alongside flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-vision-helps-beetles-access-flowers">Red vision helps beetles access flowers</h2>



Specializing in red gives beetles an advantage. Most insects cannot see red. That means red flowers are invisible or less noticeable to them.



But&nbsp;P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;can see red clearly. This gives them special access to food - like pollen - from red flowers that others ignore.



Because fewer insects compete for red flowers, the beetles face less crowding. They also become more reliable pollinators for those flowers.



Over time, flowers may evolve to become red on purpose. This helps attract only beetles and avoid unwanted visitors like bees that may steal pollen without pollinating. This is what scientists call a "private niche in color space."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-window-into-insect-vision">Rare window into insect vision</h2>



P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;are now among the few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> with confirmed red color vision. Their unique tetrachromatic eyes, behavioral responses, and flower preferences paint a new picture of insect-flower interaction.



This research does more than reveal a rare trait. It creates a valuable model for studying pollination, vision, and co-evolution, all through the eyes of beetles.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/doi/10.1242/jeb.250181/368218/Remarkable-red-colour-vision-in-two-Mediterranean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



Image Credit: Johannes Spaethe / University of Würzburg



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Beetles that see red break the rules of insect vision

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes...

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and perpetual smiles. However, their true superpower lies in their ability to regrow lost limbs - even hands, arms, and parts of organs - without leaving a single scar.



This rare ability sets axolotls apart from almost all other vertebrates. Scientists have long looked to them as a living model for unlocking the secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axolotls-regeneration-powers-critically-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-axolotl-healing">Secrets of axolotl healing</h2>



In a study led by <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a> biologist James Monaghan, researchers asked a question that has puzzled scientists for almost two centuries: How does an axolotl know which body part to rebuild and how much of it to replace?



“It could help with scar-free wound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> but also something even more ambitious, like growing back an entire finger,” said Monaghan. “It’s not out of the realm of possibility to think that something larger could grow back like a hand.”



Monaghan traced the animal’s “positional memory” to a common signaling molecule called retinoic acid. Inside the axolotl’s arm, retinoic acid forms a gradient - high near the shoulder, low near the fingertips. Fibroblast cells read that gradient like a map and decide what to build.



“The cells can interpret this cue to say, ‘I’m at the elbow, and then I’m going to grow back the hand’ or ‘I’m at the shoulder. I have high levels of retinoic acid, so I’m going to then enable those cells to grow back the entire limb,’” noted Monaghan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-regeneration-plan">Rewriting the regeneration plan</h2>



To test the system, the team boosted retinoic-acid levels in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skydiving-salamanders-can-fully-control-blood-flow-in-their-toes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salamander</a>’s hand. The result was startling: instead of one new hand, the axolotl sprouted a duplicate limb.



Monaghan said the experiment was "pretty Frankensteiny." Still, it showed that tweaking the signal can rewrite the regeneration plan.



People make retinoic acid too, and our fibroblasts help mend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-chronic-wounds-with-gold-and-red-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wounds</a>. The problem is that human cells ignore the signals that axolotls obey. They lay down collagen and form scars instead of new tissue.



“If we can find ways of making our fibroblasts listen to these regenerative cues, then they’ll do the rest,” said Monaghan. “They know how to make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limb-development-genes-connected-to-fingerprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">limb</a> already because, just like the salamander, they made it during development.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genetics-of-axolotl-healing">The genetics of axolotl healing</h2>



Digging deeper, the researchers linked retinoic-acid signaling to the short homeobox gene (shox). 



When they removed shox with CRISPR-Cas9, the salamanders grew stubby arms capped by normal-size hands - the same limb pattern seen in people who carry a SHOX mutation.



“In order for regenerative biology or regenerative medicine to move forward, we need to understand where positional memory lies and how to manipulate it and engineer it,” explained Monaghan. 



“How do you make a cell move where you want? Changing its positional memory is critical for this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-the-healing-control-switch">Searching for the healing control switch </h2>



Monaghan’s lab is now probing the inner workings of fibroblasts to find out exactly how retinoic acid flips genetic switches like shox. 



Cracking that code could bring medicine a step closer to scar-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-could-be-key-to-treating-non-healing-wounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> - and, one day, the chance to replace more than a fingertip.



For now, the smiling axolotl keeps teaching us that the blueprints for regeneration are already inside our own cells. The challenge is learning how to read them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



While limb regrowth in humans may still sound like science fiction, scientists see realistic opportunities for smaller steps in the near future. 



Advances in regenerative cues and gene targeting could lead to new ways to treat severe injuries, reduce scarring after surgery, or even regrow damaged cartilage.



Rather than trying to grow an entire arm right away, researchers envision using the axolotl’s secrets to guide healing in stages - like rebuilding bone, restoring tissue layers, or regenerating nerves. 



Understanding how fibroblasts respond to positional signals may also open new paths for treating birth defects or degenerative diseases.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59497-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Alyssa Stone/Northeastern University



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Secrets of axolotl healing could teach us how to regrow limbs

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and...

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about the forests, soils, and climates that supported early apes long before the first hominin walked upright. 



Though great apes diverged from other primates around 25 million years ago, our own lineage did not appear until roughly 5 million years ago. In that immense stretch of time, forests rose and fell, volcanoes erupted, and ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> adapted to the world around them.



One place where this deep story unfolds is western Kenya’s Koru 16. This fossil site captures a snapshot of life during the early Miocene, around 20 million years ago. Preserved by ash from the long extinct Tinderet Volcano, Koru 16 is a rich and complex time capsule. 



New research led by Venanzio Munyaka reveals that the story of ape evolution cannot be told without understanding the ecosystems they called home. The study adds fresh insight to a region already steeped in fossil history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-fossils-reveal-evolutionary-activity">Ape fossils reveal evolutionary activity</h2>



Koru 16 has drawn scientific interest for nearly a hundred years. The site’s first primate fossils were discovered in 1927, and legendary anthropologist Louis Leakey led several excavations in the decades that followed. 



While those early efforts laid important groundwork, the last decade brought new urgency and better tools for understanding its full ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">context</a>.



Between 2013 and 2023, Munyaka and colleagues carried out a detailed investigation at two subsites. They recovered nearly 1,000 fossil leaves and a wealth of vertebrate remains. 



The bones came from 25 different species, including pythons, rodents, and three types of apes. These included Proconsul africanus, Proconsul major, and a newly identified large bodied nyanzapithecine.



These discoveries make Koru 16 the most ape rich site within the wider Tinderet group. The presence of multiple ape species in a single forested environment suggests the region played a key role in early ape evolution. But it was not just the bones that told a story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-forests-shaped-how-early-apes-lived">Changing forests shaped how early apes lived</h2>



The team used a combination of paleosol chemistry, leaf structure, and tree stump fossils to reconstruct what Koru 16 looked like millions of years ago. Their results point to a warm, wet tropical forest, interrupted frequently by natural disturbances. 



Volcanic eruptions from the Tinderet complex blanketed the land with ash. Wildfires and seasonal floods added further stress.



Yet through all this, life thrived. Soil analyses indicate the region received about 2,000 mm of rainfall per year, with temperatures likely above 25°C. These conditions are similar to modern tropical forests in Africa, though the vegetation was slightly different. Koru 16’s forest likely had more deciduous trees, with plants that dropped their leaves seasonally.



“By studying the soil, fossils, and tree stumps, we could recreate the forest's climate,” said Munyaka. The climate was not stable. Instead, it was a shifting mosaic of dense forest, open patches, and recently disturbed areas. This landscape would challenge and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> living there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaves-light-and-forest-layers">Leaves, light, and forest layers</h2>



Plant fossils offered a vivid picture of this forest. From the two subsites, researchers cataloged 18 distinct leaf morphotypes. These belonged to plants that likely had short lifespans and fast growth cycles. 



Such traits suggest a forest marked by high turnover, where plants quickly colonized open areas after fires or ashfalls.



Most of the fossilized leaves came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapted to both shaded understories and sunlit clearings. This indicates a mixed canopy, with parts of the forest densely shaded and others exposed. The forest structure would have influenced how apes moved, fed, and nested. 



Some leaves had characteristics similar to those found in modern forests in Uganda and Madagascar, places where rainfall is seasonal and disturbance is common.



The researchers also found casts of fossilized tree stumps. In one subsite, stumps stood close together, suggesting a mature, shaded forest. In the other, stumps were widely spaced, hinting at a more open, disturbed area. 



