A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a stir among paleontologists worldwide. These tracks suggest reptiles roamed Earth far earlier than anyone suspected. 



Researchers uncovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a>-like footprints in northern Victoria, Australia, and matched them to the era that started around 359 million years ago.



According to Professor John Long from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, these imprints challenge the traditional view of reptile evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



According to the experts, the tracks suggest that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> may have appeared roughly 350 million years ago. That date pushes them back to 40 million years earlier than what was previously recorded.



One set of partial prints had distinct claw marks, hinting that these creatures were true reptiles rather than amphibians. Another set showed a smaller front foot and a larger hind foot, which is typical of land-walking vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-origins-in-gondwana">Reptile origins in Gondwana</h2>



Scientists have long studied the southern supercontinent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/41714/chapter-abstract/353976691?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, where many early tetrapods left behind their skeletons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracks</a>. This find in Victoria adds weight to the idea that pivotal evolutionary steps began in these territories.



At the time, Australia formed a central piece of this landmass. Warmer climates may have played a role in encouraging new adaptations among reptile forerunners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-timeline-of-reptile-evolution">New timeline of reptile evolution</h2>



Paleontologists analyze footprints to piece together how ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> moved. A set of clawed toes can reveal whether a creature was an amphibian or a reptile.



“This pushes back the likely origin of crown-group amniotes by at least 35-40 million years,” said Professor John Long. The research highlights how vital footprints can be for revealing new timelines.



Reptiles are part of the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amniota.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amniote</a> group, which includes birds and mammals. The discovery of claw marks in these fossil tracks implies full independence from watery environments, which is a characteristic of reptiles.



Many scientists once assumed that amniotes emerged in the Northern Hemisphere. These footprints raise questions about when and where some of the earliest reptiles spread across ancient landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-landscapes-and-animal-diversity">Shifting landscapes and animal diversity</h2>



Researchers plan to explore other parts of Victoria for more trace fossils that could fill gaps in the record. They hope future finds will clarify how these animals became adapted for dry land.



Unearthing additional trackways may add to our understanding of how reptiles branched off from amphibians. Each new print can reveal details about posture, movement, and survival tactics.



The Carboniferous Period stretched from about 359 million to 299 million years ago. It featured vast swampy forests, giant insects, and a rise in atmospheric oxygen levels.



Land masses were arranged differently than they are today. Some scientists believe shifting coastlines created niches that spurred new adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats-of-reptile-ancestors">Habitats of reptile ancestors</h2>



Some reptile ancestors likely ventured onto stable ground while others stayed near water. Traces of this transition remain scarce, so every fossil footprint matters.



Even a single impression can show scientists how early amniotes balanced their weight or held their tails. The shape, depth, and spacing can reveal clues about speed or range of motion.



A single fossil slab from Victoria has opened up this debate about reptile origins. Researchers suggest it is significant to re-check older formations in case more reptile evidence has been overlooked.



Professor Long and his team emphasize the need for more fieldwork to confirm whether reptiles appeared across multiple regions at around the same time. They believe this discovery highlights how a single trackway can reshape our ideas about early amniotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-more-reptile-footprints">Seeking more reptile footprints</h2>



Future excavations may uncover more footprints from the early stages of reptile evolution. That could bring clarity to how quickly these animals adapted to life away from water.



Technological advancements like high-resolution scans can make it easier to analyze the details of each print. Insights like these help paleontologists reconstruct entire ecosystems from a few traces left in stone.



Footprint analysis often involves laser scanning to capture 3D shapes. These scans can highlight fine ridges that point to muscle strength or toe flexibility.



Traces of skin patterns, though rare, can also indicate the texture of scales. Each layer of mud or sand holds hints about local conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-land-adaptation-of-reptiles">Early land adaptation of reptiles </h2>



Before amniotes, vertebrates such as fish and amphibians still needed water for reproduction. Over time, eggs with protective membranes evolved and these allowed animals such as reptiles to venture inland.



That transition set the stage for reptiles, birds, and mammals to diversify into countless forms. These footprints mark a link in that long chain.



Researchers compare new prints to known trackways from synapsids and early amphibians. Key distinctions include toe curvature and the presence of claws.



Synapsids, which later led to mammals, often left broader footprints with different digit spacing. Reptile-like tracks, on the other hand, typically show sharper claw impressions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Ancient footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



These ancient footprints connect modern wildlife to ancestors that once explored muddy banks. Each imprint brings a sense of wonder about how life took shape on land.



Understanding those steps may also shed light on broader evolutionary processes. After all, reptile success paved the way for the future rise of dinosaurs and beyond.



Scientists emphasize that no single discovery stands alone. Footprints, bones, and environmental data must all be pieced together to form a coherent story.



Though incomplete, this record keeps expanding thanks to fresh finds in unexpected places. Each new track offers a glimpse into a time of rapid evolutionary change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Reptile ancestors appeared 40 million years earlier than we thought

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a...

What makes one child genetically different from another? In a recent study, experts examined how ancestry, genetic makeup, and lifestyle choices like smoking influence the rate of new genetic mutations in children.



The team analyzed over 10,000 parent-child trios, using data from the <a href="https://www.genomicsengland.co.uk/initiatives/100000-genomes-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">100,000 Genomes Project</a>. The researchers aimed to uncover how new genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a> - also known as de novo mutations (DNMs) - form in sperm and egg cells and pass down to offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-new-genetic-mutations-form">How do new genetic mutations form?</h2>



DNMs are not present in the DNA of either parent and are not inherited. They are fresh mutations that arise in the reproductive cells of parents (sperm and eggs) and get passed on to children. 



Sometimes, these changes have no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-gene-edited-spiders-spin-red-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a>. Other times, they can lead to severe genetic disorders.



Parental age, especially the father's, plays a role in increasing DNMs. Each year that a father ages adds around 1.5 mutations to his child’s genetic makeup. 



A mother’s aging adds about 0.4 mutations. But is that all? What else could be stirring the genetic pot?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-ancestry-differences-in-mutations">Subtle ancestry differences in mutations</h2>



To find out, the researchers scoured genetic data from 10,557 parent-child trios. They looked for genetic variants present in the child but absent in both parents. This approach allowed them to map nearly 689,000 DNMs. It’s the biggest DNM catalog ever created.



But the sheer size of the dataset wasn’t the only notable feature. The researchers explored a diverse range of ancestries, including European, African, South Asian, and American groups. This diversity helped them detect subtle differences in mutation rates linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestry</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-ancestry-matter">Does ancestry matter?</h2>



It turns out, ancestry does matter. African ancestry groups exhibited slightly higher DNM rates than other populations. 



On average, children of African ancestry inherited about 67 new DNMs per generation. European, South Asian, and American groups inherited about 64 DNMs.



The gap seems minor, but it is statistically significant. The researchers suggest that genetic and environmental factors tied to ancestry may be at play.



Still, age had a far more pronounced effect than ancestry. A two-year <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-regulation-controlling-cells-to-improve-medical-treatments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">difference</a> in a father’s age at the conception of his child could offset the ancestral differences in DNM rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-variants-don-t-explain-mutation">Genetic variants don’t explain mutation</h2>



Genetic variations within populations could theoretically affect DNM rates. To investigate, the researchers zoomed in on European-ancestry trios. They searched for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are small genetic changes that might influence mutation rates.



The experts found nothing conclusive. No common genetic variants appeared to affect DNM rates significantly.



"The sheer scale of the 100,000 Genomes Project presented a great opportunity to look into the effects and exposures that explain rates and patterns of DNA changes," said Dr. Aylwyn Scally from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-affects-genetic-mutation-rates">Smoking affects genetic mutation rates</h2>



Does smoking alter the genetic blueprint passed to children? Yes, but the effect is small. The researchers found a slight increase in DNMs among children of parents who smoked.



On average, the increase was about 2% - less than one extra DNM over a parent’s reproductive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-of-human-genetic-mutations-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



Still, this slight increase caught the researchers’ attention. They noted that while the effect size was small, it was statistically significant. 



"While evolution has done its best to develop mechanisms to protect the DNA we pass on to our offspring, our study has shown that it's not fully protected from certain exposures," said Dr. Raheleh Rahbari from the Wellcome Sanger Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-genetic-studies">Implications for genetic studies</h2>



The findings matter for genetic research. Current models assume that mutation rates are the same across populations. But what if they aren’t? What if ancestry subtly shapes mutation rates, as this study suggests?



Adjusting genetic models to account for ancestry and lifestyle factors could refine predictions about rare genetic disorders. It could also help scientists pinpoint mutations that are linked to diseases, leading to more accurate diagnoses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-health-and-genetic-mutations">Reproductive health and genetic mutations</h2>



Germ cells - sperm and eggs - guard genetic information. Their mutation rates stay low and minimize the risk of transmitting harmful changes. But factors like age, ancestry, and smoking can still nudge those rates higher.



"Ancestry and lifestyle choices like smoking are associated with the number of new DNA changes that arise in the genome," stated Dr. Hilary Martin from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a>.



"The effects are small, but they deepen our understanding of genetic variation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Despite its scale, the study had limits. The number of participants from certain ancestry groups was relatively small. And while the researchers examined smoking, they did not explore other potential environmental factors, such as alcohol use or pollutants.



Future studies with larger, more diverse datasets could reveal additional influences on mutation rates. As genetic sequencing becomes cheaper and faster, the ability to track DNMs across generations will most certainly improve.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59750-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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What causes genetic mutations in children? New factors have been identified

What makes one child genetically different from another? In a...

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western Amazon. This small creature, which belongs to the poison dart frog family, stands out with unusual copper accents on its limbs and an overall eye-catching look.



Dr. Evan D. Koch, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nm.cz/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of the Czech Republic</a>, helped document the new species in an underexplored region near the Juruá River.



The team first encountered the frog in March 2023, although its official recognition as a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-tree-frog-origins-back-55-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> was only documented on May 14, 2025.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-blue-poison-dart-frog">Striking blue poison dart frog</h2>



The new species of frog bears light blue stripes set against a darker upper body. Its metallic-hued legs are patterned with irregular brown spots, making the species a definite standout. 



Experts have formally named it <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ranitomeya aetherea</a>, referencing its sky-like tones that bring to mind something almost beyond this world.



Early observations suggest it inhabits lowland Amazonian forests, roughly 443 ft (135 meters) above sea level. Individuals often perch on broad-leafed plants within these humid, palm-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-colors-and-potential-toxicity">Unusual colors and potential toxicity</h2>



Members of the broader family, Dendrobatidae, are well known for their potent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a>, though each species has its own chemical profile.



Many rely on <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2133521100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic coloration</a> to warn potential predators that making a meal of it would be a bad idea. Even though researchers have only examined a handful of R. aetherea specimens, they suspect that the frog’s bright patches hint at toxic defenses, much like in its colorful cousins.



For locals, the presence of vibrant frogs is nothing new, but the copper and pale stripes on this one are not something they typically see. Field teams were quick to note that the frog’s underside shares this light-blue tone, and is spotted with dark blotches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-of-the-blue-frog">Characteristics of the blue frog</h2>



Study participants noted that these frogs stay near water-filled compartments in certain broad-leaf flora. The watery pockets, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytotelmata" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytotelmata</a>, cradle single R. aetherea tadpoles at various stages of development.



Each juvenile has a tinted tail and a small oval mouth. Once they reach more advanced stages, faint stripes start to appear on the tiny bodies.



According to field notes, adults seem most active in the early morning or late afternoon. Males will climb small plants, typically a few feet off the ground, to call out in a series of fast, chirping notes. 



Observers say that solitary males can gather within the same area without obvious conflict, though they appear to react strongly to call playbacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-vocal-patterns">Unique vocal patterns </h2>



Calling sessions last under a second and carry a quick flurry of distinct, tonal notes. That pattern sets it apart from a few other relatives whose calls have fewer notes or run at a different pitch. 



In one instance, a male produced a longer series when a female approached, suggesting there may be a special “courtship call.”



That same male was spotted leading the curious female toward a hidden leaf base with water trapped inside. This behavior offers a peek into how they might bond or share parental tasks. 



Previous <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/650727" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on other species in this group have documented complex childrearing steps, and the research team suspects that R. aetherea may have similar habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strict-habitat-requirements">Strict habitat requirements </h2>



Across South America, frogs of the genus Ranitomeya often occupy extremely specific habitats. It has been over ten years since a new species in this genus was named, which makes this a significant find for biologists who are keen on amphibian diversity.



Some of its relatives, like Ranitomeya imitator, feature more greens and spots, while others go for bolder oranges or reds. R. aetherea’s softly tinted copper legs represent a separate thread in the group’s evolutionary tree.



Further genetic work suggests it clusters close to other species from the southwestern Amazon, yet it holds its own distinct lineage.



Investigators suspect that these frogs may have strict habitat requirements and boundaries around their living space, which means they may potentially have very limited range sizes.



Such a focus on exact territory often makes each species vulnerable to land-use changes or deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-blue-frog-discovery">Significance of the blue frog discovery</h2>



Local communities were aware of various frogs in their forest, but the scientific world had no formal record of frogs with this patterning until now.



Its presence highlights that the southwestern Amazon, with patches that are still difficult to reach, can house animal groups that slip under the radar. Additional exploration may uncover other new amphibians, especially within pockets that share similar vegetation or water sources.



Researchers plan to keep monitoring these populations over the coming years. This effort is essential for tracking any environmental threats that could place these frogs at risk. 



Given the increasing human activities in this region, timely observation may help shape protective measures in the near future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



Image Credit: Koch et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0



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Blue frog with copper legs discovered in the Amazon rainforest

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western...

The central California coast hides a dimpled and pockmarked seafloor region that is roughly the size of Los Angeles - five hundred square miles of soft‑edged pits stretching from Big Sur to Morro Bay. 



For decades ocean scientists assumed these round depressions - a whopping six‑football‑field stretch from rim to rim and about 16 feet deep - were scars left by bubbles of methane burping up through the mud. 



That tidy explanation raised eyebrows once plans for an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-are-now-habitats-for-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">offshore wind farm</a> landed on the same patch of continental slope between 1,600 and 5,200 feet below the waves. If methane were still leaking, could turbine anchors stay put?



Curiosity turned urgent when more than 5,200 of the formations, known as pockmarks, appeared to be distributed with "eerie regularity."



The pattern suggested an active force was sculpting and preserving the craters even today. 



To settle the debate, a research team rolled out a fleet of high‑tech robots and a mountain of sensors - and overturned a favorite myth about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/only-001-percent-of-earths-deep-seafloor-has-ever-been-directly-observed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how the seafloor breathes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafloor-full-of-large-pockmarks">Seafloor full of large pockmarks</h2>



Autonomous underwater vehicles zipped barely yards above the bottom, beaming back sonar so sharp it mapped individual ripples of sand. 



The survey refined ship‑based maps and revealed that most pockmarks sit almost perfectly spaced apart, each nearly circular and averaging 656 feet across. 



Back at mission control aboard the research vessel, experts from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>), the U.S. Geological Survey (<a href="https://www.usgs.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USGS</a>), and <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> watched the topography scroll across their monitors at one‑foot resolution.



The robots also carried a <a href="https://www2.whoi.edu/site/coastalgroup/about/how-we-work/field-methods/chirp-sub-bottom-profiler/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHIRP sub‑bottom profiler</a>, a sound cannon that peeks some 25 feet beneath the mud. 