These contrasts imply that even within a small region, early Miocene forests were ecologically diverse and constantly in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-among-the-ash">Apes among the ash</h2>



The fauna found alongside the plants reinforce this view. Apes were not alone. The site also yielded fossils of large pythons and several rodent species. The dominance of rodents reflects a rich, layered ecosystem. 



Most importantly, the three ape species discovered show that such forests supported a range of primate forms, including some of our most ancient relatives.



“The forest was not a quiet, uniform place,” said one researcher. “It was full of challenges that spurred change.” These challenges likely encouraged the development of new behaviors. Apes may have moved more on the ground, adapted their diets to seasonal food, or evolved new social habits to cope with ecological instability.



This type of environment, warm, seasonal, and disturbed, would have offered opportunities and obstacles. Forest fragmentation and frequent change may have nudged primates toward flexibility in how they lived, moved, and survived. In that sense, the forest itself became an evolutionary partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roots-of-evolution">Ecological roots of evolution</h2>



Koru 16 forces a shift in how we think about ape origins. Rather than emerging in calm, unchanging rainforests, early apes lived in dynamic, fractured landscapes. 



These habitats were shaped by fire, flood, and ash. The soil, climate, and plants constantly shifted, creating a stage that demanded adaptability.



The presence of multiple ape species in this kind of forest suggests that environmental variability did not limit primate evolution. It may have energized it. The ability to navigate change, rather than thrive in stability, might have been a key evolutionary trait.



Through its ancient layers of ash and soil, Koru 16 gives us something rare. It offers a full picture of the world early apes inhabited. It tells a story not just of bones, but of climate, ecology, and survival. 



The research reminds us that the journey to becoming human began not just in upright steps but in leafy canopies, open glades, and the fertile ash beds of a forest always on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025PA005152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology</a>.



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Early apes lived in a constantly changing world of fire and ash

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about...

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to quick-footed hunters, these creatures ruled the prehistoric world for millions of years. Each fossil discovery brings new understanding. 



A recent find has added a key piece to the tyrannosaur story. Named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, this newly identified dinosaur sheds light on how smaller predators evolved into giants like Tyrannosaurus rex.



This breakthrough comes from a global research team led by Jared Voris and Dr. Darla Zelenitsky of the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>. Their findings appear in the journal Nature. 



Khankhuuluu lived about 86 million years ago during a time of rapid change.



As other large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> vanished, new ones took their places. Khankhuuluu stood at the crossroads of this transition. The species bridges the gap between earlier swift hunters and the colossal bone crushers that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-came-before-t-rex">Khankhuuluu came before T. rex</h2>



Khankhuuluu means “prince of dragons” in Mongolian. The name hints at its importance. It was not yet king, but it was certainly part of a royal bloodline.



This dinosaur is now seen as the closest-known ancestor of the tyrannosaurs. Unlike its massive descendants, Khankhuuluu weighed only about 750 kilograms (1,600 pounds). That is similar to the size of a modern horse.



“This new species provides us the window into the ascent stage of tyrannosaur evolution; right when they’re transitioning from small predators to their apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-cancer-clues-for-modern-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> form,” explained Jared Voris, the study’s first author and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Calgary.



Khankhuuluu rose to prominence after the extinction of many other large carnivores. It seized the opportunity and evolved new traits that would eventually lead to its dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-agile-and-built-to-pursue">Fast, agile, and built to pursue</h2>



Khankhuuluu was not a brute force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>. It had a long, shallow skull that lacked the bone-crushing strength of a T. rex. Instead, it relied on its long legs for speed, and its sharp senses. Scientists describe it as a mesopredator, similar in role to a coyote. 



This means it likely preyed on small animals and used agility to avoid larger threats.



One of its most notable features was a pair of tiny horns above its eyes. These were likely used for mating displays or to intimidate other dinosaurs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Credit: University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1973997"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



Later species such as Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus would develop larger and more ornate versions of these horns. 



In Khankhuuluu, however, the structures were still in early development. These subtle differences mark it as a transitional figure in tyrannosaur history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-was-misidentified">Khankhuuluu was misidentified</h2>



The bones that identified Khankhuuluu were not newly dug from the ground. They were actually collected in the 1970s by paleontologist Altangerel Perle in the Bayanshiree Formation in southeastern Mongolia. 



At the time, the fossils were thought to belong to a dinosaur called Alectrosaurus that was more commonly found in nearby China. That assumption held for decades.



Then in 2023, Voris traveled to Mongolia to study the fossils in detail. While examining the material at the Institute of Paleontology, he noticed key differences. These included unique features in the skull and limbs. 



These observations confirmed that the fossils belonged to a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. What had once been misidentified was now recognized as a pivotal ancestor of the tyrannosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tyrannosaur-that-crossed-continents">The tyrannosaur that crossed continents</h2>



Khankhuuluu's legacy is not limited to Mongolia. Its lineage spread far beyond Asia. 



“Khankhuuluu, or a closely related species, would have immigrated to North America from Asia around 85 million years ago. Our study provides solid evidence that large tyrannosaurs first evolved in North America as a result of this immigration event,” Dr. Darla Zelenitsky noted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1974000"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



This migration shaped the history of dinosaurs on both continents. Once in North America, tyrannosaurs began to grow larger and more specialized. Over time, they became the most dominant predators in their environments. 



The journey of Khankhuuluu set this in motion. It is a clear example of how species movement influences evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tyrannosaurs-split">How tyrannosaurs split</h2>



Once in North America, the tyrannosaurs evolved along two main paths. One group became massive apex predators like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



These were the bone crushers, armed with powerful jaws and deep skulls. Another group developed long snouts and stayed medium-sized. Scientists call them “Pinocchio rexes” because of their distinctive faces.



Both branches trace back to Khankhuuluu or a very similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestor</a>. This new discovery shows that the migration from Asia was not just a one-time event. It reveals a pattern of interaction and development that shaped dinosaur evolution.



These findings change the way scientists view the rise of tyrannosaurs. The journey was not linear. It involved branching, mixing, and adapting over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-chapter-in-the-tyrannosaur-story">Next chapter in the tyrannosaur story</h2>



Though Khankhuuluu has answered many questions, it has also raised new ones. Researchers now want to explore earlier stages of tyrannosaur evolution. 



What came before the dragon prince? What traits defined the first members of this mighty family? The answers may lie buried in rocks still waiting to be exposed.



For now, Khankhuuluu stands as a symbol of change. It was not the biggest or most fearsome predator. But it played a critical role in the story of Earth's past. 



As the dragon prince, it holds the key to understanding how some of the most iconic creatures in history came to rule the land.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08964-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Meet the "prince of dragons," closest T-rex relative that started the tyrannosaur dynasty

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to...

Two small cubs that died more than 14,000 years ago, were initially considered to be early domesticated dogs. New findings now confirm that these so-called "puppies" were actually wolf cubs. Their final nap, curled up in their den, turned them into scientific time capsules.



Their frozen remains - discovered in northern Siberia - were so well preserved that researchers could study what they ate, how they lived, and how they died.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-wolf-cubs-were-found">Where the wolf cubs were found</h2>



The cubs were found about 40 kilometers (25 miles) from the village of Tumat in Siberia. One was unearthed in 2011 and the other in 2015, at what is now known as the Syalakh site.



Both were buried deep within frozen soil layers, preserved by permafrost alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woolly-mammoth-fossil-freeze-dried-skin-active-dna-chromosomes-52000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoth</a> bones that showed signs of having been burned and butchered.



This unusual combination of human activity and frozen remains sparked early speculation. Some believed the cubs might have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dogs</a>, living among humans or scavenging near human settlements. 



The fact that their fur was black - a trait once thought to be unique to domesticated dogs - added fuel to the theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-university-of-york-sheds-new-light">University of York sheds new light</h2>



But new research from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> tells a different story. Scientists studied genetic material from the cubs’ stomachs, along with chemical signals in their bones, teeth, and tissue. 



The data pointed not to early dogs, but to wolves - wolves that had lived wild and free during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a>.



The cubs were about two months old and still nursing. But they were also eating solid food, including meat from a wooly rhinoceros and, in one case, a small bird called a wagtail. 



The presence of undigested rhino skin in one cub’s stomach points to how recently they had eaten, and how abruptly their lives had ended.



“It was incredible to find two sisters from this era so well preserved, but even more incredible that we can now tell so much of their story, down to the last meal that they ate,” said Anne Kathrine Runge from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sister-wolf-cubs-lost-in-a-collapse">Sister wolf cubs lost in a collapse</h2>



The cubs showed no signs of injury or attack. Researchers believe they were resting in their den, possibly after feeding, when a landslide or collapse trapped them. 



“Whilst many will be disappointed that these animals are almost certainly wolves and not early domesticated dogs, they have helped us get closer to understanding the environment at the time, how these animals lived, and how remarkably similar wolves from more than 14,000 years ago are to modern day wolves," explained Runge.



"It also means that the mystery of how dogs evolved into the domestic pet we know today deepens, as one of our clues - the black fur color - may have been a red herring given its presence in wolf cubs from a population that is not related to domestic dogs,” she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-a-rich-landscape">Life in a rich landscape</h2>



Inside the wolf cubs’ stomachs were fossilized remains of plants such as prairie grasses, willow twigs, and leaves from Dryas shrubs. This suggests they lived in a varied and rich ecosystem, full of edible plants and animals.



Despite their proximity to mammoth bones, there was no sign that the cubs ate mammoth meat. Instead, researchers found clear evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-woolly-rhinoceros-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wooly rhinoceros</a> in their diet.



Although a fully grown rhino would be far too large for a cub - or even a single adult wolf - to bring down, scientists think the prey was likely a young calf taken down by the pack and shared with the cubs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-wolves-bigger-prey">Bigger wolves, bigger prey?</h2>



The idea of wolves hunting wooly rhinos, even young ones, has raised questions. Could these ancient wolves have been larger and more powerful than today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-survived-the-ice-age-by-changing-their-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gray wolves</a>?



Dr. Nathan Wales, also from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology, explained further. 



“We know grey wolves have been around as a species for hundreds of thousands of years, based on skeletal remains from palaeontological sites, and researchers have done DNA testing of some of those remains to understand how the population changed over time," he shared. 



He added that the soft tissues preserved in the Tumat cubs gives another, fascinating way of investigating the wolf evolutionary line. 



“We can see that their diets were varied, consisting of both animal meat and plant life, much like that of modern wolves," he said, "and we have an insight into their breeding behaviors too. The pair were sisters and likely being reared in a den and cared for by their pack – all common characteristics of breeding and raising of offspring in wolves today."



It is common for modern wolves to have larger litters than two, and it is possible that the Tumat cubs had siblings that escaped the fate of the unfortunate sisters. Or perhaps there will be more of the litter hidden in the permafrost nearby. 



Dr. Wales also commented on the fact that wooly rhinoceros remains were found in the cubs' stomachs. 



“The hunting of an animal as large as a wooly rhinoceros, even a baby one, suggests that these wolves are perhaps bigger than the wolves we see today, but still consistent in many ways, because wolves still tend to hunt easy prey while some of the pack is engaged in cub rearing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dog-puzzle-remains">The dog puzzle remains</h2>



This study does more than shed light on two ancient cubs. It also leaves an open question: When and where did dogs emerge from their wolf ancestors?



So, while the Tumat "puppies" are not the key to unlocking the origin of domestic dogs, they are a vital piece of the puzzle. And somewhere, buried in the frost or hidden in ancient sediments, the first true dog still waits to be found.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/abs/multifaceted-analysis-reveals-diet-and-kinship-of-late-pleistocene-tumat-puppies/B4DC077D8A6C18FD96F7E8E0D3428A46" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Research</a>.



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Famous 'ice-age puppies' are not actually dogs, according to new study

Two small cubs that died more than 14,000 years ago,...

The Cambrian period, around 520 million years ago, was an age of experimentation. Life in the seas was trying out every possible body plan, searching for combinations that worked. 



One line of creatures, the euarthropods, hit on a winner: segmented bodies, paired jointed limbs, and a knack for tweaking those limbs into claws, feelers, and walking legs. That design still powers today’s insects, spiders, and crabs.



Until now, most clues to the early stages of that success came from flattened impressions squeezed by eons of mud and rock. They showed outlines but kept their secrets sealed. 



A newly described fossil larva named Youti yuanshi no bigger than a poppy seed and preserved in three dimensions, has flung those doors open.



This research was led by Dr. Martin Smith from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a>. His expertise and intuition led to this exceptional discovery, which is considerably reshaping our understanding of insect evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-youti-yuanshi-and-insect-evolution">Youti yuanshi and insect evolution</h2>



The fossil in focus, Youti yuanshi, takes us on a thrilling journey back to the Cambrian period, a time when the major animal groups we know today were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first evolving</a>.



This fossil falls under the group of arthropods, which includes modern insects, spiders and crabs. 



What sets this fossil apart is its exceptional preservation of internal organs, offering a close-up view of life forms from a time unimaginable to us.



Using the cutting-edge synchrotron X-ray tomography at <a href="https://www.diamond.ac.uk/Home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diamond Light Source</a>, the UK's national synchrotron science facility, the research team was able to generate 3D images of this miniature marvel.



They unveiled brain regions, digestive glands, a rudimentary circulatory system and even traces of nerves supplying the larva’s simple legs and eyes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-view-of-youti-yuanshi-guts">3D view of Youti yuanshi guts</h2>



This research allows us to see inside one of the earliest arthropod ancestors. It's a revelation of sort: these early arthropod-relatives had an unexpectedly advanced anatomy.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07756-8/figures/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/euarthropod-larva_youti-yuanshi_fossil_guts-preserved_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Anatomical overview of Youti yuanshi - organs of a Cambrian euarthropod larva. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1973987"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Anatomical overview of Youti yuanshi - organs of a Cambrian euarthropod larva. Click image for more details. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



"When I used to daydream about the one fossil I’d most like to discover, I’d always be thinking of an arthropod larva, because developmental data are just so central to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-flight-is-powered-by-an-extraordinary-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding their evolution</a>. But larvae are so tiny and fragile, the chances of finding one fossilized are practically zero - or so I thought!" Dr. Smith enthused.



"I already knew that this simple worm-like fossil was something special, but when I saw the amazing structures preserved under its skin, my jaw just dropped - how could these intricate features have avoided decay and still be here to see half a billion years later?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overview-of-insect-evolution">Overview of insect evolution</h2>



Dr. Katherine Dobson from the <a href="https://www.strath.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Strathclyde</a>, another key contributor to this study, shared her amazement at the near-perfect preservation of the ancient larva.



"It’s always interesting to see what’s inside a sample using 3D imaging, but in this incredible tiny larva, natural fossilization has achieved almost perfect preservation," she states.



This ancient larva holds the key to solving a myriad of questions on the evolution of multi-limbed creatures. 



For instance, the fossil reveals an ancestral ‘protocerebrum’ brain region that was pivotal in our journey towards complex, segment-headed creatures.



The observations from this fossil help trace the path that led modern arthropods to gain their remarkable anatomical complexity and diversity. 



Moreover, these findings fill a crucial gap in our understanding of how the arthropod body plan originated during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-exist-today-ediacaran-period-earth-weak-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Explosion of life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The discovery of Youti yuanshi not only sheds light on the evolution of early arthropods but also prompts broader reflections on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nighttime-buzz-insect-activity-increases-by-31-4-at-night/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> itself.



Understanding the anatomical features and adaptations of extinct species provides context for the diverse forms of life we observe today. 



This fossil acts as a reminder of the intricate web of evolutionary relationships that has shaped the myriad species inhabiting our planet.



As we explore these connections, we deepen our appreciation for the resilience and adaptability of life throughout the ages, underscoring the importance of preserving our current ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-insect-evolution">Future research on insect evolution</h2>



The insights from Youti yuanshi are opening up exciting new paths for research, especially in fields like evolutionary biology, paleontology, and developmental biology.



Researchers are eager to dig deeper into Cambrian period fossils, hoping to find more specimens that shed light on the complex details of early life forms. 



Plus, the techniques used in this study, like synchrotron X-ray tomography, could be applied to other fossils, helping us discover even more about the milestones in the tree of life. 



This poppy-seed fossil proves that even the tiniest finds can overturn years of assumption. 



Future digs, armed with ever-sharper imaging tools, will no doubt uncover more diminutive ambassadors from deep time, each ready to whisper another chapter of our planet’s earliest animal saga.