Instead of pockets of gas, profiles showed neat layers: thin bands of fine silt interrupted by coarser sand sheets. Those buried sand sheets hinted at something far more dramatic than gentle gas seepage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sending-in-the-robots">Sending in the robots</h2>



Guided by the maps, MBARI’s remotely operated vehicle <a href="https://www.mbari.org/technology/rov-doc-ricketts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doc Ricketts</a> descended for 30 dives, clocking 185 hours of video and punching 107 vibracores and 433 shallow pushcores into the pockmark floors. 



An additional cruise brought up piston cores nearly 25 feet long for comparison outside the craters. Not a whiff - chemical or acoustic - of methane turned up in any sample.



“There are many unanswered questions about the seafloor and its processes,” said MBARI Senior Research Technician Eve Lundsten. 



“This research provides important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-relic-uncovers-earths-ancient-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data about the seafloor</a> for resource managers and others considering potential offshore sites for underwater infrastructure to guide their decision‑making.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafloor-avalanches-and-pockmarks">Seafloor avalanches and pockmarks</h2>



Each core carried a timeline of turmoil. Fine mud settled quietly for millennia, then a blanket of gritty sand crashed in, marking a colossal underwater avalanche called a sediment gravity flow. 



The team counted turbidite layers back at least 280,000 years, with the most recent flow sweeping through roughly 14,000 years ago. 



When such a slurry roars downslope, it scours the center of every pockmark in its path and drops a fresh sand layer across the field in one go - resetting the craters like simultaneous footprints.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pockmark-chains_seafloor-holes_distribution-map_MBARI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pockmark-chains_seafloor-holes_distribution-map_MBARI_1s.webp" alt="Location Map showing the Sur Pockmark Field outlined in green, individual pockmarks are shown as small red dots. This study focuses on the largest section of the pockmark field, from the Lucia Chica Channel down to the San Simeon Channel. Red stars show the location of AUV-collected Chirp data from beneath pockmarks in Figure 3. Inset maps contain AUV-collected bathymetry showing pockmarks in detail with 5 meter contours. Credit: MBARI" class="wp-image-1969422"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Location Map showing the Sur Pockmark Field outlined in green, individual pockmarks are shown as small red dots. This study focuses on the largest section of the pockmark field, from the Lucia Chica Channel down to the San Simeon Channel. Red stars show the location of AUV-collected Chirp data from beneath pockmarks in Figure 3. Inset maps contain AUV-collected bathymetry showing pockmarks in detail with 5 meter contours. Click image to enlarge. Credit: MBARI</figcaption></figure>



“We collected a massive amount of data, allowing us to make a surprising link between pockmarks and sediment gravity flows," Lundsten explained.



"We were unable to determine exactly how these pockmarks were initially formed, but with MBARI's advanced underwater technology, we've gained new insight into how and why these features have persisted on the seafloor for hundreds of thousands of years."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clean-energy-from-seafloor-pockmarks">Clean energy from seafloor pockmarks</h2>



Undersea avalanches strike tens of thousands of years apart, yet their legacy shapes today’s renewable energy blueprint. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-wind-turbines-impact-property-values-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Turbine foundations</a> must grip rock‑steady ground for decades; a bubbling gas pocket could undermine that. The new findings relieve a major worry. 



Instead of methane, the main architect here is long‑dormant sediment flow, meaning the crust has remained effectively quiet since well before humans started farming California’s Central Valley.



“Expanding renewable energy is critical to achieving the dramatic cuts in carbon dioxide emissions needed to prevent further irreversible climate change," noted MBARI President and CEO Chris Scholin.



"However, there are still many unanswered questions about the possible environmental impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-threaten-marine-life-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">offshore wind energy development</a>,” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-still-need-answers">Many questions still need answers</h2>



Although the study pinned down how the craters stay fresh, their birth story remains elusive. 



Did an ancient mega‑flow carve the first depressions, or did subtle currents gradually nudge sediment aside until a small hollow invited bigger scours? 



Computer models will test whether an unconfined flow racing over the dimpled plain can muster enough force to keep those bowls tidy without help from escaping gas.



Future research will also track how water and sediment swirl through the neighboring Lucia Chica and San Simeon Channels - twin conduits that may funnel slurries into the field. 



For now, the Sur Pockmark Field stands as the best‑charted seafloor province on North America’s west coast, a natural laboratory where wind‑farm planners, geologists, and marine ecologists share common ground.



What they'll find next is anyone's guess.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JF007374" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface</a>.



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Thousands of enormous holes discovered on the seafloor, evenly-spaced with "eerie regularity"

The central California coast hides a dimpled and pockmarked seafloor...

Every seed begins life with a simple aim: to reach water, collect nutrients, and stay upright. Beneath the surface, root tips probe the soil and spread into branches that keep the plant alive.



Getting those branches to appear at just the right spot and moment matters even more now that weather swings between long dry spells and sudden cloudbursts.



Researchers have traced that timing to autophagy, the recycling pathway many people associate with health benefits from fasting.



By following a shape‑shifting protein through Arabidopsis roots, the team uncovered how brief clean‑up pulses let new branches form and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationship-plant-roots-underground-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">help crops cope</a> with tougher conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-roots-cellular-clean-up-crew">Plant roots' cellular clean‑up crew</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> mapped the pathway in living seedlings. They watched the transcription factor ARF7 vanish and return in predictable waves, each tied to a jump in the growth hormone auxin. 



“Fasting has become popular as it seems to have a range of health‑promoting effects in humans, as periods without food cause the body to activate clean‑up processes to dispose of various waste products in cells," explains Assistant Professor Eleazar Rodriguez from the Department of Biology, who led the study.



"We have proven that the same mechanism, which also exists in the plant kingdom, plays a vital role in the ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant roots to grow</a> and absorb water and nutrients for the rest of the plant.” 



The process relies on NBR1, a tag that guides used proteins toward a vacuole for breakdown. Each removal of ARF7 resets the signaling circuit so it can fire again a few hours later. 



When autophagy slows, ARF7 accumulates, messages run long, and the root loses its usual rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-and-auxin">Autophagy and auxin</h2>



Side branches normally form with steady precision. Roughly every four to six hours, auxin peaks at the root tip and switches on genes that mark a patch of tissue for future branching. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movement of a root</a> is almost like watching a snake slithering forward in search of water and nourishment in the soil. And we can see that the heartbeat is strongest every time the root meanders forth,” says Rodriguez.



Using a luminescent reporter, the team confirmed that ARF7 cycles in step with those hormone pulses. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/autophagy_Arabidopsis-plant_ezyme-study_credit-UCopenhagen_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/autophagy_Arabidopsis-plant_ezyme-study_credit-UCopenhagen_1s.jpg" alt="To investigate the significance of autophagy, the researchers developed a mutant Arabidopsis (thale cress) plant in which its autophagy was disabled which is shown on the right. With an enzyme from fire flies the researchers made it possible to distinguish the normal plant from the plant with its autophagy function disabled. The plant to the right has fewer light areas and thereby fewer potential places to grow new roots with it's autophagy function turned off. Credit: Eleazar Rodriguez, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen." class="wp-image-1969564"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">To investigate the significance of autophagy, the researchers developed a mutant Arabidopsis (thale cress) plant in which its autophagy was disabled which is shown on the right. With an enzyme from fire flies the researchers made it possible to distinguish the normal plant from the plant with its autophagy function disabled. The plant to the right has fewer light areas and thereby fewer potential places to grow new roots with it's autophagy function turned off. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Eleazar Rodriguez, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen. </figcaption></figure>



The pattern resembles the circadian rhythms that guide leaf opening, yet it runs on its own schedule and focuses solely on building the hidden half of the plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-autophagy-stalls">When autophagy stalls</h2>



The group then disabled key autophagy genes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">test the pathway’s limits</a>. Mutant seedlings produced fewer lateral roots and soaked up less water. 



“When we disrupted the plant's autophagy, there was waste everywhere, and we were able to detect the ARF7 protein among the waste,” says Rodriguez.



Microscopy revealed swollen vacuoles packed with debris. Growth zones that once cleared their protein stockpile before each auxin wave now stayed loaded, leaving no room for a fresh signal. The result was a sparse, inefficient root system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Because the recycling toolkit is shared across flowering plants, the findings open new options for breeders and for companies developing microbial soil additives. 



Numerous methods to change the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-use-their-roots-to-ration-water-during-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic characteristics of plants</a> are available today. These can be used to get plants to develop longer roots, faster, and in doing so, become more resistant to droughts or floods. 



"One of the methods enlists the help of bacteria that live in symbiosis with the plant and can cause the plant to change its growth pattern. Several companies in Denmark are working on this right now,” explains Ph.D. student Jeppe Ansbøl, who co‑authored the study.



Tuning autophagy or adjusting NBR1 tags could let roots chase moisture deeper in the soil and capture stray fertilizer before it washes away, improving harvests without extra inputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-makes-stronger-roots">Autophagy makes stronger roots</h2>



“The more roots the plants have, the more water and nutrients they can take up, so the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-microbes-in-tea-roots-grow-tastier-healthier-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants grow better, faster</a>," Rodriquez summarized.



"We're heavily dependent on plants because they feed us, extract CO2 from the atmosphere and produce the oxygen we breathe. As such, it is extremely important to understand them fully, to which end we have just taken a big step forward."



Pilot plots in Denmark are already testing these ideas under shifting rain patterns. Early observations hint that crops with tweaked recycling bounce back more quickly after both saturation and dry spells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-next-for-crops-and-autophagy">What next for crops and autophagy?</h2>



Upcoming work will examine whether other auxin response factors move through the same recycling pathway and how changes in light, temperature, or soil chemistry adjust the schedule. 



Studies in mosses and liverworts, which split from flowering plants roughly 400 million years ago, may reveal how old the link between autophagy and development really is.



For farmers, a timely cellular tidy‑up could translate into sturdier yields. By keeping root cells clear of clutter, plants gain the freedom to build the networks they need to thrive in a climate that rarely sits still.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44319-024-00142-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Reports</a>.



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Scientists finally learn what makes plants grow faster and stronger

Every seed begins life with a simple aim: to reach...

Time often influences how we feel physically, affecting muscle function, whether it’s waking up with a jolt or unwinding at the end of a long day. Researchers studying the body’s natural cycles have begun to link disruptions in our sleep schedules to accelerated muscle aging.



The focus is on circadian rhythms and how they affect muscle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ripening-tomatoes-may-hold-clues-to-delay-human-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>. This direction comes from work involving lead author Dr. Jeffrey Kelu, a research associate at <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King’s College London</a>. 



Dr. Kelu's team explored the idea that internal muscle clocks might explain why irregular routines hasten the signs of getting older.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-muscle-clocks-affect-aging">How muscle clocks affect aging </h2>



Circadian rhythms rely on biological “timekeepers” in different parts of the body. Scientists have long known that the brain and other organs use these clocks to regulate temperature, hormones, and digestion.



Research now suggests muscle cells run on their own schedule. When these cycles are interrupted, the aging process can ramp up, also known as <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23167-sarcopenia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sarcopenia</a>, which is the gradual decline in muscle mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-aging-patterns-in-fish">Muscle aging patterns in fish</h2>



“We then monitored the fish for two years, comparing them to healthy controls. While no significant differences were seen at younger ages, fish lacking a functional muscle clock eventually showed clear signs of premature <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-admin/post.php?post=1970116&amp;action=edit" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>,” said Dr. Kelu. 



The team ran experiments on <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Zebrafish" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zebrafish</a>, small aquarium fish that share many genes with humans.&nbsp;



Scientists picked zebrafish partly because their transparent features make muscle changes easier to observe. These characteristics save valuable time and resources before trying similar work in larger animals or humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-long-term-health-impacts">Observing long-term health impacts</h2>



Zebrafish aren’t just chosen for convenience. Their muscle structure and cellular processes are surprisingly similar to those in humans, which makes them a reliable model for studying complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-tool-analyzes-face-age-to-predict-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological systems</a> like circadian rhythms and protein turnover.



Zebrafish also reproduce quickly and develop rapidly, which helps researchers observe long-term effects like aging within a much shorter period. 



Because their bodies are transparent at early stages, scientists can watch what’s happening in real time, instead of relying solely on post-mortem tissue samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-patterns-and-muscle-aging">Sleep patterns and muscle aging</h2>



“In the UK, approximately four million shift workers play a vital role in keeping businesses and emergency services operational around the clock," said Dr. Kelu.



"Our study provides further evidence that the disruption of circadian rhythms in shift workers compromises multiple aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/klotho-s-kl-protein-discovered-boosts-lifespan-muscle-brain-power-with-one-dose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>."



Muscle decline in later years appears to be only one piece of the puzzle. Experts <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21355031/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that shift schedules disturb normal sleep-wake cycles and hamper body clocks for years. 



This misalignment seems to speed up the same muscle wear-and-tear that shows up with age, leaving people more at risk of mobility issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-everyday-routines">What this means for everyday routines</h2>



These findings don’t just affect night-shift workers. People with irregular sleep patterns, long-haul travelers, or anyone who regularly stays up late may also experience similar disruptions to their internal clocks. 



The disruptions can add up over time, even if obvious signs do not emerge right away. This raises questions about how much recovery the body truly gets when sleep schedules constantly change. 



Sticking to a consistent bedtime and allowing for deeper rest at night may help the body carry out its normal muscle maintenance routines more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-aging-in-men-and-women">Muscle aging in men and women</h2>



Although the study used zebrafish, similar <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-2003-4-10-r61" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> have been seen in humans, especially when it comes to how muscle mass declines with age. 



Recent population data suggests that men may experience sharper drops in muscle strength over time, which lines up with what was observed in male zebrafish. 



This difference might come from how circadian rhythms interact with hormones and metabolic changes across the lifespan. 



Further research is needed to investigate whether men and women need different strategies to protect muscle health as they get older.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-s-influence-on-muscle-aging">Sleep's influence on muscle aging</h2>



Healthy muscles go through daily cleanup. Faulty proteins gather during active periods and are cleared at night so muscles can recover.



Scientists discovered that circadian rhythms direct this cleanup. When these rhythms break, damaged proteins build up, making muscle tissue weaker over time.



New possibilities are emerging. Certain treatments that target internal clocks may help prevent the early muscle loss reported in night workers, though more trials are needed.



“This work shows how studying something as complicated as muscle growth in a simple system, like little fish larva, can really teach us something,” said Professor Simon Hughes, from King’s College London. Therapies that stabilize muscle clocks might keep cells healthier for longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-muscle-aging-treatments">Future of muscle aging treatments</h2>



Early-stage research is already testing drugs that target clock-related proteins like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4865262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rev-erb and Ror</a>, which play a role in regulating nighttime muscle cleanup. 



If these treatments prove safe and effective, they could become part of new therapies designed to slow or prevent sarcopenia in at-risk groups.



There’s also growing interest in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22936255/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronomedicine</a>, timing treatments to match the body’s natural rhythms. For muscle health, this might mean taking medications or scheduling physical therapy at specific times of day to get the best results.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422446122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Irregular sleep may cause premature muscle aging

Time often influences how we feel physically, affecting muscle function,...

Light is often associated with life, whether through the warm glow of a campfire or the brilliance of the sun. Yet, there is another kind of light - one that is nearly imperceptible but ever-present in living organisms.



This subtle illumination, known as ultraweak photon emission (UPE), is not visible to the naked eye but is a natural byproduct of metabolic processes.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a> recently explored UPE in a study that delved into its biological significance. Unlike bioluminescence, which produces visible light, UPE emits extremely low-intensity light that falls within the spectral range of 200–1,000 nm.