The fossil is now housed at <a href="https://english.ynu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yunnan University</a> in China, its original discovery site. This eye-opening research emphasizes the crucial role of fossils in understanding our roots and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of life on Earth</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07756-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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520-million-year-old fossil discovered with brains and guts still intact, stunning the lead scientist

The Cambrian period, around 520 million years ago, was an...

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies hide a front-to-back plan that mirrors the layout seen in animals with heads and tails. 



A new study shows that the cells of these soft-bodied creatures read chemical hints to decide which side becomes “back” and which becomes “belly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-sea-anemones-and-humans">Link between sea anemones and humans </h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> found that sea anemones rely on a process called BMP shuttling to organize their developing bodies. 



This same biological mechanism is responsible for shaping the body axes in many familiar animals from insects to vertebrates, including humans.



The discovery pushes the origin of this cellular traffic system back more than 600 million years, suggesting it was already present in a common ancestor of nearly all modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-share-hidden-behavior-patterns-across-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



This finding not only highlights the deep evolutionary connection between simple and complex organisms but also opens up new ways of thinking about how body plans are genetically encoded and inherited across generations. 



The research suggests that what we see in modern animals may be built upon a remarkably ancient and shared developmental toolkit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-that-guide-developing-cells">Signals that guide developing cells</h2>



Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are signals that guide developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-first-cells-life-form-on-earth-scientists-think-they-finally-figured-it-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a>. A partner molecule, Chordin, can both block these signals and move them to new spots.



The moving act - shuttling - creates precise highs and lows of BMP activity. Early cells read these highs and lows like a map, turning into skin, nerve tissue, or other organs.



The researchers worked with Nematostella vectensis, a small sea anemone commonly used in laboratory studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-development-in-sea-anemones">Body development in sea anemones </h2>



To understand how Chordin functions, they first blocked its production in developing sea anemone embryos. As a result, BMP activity came to a halt, and the second body axis failed to form.



To test Chordin’s role further, the team introduced two different forms of the molecule: one that was fixed in place and could not move, and another that was free to drift through the embryo. 



Only the free-moving version was able to restore BMP signaling on the opposite side of the embryo. This result showed that Chordin does more than just block BMPs - it actively shuttles them across the developing body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-evolution">Why this matters for evolution</h2>



David Mörsdorf is the first author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology at the University of Vienna.



"Not all Bilateria use Chordin-mediated BMP shuttling, for example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> do, but fish don't, however, shuttling seems to pop up over and over again in very distantly related animals making it a good candidate for an ancestral patterning mechanism," said Mörsdorf.



"The fact that not only bilaterians but also sea anemones use shuttling to shape their body axes, tells us that this mechanism is incredibly ancient. It opens up exciting possibilities for rethinking how body plans evolved in early animals."



Grigory Genikhovich, senior author of the study, added that experts might never be able to exclude the possibility that bilaterians and bilaterally symmetric cnidarians evolved their bilateral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-fish-armor-may-be-the-reason-your-teeth-hurt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body plans</a> independently.



"However, if the last common ancestor of Cnidaria and Bilateria was a bilaterally symmetric animal, chances are that it used Chordin to shuttle BMPs to make its back-to-belly axis. Our new study showed that," said Genikhovich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-clues-in-simpler-creatures">Future clues in simpler creatures</h2>



The work suggests that a single, ancient blueprint guided the rise of complex body shapes across many animal lineages. Future studies may search for BMP shuttling in even older or simpler groups, testing just how deep this shared strategy runs in the history of life.



Understanding BMP shuttling in sea anemones doesn’t just tell us about the past - it could also shape the future. 



Because BMP signals are important in how all kinds of animals develop their bodies, including humans, this research could help scientists better understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-nose-shapes-could-help-explain-human-birth-defects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth defects</a>, tissue growth, and even how to guide stem cells into becoming the right types of tissue.



By studying these simple creatures, researchers may unlock clues about how to repair or regrow parts of the human body. And by tracing the history of how body plans evolved, scientists can more confidently predict which genes or molecules are truly essential across all animal life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu6347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Sea anemones share a biological trick with humans

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies...

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles (675 kilometers) below the surface of the ground and is often described as the world’s largest cave system. Recent explorations there uncovered two new fossil sharks that once roamed shallow coastal waters more than 325 million years ago.



Ancient shark specialist John-Paul (JP) Hodnett of the Maryland-National Capital Parks and Planning Commission (<a href="https://www.mncppc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MNCPPC</a>) worked with the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fossils/index.htm">National Park Service Paleontology Program</a> to identify the fossils. 



These finds have everyone buzzing because they offer a glimpse into marine habitats that thrived when parts of what is now eastern North America were covered by a warm sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-shark-fossil-puzzle">Prehistoric shark fossil puzzle</h2>



The newly documented sharks are Troglocladodus trimblei and Glikmanius careforum, and they are from a group known as <a href="https://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/fossil-month-cten.php">ctenacanth</a> sharks. 



They both measured about 10–12 feet (3–3.6 meters) long, which is similar in size to an oceanic whitetip shark.



The shark fossils were collected from various limestone formations, which were deposited during the Middle to Late <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/mississippian-period.htm">Mississippian Period</a>. 



The bigger picture is that these habitats were once submerged under shallow seas and supported a wide range of fish life. Researchers have now identified more than 70 ancient fish species in the cave system.



A partial set of jaws belonging to a young <a href="https://shark-references.com/species/view/Glikmanius-careforum">Glikmanius careforum</a> revealed fresh details about cartilage, which rarely fossilizes well. 



Cartilaginous remains of sharks are often fragile and easily destroyed by erosion, so finding them preserved in a protected space is especially rewarding.



Experts note that this newly identified material adds depth to ongoing discussions of how shark groups diversified while the supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea">Pangea</a> was taking shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-fieldwork">Collaborations and fieldwork</h2>



“Every new discovery at Mammoth Cave is possible due to collaborations,” said park superintendent <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/management/index.htm">Barclay Trimble</a> of Mammoth Cave National Park. 



Researchers and volunteers have explored hidden passages, river channels, and even narrow crawlways in search of key fossils.



Members of the <a href="https://www.cave-research.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cave Research Foundation</a> also took part in these efforts. The name Glikmanius careforum was chosen to honor that organization’s valuable support in the field.



The partial cartilage from this genus points to a short head with a strong bite, possibly used to feed on smaller fish and <a href="https://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/HoughtonEC/Orthocones.html">orthocones</a>, which are squid-like creatures with elongated shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-help-trace-evolutionary-change">Fossils help trace evolutionary change </h2>



Troglocladodus trimblei stands out for its branching tooth design that helped it secure prey in the Mississippian seas. 



This prehistoric hunter probably shared a coastal environment with G. careforum, in waters that covered modern-day Kentucky and Alabama.



Researchers say these sharks likely thrived in nearshore habitats that teemed with bony fish, shelled organisms, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-sharks-brazilian-waters-sharpnose-sharks-rhizoprionodon-lalandii-ocean-pollution/">marine creatures</a>.



Tracing these fossils across multiple rock layers provides insights into how the environment changed over time. 



Coastal waters rose and fell as landmasses drifted toward each other, gradually merging into a single continent. 



These broader patterns helped shape the distribution and evolutionary paths of ancient sharks like T. trimblei and G. careforum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-preserve-shark-fossils">How to preserve shark fossils</h2>



Field teams spent long hours underground carefully mapping and collecting small fragments of teeth. A single <a href="https://www.npca.org/articles/7703-the-unveiling-of-mammoth-cave-s-history">tooth</a> from T. trimblei sparked initial interest when Superintendent Trimble first discovered it on a 2019 trip. 



Seasoned cavers and geologists coordinated to ensure safe retrieval of each piece, knowing that one misstep could damage the delicate remains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1s.webp" alt="A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Artwork by Benji Paynose" class="wp-image-1973763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Click image to enlarge. Artwork by Benji Paynose</figcaption></figure>



Research at Mammoth Cave has led to conversations about how best to preserve fragile fossils within difficult-to-access passages. Experts say stable cave temperatures help keep these discoveries in good condition. 



Park managers have also integrated these new data into guidelines for future research so that more clues to marine life from 325 million years ago may be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-shark-fossils-matter">Why these shark fossils matter</h2>



Scientists use these finds to compare local fossil collections with specimens from similar periods in other parts of the world. 