This phenomenon is observed in a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a>, from bacteria and plants to animals and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lighting-up-in-life-and-death">Lighting up in life and death</h2>



In mice, UPE might signal vitality. The researchers compared living and recently deceased mice, capturing UPE with high-sensitivity imaging equipment. 



The living mice shone brighter, while the recently deceased emitted barely any light. Both groups were kept at the same temperature of 37°C (98.6°F), but the difference in UPE was unmistakable.



This faint light might not look like much, but it could indicate life’s internal rhythm. The study suggests that UPE isn’t just random; it might be tied to fundamental biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-wins-in-2025-came-from-unexpected-places/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> that continue as long as life does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-responses-light-as-a-signal">Plant responses: Light as a signal</h2>



Plants emit UPE too, but in them, it responds to stress. The researchers exposed plant tissues to temperature changes, injuries, and chemicals. Injured areas glowed more intensely, and the brightness increased after chemical treatments.



Why the extra light? When plants experience stress, they ramp up chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> that produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). These molecules are like cellular alarm bells. In their rush to signal damage, they produce tiny sparks of light, visible only through advanced imaging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-cells-flash-bursts-of-light">Living cells flash bursts of light</h2>



Think of living organisms as busy chemical labs. Cells carry out countless reactions to sustain life, and some reactions generate ROS. These molecules play dual roles - they’re essential for cell signaling but can become harmful when levels spike.



During stress, ROS levels surge, and oxidative stress kicks in. This imbalance excites electrons, creating conditions for UPE. It’s not a glow in the dark - it’s a faint, silent burst of photons, unnoticed by the human eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-light-from-living-cells">Invisible light from living cells</h2>



Capturing UPE requires ultradark enclosures and specialized cameras. The researchers used Electron-Multiplying Charge-Coupled Device (EMCCD) cameras for plants and Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) cameras for mice. These devices can detect UPE in controlled, dark settings, minimizing background noise.



The images revealed more than just faint glows. They showed how UPE changes with temperature, stress, and injury. In mice, the light vanished after death. In plants, chemical treatments and injuries made specific regions flare up, marking them as sites of stress or damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-potential-diagnostic-tool">A potential diagnostic tool</h2>



What if doctors could detect stress and disease just by measuring UPE? The study hints that UPE could serve as a non-invasive diagnostic tool. 



In mice, the difference between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> and death appeared in the intensity of UPE. In plants, stress-induced light bursts pinpointed areas of damage.



If scientists can decode UPE patterns, they might develop ways to detect diseases earlier. Monitoring UPE could reveal cellular stress before symptoms become obvious, offering a glimpse into the body’s hidden struggles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-emissions-and-life-processes">Light emissions and life processes</h2>



UPE blurs the line between physics and biology. It’s not just a quirk of cellular chemistry; it’s a signal, a pulse, a silent language of life. 



The researchers suggest that understanding UPE could open doors to new diagnostic techniques and research avenues.



But much remains unknown. Why do some stressed cells emit more light than others? How do specific injuries alter UPE patterns? And could UPE one day serve as a life indicator, a subtle sign of biological activity in tissues?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secrets-of-invisible-light">The secrets of invisible light</h2>



The study from the University of Calgary raises more questions than it answers. 



What exactly triggers UPE in stressed plants? How does cellular metabolism fuel these faint flashes of light? And could these light signals one day serve as early warning signs of disease?



For now, UPE remains a silent, invisible light - a flicker of living cells that scientists are only beginning to understand. But as researchers dig deeper, they may find that even the faintest light reveals vital clues to what it means to be living.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c03546" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters</a>. 



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All living beings emit a subtle light that fades after death

Light is often associated with life, whether through the warm...

If you’ve ever found yourself overwhelmed by work, bills, or the latest headlines, taking a moment for mindfulness might offer some relief. 



The practice - simply paying attention to the present moment without judgment - is known to help calm the mind and improve concentration.



“A lot of research has shown that mindfulness can reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teachers-experienced-high-anxiety-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> symptoms,” said Resh Gupta, a postdoctoral research associate with the&nbsp;Mindfulness Science and Practice research cluster.



While many people experience the benefits of mindfulness firsthand, scientists continue to explore exactly how it works and which types of mindfulness best suit different anxiety patterns. 



Some anxieties come and go. Others linger and interfere with daily life. "We all experience anxiety, but it can manifest in many different ways,” noted Gupta. “It’s a tough problem to pin down.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-mindfulness-with-anxiety-types">Matching mindfulness with anxiety types</h2>



At <a href="https://artsci.washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, researchers proposed a new framework to better understand how mindfulness interacts with anxiety. 



Their idea, published in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, suggests that no single technique works for everyone. Instead, different mindfulness approaches may work better for different anxiety profiles.



The team includes postdoctoral research associate Resh Gupta, psychology professor Todd Braver, and Wendy Heller, a professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Their work was supported in part by WashU’s Incubator for Transdisciplinary Futures.



Braver described the paper as a reflection of the cluster’s broader goals. “There is a growing recognition that these practices can be incredibly useful in enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-boosted-psychological-well-being-during-covid-19-lockdown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological well-being</a>,” he said. 



“But we still do not fully understand the mechanisms of action by which mindfulness can produce beneficial effects. That’s where the scientific research can be so valuable, by helping us more precisely identify why and how certain practices are effective.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cognitive-control">The role of cognitive control</h2>



One of the key ideas in the new paper is that mindfulness may ease anxiety by improving what scientists call “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bilingual-children-have-lasting-cognitive-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive control</a>.” This is the brain’s ability to stay on track — to manage thoughts and actions in ways that support our goals.



“Cognitive control is the ability to regulate your thoughts and your actions in a way that helps you achieve your goals,” Gupta explained. “For example, if you know you have to go to the grocery store right after work, you can keep that goal in mind during the workday and turn down an offer to do something else after work.”



Mindfulness appears to boost this mental skill. Neuroimaging research shows that meditation can activate the parts of the brain involved in cognitive control. 



In contrast, anxiety tends to do the opposite. It floods the brain’s working memory - the system we rely on to keep track of tasks and priorities - with worry and distractions.



“Worry occupies a lot of space in the brain’s working memory system,” Gupta said. “This is where your goals are stored.”



That mental clutter weakens cognitive control and makes it harder to cope with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a>. But mindfulness can strengthen control again and break the cycle of worry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-the-right-practice">Choosing the right practice</h2>



Not all mindfulness techniques work the same way. Depending on what kind of anxiety someone is experiencing, one approach might work better than another.



For people who tend to ruminate - replaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-related-worries-diminish-cognitive-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worries</a> over and over - focused attention might be the most effective.



“Focused attention teaches you to choose an anchor, such as your breath or a sound,” Gupta said. “You keep bringing your attention back to that anchor every time your mind wanders. Instead of focusing on the worry, you're focusing on the present moment experience.”



Others experience anxiety as physical symptoms, such as a racing heart or tightness in the chest. For those cases, a broader technique may be more useful. 



“For this type of anxiety, a form of mindfulness meditation called open monitoring may be beneficial,” Gupta said. “Instead of focusing on one thing, such as the breath, you can observe all internal and external experiences from moment to moment in a non-reactive, non-judgmental way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-mindfulness-into-the-community">Bringing mindfulness into the community</h2>



The Mindfulness Science &amp; Practice cluster at Washington University isn’t just focused on research. It also offers programs for students, faculty, and the St. Louis community. 



The programs include talks, workshops, and events that introduce participants to mindfulness exercises taught by trained practitioners.



“We’re dedicated to helping the WashU and greater St. Louis community get access to tools to learn about mindfulness science and practice,” Gupta said.



Braver believes that making a variety of mindfulness options available empowers individuals to find the practices that suit them best. 



“People have different options they can choose from, so it becomes easier to find one that best fits your particular temperament, concerns, or current situation,” said Braver. "It’s quite empowering to learn these types of practices, and to feel like we can be in charge of how we use them to improve our quality of life.”



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Practicing mindfulness can quiet the noise of anxiety

If you’ve ever found yourself overwhelmed by work, bills, or...

When glaciers melt, they release water that carries sulfate-rich minerals previously trapped in the ice. This sulfate flows into streams and wetlands, increasing its concentration in watersheds.



As sulfate accumulates, it creates conditions that can trigger the production of toxic methylmercury, posing risks to ecosystems and wildlife.



Methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin, forms in waterlogged, sulfate-rich wetlands and enters water systems. It accumulates in fish, moves up the food chain to birds, and eventually reaches people who consume contaminated wildlife.



"Very little research has looked at methylmercury production in high-elevation wetlands," said Hannah Miller, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a> and lead author of a recent study.



"This leaves important knowledge gaps regarding how much is being produced in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountain</a> wetlands and how this may change with ongoing climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mercury-turns-toxic-in-wetlands">How mercury turns toxic in wetlands</h2>



Methylmercury production from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> melt sulfate only occurs within a specific range in wetland soils. If glacier-derived sulfate levels are too low, the conversion process doesn’t start; too high, and it stalls.



The ideal range - 0.60 to 1.4 milligrams per gram of dry soil - creates optimal conditions for mercury to transform into its toxic methylated form.



Miller’s team pinpointed this “Goldilocks zone” after testing soil from peatlands, alpine meadows, and riparian zones. Above the treeline, methylmercury levels barely budged. Below the treeline, peatlands pulsed with microbial activity, converting mercury to its toxic form.



"We also found in our experiment that moderate sulfate additions to the subalpine peatlands resulted in the greatest production of methylmercury within the soils," Miller said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatlands-as-mercury-hotspots">Peatlands as mercury hotspots</h2>



In the lab, Miller pumped different sulfate concentrations into soil samples. The response? Peatlands with moderate sulfate additions churned out the most methylmercury.



But there’s a catch. Wetlands above the treeline don’t have much vegetation. Fewer plants mean less carbon-rich material to feed the microbes that convert sulfate to methylmercury. But in the subalpine peatlands, dense vegetation and waterlogged soils create the perfect storm.



Sulfate-reducing bacteria thrive in these oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-could-run-out-of-water-if-glaciers-continue-to-melt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>. They grab onto sulfate, munch through carbon, and churn out methylmercury as a byproduct. And as glaciers keep melting, more sulfate keeps coming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-spread-sulfate">Melting glaciers spread sulfate </h2>



Sulfate doesn’t stay put. It migrates downstream, riding currents and seeping into soils. In the past 30 years, sulfate levels in Boulder’s watershed have shot up by 200%. That spike mirrors a global pattern.



Glacier-fed streams in the Andes, Alps, and Himalayas show similar trends - up to a 2000% increase in sulfate concentrations. As these minerals flow, so does the risk of methylmercury contamination.



"It's a really interesting climate-driven signal that is starting to get more attention," Miller said. "And while increasing sulfate concentrations have direct implications for ecosystems, they can also have indirect impacts, including changing how mercury is transformed within wetlands."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-moves-through-food-chains">Mercury moves through food chains</h2>



Methylmercury doesn’t just stay in the soil. It slips into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>, where fish absorb it through their gills. Small fish pass it to bigger fish. Birds swoop down, eat the fish, and the toxin moves up the food chain.



"In semi-arid mountain ecosystems, poorly developed soils and limited water bodies make it easy to think there is a lower risk for mercury contamination," noted Miller.



"But our findings show there is a risk, particularly in subalpine peatlands, and raise important questions about how this toxin may impact the communities and wildlife that rely on that water source now and in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfate-isn-t-the-only-player">Sulfate isn’t the only player</h2>



Sulfate takes the spotlight, but it’s not alone. Iron, carbon, and water levels also play crucial roles in the methylmercury cycle.



In Boulder’s watershed, dry conditions could limit the spread of peatlands, reducing the areas where methylmercury thrives. But increased precipitation could do the opposite - more wetlands, more methylmercury.



Miller’s study also hints at the role of iron. Sulfate additions alone triggered methylmercury production, but iron concentrations could magnify or mitigate that effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-rising-mercury-levels">Melting glaciers, rising mercury levels</h2>



Glaciers worldwide are melting, releasing sulfate-rich minerals into nearby streams and wetlands. This surge in sulfate is not limited to Boulder but is occurring in mountain watersheds globally. 



As sulfate levels rise, so does the risk of toxic methylmercury formation, impacting ecosystems far beyond Colorado.



Glacial melt in Peru’s Andes has turned once-pristine wetlands into mercury-contaminated hotspots. The European Alps and the Himalayas face similar risks as warming temperatures increase sulfate runoff. 



As glaciers recede, more sulfate spills into wetlands, driving methylmercury production and threatening ecosystems globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-mercury-in-wetlands">Controlling mercury in wetlands</h2>



Monitoring sulfate is one thing. Mitigating its impact is another. Restoring wetlands, managing runoff, and regulating upstream mining could reduce sulfate flow. But Miller and her team aren’t stopping there.



"This research is timely, given the confluence of global changes, including climate warming, changes in the supply of reactive elements, and the occurrence of wildfires that are threatening sensitive high-elevation ecosystems," said Eve-Lyn Hinckley, co-author and CIRES Fellow.



Glaciers keep melting, releasing more sulfate into streams and wetlands. This ongoing process fuels methylmercury production, posing increasing risks to ecosystems. 



The outcome hinges on monitoring efforts and proactive intervention to manage these toxic threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/add8a5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Mountain wetlands are turning into mercury hotspots

When glaciers melt, they release water that carries sulfate-rich minerals...

Picture this: you open your phone and there’s a new video making the rounds - one of you, taken without your permission. You didn’t know they were filming. Now, everyone’s laughing. This is cyberbullying and it doesn’t leave visible bruises. It carves deeper wounds - the kind that last long after the screen goes dark.



Recent research by Florida Atlantic University (<a href="https://www.fau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.uwec.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire</a> delves into the hidden impact of cyberbullying. The team surveyed over 2,600 middle and high school students. The findings are disturbing.



Cyberbullying isn’t just a passing phase or a moment of meanness. It’s an Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) – the kind that twists your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gaze-and-intention-the-unspoken-language-of-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perception</a> of yourself and your place in the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyberbullying-feels-like-a-silent-attack">Cyberbullying feels like a silent attack</h2>



It’s not just the threats. Sometimes, it’s the silence. A chat goes quiet when you enter. You’re the only one who didn’t get the invite. You scroll through comments, and there it is - a cruel rumor with your name attached.



Dr. Sameer Hinduja is the study's lead author and a professor in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at FAU. 



“As our research clearly shows, cyberbullying in any form - whether it’s exclusion from a group chat or direct threats - can lead to significant trauma in youth," said Dr. Hinduja.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-online-bullying-has-become-common">Online bullying has become common</h2>



Cyberbullying is not rare. It’s routine. The study found that 87 percent of students reported experiencing at least one form of online harassment in the past month. That's almost nine out of ten kids - in one month.



This isn’t just about aggressive, in-your-face attacks. It’s about the little digs, whispers, and rumors that spread faster than wildfire. Mean comments, false accusations, deliberate exclusions - they pile up, and they stick.



The researchers examined eighteen types of cyberbullying. Among them, indirect forms of harassment stood out. More than half of the students said they’d been targeted by mean comments. Almost as many reported being excluded from group chats or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-6g-internet-speed-will-arrive-sooner-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a> discussions.



Others had their private information shared without consent, or watched as someone impersonated them online, spreading lies and ruining reputations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-words-can-be-weapons-in-online-spaces">Words can be weapons in online spaces</h2>



Cyberbullying isn’t always loud or obvious. It’s not just mean comments or threats. Sometimes, it’s being ignored. You log in, and everyone’s chatting – except you. They’re sharing jokes and talking about things you weren’t included in. 



You keep scrolling and realize they’re making fun of you. You weren’t invited, but you’re still the target. That kind of silent rejection can sting even more than direct insults. It makes you feel invisible, unwanted, and left out on purpose.



“What mattered most was the overall amount of cyberbullying: the more often a student was targeted, the more trauma symptoms they showed,” noted Hinduja.



Girls reported the most intense emotional fallout. Younger teens felt it too - the sleepless nights, anxiety, and the fear of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-pressure-is-straining-teen-friendships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logging in</a>.



But when researchers adjusted for how often each student was targeted, those differences faded. The truth is, anyone can be a target - regardless of gender or age. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-five-types-of-cyberbullying">Five types of cyberbullying</h2>



Cyberbullying comes in different forms, and it doesn’t always look the same. The study found five main types.



First, there are threats. These are direct, scary messages that make you worry about your safety. Someone might say they’re going to hurt you or make you feel like you’re in danger.



Next is identity-based harassment. This is when people attack things that make you who you are, like your race, religion, or gender. They might use slurs, insults, or cruel jokes to target those parts of you.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-privacy-violations-and-harassment">Privacy violations and harassment </h2>



Privacy violations are also an issue. This is when someone shares your personal information without permission. Maybe they post your secrets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gen-ai-and-social-media-divert-peoples-attention-from-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a>, pretend to be you, or track what you’re doing. It makes you feel like you can’t control what people know about you.



Another type of cyberbullying is indirect harassment. This isn’t always in your face. It’s the gossip, rumors, and mean comments that spread behind your back. You hear people are talking about you, but you can’t stop it.



Finally, there’s exclusion. This one can seem small, but it still hurts. You’re the only one not included in the group chat or tagged in a photo. You’re left out on purpose, and it makes you feel invisible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyberbullying-trauma-can-last-for-years">Cyberbullying trauma can last for years</h2>



The researchers didn’t just look at immediate effects. They examined the fallout that lingers.



For some, the trauma sticks around like a shadow. Nightmares that don’t go away. Flashbacks that hit when you see a certain name pop up. A sense of dread every time your phone lights up.



Previous research shows that some adults still feel the sting of childhood bullying years later. They carry it into their relationships, jobs, and their daily lives. They question their worth, flinching at every criticism. 



The study revealed that cyberbullying can have a similar effect. IIt’s not just a phase. It’s a wound that never really heals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lifeline-of-support">The lifeline of support</h2>



Having a strong support system can make a big difference for kids who are bullied. Family can be a safe place. Friends can help you feel less alone. Being mentally strong can also help you bounce back.



The study found that kids who felt close to their families didn’t feel as much pain from bullying. Good friends also made the hurt less intense. But not everyone has that kind of support.



For those without family or friends to lean on, the impact of bullying hit harder. They felt more alone. The loneliness became heavy, like a weight they couldn’t shake off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-action">A call to action</h2>



Dr. Hinduja emphasized the need for a trauma-informed response. “To truly protect young people, we must take a trauma-informed approach, one that prioritizes emotional and psychological safety,” he said.



Schools need to wake up to what’s happening behind the screens. It’s not just about stopping overt threats. It’s about recognizing the quiet, insidious forms of cruelty - the exclusions, the whispers, the frozen-out group chats. 



Teachers need training to spot the signs. They need to notice the kid who goes quiet, who used to laugh and now just stares at the floor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-effects-of-cyberbullying">Long-term effects of cyberbullying</h2>



The study calls for more research on what happens to kids after they’re bullied online. Do they heal over time, or does the pain stick with them? What about the ones who don’t have support from family or friends? Can special programs help them feel better?



We don’t have all the answers yet, but one thing is clear - we can’t ignore the impact of cyberbullying. It’s not just kids being dramatic. It’s real trauma that can last long after the bullying stops.



The hurt doesn’t end when the screen goes dark. It stays. For some, it never really goes away.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-025-22692-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Public Health</a>.



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Cyberbullying causes lasting trauma similar to physical abuse

Picture this: you open your phone and there’s a new...

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey flee. Herds eat and sleep together. It all feels spontaneous -each creature responding to its needs in the moment.



But new research suggests there may be a hidden order to all this movement. And it’s not just found in one place or species. It appears across continents, in animals living very different lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-movement-across-the-globe">Animal movement across the globe</h2>



The study involved animals from three dramatically different environments. In the dry heat of the Kalahari Desert, meerkats dig through the sand. In Panama’s rainforests, coatis nap high in the trees. On the Kenyan savannah, spotted hyenas roam the grasslands. 



These species differ in body size, diet, and behavior. But researchers found something they all had in common - how they moved from one activity to the next.



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior tracked these wild animals using accelerometers, the same sensors found in smartphones and fitness watches. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-pattern-in-animal-behavior">Unexpected pattern in animal behavior </h2>



The devices recorded tiny shifts in body movement, many times per second, and for days at a time.



“This approach allowed us to capture detailed behavioral sequences over days and even weeks from multiple individuals across three distinct species,” said Ariana Strandburg-Peshkin, group leader at the institute and senior author on the study.



Using machine learning, the data were sorted into different behavioral categories: lying, walking, foraging, and more. 



A meerkat might lie still for a while, scan the area, then dig for food. A coati might spend time climbing, resting, or eating. These changing states, tracked over time, revealed an unexpected pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-behavior-that-sticks">Animal behavior that sticks</h2>



Across all three species, one rule seemed to apply: the longer an animal stays in one behavior, the less likely it is to change. 



“We assumed there would be differences,” said Pranav Minasandra, a postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study. “But we found common patterns in how animals switch between behaviors, regardless of what species and which individual. It's as if their behavior was built on the same hidden algorithm.”



The finding goes against what many might expect. Imagine a hyena that’s been walking for 10 minutes. Most people would assume it’s more likely to stop soon. The researchers thought so too. 



“We originally thought the probability of switching behaviors would increase over time, as we assumed it would not be optimal to lock-in to any behavior,” explained Minasandra.



Instead, the opposite was true. Animals became more committed to the behavior the longer they stayed in it. This effect - known as a “decreasing hazard function” - appeared across all three species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-what-comes-next">Predicting what comes next</h2>



The researchers also examined a concept they call “predictivity decay.” This refers to how well current behavior can predict future behavior. 



As time goes on, it gets harder to make accurate predictions because of random shifts and outside influences.



Still, even this unpredictability showed a consistent pattern. “We found that the pattern of predictivity decay was remarkably consistent across all animals studied, implying a shared architecture beneath the surface,” the researchers said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-these-patterns-exist">Why do these patterns exist?</h2>



The study points to two possible explanations. One is simple: positive feedback. The longer an animal stays in a behavior - like lying down - the more reasons there are to continue. 



Maybe it’s comfortable, feels safe, or is simply copying what its group is doing. In any case, staying becomes easier than switching.



The second theory involves decision-making over multiple timescales. Animals are constantly processing cues from different sources: hunger, danger, weather, and social cues. 



Each signal operates on its own rhythm. The way these rhythms overlap might explain why behavior unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-ahead">More questions ahead</h2>



There’s still a lot to explore. Do these patterns apply to animals that live alone? What about animals at different stages of life, or under stress? Could these long-behavior states help save energy, improve attention, or coordinate group movement?



“What this study suggests is that real animals, be they hunting, hiding, or resting, are guided by hidden structures that seem to echo across life’s branches,” noted Meg Crofoot, Director of the Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies.



Animal behavior may seem unpredictable. But this research suggests that, deep down, many species are following a similar rhythm. One that links creatures as different as hyenas, coatis, and meerkats in a quiet, shared structure of movement.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503962122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Animals share hidden behavior patterns across continents

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey...

The moon has two strikingly different sides. The side facing Earth is mostly smooth, with dark, flat plains formed by ancient lava flows. In contrast, the far side is rugged and filled with craters. 



But why do they look so different? What could have caused such a stark contrast between the two halves? Scientists have been searching for answers, and recent findings suggest that the key may lie deep within the moon’s interior.



NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/grail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAIL mission</a> has provided new insights. Two spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, orbited the moon to measure its gravity. They discovered a temperature difference deep inside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. This could explain why one side looks smooth and the other rough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-differences-inside-the-moon">Hidden differences inside the moon</h2>



Ryan Park and his team used GRAIL data to peer beneath the surface. They weren’t looking at rocks or craters. They were looking at gravity. The moon’s gravitational field fluctuates slightly as it moves, and Park’s team measured those tiny shifts.



The research was focused on a parameter called the gravitational tidal Love number, k3. It’s a number that reveals how the lunar mantle deforms under gravitational forces - and it revealed something very surprising.



“We report our estimated value of k3 = 0.0163 ± 0.0007, which is about 72% higher than that expected for a spherically symmetric moon,” noted the researchers.



The discovery is significant. It shows that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-ridges-on-moons-surface-suggest-that-it-is-still-active/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon’s</a> mantle isn’t the same throughout. One side - the nearside - is warmer, softer, and more flexible. 



Meanwhile, the farside is cooler, stiffer, and less likely to deform. This difference could explain why the two sides of moon look so different.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-one-side-of-the-moon-is-hotter">Why one side of the moon is hotter</h2>



Why is the nearside hotter? Park’s team points to radioactive elements - thorium and titanium - locked in ancient lava flows. 



Billions of years ago, volcanic eruptions spread molten rock across the nearside. As the lava cooled, it trapped these heat-producing elements. They are still there, and they are still releasing heat.



Park and his colleagues estimate that the nearside mantle is up to 170°C (338°F) hotter than the farside. That heat keeps the rock softer and more flexible, allowing it to deform more easily under gravitational stress. And that’s why the k3 value is so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forces-stretch-the-moon-s-interior">Forces stretch the moon's interior</h2>



Tidal forces don’t just move Earth’s oceans. They also affect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-side-of-the-moon-reveals-new-details-about-its-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. As the moon orbits Earth, gravitational forces stretch and squeeze its interior on both sides. 



GRAIL’s measurements showed that the moon’s mantle doesn’t react the same way on each side.



The warmer, softer nearside stretches and bends more under these forces. Meanwhile, the cooler, stiffer farside resists deformation, staying more rigid. This uneven response reveals differences in the moon’s internal structure.



This discrepancy creates gravitational anomalies. And it could also explain why deep moonquakes cluster in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/total-lunar-eclipse-will-paint-the-moon-blood-red-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-rock-and-moonquakes">Melting rock and moonquakes</h2>



When rock gets extremely hot, it begins to melt. Park’s team believes that there are areas deep within the moon’s mantle where rock has partially melted, particularly under the nearside. These pockets of molten rock could act like stress points.



As the moon orbits Earth, tidal forces stretch and compress its interior. The molten zones might respond more intensely to this pressure, causing moonquakes.



These melt zones aren’t just anywhere - they are located at depths ranging from 800 to 1,250 km (497 to 777 miles). That’s the same depth where many deep moonquakes occur. 



This overlap suggests a connection between these molten areas and the origins of moonquakes, pointing to a possible link between the moon’s internal heat and its seismic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-new-lunar-fss-mission-will-explore-moon-far-side-moonquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-volcanic-past-and-a-chilled-future">A volcanic past and a chilled future</h2>



The moon wasn’t always so divided. Billions of years ago, lava gushed across the surface, burying craters and creating vast plains. Today, those plains are the dark spots we see on the nearside - the mare regions.



Park’s team thinks that as the lava cooled, it trapped radioactive elements, creating a thermal imbalance that persists today. 



The farside, lacking such lava flows, cooled more quickly. And that’s why it’s more rugged, cratered, and colder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-moon-s-interior">Mapping the moon's interior</h2>



Park’s approach didn’t involve digging into the moon or landing any probes. Instead, he and his team focused on measuring the moon’s gravity. 



As the moon moves around Earth, gravitational forces pull and squeeze its interior. By tracking these subtle changes in gravity, Park’s team effectively created a detailed map of the moon’s internal structure - like taking an “X-ray” of its insides.



This technique, called tidal tomography, uses gravitational data to study what’s hidden deep within. And it isn’t just for the moon. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-other-worlds">Implications for other worlds</h2>



The moon is not the only celestial body with two distinct sides. Mars has flat, smooth plains in the north and rough, elevated highlands in the south. 



Enceladus, one of Saturn’s moons, shoots icy plumes into space, hinting at internal activity. Ganymede, Jupiter’s largest moon, has a strong magnetic field, suggesting complex processes beneath its surface.



If tidal tomography can reveal hidden structures inside the moon, it could do the same for these worlds. 



By analyzing gravitational changes, scientists could uncover what’s happening deep within these distant bodies - all without landing a single probe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-activity-beneath-the-surface">Hidden activity beneath the surface</h2>



NASA’s upcoming lunar missions include the Farside Seismic Suite and the Lunar Geophysical Network. These missions will monitor moonquakes and map the lunar mantle in even greater detail. 



The missions could confirm the existence of melt zones, pinpoint their depths, and maybe even detect ongoing volcanic activity.



Meanwhile, the GRAIL findings raise new questions. How much heat still lingers in the nearside mantle? Could residual magma still be flowing beneath the surface? And what does that mean for future moonquakes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moon-s-geological-story">The moon's geological story</h2>



NASA’s GRAIL mission did more than just measure gravity - it uncovered pieces of the moon’s history. 



The thermal differences between the two sides suggest that ancient volcanic eruptions and radioactive decay left the nearside warmer and more flexible than the farside.



The nearside’s lingering warmth and softer mantle indicate that the moon’s interior hasn’t fully cooled. This ongoing heat suggests that the moon’s geological story isn’t over - there might still be activity beneath its surface.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08949-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Why one side of the moon still glows from within

The moon has two strikingly different sides. The side facing...

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face precarious conditions. They live in a narrow sliver of high-elevation rainforest, and experts fear even one large disturbance may push them toward extinction.



Professor Michael Mahony from the <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Newcastle</a> has studied these amphibians and their limited habitats. Each population ekes out a living in cool, moist spots that are shrinking because of shifting weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isolated-existence-in-upland-forest">Isolated existence in upland forest</h2>



The Eungella Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-eungellensis">Litoria eungellensis</a>) persists in fewer than eight square miles (21 square kilometers) of upland <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5584.3.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland forest</a>. It tolerates a cooler environment than most other tree frogs in the area, but shifting temperatures and rainfall patterns will present new challenges.



The Atherton Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-corbeni">Litoria corbeni</a>) occupies a separate section of the tropics, in northern Queensland, but also at higher elevations. Like its relative, it seems unable to adjust to warmer, drier conditions, which has conservationists concerned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sudden-threats-could-be-devastating">Sudden threats could be devastating</h2>



“One catastrophic event could wipe them out entirely,” said Luke Price, a researcher at the South Australian Museum. 



These amphibians remain vulnerable to quick and catastrophic events. With habitats so restricted, any disaster in these cool enclaves could have devastating results.



Researchers note that increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall might reduce the moist habitats on which these frogs depend. When water sources dwindle, the animals face an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">existential crisis</a> that they may not survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-traits-of-the-forest-frogs">Distinct traits of the forest frogs</h2>



Each species emits a distinct call that sets it apart from more common frogs in eastern Australia. Slight contrasts in vocalizations, combined with deeper genetic evidence, helped scientists recognize them as separate species.



Their coloring ranges from mustard-like hues to flashes of red on the hind legs. These markings help camouflage them among leaves and tree bark, but they offer no protection against heat waves or wildfires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-past-climates-matter">Why past climates matter</h2>



The discovery of these frogs also sheds light on Australia’s ancient climate history. 