Documenting body sizes, tooth arrangements, and skeletal details helps researchers build a clearer timeline of shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">evolution</a>.



These comprehensive studies uncover shifts in fish diversity that occurred as oceans changed and landmasses joined together. 



Experts also link fossil data with knowledge from bony fish records, coral structures, and other sea life. This combined approach paints a full picture of ancient marine habitats and shows how some species adapted while others vanished. 



The two new fossil sharks at Mammoth Cave highlight that even well-known geologic areas can hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-caught-riding-on-the-back-of-the-worlds-fastest-shark-in-the-open-ocean/">surprises</a> for many years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cave-explorations">Future cave explorations</h2>



Mammoth Cave continues to yield glimpses into a vanished coastline that spanned what is now Kentucky, Europe, and northern Africa. 



T. trimblei and G. careforum are just two recent additions to an ever-expanding fossil catalog, reminding everyone that exploration still brings answers and new questions.



In many ways, these ancient sharks highlight how puzzle pieces of geologic history keep fitting together. Field teams are now eager to see what lies in deeper chambers or behind the narrow channels.



The next phase of study may involve more advanced imaging and careful excavation in lesser-known passages, guided by new mapping techniques. 



Findings like these spur a broader appreciation for the cave system’s scientific value, well beyond its length or visual features.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377873693_NEW_CTENACANTH_SHARKS_CHONDRICHTHYES_ELASMOBRANCHII_CTENACANTHIFORMES_FROM_THE_MIDDLE_TO_LATE_MISSISSIPPIAN_OF_KENTUCKY_AND_ALABAMA">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Two prehistoric sea monsters found after 325 million years in the world’s largest cave

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles...

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high above the Earth - is behind a dramatic drop in primary production in the northwestern Mediterranean.



According to a recent study, the drop in productivity is linked to a gradual northward shift in this high-altitude wind belt, which regulates weather and drives the upwelling of nutrient-rich water.



The research was conducted by experts at the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a> and the Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC). 



The team paired satellite data on ocean color with atmospheric observations. The analysis revealed that a subtle change in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-westerly-winds-are-changing-and-the-consequences-are-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind patterns</a> can ripple through the water column and reshape an ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-jet-stream-on-the-move">A jet stream on the move</h2>



The surface atmospheric circulation and associated marine dynamics are the processes most affected by the northward displacement of the jet stream, noted study co-author Professor Miquel Canals. 



"Northerly winds drive the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep waters, so the alteration of their behavior has considerably weakened the intensity of this upwelling and, therefore, has reduced the supply of nutrients to the sea surface," explained Professor Canals. 



“Deep water reaching the ocean surface is essential to nourish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-phytoplankton-that-feed-ocean-life-are-rapidly-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, which is the basis of the marine food web. Consequently, the weakening of upwelling at the regional level has directly impacted marine primary production, causing a decline of up to 40% in just over two decades."



When those winds weaken, the supply of nutrients from the deep slows down - a change that hits phytoplankton hardest. The entire food web, from tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> to commercially valuable fish, feels the squeeze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jet-stream-changes-and-marine-life">Jet stream changes and marine life</h2>



Earlier studies hinted at falling productivity in parts of the Spanish Mediterranean. Julia Crespín, first author of the current study, noted that the previous research confirmed similar losses - but not related to the phenomenon of jet currents. She added that the broader literature is mixed. 



“Apart from that, several studies deal with the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and marine primary production with contradictory results: while some point to a decrease in primary production, others indicate an increase,” said Crespin.



The new work links the dots by focusing on the jet stream’s drift - a trend also seen in other climate records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-wind-water-and-life">Tracking wind, water, and life</h2>



To tease out the link between a drifting jet stream and marine life, the researchers tracked four key variables. According to study co-author Jordi Solé, these variables included the position of the jet stream in the study area and the Ekman transport - a wind-induced movement of water mass towards the surface.



The team also tracked northerly wind stress on the sea surface, which is a determining factor for the formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-winds-support-the-worlds-most-productive-ocean-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upwelling</a> in the study area, and the depth-integrated chlorophyll concentration.



Chlorophyll levels in the water serve as an indicator of phytoplankton abundance, and therefore reflect marine primary production.



"With these variables, we have established relationships between changes in the atmosphere and the biological response of the surface ocean, which has helped us to better understand how the jet stream ultimately affects marine primary production," said Solé.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-a-moving-jet-stream">The cost of a moving jet stream</h2>



Less phytoplankton means the ocean absorbs less carbon dioxide, so the atmospheric budget worsens. Fisheries may also struggle as lower rations at the base of the web work their way up the chain.



“Our study provides a new perspective by showing that, at least in the northwestern Mediterranean, the northward shift of the jet stream is weakening the mechanisms and interactions that drive upwelling, which has contributed to a significant decline in marine primary production," explained the researchers.



“We consider that the change in the wind pattern is the factor that conditions the behavior of the ecosystem, beyond dichotomies about its intensification or the effect of temperature." 



"Thus, we point to a totally new factor that focuses especially on the dynamic behavior of both the atmosphere and the ocean (and their interaction) as the key to understanding its future evolution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-mediterranean">Looking beyond the Mediterranean</h2>



The Mediterranean is a semi-enclosed basin with unique winds and currents, so the team cautions against a one-size-fits-all conclusion. Still, the jet stream is drifting in many regions, and similar studies may reveal comparable effects on marine life elsewhere.



The researchers emphasized that today’s tools - from satellites to high-resolution climate models - are finally catching up with the complexity of ocean-atmosphere systems.



“Never before has there been as much data as there is today, or as powerful tools to manage, analyze and interpret it as there are today." 



"In this context, it is crucial to continue research in this line of work, combining data from in situ observation, from remote sensors such as those installed on satellites, and from high-resolution climate models to better understand the physical and biological mechanisms involved, the interactions created, the interannual variability and the potential effects they generate."



The experts also noted that these interactions may not be constant year-to-year, and their global relevance is still unfolding.



“It will also be necessary to further study interannual variability and the mechanisms that explain why this connection is stronger in some years than in others, as well as to explore how such changes may affect other marine regions around the world," the researchers concluded. 



"We understand this is a line of work that promises major advances in the coming years."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079661125000825?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Progress In Oceanography</a>.



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How a wandering jet stream is draining marine life in the Mediterranean Sea

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high...

Echidna,In,The,Zoo

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like misfits, but the bigger oddity hides in their DNA. For most mammals, a gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22246/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY</a> flips the switch for testis formation and sets sex development in motion.



Researchers have now shown that these <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotreme.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotremes</a> wield a completely different master key: a Y‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4654491/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a>). 



<a href="https://researchers.adelaide.edu.au/profile/linda.shearwin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Linda Shearwin</a> of the University of Adelaide’s School of Biological Sciences led the international team that cracked the case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-sex-gene-in-monotremes">Different sex gene in monotremes</h2>



Platypuses carry five X and five Y <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2413164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a> that line up in an alternating chain during male meiosis, a structure unlike anything in other mammals. 



Females hold five paired X chromosomes, yet the species thrives, proof that complicated does not always mean fragile.



Genomic clocks place the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/obl4he/vertebratediversity/monotremes.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotreme split</a> from other mammals at roughly <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8081666/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">187 million years ago</a>, long before SRY arose in placental and marsupial lineages. 



Their last common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/">ancestor</a> with us never carried SRY, so a different mechanism had to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monotremes-have-10-sex-chromosomes">Monotremes have 10 sex chromosomes</h2>



Monotreme males don’t just have an X and a Y. They juggle a system with up to 10 sex chromosomes, five Xs and five Ys in platypuses, and a slightly smaller set in echidnas. 



These chromosomes form a chain during sperm production, a configuration that looks more like a daisy chain than the standard X–Y pair mammals typically carry.



This odd setup baffled scientists for decades. Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">therian mammals</a>, monotreme sex chromosomes share homology with bird Z chromosomes, not with the mammalian Y. 



That raised suspicions early on that monotremes must use a completely different trigger to determine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/">sex</a>, but proving it required access to rare developmental stages.



Anti‑Müllerian hormone normally turns off female tract development in male embryos and later guides <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2024.1468364/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ovarian follicle growth</a>. In people, doctors measure AMH to gauge fertility or predict menopause timing.