According to Price, their presence in isolated highland pockets suggests they once occupied a much larger range of connected wet forests during cooler, wetter periods.



This wider historical distribution supports the idea that climate shifts tied to continental drift and global circulation changes - not just modern greenhouse gas emissions - have shaped where species live today. 



The frogs’ survival may depend on understanding both ancient trends and present-day pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-worries-for-small-forest-frogs">Big worries for small forest frogs</h2>



Low numbers and narrow territories qualify both frogs as highly threatened under the guidelines set by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN</a>). 



Not only do they have minimal resilience to sudden habitat changes, but they also have no opportunities to migrate.



“The mantra of ‘adapt or perish’ doesn’t equally apply across species,” said Mahony. He pointed out that these highland frogs cannot move to cooler terrains any farther upslope.



In remote regions of Queensland, regular surveys are tough to coordinate. Gathering more data on frog numbers and breeding success takes time and resources, yet experts say such efforts are necessary for any hope of long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-mother-nature-have-rights-a-tiny-frog-has-joined-the-fight/">preservation</a>.



Fire management is especially difficult in mountainous rainforest. A wildfire in a unique gully or hillside might eliminate water sources and destroy frog refuges in one sweep, leaving no survivors to repopulate those areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-these-forest-frogs-apart">What sets these forest frogs apart</h2>



Unlike many widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-mating-calls-teach-bats-which-prey-to-avoid/">amphibians</a>, these whirring frogs show no signs of behavioral or ecological flexibility. 



They are tightly tied to specific humidity levels, elevation zones, and vegetation types that can be lost quickly with even mild environmental shifts.



Researchers emphasize that while other species may bounce back or shift territory, these frogs lack both the numbers and the landscape corridors to do so. 



That makes them much more vulnerable than most frogs in Australia’s lower altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-take-time-to-adapt">Frogs take time to adapt</h2>



Some amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">populations</a> in other parts of the world have adapted to minor temperature shifts over thousands of years. However, rapid changes may prove too much for small groups that are isolated in tiny zones.



Scientists believe targeted protection of montane areas, along with active measures to maintain moisture levels, could buy these frogs more time. If reserves are created and carefully monitored, that might lessen the risk of sudden habitat loss.



Smaller species can vanish with little notice if they lack escape routes. Because these frogs can’t handle fluctuations in temperature or humidity, the strain of hotter days could tip the balance toward local extinctions.



Habitat restoration efforts and close watching by field biologists might help, but the situation remains tense. Their continued existence depends on coordinated steps that acknowledge the narrow margins in which they live.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zoobank.org/References/C07BE8E9-713C-42E5-9D3F-5F6166C44C5A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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'Whistling' forest frogs recently discovered may be wiped out before we learn about them

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face...

A newly identified dinosaur has stirred attention among paleontologists worldwide. It lived about 94 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous epoch and has been hailed as the earliest known member of its family.



The fresh discovery is named <a href="https://dinoanimals.com/dinosaurdatabase/cienciargentina-sanchezi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cienciargentina sanchezi</a>, and it breaks previous records for the oldest known specimen of the rebbachisaurid group of plant-eating dinosaurs. 



The announcement was described by <a href="https://unrn.academia.edu/leonardosalgado" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leonardo Salgado</a> from the Universidad Nacional de Río Negro-Conicet, in association with his colleague <a href="https://independent.academia.edu/Mar%C3%ADaEdithSim%C3%B3n" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">María Edith Simón</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-a-sauropod-surprise">Uncovering a sauropod surprise</h2>



The team uncovered fossilized bones in the <a href="https://www.argentina.travel/en/pr/neuquen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuquén province</a> in Argentina, at the base of the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340720799_New_vertebrate_remains_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Cenomanian-Turonian_Upper_Cretaceous_in_Rio_Negro_Argentina" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Huincul Formation</a>, which is an area famous for other dinosaur remains. 



The remains suggested a dinosaur with a distinctive shape and size, and hinted at a creature that likely stood out among its neighbors.



They recognized that diplodocoid traits set this animal apart. Sauropods in this branch often present specialized vertebrae and unique skeletal structures, which are well-preserved in the remains found at the site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-family-tree">Tracing the family tree</h2>



<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123475" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> see rebbachisaurids as a fascinating cluster of long-necked giants. They have turned up on multiple continents and show features not seen in other sauropods, especially in their teeth and vertebrae. In some species, those teeth formed tooth batteries, a trait more common in other dinosaur groups.



“This new species is added to the list of rebbachisaurid sauropods documented in the Huincul Formation,” said Salgado. He and Simón identified key skeletal features that confirm the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/research-ship-finds-palau-nautilus-sea-creature-untouched-since-dinosaur-times/">dinosaur’s</a> status as an early form of these long-necked herbivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-rebbachisaurid-traits">Early rebbachisaurid traits</h2>



Researchers say the neck vertebrae suggest a structure that could have supported a long, flexible neck. The hind legs likely bore a significant amount of weight, which is typical for giants in this lineage. 



Tiny details in the bones gave away this creature’s identity as a close relative of other known rebbachisaurids.



The sheer size probably helped in warding off predators. Plant-based diets would have been abundant near streams and floodplains, and the environment would have been favored by many sauropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-rebbachisaurid-find-matters">Why the rebbachisaurid find matters</h2>



Paleontologists are often eager to fill gaps in dinosaur family trees, and an early rebbachisaurid is especially important. Each discovery shines a light on how these creatures evolved their body structures and feeding habits.



The findings help paint a broader picture of sauropod evolution in South America. 



Researchers gain a clearer look at how different dinosaur groups adapted and survived in changing environments as the Cretaceous Period progressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-short-quote-from-the-past">One short quote from the past</h2>



“The first South American rebbachisaurid sauropods were recognized upon the basis of materials from the surroundings of Villa El Chocón, from the Candeleros and Huincul Formations,” said Salgado. Those early signs opened the door to later breakthroughs in identifying new species.



Cervical vertebrae in this new find lack the typical epipophyses seen in close relatives. 



The dorsal vertebrae show amphicoelous to slightly opisthocoelous centers, a configuration that indicates how older rebbachisaurids may have branched off from later ones.



Spinal shapes also reflect a sturdier frame compared to certain younger species. Collectively, these traits confirm a pivotal spot for this dinosaur in the broader diplodocoid lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-work-in-argentina">Ongoing work in Argentina</h2>



Argentina is no stranger to major fossil revelations. Researchers keep combing sites for the next big puzzle piece that can clarify how giant herbivores roamed. Methods continue to evolve, allowing more precise dating of fossils.



Better technology also helps with reconstructions. Digital modeling can reveal how muscles attached to skeletons and how these animals may have moved about their ancient habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-changing-worlds">Clues about changing worlds</h2>



Experts think the shift from earlier diplodocoid forms to other sauropod families signals environmental pressures that shaped survival strategies. Some lines thrived in broad, open areas, while others adapted to different landscapes. The presence of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/">dinosaur</a> suggests transitions may have been more varied than once assumed.



These transitions illuminate broader ecological processes. Changes in climate, vegetation, and terrain likely steered dinosaur evolution in complex ways that are only now being pieced together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-more-answers">Hope for more answers</h2>



Fossils like these keep researchers on their toes. They also draw everyday folks into the excitement of uncovering vanished worlds. 



Salgado and Simón see this as a cue for continued exploration, with the possibility that more early forms could still be out there.



Some experts think we’ve only seen the tip of the iceberg in areas like the Neuquén province. New technology, fresh expeditions, and collaborations all pave the way for further discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-links-no-more">Missing links no more</h2>



Cienciargentina sanchezi connects dots in rebbachisaurid history by sharing traits with both older and younger relatives. These insights will likely fuel future debates on how diplodocoids spread across ancient landmasses. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/">dinosaur’s</a> existence adds depth to our understanding of the Late Cretaceous. Each detail - whether from bones or footprints - challenges our assumptions about how these animals looked and behaved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-for-the-community">Significance for the community</h2>



Scientists collaborate across countries and institutions to analyze and verify these fossils. That teamwork helps ensure accurate identifications. It also makes it easier to compare new specimens with old finds from around the world.



These global partnerships are crucial in paleontology, where a single bone can trigger fresh perspectives on evolution. The story of cienciargentina sanchezi is yet another reminder that fresh insights come from all corners of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-final-note">The final note</h2>



The importance of this 94-million-year-old sauropod lies in its status as a missing piece that enriches our knowledge of an entire family of dinosaurs. It also points to the significance of exploring less examined layers of rock, where new wonders may lie.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667125000606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous Research</a>.



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The oldest known rebbachisaur has been found, dating back 94 million years

A newly identified dinosaur has stirred attention among paleontologists worldwide....

Language is often considered the hallmark of human intelligence, a complex system that enables us to share thoughts, express emotions, and convey intricate messages.



For years, scientists believed that recursion - the ability to nest phrases within phrases - was a defining characteristic of human language. However, new research challenges this view, suggesting that wild orangutans also use recursive communication.



This discovery offers a glimpse into the evolutionary origins of human language, potentially dating back millions of years. By studying Sumatran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutan-mothers-have-unique-parenting-styles-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, researchers have found evidence of structured vocal patterns previously thought to be exclusive to humans. 



This breakthrough not only reshapes our understanding of primate communication but also provides critical insights into how complex language structures may have developed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-roots-of-human-language">The roots of human language</h2>



Language thrives on repetition. Imagine a chain of events like this: “This is the house that Jack built, that sheltered the cat, that chased the mouse, that stole the cheese.”



Each segment builds on the one before, stacking phrases to form a layered, connected structure. This pattern is called recursion.



The pattern stacks phrases like Russian nesting dolls. Each layer connects to the next, creating a complex yet understandable message. Humans use it all the time, embedding clauses within sentences to convey rich and detailed thoughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-use-recursion-too">Orangutans use recursion too</h2>



For years, scientists believed that only humans could use such layered communication. But researchers from <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Warwick</a> have uncovered a startling discovery. Sumatran orangutans, it turns out, use the same pattern.



“When analyzing the vocal data of alarm calls from female Sumatran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, we found that the rhythmic structure of orangutans’ sounds made were self-embedded across three levels - an impressive third-order recursion,” noted Dr. Chiara De Gregorio, who led the study.



In other words, orangutans aren’t just making noise. They’re stacking vocal sounds, creating layers that echo the structure of human language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-patterns-in-orangutan-calls">Language patterns in orangutan calls</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-orangutan-treats-his-facial-wound-with-a-healing-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>’ calls didn’t follow a single, simple rhythm. Instead, they built three distinct layers. 



First, they strung together small sounds, forming short sequences. Next, they combined these sequences into longer, more complex bouts. Finally, they arranged those bouts into extended, rhythmic series.



Each level nested within the next, forming a layered structure. And it wasn’t random. The rhythm changed based on the type of threat the orangutans faced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-use-rhythm-as-a-tool">Orangutans use rhythm as a tool</h2>



Picture a tiger lurking nearby. The orangutan’s calls grow rapid, urgent, and insistent. Now, imagine a less direct threat - a piece of cloth with bright spots. The calls slow down, becoming irregular, almost hesitant.



This adaptability is no accident. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orangutans</a> use rhythm as a tool, adjusting their vocal patterns to fit the situation. 



Dr. De Gregorio and her team noticed these shifts, hinting that orangutans are communicating specific information about their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-the-past">A glimpse into the past</h2>



If recursion exists in orangutan calls, what does that mean for us? Dr. De Gregorio sees it as a glimpse into our evolutionary past.



“This discovery shows that the roots of one of the most distinctive features of human language - recursion - was already present in our evolutionary past,” she noted.



In other words, recursion might not be a human invention. It could be a skill we inherited from ancient ancestors - a skill that orangutans still use today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutan-connection-to-human-language">Orangutan connection to human language</h2>



Language didn’t appear overnight. It evolved, layer by layer, like the vocal sequences of the orangutans. The researchers believe that studying these calls could help us understand how human language began.



Orangutans, with their recursive vocal structures, may hold clues to how our ancestors communicated. Perhaps they, too, stacked sounds, building rhythms to convey complex ideas. 



Over time, these rhythms could have evolved into more structured language systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Why does any of this matter? Because if recursion isn’t uniquely human, then neither is the complexity of thought it enables. 



Orangutans are showing us that the seeds of language run deeper than we thought, stretching back millions of years.



By preserving these animals and their habitats, we’re not just protecting a species. We are safeguarding a link to our own evolutionary history - a history told through layers of sound, rhythm, and meaning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-research-in-primates">Language research in primates</h2>



Dr. De Gregorio and her team have opened a door to new questions. How widespread is recursion among non-human primates? Do other species use similar vocal structures?



For now, the calls of Sumatran orangutans echo through the forest, carrying a message that’s both ancient and new. And in those layered rhythms, we might just hear the distant roots of our own language, reverberating through time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/nyas.15373" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Orangutans use complex vocal patterns found in human language

Language is often considered the hallmark of human intelligence, a...

An octopus taking a piggyback ride on a shark might sound like a tall tale. Yet a surprising video from the waters near New Zealand has given ocean-watchers cause to scratch their heads.



Marine biology professor <a href="https://profiles.auckland.ac.nz/r-constantine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rochelle Constantine</a> from the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a> was on hand to document this unusual sight. 



She spotted a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-ringed-octopus-a-master-of-deception-inspires-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright octopus</a> clinging to a powerful <a href="https://oceana.org/marine-life/shortfin-mako-shark/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shortfin mako</a> shark, the fastest of its kind in open ocean waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-octopuses-aren-t-typically-friends">Sharks and octopuses aren't typically friends</h2>



This get-together was no mild meeting of acquaintances. The shark was swimming along without appearing bothered by its unusual passenger, while the octopus held on with all of its eight arms.



"The ocean is filled with unexpected things," stated Constantine, in a <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2025/03/11/sharks-.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> shared after the research trip. Reports suggest the creature stuck close to the shark’s dorsal area.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-helped-catch-the-octopus-ride">Technology helped catch the octopus ride</h2>



Without modern tools, this strange event would’ve gone unnoticed. The research team launched a drone and used a GoPro to get a clear view of what was really on the shark’s back.



Drones and waterproof cameras have become essential equipment for marine science. They let researchers monitor wildlife safely and document rare behaviors without disturbing the animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shortfin-mako-s-swift-reputation">Shortfin mako’s swift reputation</h2>



Many people find the shortfin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-global-photos-of-killer-whales-attacking-the-enigmatic-prickly-shark/">mako</a> shark intriguing. It holds the title for the highest speed among all sharks, clocking more than 40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour.



These sharks grow to impressive sizes, often stretching nearly 12 feet (3.7 meters). Their streamlined bodies and aerodynamic fins help them chase swift prey like tuna and even other sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-octopus-got-on-the-shark">How the octopus got on the shark</h2>



While sharks command plenty of attention, the octopus is no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turquets-octopus-dna-tells-scientists-that-west-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse-is-close/">minor figure</a>. Octopuses are known for their flexible bodies, color-changing abilities, and knack for staying out of harm’s way.



Scientists believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses sense vibrations</a> through the water, making them skilled at evading predators. 



Their soft tissues allow them to slip through narrow spaces, which raises questions about how one ended up on the back of a large shark.



Encounter stories like these usually come from hidden pockets of the ocean. This unexpected duo popped up near the northern coast of New Zealand’s North Island.



"Incredible moments like this remind us there is more we don’t know than we do," remarked Constantine. She and her team observed the hitchhiking octopus for a short while before it continued onward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-might-the-octopus-be-thinking">What might the octopus be thinking?</h2>



Octopuses have been seen using tools, escaping tight spots, and even unscrewing the lids of jars from the inside. 



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8499036/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> believe they have short-term memory and a basic sense of planning, which might suggest that this hitchhiking event wasn’t purely accidental.



Could the octopus have been hiding from a predator, or trying to explore a new environment? Researchers don’t yet know. 



But holding tight to a moving shark might have offered camouflage, faster travel, or just a brief break from danger in open waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Shortfin mako sharks face threats from commercial fishing and the global fin trade. They are listed as <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/39341/2903170" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.



Although efforts to regulate shark fishing exist, bycatch remains a major concern. Mako sharks reproduce slowly, so their numbers can’t easily recover after heavy fishing pressure.



Odd encounters can teach scientists new things about predator-prey behaviors. Sharks usually swim near the surface, while octopuses often stick to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/">seafloor</a>, which makes the partnership puzzling.



Data on these interspecies moments can hint at changes in ocean conditions, habitats, or species movements. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-seas-impair-octopus-vision-to-a-critical-extent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spotting an octopus</a> in open water might be a signal about local currents or unusual feeding patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-octopuses-grab-attention">Sharks and octopuses grab attention</h2>



When species behave in ways that don’t match typical patterns, it forces scientists to recheck assumptions. 



An octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-dropped-to-record-low-in-2024/">riding</a> a shark may seem like a one-off event, but it raises deeper questions about movement, interaction, and adaptability in marine life.



Unusual pairings like this one can highlight stressors in the ecosystem, such as food scarcity, habitat shifts, or climate-related disruption. 



Even a short encounter, captured by chance, might help piece together a larger puzzle about how animals are adjusting to human-altered oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



People sometimes label sharks as dangerous. Videos showing a calm mako might reshape how some view these agile hunters.



Similarly, an octopus is no simple <a href="https://videos.fisheries.noaa.gov/detail/videos/b-roll-packages---all/video/5231307735001/b-roll:-octopus-giant-pacific-research-in-alaska">creature</a>. Researchers have found them to be quite intelligent, capable of short-term problem-solving and playful exploration.



There is still much to learn about how often such hitchhikes happen or why they occur. Marine experts encourage curious minds to support healthy ecosystems by reducing pollution and changing harmful fishing methods.



"One of the best things about being a marine scientist is that you never know what you might see next in the sea," wrote Constantine. When wild animals surprise us, it can spark fresh interest in protecting them and their homes.



Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/3cYlBarkmDY?si=-NlGKY3j2HeJieCC" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch the video of an octopus riding a shark...</a>



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Octopus caught riding on the back of the world's fastest shark in the open ocean

An octopus taking a piggyback ride on a shark might...

Headshot,Of,Ant,Orange,In,The,Argentine,Jungle.,(linepithema,Humile)

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they own the place. They cross oceans inside cargo ships, set up vast super-colonies, and push out native species on six continents. 



Once a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nest of ants</a> settles in, homeowners and farmers often reach for poison baits, yet the insects lose interest before enough of them carry the toxic treat back home. 



A new study suggests that a tiny splash of caffeine could keep the party going - and give pest managers an edge.



The research shows that moderate doses of caffeine sharpen an ant’s memory for the bait’s location. Ants that sipped a caffeinated sugar drop found it again more quickly on later trips, leaving a stronger scent trail for nest-mates. 



The discovery points to a low-cost tweak that might finally turn the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invader’s own teamwork</a> against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-ant-huge-impact">Tiny ant, huge impact</h2>



The Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) is only about one-tenth of an inch long, yet its cooperative spirit builds super-colonies stretching thousands of miles along the Mediterranean coast and the U.S. West Coast. 



Those armies displace local insects, rob hummingbird feeders, and even short-circuit electrical gear. 



Recent economic analyses peg the global cost of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive ants</a> - including crop losses and control bills - at billions of dollars each year. No wonder pest crews keep searching for smarter tactics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-caffeine-to-ants">Giving caffeine to ants</h2>



To find out, researchers set up a miniature arena: a Lego drawbridge led each ant onto a letter-size acrylic platform where a single sugar drop waited. 



Some drops carried no additive, while others contained 25 parts per million (ppm), 250 ppm, or 2 000 ppm of caffeine. One hundred forty-two ants took part, and each explorer tackled the course four times.



“The idea with this project was to find some cognitive way of getting the ants to consume more of the poisonous baits we put in the field,” says the study’s first author Henrique Galante, a computational biologist at the <a href="https://www.uni-regensburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Regensburg</a>. 



Automated cameras tracked every step, logging travel time and the straightness of each path. Without caffeine, the insects wandered, needing the same span to reach the treat on every attempt. Add a modest stimulant, and the story changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-gives-ant-focus-not-speed">Caffeine gives ant focus, not speed</h2>



“We found that intermediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-evolution-in-plants-the-surprising-story-of-yerba-mate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doses of caffeine</a> actually boost learning - when you give them a bit of caffeine, it pushes them into having straighter paths and being able to reach the reward faster," Galante explained.



In fact, ants that tasted 25 ppm caffeine shaved 28 percent off their foraging time on every return. Those on 250 ppm cut the clock by 38 percent. 



Picture an individual that spent 300 seconds during its first outing - it would need just 113 seconds after three more trips on the lower dose and 54 seconds on the medium dose.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The stimulant</a> did not act like an energy drink. There was no uptick in raw speed. “What we see is that they're not moving faster, they're just being more focused on where they're going,” Galante noted. 



“This suggests that they know where they want to go, therefore, they have learned the locations of the reward.” 



Only path geometry tightened; pace stayed the same. At the heaviest 2 000 ppm dose - the level that kills half of honeybees in tests - the learning advantage disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharper-trails-deadlier-bait">Sharper trails, deadlier bait</h2>



Argentine ants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheromone highways</a>. A worker that discovers food drags its stinger along the ground, laying a chemical breadcrumb trail that guides the next shift. Faster relearning multiplies that effect. 



“We're trying to make them better at finding these baits, because the faster they go and come back to them, the more pheromone trails they lay, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more ants will come</a>, and, therefore, the faster they will spread the poison in the colony before they realize it's poison,” Galante continued.



Adding caffeine could also slash the waste that now limits bait stations. In neighborhoods and orchards, technicians often replenish gels every few days because the first wave of foragers gives up. 



A caffeinated lure might stay attractive long enough for queens and larvae to receive a lethal serving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The team is already field-testing the recipe at infested sites in Spain. They also plan to check whether caffeine interacts with common active ingredients such as hydramethylnon or spinosad. 



“The lowest dose we used is what you find in natural plants, the intermediate dose is similar to what you would find in some energy drinks, and the highest amount is set to be the LD50 of bees - where half the bees fed this dose die - so it's likely to be quite toxic for them,” Galante notes. 



Selecting a concentration that boosts memory without harming pollinators will be crucial.



Caffeine’s appeal extends beyond Argentine ants. Other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> - including fire ants and big-headed ants - share the same food-sharing habits that make baiting tricky. 



If the stimulant nudges their neural circuits in a similar way, managers could deploy a single additive across multiple pest fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-learned-about-ants-and-caffeine">What we learned about ants and caffeine</h2>



To sum it all up, caffeine improves ants' overall focus and learning without increasing speed, allowing them to navigate straighter paths and lay stronger pheromone trails. 



This effect boosts the effectiveness of bait traps, leading more ants to the poison and increasing the chances of it spreading through the colony. 



However, the benefit peaks at moderate doses - very high levels eliminate the learning advantage and can be toxic. So, overall, caffeine makes ants better at foraging and sharing, which ironically makes them more vulnerable to well-designed pest control strategies.



For now, the message is simple: a dash of coffee in the buffet may turn an army’s fabled navigation skills against itself. When the ants get better at remembering dessert, the colony’s days could finally be numbered.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01157-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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When you give caffeine to ants, many interesting things happen

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they...

Orange cats are everywhere, from the iconic character Garfield to the independent tabby lounging in the sun. But what gives orange cats their signature color? For decades, the answer remained a mystery to scientists.



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.med.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Medicine</a> and <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a> have cracked the code. The answer lies in a gene called Arhgap36. This gene behaves strangely in orange cats, turning their fur a vivid shade of orange.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-orange-cats-are-rare">Why orange cats are rare</h2>



Scientists have known for years that the orange trait in cats is linked to the X chromosome. Male cats, with their single X chromosome, only need one copy of the gene to flaunt their ginger fur. 



Females, however, require two copies to be completely orange. Otherwise, they become calicos or tortoiseshells, their fur a patchwork of orange, black, and white.



“In a number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bengal-cats-wild-appearance-is-surprisingly-tied-to-domestic-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that have yellow or orange pigment, those mutations almost exclusively occur in one of two genes, and neither of those genes are sex-linked,” explained Christopher Kaelin, a senior scientist in genetics and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-mystery-of-cat-colors">Genetic mystery of cat colors</h2>



Kaelin and his team had a hunch the answer was related to the X chromosome. But which gene? They collected DNA samples from spay and neuter clinics, comparing orange cats to non-orange cats. 



After analyzing the genomes, the researchers found 51 genetic variants that could explain the orange trait. They narrowed it down to three. 



One stood out: Arhgap36. A tiny deletion in this gene cranked up its activity in pigment cells. Normally, Arhgap36 keeps a low profile, mainly operating in nerve tissues and cancer cells. But in orange cats, it’s louder than a kitten demanding breakfast.



“Arhgap36 is not expressed in mouse pigment cells, in human pigment cells or in cat pigment cells from non-orange cats,” Kaelin said. 



“The mutation in orange cats seems to turn on Arhgap36 expression in a cell type, the pigment cell, where it’s not normally expressed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orange-cats-are-usually-male">Orange cats are usually male</h2>



Orange cats are predominantly male, and it all comes down to the X chromosome. Males have one X and one Y chromosome. If that X carries the orange gene, they’re entirely orange. 



Females, with two X chromosomes, need the orange <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> on both to sport a solid ginger coat. If a female inherits only one copy, she becomes a mosaic of orange and black.



This randomness creates the striking tortoiseshell and calico patterns. Some cells activate the orange gene, while others activate the black gene. The result? A coat that’s as unpredictable as a cat’s mood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-genetic-breakthrough">A shared genetic breakthrough</h2>



While Stanford scientists zeroed in on Arhgap36, researchers at Kyushu University pursued a parallel investigation. Professor Hiroyuki Sasaki and his team examined DNA from 18 cats including 10 that were orange. The findings matched those at Stanford.



“This was such strong evidence that even at this stage, we were confident that Arhgap36 was the orange gene,” said Sasaki.



The researchers expanded their study, analyzing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-dna-damage-requires-constant-repair-by-cells-to-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> from 49 more cats, and the same pattern emerged. The Arhgap36 deletion consistently appeared in orange cats but not in others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-orange-fur">Origins of orange fur</h2>



Where did this mutation come from? Kaelin believes it emerged early in domestication. Ancient paintings dating back to the 12th century depict calico cats, suggesting the mutation is centuries old.



“This is something that arose in the domestic cat, probably early on in the domestication process,” Kaelin said.



Sasaki wants to dig deeper. He plans to study ancient Egyptian cat mummies, searching for the orange gene. The goal? To pinpoint when and where the mutation first appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-gene-beyond-fur">Looking at the gene beyond fur</h2>



Arhgap36 isn’t just about orange fur. In other animals, it’s linked to cancer and nerve development. Could it affect more than just a cat’s coat? Sasaki thinks so.



“For example, many cat owners swear by the idea that different coat colors and patterns are linked with different personalities,” he said. “There’s no scientific evidence for this yet, but it’s an intriguing idea and one I’d love to explore further.”



The gene could also impact brain and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-holds-the-keys-to-both-your-heart-and-your-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hormone</a> function. Sasaki’s team found the gene active in several tissues, not just skin cells. Whether this activity alters behavior or health is still a mystery.



The discovery of Arhgap36 as the orange gene is just the beginning. Sasaki and Kaelin plan to investigate how the gene influences pigment production. 



The experts are also exploring its role in cancer and skin conditions, hoping to uncover broader implications for both cats and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orange-cat-mystery-solved">Orange cat mystery solved</h2>



For over a century, the orange gene remained a mystery, hiding in plain sight. Now, with the discovery of Arhgap36, scientists are one step closer to understanding how cats get their colors. But the story isn’t over.



Sasaki’s ultimate goal is to recreate the mutation in cat cell cultures, observing its effects in real time. Meanwhile, Kaelin wants to map out the entire molecular pathway, tracing how a simple gene deletion transforms a basic pigment cell into a beacon of orange fur.



From the dusty streets of ancient Egypt to the modern lab, orange cats have carried this genetic quirk for centuries. And as researchers continue to peel back the layers of DNA, the secrets of these fiery felines may prove to be more profound than anyone imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00391-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Why are some cats orange? Scientists have finally found the answer

Orange cats are everywhere, from the iconic character Garfield to...

Every third Friday of May, we pause to recognize the fragile existence of endangered species. We share the planet with countless animals, plants, and insects. Yet, many of them are vanishing right before our eyes. National Endangered Species Day urges us to take action before it’s too late.



The day was established in 2006 by the U.S. Congress to raise awareness about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> at risk of extinction. But the issue goes back decades. Laws to protect endangered species have been around for over 40 years.



Today, the urgency remains the same. Species are still disappearing, and their habitats are under threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-species-endangered">What makes a species endangered?</h2>



When the last of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> vanishes, it’s gone forever. Endangered species hover dangerously close to that fate. Their numbers are so low that every birth counts, every death matters. Some hover in the thousands, others in the hundreds, and a few are down to mere tens.



Why do species disappear? The reasons are many. Habitat loss drives some to extinction. Climate change alters their environment, making it uninhabitable. Poaching and illegal trade push animals like rhinos and elephants to the brink.



Pollution seeps into ecosystems, poisoning marine life and birds. And sometimes, humans disrupt delicate ecosystems without realizing the consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ripple-effect-of-extinction">The ripple effect of extinction</h2>



When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> vanishes, it doesn’t go quietly. The loss ripples through ecosystems. A predator disappears, and prey populations explode. Plants die off, and animals lose their food source. The web of life is fragile, and every species has a role.



Take pollinators, for instance. Bees, butterflies, and bats help plants reproduce. If they disappear, crops fail, and food chains collapse. The same goes for apex predators. 



When wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone, they restored balance by controlling deer populations. When keystone species vanish, chaos follows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-past">Learning from the past</h2>



In the early 1970s, the Endangered Species Act set strict guidelines for protecting at-risk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-the-largest-threat-to-u-s-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in the United States. It prohibited activities that could harm these animals and their habitats. It also laid the groundwork for conservation efforts worldwide.



Since then, thousands of species have been added to endangered lists. Some, like the bald eagle, have made remarkable recoveries. Others, like the vaquita porpoise, remain on the brink.



Today, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) tracks endangered species globally. Its Red List reveals a grim reality. Over 41,000 species face extinction. That includes more than a quarter of all mammals, one in eight birds, and a staggering 40% of amphibians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-action-on-endangered-species-day">Taking action on Endangered Species Day</h2>



National Endangered Species Day isn’t just about learning facts and figures. It’s about taking action. Conservation organizations host events, workshops, and fundraisers. Many zoos and nature centers offer guided tours, showing visitors how they care for endangered animals.



Some activities are simple yet impactful. Share photos of endangered species on social media. Spread the word about why these creatures matter. Support local conservation projects. 