Most mammals keep AMH on an ordinary chromosome, far downstream of SRY and <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>. In echidnas and platypuses, evolution duplicated the gene, parked the copy on a Y chromosome, and rewired its control panel to switch on early in male gonads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-starts-outside-the-cell-s-nucleus">Sex starts outside the cell’s nucleus</h2>



“This new understanding fills a significant knowledge gap and ultimately can be used to support conservation of these iconic Australian mammals. AMHY would be the first known example of a growth factor playing a sex‑determining role in mammals,” said Dr. Shearwin. 



Her team tracked AMHY activity in developing echidna testes well before visible sex differences appeared. 



The protein works outside the nucleus, binding a surface receptor and relaying signals rather than directly steering DNA. 



That makes monotremes the only known mammals where a secreted factor, not a transcription factor, calls the first shot in sex development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-amhy-different-from-amhx">What makes AMHY different from AMHX</h2>



Although a X‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMHX) and AMHY both belong to the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4325469/">TGF-β protein family</a> and share key structural features, they diverged significantly after an ancient gene inversion. 



The two proteins are only 52% identical, with differences concentrated in regions that affect hormone cleavage and signaling.



Their promoter regions also diverge. AMHY lacks the usual <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2626" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA4</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=SF1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SF-1</a> binding sites seen in AMHX and other mammalian AMH genes. 



Instead, AMHY uses unique transcription factor sites, like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2820524/%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DMRT1</a> and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC548021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA1</a>, which are active only in male gonads, suggesting a custom regulatory setup designed for sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-view-of-sex-genes">Wider view of sex genes</h2>



AMH duplications have taken over sex determination more than once. A male‑specific <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5555456/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a> copy steers testis formation in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11907690/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Patagonian pejerrey fish</a> and old‑world silversides. 



Some amphibians use the same trick, showing that hormones can win the evolutionary race against classic DNA‑binding proteins.



The discovery also underlines how fragile Y chromosomes can be. SRY itself did not appear until about 160 million years ago and was identified in humans only in <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/sex-determining-region-y-mammals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1990</a>. 



If SRY could pop up late, there is no reason other genes cannot step in when needed, as monotremes demonstrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-monotreme-sex-matters">Why monotreme sex matters</h2>



Platypus populations face habitat loss and climate change, and captive breeding programs struggle because eggs are delicate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/">reproductive cycles</a> poorly understood. 



Knowing that AMHY, not SRY, dictates sex gives biologists a tool for early‑stage sexing of embryos in conservation labs.



The work also helps physicians dissect AMH’s many roles in humans. Because monotreme AMHY triggers an entire sex pathway on its own, comparing its sequence to human AMH may spotlight sites essential for receptor binding or signal strength. That insight could refine AMH‑based fertility tests or therapies.



To test AMHY's function, researchers tried introducing platypus AMHX and AMHY into developing chicken embryos, a model known to respond clearly to sex-determining signals. 



Overexpressing chicken AMH in females causes visible masculinization, so scientists hoped platypus versions might do the same.



But nothing changed. The monotreme proteins didn’t cause male traits in chickens, even when highly expressed. 



Structural analysis showed that key binding sites between mammalian AMH and the bird receptor don’t line up well. 



This mismatch confirms that early mammalian changes in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34155118/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMH–AMHR2 interaction</a> likely limit cross-species functionality.



The full study is published in <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03546-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Biology</a>.



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Platypus and echidnas break mammal rules with weird sex system

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like...

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still leaving space for wildlife? A new proposal says they can.



By setting aside one-fifth of farmland for nature, and tweaking everyday practices on the rest, we can help wildlife recover without sacrificing the food on our tables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-with-wildlife-in-mind">Farming with wildlife in mind</h2>



The plan comes from ecologists at the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> and the University of Alcalá in Spain. Study co-author Professor James Bullock elaborated on the importance of the research.



“Reversing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity loss</a> and degradation of ecosystems is essential both for nature as well as long-term global food security. But there is no single silver bullet for nature recovery and so far it has been unclear how to integrate rewilding into agricultural landscapes," said Professor Bullock. 



“Our proposed approach moves beyond land sparing versus land sharing. We believe rewilding can be interwoven into agricultural landscapes and could be key to maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/">food production</a> in a way that is sustainable in the long term for people and the planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedicating-land-to-nature-recovery">Dedicating land to nature recovery</h2>



According to the study, fostering rewilding approaches alongside farming could create agroecological landscapes that accommodate biodiversity while remaining resilient and functionally connected. Certain incentives would encourage farmers to adopt this approach.



“While setting aside land for nature recovery could potentially be made a legal requirement for farmers and landowners, there is more likely to be acceptance and success of rewilding if there are incentives in the form of payments for ecosystem services and tax deductions,” noted Professor José María Rey Benayas, lead author on the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-farming-needs-wildlife">Why farming needs wildlife</h2>



Modern farming has greatly increased food production since the 1940s. But this has often come at the expense of nature. 



Clearing land, using heavy fertilizers and pesticides, and removing natural features like hedgerows have pushed many plant and animal species to the edge.



This loss doesn’t just affect wildlife - it disrupts vital services that farms depend on, such as healthy soil, natural pest control, and water retention. As these services decline, the long-term productivity and resilience of farming systems are put at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-declining-wildlife">The cost of declining wildlife</h2>



Across Europe and beyond, once-common species are disappearing from farmland. For example, the U.K. has lost over 40 million birds since 1970, and wild bee populations have declined in more than half of European countries, according to multiple long-term surveys.



These animals aren’t just part of the scenery - they’re key to food production. Birds eat crop pests. Bees and other insects pollinate the flowers that develop into fruits and vegetables. Their loss means greater reliance on artificial fertilisers, pesticides, and expensive manual labour.



Bringing wildlife back isn’t just a conservation goal - it’s a practical step toward more affordable and reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">farming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-to-farming-alongside-wildlife">Steps to farming alongside wildlife </h2>



The researchers suggest a four-part plan that links nature conservation with everyday farming. 



First, they recommend reserving at least 20% of farmland for nature. This space would include large patches of woodland, wetlands, and species-rich grassland to form strong core habitats. 



Second, these patches should be connected by green corridors - such as hedgerows, ponds, and strips of scrubland - that allow wildlife to move, feed, and reproduce.



Third, they propose protecting small hotspots within working fields. This would involve setting aside about 10% of cropped land for flower strips, beetle banks, and bird perches, bringing the total to the 30% global restoration goal. 



Finally, they call for small changes in daily farming practices, like reducing chemical use, planting flowers for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a>, and letting livestock graze more freely to help spread seeds and support healthy soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewilding-has-benefits-for-farmers">Rewilding has benefits for farmers</h2>



Many European regions cannot host bears or bison. However, smaller species such as lynx, wildcat, or European hare can still boost ecosystem health. Choosing the right mix depends on local conditions.



Helping wildlife can pay off in more ways than one. When farms support natural habitats, they often see practical benefits in return. 



Better soil retains more water and nutrients, which supports stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-can-help-make-crops-more-resilient/">crops</a>. Pollinators and natural predators of pests can help increase yields in nearby fields. 



Farmers may also spend less on fertilizers and pesticides, lowering overall input costs. In some places, governments might provide payments or tax breaks to reward efforts that support biodiversity and ecosystem services.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-room-for-wildlife">Making room for wildlife</h2>



Reaching the 20% target may be challenging for small farms, but collective action can make it achievable. At the same time, each region will need to adapt the plan to fit its local conditions. 



Areas with heavily degraded farmland have the most to gain, while places with traditional, low-impact farming may require fewer changes. 



The researchers emphasize that this is just a starting point - but the message is clear: making room for wildlife alongside farming can help secure both indigenous species and food for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2860">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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Farming for wildlife: How traditional practices can protect nature

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still...

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, and it has a story that spans nearly a million winters.



Researchers report that Akarotaxis gouldae (nicknamed the banded dragonfish) branched off from its nearest cousin some 780,000 years ago, surviving cycles of advancing and retreating ice in near‑total isolation, according to <a href="https://www.vims.edu/people/corso_ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrew Corso</a> of the <a href="https://www.vims.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS)</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-dragonfish-family-tree">Tracing the dragonfish family tree</h2>



Genetic work showed that A. gouldae separated from A. nudiceps after glaciers sealed much of the Southern Ocean, leaving a pocket of fish marooned in deep trenches.