Even small actions, like planting native flowers for bees or reducing plastic waste, can help protect fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-endangered-species-with-tech">Exploring endangered species with tech</h2>



Technology brings endangered species closer to home. Apps like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a> engage people in documenting local wildlife, creating snapshots of biodiversity in real time.



With EarthSnap, users can photograph plants and animals to identify species, contributing to a growing database of endangered life forms. This information becomes valuable data for conservationists tracking population changes and habitat loss. 



Meanwhile, virtual reality experiences transport people to remote habitats, offering immersive glimpses of endangered ecosystems. By bringing these distant worlds closer, technology fosters connection and urgency - reminding us of what’s at stake if species continue to vanish.



Online databases like the IUCN Red List provide up-to-date information on endangered species. They reveal how many individuals remain, what threats they face, and what’s being done to save them. The goal is to make people aware - and inspire them to act.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-global-conservation-efforts">Supporting global conservation efforts</h2>



Conservation requires resources, time, and unwavering commitment. Organizations like the World Wildlife Federation and the <a href="https://janegoodall.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Goodall Institute</a> work tirelessly to protect endangered species. They fund anti-poaching efforts, rehabilitate injured animals, and restore habitats.



Individuals can help too. Donate to wildlife organizations. Volunteer at local conservation centers. Adopt sustainable habits such as using less plastic or buying sustainably sourced products. Every choice, no matter how small, can make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-worth-protecting">A future worth protecting</h2>



National Endangered Species Day reminds us that time is running out for many species. The fate of these animals, plants, and insects isn’t set in stone. We have the power to change their stories.



Saving endangered species isn’t just about protecting animals. It’s about preserving ecosystems, supporting biodiversity, and ensuring a balanced, thriving planet for future generations. And that future starts with us.



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National Endangered Species Day: Protecting life on the brink

Every third Friday of May, we pause to recognize the...

The discovery of a fossilized femur belonging to a cerapodan dinosaur has caused a stir, mainly because of its great age. The discovery team credits the fossilized partial left femur for rewriting the timeline of cerapodan evolution. 



Many dinosaur fans have heard of Tyrannosaurus, Velociraptor, and the famed Triceratops. Few people, however, know about the <a href="https://www.dinochecker.com/dinosaurfaqs/what-is-cerapoda" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cerapoda</a>, a group of plant-eating dinosaurs that once included creatures as varied as duck-billed hadrosaurs and horned ceratopsians. The new fossil find from Morocco may change that.



<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/people/susannah-maidment.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Susannah Maidment</a>, a paleontologist with the Natural History Museum, London, and the University of Birmingham, contributed to the analysis and presented an in-depth look at the significance of this dinosaur fossil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-a-hidden-dinosaur-chapter">Uncovering a hidden dinosaur chapter</h2>



Scientists have known cerapodans existed during the Late Jurassic Period and beyond, but older specimens were scarce. 



This new partial femur is about 165 million years old, making it the earliest body fossil of a cerapodan ever documented.



Paleontologists spotted unique features on the femur that matched traits seen only in cerapodans. They identified its distinct femoral head and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1017/S1477201907002271" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trochanter arrangement</a>, which suggests this dinosaur belongs in the same lineage as hadrosaurs and ceratopsians.&nbsp;



“Cerapoda is a diverse clade of ornithischian dinosaurs with a global distribution,” said Dr. Maidment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



Some of the footprints left in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234025996_Dinosaur_Distribution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middle Jurassic</a> rocks belong to cerapodans, indicating that they existed at that time. 



Yet the dinosaur fossils have mostly remained elusive. Now, a well-dated femur supports the idea that these dinosaurs had branched out sooner than once believed.



This single bone is important for another reason. It could fill in gaps about early cerapodan adaptations such as stance, limb structure, and herbivorous feeding strategies, which shaped the success of later forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-fossil-femur-s-age">Confirming the fossil femur's age</h2>



Scientists examined the rock layers from the region. They used established geological markers to link the deposit to the Middle Jurassic, specifically around 165 million years ago. 



They then compared that data with previous knowledge of dinosaur-bearing rock layers, worldwide, to confirm the femur’s antiquity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_cerapode_femur_worlds-oldest_credit_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_ornithischian_small-herbivorous_fossil-bones_credit-Royal-Society_1s-1.webp" alt="The proximal femur of a cerapodan dinosaur from the El Mers III Formation of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Image credit: Maidment et al." class="wp-image-1969937"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The proximal femur of a cerapodan dinosaur from the El Mers III Formation of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Click image to enlarge. Image credit: Maidment et al.</figcaption></figure>



Paleontologists also matched the bone’s shape to known cerapodan traits. They ruled out earlier, or more primitive, ornithischians by analyzing the femoral head and trochanteric region. 



Their results support this dinosaur's place among the cerapodans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hoping-for-more-dinosaur-fossil-finds">Hoping for more dinosaur fossil finds</h2>



Experts suggest this find may be just the start. As field teams continue to search underexplored strata in Morocco, more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collagen-discovered-in-70-million-year-old-dinosaur-fossil/">remnants</a> of dinosaurs from the same era may emerge.



Hopes run high that better-preserved fossils will be discovered. Then scientists can figure out how these dinosaurs evolved from lean, bipedal ancestors into large-bodied herbivores with remarkable jaw structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots">Connecting the dots</h2>



<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/ornithischia/ornithischia.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithischian</a> dinosaurs, which include cerapodans, are recognized for having a hip structure distinct from other dinosaur groups. Their broad distribution hints at early adaptability in numerous environments worldwide.



But many segments of cerapodan history remain poorly understood. 



Each fossil from the Middle Jurassic helps scientists piece together their branching family tree, and bridges the gap between smaller, older ornithischians and the famous giants that came later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-insights-on-dinosaur-diversity">Fresh insights on dinosaur diversity</h2>



The Moroccan femur gives a rare glimpse into dinosaurs that laid groundwork for entire herds of plant-eaters in the Cretaceous. 



Researchers see these early cerapodans as nimble browsers that paved the way for the robust quadrupeds of later ages.



The new evidence also suggests multiple herbivorous lineages diversified simultaneously. That might explain why cerapodans, alongside other plant-eating groups, grew so common in certain ancient ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-fossil-femur">Beyond the fossil femur</h2>



Paleontologists note how a single fossil can answer questions about dinosaur dispersal. North Africa likely served as a corridor for many species, showing how some lineages reached global prominence by the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270692144_Paleobiology_of_Herbivorous_Dinosaurs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Jurassic</a>.



Though naming a new species from one fragment is impossible, the fossil stands as a teaser. Further excavations could reveal a fossilized skeleton with jaws, spine, or limb bones that clarify how these dinosaurs thrived in shifting environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-evolutionary-gaps">Bridging evolutionary gaps</h2>



This earliest-known cerapodan challenges assumptions about the tempo of dinosaur evolution. Until recently, the group’s best-dated fossils were usually found in younger rocks. 



The gap between the earliest cerapodans and their later, more famous relatives had proved a mystery.



A femur alone does not tell the whole story. Yet it indicates that cerapodan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/">dinosaurs</a> were expanding long before the Late Jurassic, and it pushes their known origins far deeper back in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-behavior-and-biology">Dinosaur behavior and biology</h2>



Cerapodans likely shared early traits like bipedal posture. Some later subgroups became quadrupeds, and evolved specialized jaws for processing tough vegetation. 



How they shifted their limb posture and feeding methods remains one of paleontology’s key puzzles.



Continued study of limb bones could reveal transitional features. It might even show how rapidly cerapodans increased in size compared with their ancestors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture-of-jurassic-ecosystems">Bigger picture of Jurassic ecosystems</h2>



Each new fossil offers a snapshot of environments that existed roughly 165 million years ago. This cerapodan bone indicates that certain ecological niches were already available to specialized plant-eaters at that time.



Paleontologists see the Middle Jurassic as a stage of experimentation among dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah-belong-to-multiple-species/">lineages</a>. The Moroccan femur provides evidence that these animals were more widespread and varied than previously thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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World's oldest ceropode has been found: A 165-million-year-old femur

The discovery of a fossilized femur belonging to a cerapodan...

Bees don’t just huddle together and hope for the best in winter - they constantly prepare. Bees rely on the right kind of food to keep them going, but it’s not just about how much pollen they store. It’s about how many different plants that pollen comes from.



Researchers at Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (<a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JMU</a>) have been digging into this idea. They’ve been looking at how pollen variety affects honeybee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a> when the temperature drops.



The study, part of the <a href="https://www.ictagrifood.eu/sites/default/files/BeeConnected%20-%20Project%20Seminar%202024%20presentation.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BeeConnected project</a>, reveals something surprising - more diverse pollen can mean the difference between life and death for bees in the winter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-pollen-as-a-lifeline-for-bees">Diverse pollen as a lifeline for bees</h2>



Think bees just eat anything sweet? Think again. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bees</a> need a balanced diet just like we do - proteins, vitamins, fats, and minerals. Pollen is packed with these nutrients, but not all pollen is the same.



“A rich and balanced diet not only ensures successful brood development, but it also promotes the overall health of the bee colony - and healthy bees are more resistant to stressors,” says Giulia Mainardi, a PhD student at JMU.



Bees in the study that feasted on a wide range of pollen in spring and autumn? They had a better shot at surviving the winter. It wasn’t just how much they ate - it was what they ate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-winter-bees-survive-harsh-months">How winter bees survive harsh months</h2>



Not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> are built for the cold. Summer bees live fast and die young. Winter bees are tough. They emerge in autumn, store more fat, and last through the cold months. But they need the right nutrition to develop strong bodies.



The researchers found that bees with access to diverse pollen sources before winter had stronger, healthier winter bees. 



These bees were more likely to keep the hive warm and resist diseases. It’s like a bee training camp - and the more diverse the diet, the better the soldiers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-blooming-and-where">What’s blooming and where?</h2>



The researchers didn’t just look at pollen. They looked at where it was coming from - farms, forests, cities. They tracked pollen collection in Germany, France, and Greece. They wanted to see how landscapes shaped pollen diversity.



In autumn, agricultural areas shined. Farmers planting flower strips, cover crops, and using organic methods provided a surprising variety of pollen.



“We found that areas with high agricultural use provide bees with a higher diversity of pollen in autumn. This is probably also due to agro-environmental measures such as organic farming, flower strips and intercropping,” said Mainardi.



But in summer, the story flipped. Semi-natural areas, full of wild plants, had the edge. Bees foraging in these zones found a richer mix of pollen. Agricultural lands, by then, were tapped out - fields harvested, flowers gone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollen-diversity-matters-for-bees">Why pollen diversity matters for bees</h2>



It wasn’t all about pollen, though. The researchers also looked at weather. Could more foraging days in warmer weather boost survival? Not as much as they thought.



The real game changer was pollen diversity. Even when the weather was harsh, bees with access to varied pollen survived better than those without.



“Our results underpin that the survival of colonies during winter depends not only on parasites like the Varroa mite and bad weather conditions but also on the quality of food resources,” said Steffan-Dewenter.



Warm winters might seem like a good thing. But for bees, it can be a double-edged sword. More mild days mean more foraging - but also more food burned through. Bees need enough pollen stored to handle those extra days of activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-can-provide-essential-pollen">Farms can provide essential pollen</h2>



When people think of farms, they don’t always think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator</a> havens. But the study found something surprising - farms can actually help bees, especially in autumn.



In agricultural landscapes, diverse flowering plants provided crucial late-season pollen. Organic farms, cover crops, and flower strips acted like a bee buffet, serving up a mix of nutrient-rich pollen just when bees needed it most.



But summer told a different story. Bees in semi-natural areas had the upper hand, with wild plants blooming after crops had finished flowering. It was a stark reminder - what works in one season may not work in another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-pollen-benefits-beyond-bees">Diverse pollen benefits beyond bees</h2>



Honeybees aren’t the only ones that benefit from diverse pollen. Other pollinators - bumblebees, butterflies, and solitary bees - need varied food sources too. Diverse landscapes feed them all, keeping pollinator populations strong.



Farmers stand to gain, too. Pollinators are essential for crops. No bees, no fruit. No bees, fewer seeds. Ensuring a steady supply of diverse pollen keeps bees healthy and helps farmers harvest better crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-it-and-they-will-thrive">Plant it and they will thrive</h2>



So, what now? The researchers’ advice is simple - plant more flowers, and plant more kinds of them. Not just in spring, not just in summer - bees need variety all year long.



Beekeepers should choose locations with diverse floral landscapes. Farmers can add cover crops and flower strips. For conservationists, protecting wild habitats can boost plant diversity.



Winter survival is more than just weathering the cold. It’s about what bees eat before the snow falls. And the more variety they get, the better their chances of seeing spring.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>. 



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Bee survival depends on more than just pollen abundance

Bees don’t just huddle together and hope for the best...

Ancient fossils are challenging what we thought we knew about the evolution of tree frogs in the Southern Hemisphere. The tiny creature, unearthed from southeastern Queensland, is changing the estimated timeline by tens of millions of years.



Scientists at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a> have identified Litoria tylerantiqua as Australia’s earliest known tree frog, pushing the family’s history back to around 55 million years ago.



This is far earlier than the previously accepted date of 33 million years for when Australian and South American tree frogs were believed to have split on the evolutionary tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-tree-frog-history">Rewriting tree frog history</h2>



Back when Litoria tylerantiqua was alive, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were still connected by the remnants of the ancient supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>. The world was warmer. Forests stretched between continents, giving animals room to spread across vast, green corridors.



Until now, the earliest known Australian tree frogs came from the Late Oligocene (about 26 million years ago) and the Early Miocene (around 23 million years ago). 



Fossils found at Kangaroo Well in the Northern Territory, Lake Palankarinna in South Australia, and the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in Queensland supported this timeline.



But the Murgon fossils - discovered on the traditional lands of the Waka Waka people - tell a different story. They show that these frogs were hopping around Australia 30 million years earlier than previously thought.



“Our research indicates that that date is at least 22 million years too young,” said Dr. Roy Farman. 



“While molecular studies are important for understanding the evolutionary relationships of different groups of animals, these studies should be calibrated using knowledge from the fossil record and in this case the fossil record provides a more accurate time for separation of the southern world’s tree frogs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-tree-frog-with-honor">Naming the tree frog with honor</h2>



The new species was named Litoria tylerantiqua to honor the late Michael Tyler, one of the first experts to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/color-evolution-ginger-pigment-found-in-10-million-year-old-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog fossils</a> in the country.



“It is only fitting to name Australia’s earliest tree frog in honor of a man who was a giant in Australian frog research and in particular the first to explore the fossil record for Australian frogs,” said Dr. Farman.



To figure out where this ancient frog fits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, the researchers had to overcome a major hurdle. The frog’s pelvic bones, key to identifying species, were not visible in preserved specimens.



“We had a real problem at the start of this study because the pelvic bones of most living frogs were invisible inside whole pickled frogs rather than available for study as skeletons,” noted Dr. Farman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-models-of-museum-specimens">Models of museum specimens</h2>



Most museums want to keep specimens intact for DNA studies, which meant the team couldn’t just remove and study the bones. Instead, they turned to technology. 



Using CT scans, the experts created 3D models of museum specimens, revealing hidden skeletons without harming the frogs.



“Using these cutting-edge investigative methods, we were able to determine from the shape of the fossil ilia - one of three bones that make up each side of the pelvis - that this new Murgon species of frog is more closely related to the Australian tree frogs (pelodryadids) than the South American tree frogs (phyllomedusids),” said Dr. Farman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-past">Lessons from the past</h2>



Litoria tylerantiqua now joins Platyplectrum casca (formerly Lechriodus casca), another Murgon fossil, as one of the oldest frogs ever found in Australia. Both have modern relatives still living today in Australia and New Guinea.