“There are two distinct bands on the sides of adult A. gouldae that are not present on A. nudiceps,” said Corso, adding that the specimens had sat unrecognized in museum jars for decades.



Time‑calibrated <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/phylogeny" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phylogeny</a>, a technique that treats <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-of-human-genetic-mutations-unveiled/">DNA mutations</a> as a molecular clock, supports the 780,000‑year split and hints that the ancestors of today’s banded dragonfish rode out the ice age beneath moving glaciers before re‑emerging when the ice pulled back.



The banded dragonfish joins the family Bathydraconidae, a group famed for its sparse sampling and for species that often turn up only as larval traces in plankton nets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-museum-collections">Importance of museum collections</h2>



Old jars, dusty shelves, and handwritten labels might not seem exciting, but they’ve become critical to discovering overlooked species like Akarotaxis gouldae. 



The adult fish had been sitting in museum <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/vertebrate-zoology/fishes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ichthyology</a> collections for years, misidentified as their more common relatives.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1s.webp" alt="Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Credit: Andrew Corso" class="wp-image-1974442"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Andrew Corso</figcaption></figure>



By cross-checking DNA samples with these physical specimens, scientists were able to link the genetic evidence to real-world morphology. Without access to these archives, the banded dragonfish might still be hiding in plain sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfish-species-in-isolation">Dragonfish species in isolation</h2>



Living cut off for hundreds of thousands of years forces species to adapt in unique ways. In the case of Akarotaxis gouldae, the isolation beneath glaciers may have shaped not only its body but also its behaviors and genetic resilience.



Studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/">species</a> like this helps scientists understand how evolution works over long timescales when environments are extreme and gene flow is limited. It also gives clues about how animals might respond to rapid environmental changes happening today.



To persist in water that hovers around 28 °F, notothenioid fishes such as A. gouldae make <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14515019/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antifreeze glycoproteins</a>, tiny molecules that latch onto ice crystals and halt their growth.



Adults likely spend most of the year hundreds of feet down, yet come inshore to guard nests, a behavior documented in related dragonfishes, while their larvae drift near the surface, where food is richer but fishing gear lurks. 



Dissections reveal ovaries holding surprisingly few eggs, suggesting a slow‑growing population that cannot quickly rebound from losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-peninsula-matters">Why the peninsula matters</h2>



All confirmed records of A. gouldae fall inside a roughly 250‑mile swath along the western Antarctic Peninsula, giving the fish one of the narrowest ranges of any Antarctic vertebrate. 



That strip is also among the fastest‑warming places south of the equator; Esperanza Station <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-023-00529-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logged</a> an air temperature of 64.9 °F in 2020, part of a trend of record heat events that are increasing in frequency.



As the water warms and sea ice shrinks, prey dynamics shift. A 25‑year survey shows that larvae of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03042-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic silverfish</a>, an important forage species for penguins and seals, drop sharply when sea ice duration falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-nets-and-collateral-damage">Krill nets and collateral damage</h2>



Commercial vessels net <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/fisheries/krill-fisheries" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a> throughout the Peninsula in mid‑water trawls that work from the surface to about 820 ft, directly overlapping the depths where larval dragonfish ride the currents.



“This limited range combined with their low reproductive capacity and the presence of early life stages in shallower waters suggests that this is a vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-tiger-swallowtail-butterfly-discovered-in-the-u-s-had-gone-unnoticed-by-scientists/">species</a> that could be impacted by the krill fishery,” said Corso. 



Observers note that juvenile finfish bycatch is poorly documented; a few hundred missed larvae could erase a year‑class of banded dragonfish before scientists even know it existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-ship-s-legacy">Honoring a ship's legacy</h2>



The species honors the research vessel <a href="https://www.usap.gov/vesselscienceandoperations/1626/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laurence M. Gould</a>, retired in 2024 after decades ferrying scientists through treacherous seas. Its departure leaves only one U.S. supply ship to cover a coastline the size of the continental United States.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguin-poop-helps-form-clouds-that-could-slow-antarctic-warming/">Penguin colonies</a> already illustrate what slips through gaps in monitoring: satellite and drone surveys reveal that many chinstrap penguin rookeries around the Peninsula have fallen by more than 50 % since the 1980s.



Corso and colleagues hope the banded dragonfish will become a flagship for hidden Antarctic biodiversity, spurring tighter catch limits and fresh investment in field campaigns before climate and commerce push the deep‑sea relic past a tipping point.



The full study is published in <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/52879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New dragonfish species discovered in Antarctica has survived in isolation for 780,000 years

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly...

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species, yet the planet’s first large animal‑built reefs tell a quieter story. New work on fossils from Nevada shows that early Cambrian seas looked nothing like the bustling coral gardens we know today.



Graduate researcher Casey Bennett of the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri</a> and colleagues spent weeks among dusty outcrops, chipping out blocks packed with shells no bigger than grains of sand.



The analysis reveals surprising patterns of life around those ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">structures</a>, offering a fresh window onto evolution half a billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-reefs-spanned-ancient-nevada">Animal reefs spanned ancient Nevada</h2>



More than 514 million years ago, sponge‑like <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/archaeo.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaeocyathids</a> built the planet's earliest animal <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3514525.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> in shallow seas stretching from Siberia to what is now Nevada.



The Harkless Formation near modern Death Valley hosts dozens of these patch reefs, some only a few yards across yet stacked through hundreds of feet of limestone.



Packed between the stone cups of the sponges are fragments of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342184591_Small_shelly_fossils_and_carbon_isotopes_from_the_early_Cambrian_Stages_3-4_Mural_Formation_of_western_Laurentia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small shelly fauna</a>, the quirky menagerie of early mineralized animals that heralded the Cambrian explosion. These fossils, most under a tenth of an inch long, include baby <a href="https://home.wgnhs.wisc.edu/wisconsin-geology/fossils/brachiopods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brachiopods</a>, snail‑like mollusks, and bristly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699524000214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chancelloriids</a>.



Bennett’s team measured fossil assemblages in multiple vertical sections and compared them to the distance from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/">reef</a> walls.



The researchers logged grain size and chemistry of nearby layers to study how sediment influenced fossil preservation. The approach marries classic field mapping with CT scanning that can spot skeletal bits hidden in uncut rock.



That toolbox let the team count tiny creatures that earlier surveys missed, pushing sample sizes into the thousands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-fossils-trace-ancient-reefs">Tiny fossils trace ancient reefs</h2>



Small shelly fauna crop up worldwide in rocks dating to the first 25 million years after animals evolved skeletons, making them key markers for global correlation. 



Because many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">species</a> lived fast and died young, their remains provide fine‑scale time stamps that help synchronize distant stratigraphic sections.



The specimens also capture evolutionary experiments that never made it into the later fossil record, such as slug‑like <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1995.0029" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">halkieriids</a> that wore chain‑mail armor of overlapping plates. Linking these animals to specific habitats can explain why some lineages thrived while others fizzled.



Modern coral reefs often harbor dense banks of filter feeders and crustaceans whose larvae settle preferentially on hard walls. If early reefs played a similar ecological role, small shelly species should cluster close to archaeocyathid mounds. 



That prediction has floated in textbooks for decades but rested on scant quantitative data. Bennett’s dataset provided the first rigorous test at meter‑scale resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-didn-t-increase-nearby-species">Ancient reefs didn’t increase nearby species</h2>



“With modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">reefs</a>, biodiversity is expected to decrease as you move away from the reef structure due to reduced shelter and food access,” said Bennett. Yet her counts showed no clear pattern - some distant fossil layers were as species-poor as those near the mounds.



Instead, a few hardy taxa dominate whole <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336585971_Palaeoecology_of_the_archaeocyathan_reefs_from_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_Formation_southern_Nevada_western_United_States_and_carbon_isotopic_evidence_for_their_demise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layers</a>, suggesting that early oceans sorted communities by environmental filters rather than by proximity to the reef.



That pattern echoes observations from later Cambrian sections in Mongolia and Labrador, where reefs also failed to boost local diversity.



“Potentially, this happened by preferentially removing or keeping certain faunas, rather than the reef serving as a major food source for surrounding organisms,” added Assistant Professor Sarah Jacquet.



The remark points fingers at <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrodynamics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrodynamics</a> - the way water flow scours or blankets parts of the seafloor. Models show gentle currents around low-relief reefs can form eddies that trap shells or carry them away. Those physics could produce patchy fossil carpets without invoking biological competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sediment-dictated-fossil-survival">Sediment dictated fossil survival</h2>



The team noticed that changes in <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/blog/2023/08/18/science-lithology-dating-seafloors-movements-over-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithology</a>, whether the rock was a grainy packstone or a micritic mud-governed which shells survived. Coarse beds preserved robust hyoliths, while fine muds favored delicate sponge spicules.



Taphonomic quirks can therefore mask true ecological signals, a warning for paleontologists who chase diversity curves through deep time. By pairing sedimentology with fossil tallies, Bennett shows how to tease apart the preservational filter.



The study also strengthens a growing view that archaeocyath reefs were short‑lived “experiments” rather than foundational keystones. 



Similar conclusions emerged from carbon‑isotope <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390526423_Small_shelly_fauna_biodiversity_from_reef-adjacent_facies_of_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_formation_Nevada" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that tracked the rise and crash of reef communities through Cambrian Stage 4.



Those geochemical shifts hint that global changes in seawater chemistry, perhaps tied to oxygen pulses, played a bigger role than local reef architecture. If true, the early oceans were less a patchwork of hotspots and more a landscape ruled by large‑scale physical drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-warn-us-about-today">Ancient reefs warn us about today</h2>



Coral ecologists <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225405507_Rapid_phase-shift_reversal_on_a_Jamaican_coral_reef">note</a> that today’s reefs often act as biodiversity magnets, with fish and invertebrate richness peaking on the reef and falling away into open sand. But those gradients may depend on the vertical relief and nutrient flow that Cambrian reefs lacked.



Understanding that difference matters because climate change is flattening many living reefs, slicing away the very architecture that supports complex food webs. 



Ancient analogues show that low-relief carbonate banks can persist without the riot of life we associate with reefs. This hints at future ocean floors that remain structurally intact but are ecologically simplified.



“Just because we know how the world works today doesn’t mean it worked the same way back then,” noted Professor Jacquet. Recognizing that flex in nature’s playbook can help scientists design conservation targets that account for multiple evolutionary baselines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-reef-loss-risk">Fossils show reef loss risk</h2>



Bennett plans to sample neighboring formations to see whether diversity patterns change in deeper water or in reefs built by different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-sponges-play-a-critical-role-in-the-ocean-and-they-are-rapidly-vanishing/">sponge</a> species. 



Coupling those data with fluid‑dynamic models could finally pin down how current speed and direction sculpted early animal neighborhoods.



The Nevada hills still hold miles of limestone from ancient animal reefs, awaiting fresh eyes and new technology. Every chip of shale reminds us that even the smallest fossils can rewrite big chapters in Earth history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101822500207X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a>.



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Ancient reefs were surprisingly empty compared to today

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species,...

Diseño sin título - 1

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small slab of rust‑colored rock from a newly discovered exceptional fossil site in central New South Wales, Australia until a curious researcher split the stone in early March. 



“It was a complete fluke,” exclaimed <a href="https://earthsciences.anu.edu.au/people/professor-jochen-j-brocks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Jochen Brocks</a> of the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a> after realizing what he had found. 



That single break exposed a two‑inch fish so complete that even its stomach contents and color cells were still visible.



During the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/miocene.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene epoch</a>, central New South Wales was covered by temperate rainforest and freshwater oxbow lakes rather than today’s dusty paddocks. 



The new species belongs to the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/49887-Osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes order</a>, a group better known for modern graylings and smelts but never before recorded in Australia’s fossil record.



Researchers led by <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/matthew-mccurry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Matthew McCurry</a> at the Australian Museum and <a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/persons/michael-frese" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Michael Frese</a> at the University of Canberra compared dozens of specimens ranging from 2.1 to 3 inches long, confirming a healthy resident population rather than scattered migrants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforest-lake-that-turned-to-rust">Rainforest lake that turned to rust</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-like-rainbow-trout-suffer-extreme-pain-when-killed-by-air/">fish</a> and many plants and insects were entombed in <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Goethite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goethite</a>, an <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866414/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iron‑oxide</a> mineral that precipitated rapidly in the stagnant lake water. 



Iron’s ability to lock soft tissue in place is now recognized as a key factor in deep‑time preservation of cells and proteins. 



Geochemists <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825223000569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that goethite’s fine crystals can replicate sub‑micron features before decay destroys the originals, explaining why pigment cells survived here while bones often did not.



McGraths Flat is classed as a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/abs/konservatlagerstatten-cause-and-classification/40A5D354B2DB79EFB6D654BC77421A33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konservat‑Lagerstätte</a>, a sedimentary deposit famous for extraordinary detail, and its ferric layers sit just three feet below the surface near Gulgong. 



The discovery encourages field crews to re‑examine iron‑rich outcrops worldwide that were once dismissed as fossil‑poor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-fossil-was-a-two-inch-hunter">Fish fossil was a two‑inch hunter</h2>



Under a scanning electron microscope, the team identified packed groups of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms1819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanosomes</a> that once sat inside pigment cells called melanophores. 



Their distribution shows a dark back, pale belly, and two lateral racing stripes, classic countershading that helps living fish blend into sunlit water.



“It pushed the boundaries of what can be preserved,” noted Dr. Frese. Similar spherical and rod‑shaped melanosomes had been recorded earlier in an Eocene fish eye from Denmark, providing a useful comparison for the Australian material. 



The stripes also hint at schooling behavior, because bold horizontal bands are common in small modern smelts that rely on group camouflage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-a-final-snack-reveals">What a final snack reveals</h2>



Each fossil gut contained antennae from <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.4319/lo.1990.35.7.1631" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chaoborus larvae</a>, better known as phantom midge young, along with fragments of insect wings and an occasional bivalve shell. 



Modern Chaoborus sink into mud by day and rise at night to avoid fish, a strategy documented in laboratory and field studies.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1s.webp" alt="Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Credit: Australian National University" class="wp-image-1974319"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Australian National University</figcaption></figure>



The heavy reliance on pelagic prey suggests F. brocksi hunted in open water after dusk rather than picking along the bottom. 



Because several size classes died together, scientists infer the lake provided year‑round habitat, unlike many living smelts that migrate between rivers and the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-parasite-hitchhiker">A parasite hitchhiker</h2>



One specimen shows a juvenile freshwater mussel, or glochidium, clamped to its tail fin. This is the oldest direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/">fossil record</a> of such parasitism and implies the lake was periodically connected to a river where adult unionid mussels spawned.



Another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/">fish</a> swallowed a similar mussel, meaning it likely ventured near the river mouth shortly before dying. 



These clues help reconstruct seasonal flooding patterns in Miocene Australia without relying solely on sedimentology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-iron-fish-fossils-matter">Why iron fish fossils matter</h2>



Palaeontologist <a href="https://staffportal.curtin.edu.au/staff/profile/view/kate-trinajstic-f0dcf6b1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kate Trinajstic</a>, Curtin University, observed that iron deposits “open up a new area for people to investigate.” 



Her point is underscored by experimental decay work showing that early iron infiltration can arrest bacterial breakdown within days.



Goethite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-euarthropod-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-insect-evolution/">fossils</a> therefore extend the window for studying fragile tissues like eyes, muscles, and even viral particles that normally vanish. 



They also capture ecological interactions, predation, parasitism, pigmentation, that skeletons alone cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-australia-s-fossil-record">Rethinking Australia's fossil record</h2>



The discovery of Ferruaspis brocksi challenges the long-held notion that Australia’s freshwater fish fossil record is too sparse for meaningful evolutionary study. 



Until now, no complete body fossils of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes</a> had been found on the continent, leaving major gaps in understanding their arrival and development.



With dozens of specimens at a single site, paleontologists now have a rare opportunity to study not just anatomy, but behavior, ecology, and population structure. 



This level of detail is nearly unheard of in Miocene freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/">fish</a> fossils from the Southern Hemisphere.



The team’s phylogenetic analysis places F. brocksi near the base of the southern Osmeriformes radiation, pushing the group’s Australian arrival to at least 15 million years ago. 



That timeline aligns with molecular studies indicating a mid‑Miocene split between Australian and New Zealand graylings. Fieldwork will resume next dry season, targeting deeper layers that may hold older relatives or their predators.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445684" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Fossilized fish that lived 15 million years ago still has preserved food in its stomach

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small...

species in Juliidae

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