“Despite their delicate nature, frogs have been surprisingly successful at surviving several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass extinction</a> events since their origins about 250 million years ago, including the mass extinction 66 million years ago that took out the non-flying dinosaurs,” said Dr. Farman.



Today, many frogs face serious threats. Climate change, habitat loss, and diseases like chytrid fungus are wiping out populations. But understanding how frogs adapted and survived in the past might help scientists protect them now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-trees-frogs-survived">Understanding how trees frogs survived</h2>



“Although global extinction events triggered by human activities - such as rapid climate change and the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chytrid fungus</a> - may be among the worst challenges frogs have had to face, the fossil record could reveal how some frog groups overcame previous challenges, perhaps by adapting to new, less-threatening habitats," said Dr. Farman. 



"This could provide clues about how we might be able to help by translocating some threatened frogs into more future-secure habitats."



One example is the southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australians-are-unaware-of-their-most-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corroboree frog</a>, now struggling in its current environment. If fossil records show similar frogs once thrived in different settings, scientists may be able to relocate modern frogs to safer places.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Fossil discovery pushes tree frog origins back 55 million years

Ancient fossils are challenging what we thought we knew about...

In Uganda’s Budongo Forest, chimpanzees are doing more than just surviving. They’re treating their wounds with plants, cleaning each other’s injuries, and pulling snares off their companions’ limbs. 



These behaviors, documented in a new study, hint at something profound. Perhaps the roots of human medicine run deeper than we thought.



Elodie Freymann, a researcher from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the study’s lead author, believes these findings offer a fresh perspective on how our ancestors might have first learned to care for wounds. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-mix-vocal-calls-to-create-new-meanings-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a> are helping each other out. They’re capable of identifying others in need and then addressing those specific needs,” Freymann said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-treat-wounds">How chimpanzees treat wounds</h2>



For eight months, researchers watched two chimpanzee communities in Budongo - Sonso and Waibira. Injuries were common, from bites and scratches to deadly snares left by humans.



In Sonso alone, nearly 40% of the chimps bore snare scars. Freymann and her team saw twelve injuries in Sonso and five in Waibira during the study period. The injured chimps weren’t just tending to their own wounds. They were also helping each other.



A male chimp named KT managed to pull a nylon snare off his wrist. Another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee</a>, HW, licked the wound of a female after she had been attacked. 



In yet another case, a juvenile female chewed leaves, dabbed them onto her mother’s wounds, then licked her fingers and pressed them onto the injured area. This behavior wasn’t isolated to relatives. In four instances, chimps helped others unrelated to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-recognize-medicinal-plants">Chimpanzees recognize medicinal plants </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-wild-chimpanzees-can-teach-us-about-parenting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a> don’t just grab any leaf when they get hurt. They seem to know which plants help wounds heal. 



Freymann’s team documented several plant species used in wound care. Acalypha sp., for example, is known for its antimicrobial properties. Pseudospondias microcarpa has a reputation for soothing pain and reducing inflammation.



One chimp chewed Acalypha leaves, then pressed the pulp onto a cut. Another used Lasiodiscus pervillei leaves to wipe away dirt and blood. 



A juvenile male named KO even mashed the stem bark of Argomuellera macrophylla and rubbed it into a wound on his leg. The behavior mirrored traditional African medicine, where these plants treat everything from skin infections to digestive issues.



“It’s likely that our shared common ancestor also would have been capable of these care behaviors as well,” Freymann noted. If chimps know which plants heal wounds, maybe early humans learned from them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-social-side-of-care">The social side of care</h2>



Prosocial care - helping others - is rare among non-human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. But Budongo’s chimps are doing it. During the study, researchers documented seven cases of one chimp helping another. In three of these instances, the caregiver and the injured chimp were unrelated.



A male chimp named ZG licked the blood off a female’s wound after she was attacked by other chimps. In another case, NT, a juvenile female, watched her mother chew leaves and press them onto a wound. NT then did the same, imitating her mother’s technique.



Freymann sees this as evidence that chimps aren’t just mimicking; they’re actively learning. 



“Our research helps illuminate the evolutionary roots of human medicine and healthcare systems,” said Freymann. “By documenting how chimpanzees identify and utilize medicinal plants and provide care to others, we gain insight into the cognitive and social foundations of human healthcare behaviors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-chimpanzee-healthcare">Threats to chimpanzee healthcare</h2>



Chimpanzees in Budongo face a constant threat from human snares. Nearly 40% of the Sonso chimps bear scars from these traps. 



Freymann’s team observed multiple instances of snare removal, some self-directed and others involving help from group members. But the danger remains.



The findings also suggest that chimpanzees in Budongo, Gabon, and other regions might share similar care behaviors. This could mean that these practices are widespread, not isolated. But there’s still much to learn.



For Freymann, the implications extend beyond chimpanzees and their use of plants. Observing how these primates use plants for healing might provide clues for new medicinal compounds. 



“If we want to hone in on these amazing medicinal resources, watching and learning from the animals is an incredibly effective way to do it if it’s done ethically and responsibly,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-plant-medicine-from-chimpanzees">Learning plant medicine from chimpanzees</h2>



The study doesn’t just document chimpanzee healthcare. It challenges how we think about the origins of medicine. Watching chimps chew leaves and press them onto wounds, it’s easy to imagine early humans doing the same. Maybe they learned from the chimps. Maybe they figured it out together.



Budongo’s chimpanzees aren’t doctors, but they are healers. And in their actions, we might find the echoes of our own ancient medical traditions.



Freymann’s work reminds us that medicine is not just a human invention. It might be a shared legacy, passed down from ancestors who walked the forests long before us.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2025.1540922/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Evolution and Ecology</a>.



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Chimpanzees know which plants to use for healing wounds

In Uganda’s Budongo Forest, chimpanzees are doing more than just...

Yellowstone’s seething terraces and steaming pools draw visitors for their color and heat, but to microbiologists they offer something else: a peek at the sort of place where the earliest stirrings of life may have taken hold in the form of giant viruses.



One acidic creek in the park, forever gurgling around 112 °F, has now revealed an unexpected cast of microbial giants that could have nudged evolution along.



Giant viruses found in Yellowstone's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-springs-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-emergence-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hot springs</a> - organisms so large they sometimes escape standard filters - have been turning up in many odd corners of the planet. Yet their role in shaping early ecosystems has remained hazy. 



A fresh look at a green algal mat in Yellowstone suggests these outsized invaders were not latecomers but long-standing residents whose presence dates back a billion-plus years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-s-living-time-capsules">Yellowstone’s living time capsules</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shanay-timpishka-river-amazon-rainforest-is-so-hot-that-it-literally-boils-destroying-nearby-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hot springs</a> change, dry up and reappear over geological time, but each one preserves chemical and physical traits once common on early Earth. 



The creek known as Lemonade runs through a narrow channel lined with bright-green filaments of red algae, or Rhodophyta. In water that hits pH 2, those algae thrive alongside sulfur-loving microbes that shrug off toxins such as arsenic.



After skimming DNA from the mat, nearby soil and the spaces between stones, researchers filtered out familiar bacterial, archaeal and algal sequences. 



Roughly 3,700 potential viral fragments remained, and almost two-thirds belonged to the giant class. Computer sleuthing pieced together most of the genomes of about 25 distinct viruses. 



“The connections between the viruses and [their hosts] are ancient,” <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rutgers University</a> genome scientist Debashish Bhattacharya explains, pointing to proteins whose tightly packed shapes suit a habitat that seldom cools below 112 °F.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-viruses-and-yellowstone-hot-springs">Giant viruses and Yellowstone hot springs</h2>



Giant-virus DNA carries the same three-letter code preferences as other creek dwellers, signaling a long residence rather than a recent arrival from cooler pools. 



When the team built a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-microbial-ancestors-developed-virus-defenses-one-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viral family tree</a>, the Lemonade Creek line split near the very base, implying the partnership with red algae may stretch back 1.5 billion years. 



“Understanding ancient virus evolution may be key to our understanding of [life’s] early developments,” notes Simon Roux, a microbiologist at the Department of Energy’s <a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joint Genome Institute</a> who was not involved in the work.



Many hot-spring inhabitants borrow genes to cope with heat and toxins. Exactly how a complex eukaryote such as algae grabs DNA from simple bacteria has puzzled biochemists. 



Andreas Weber, a biochemist at <a href="https://www.hhu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf</a>, calls hot springs “time capsules that provide a window into early eukaryotic life.” 



He suspects giant viruses act as middlemen, grabbing genes from bacteria or archaea, then handing them to the algae they infect. 



In that shuttle role, “the viruses likely play an important role in the long-term stability of the hot spring communities,” he adds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-separate-worlds-inches-apart">Separate worlds inches apart</h2>



Sampling revealed three viral neighborhoods: one on the algal mat, one in adjacent soil and one wedged between rocks. 



“I would have thought that there would be more exchange between neighboring sites that are sometimes only a few centimeters apart,” Weber admits. 



Their isolation “points out how little we really know about the diversity and role of viruses in microbial communities,” observes Mark Young, an environmental virologist emeritus at <a href="https://www.montana.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Montana State University</a> who was not involved with the work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-yellowstone-s-giant-viruses-matter">Why Yellowstone's giant viruses matter</h2>



Giant viruses are not the only curiosities to surface in the park. Scientists George Rice and Mark Young spotted another virus drifting among heat-loving archaea in the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/places/000/midway-geyser-basin-trailhead.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Midway Geyser Basin</a>. 



Archaea are thermophiles that flourish in pools between 158 °F and 197 °F and at pH values as low as 1; they have yielded just 36 viruses out of more than 5,000 known. 



"Anywhere there's life, we expect viruses," Young says, stressing how protected reserves aid such finds. 



"This is a stellar example of why we need places that are protected for scientists to come in and look for new discoveries," park geologist Hank Heasler agrees.



Rice’s team reported that the Yellowstone virus’s protein shell resembles coats from viruses that infect bacteria and animals. 



"Thermophiles are deeply rooted in the tree of life," Young notes, hinting that the virus predates the split between bacteria, archaea and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oldest-organisms-ever-discovered-show-dazzling-diversity-and-complexity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eukaryotes</a> roughly 3.5 billion years ago. Genetic work backs the idea. 



"The genes look different [from those of other viruses] so they probably do different things," Rice says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viruses-and-the-search-for-alien-life">Viruses and the search for alien life</h2>



Viruses shuttle genes with abandon. "They're not just a passenger," Young emphasizes. "They are the major source of biological material on this planet. They have a huge role in moving genes around." 



That talent intrigues astrobiologists: "If we're going to go to non-Earth-based bodies to look for life, this discovery gives <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> an approach for looking for life in hot-temperature environments, which we know to exist off of Earth," Young points out. 



Enzymes that stay stable in boiling water could also feed medical diagnostics or industrial reactions that now falter under heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-learned-from-yellowstone-s-giant-viruses">Lessons learned from Yellowstone's giant viruses</h2>



The story flowing from a modest creek in Yellowstone widens our picture of life’s early days. 



Giant viruses, once dismissed as curiosities, appear to have stood shoulder to shoulder with the first eukaryotes, swapping genes, recycling nutrients and carving out niches even when resources were scarce. 



On a planet where every drop of hot water seems to shelter a unique community, each discovery reminds us how much more waits beneath the steam.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-05931-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Giant viruses found in Yellowstone's hot springs may be near the root of all life on Earth

Yellowstone’s seething terraces and steaming pools draw visitors for their...

The origin of reptiles on Earth has been pushed back by an astonishing 40 million years. Fossilized tracks unearthed in Australia provide compelling evidence that reptile-like animals existed far earlier than previously thought. 



This finding challenges long-held assumptions about the evolution of tetrapods, the group that includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



A team led by John Long, a professor at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, discovered fossilized tracks of an amniote with clawed feet, dating to approximately 350 million years ago.



The tracks, found in the Mansfield district of northern Victoria, indicate that amniotes – a group that includes reptiles – were present in the Carboniferous period, much earlier than established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">records</a> in the Northern Hemisphere.



“Once we identified this, we realised this is the oldest evidence in the world of reptile-like animals walking around on land – and it pushes their evolution back by 35-to-40 million years older than the previous records in the Northern Hemisphere,” said Professor Long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-clawed-reptile-tracks-in-gondwana">First clawed reptile tracks in Gondwana</h2>



The track-bearing slab, discovered in Taungurung Country, belonged to the Snowy Plains Formation. 



The animal that left these tracks likely resembled a small, stumpy Goanna-like creature. With its clawed feet, this primitive sauropsid walked across what was once part of the ancient southern supercontinent, Gondwana.



“The implications of this discovery for the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of tetrapods are profound,” noted Professor Long. The finding suggests that stem-tetrapod and stem-amniote lineages began evolving in the Devonian period, much earlier than previously thought.



The rapid evolution of tetrapods during this period, combined with an incomplete fossil record, has obscured the true timeline of their emergence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-evolution-timeline-shifts-nbsp">Reptile evolution timeline shifts&nbsp;</h2>



The fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossil-contains-soft-tissue-preserved-for-183-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> of crown-group amniotes, which includes modern reptiles, birds, and mammals, was previously thought to begin in the Late Carboniferous, around 318 million years ago. 



Earlier estimates placed the emergence of crown-group tetrapods at 334 million years ago, with the oldest trackways dating back 353 million years.



However, the newly discovered Australian tracks, securely dated to the early Tournaisian, push the origin of crown-group amniotes back by 35 to 40 million years. This revised timeline suggests that tetrapod evolution proceeded faster and earlier than previously thought.



“We now present new trackway data from Australia that falsify this widely accepted timeline,” said Professor Long. The implications extend beyond the Australian site, challenging assumptions about the broader evolutionary history of tetrapods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-slab-holds-oldest-reptile-tracks">Fossil slab holds oldest reptile tracks</h2>



The sandstone slab, measuring about 50 cm across, carries the oldest known clawed footprints. The slab was discovered by two amateur palaeontologists, Craig Eury and John Eason, who initially thought the tracks belonged to early amphibians.



“When I saw this specimen for the first time, I was very surprised. After just a few seconds, I noticed that there were clearly preserved claw marks,” said Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki of <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>, co-author of the study.



According to Niedźwiedzki, claws are a distinct feature of early amniotes, almost never seen in other tetrapod groups. This characteristic suggests the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> that left these tracks was a primitive reptile, marking the earliest known evidence of clawed feet among tetrapods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-tracks-in-australia-and-poland">Reptile tracks in Australia and Poland</h2>



In addition to the Australian tracks, similar trackways have been identified in Silesia, Poland. These tracks, dated to the mid-Serpukhovian to early Bashkirian, are slightly younger than the Australian finds but also display claw impressions.



The Polish tracks extend the known range of Notalacerta into the early Carboniferous. This suggests that amniotes were present across both Gondwana and Euramerica much earlier than previously thought.



The Snowy Plains Formation likely dates to the early Tournaisian, approximately 358.9 to 354 million years ago. This pushes the origin of crown-group amniotes back significantly, indicating that tetrapods evolved more rapidly than previously estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-faster-reptile-evolution">Fossils reveal faster reptile evolution</h2>



To refine the evolutionary timeline, researchers combined fossil evidence with DNA analysis. Molecular data provide valuable insights into the relative timing of evolutionary events, particularly when the fossil record is incomplete.



“It’s all about the relative length of different branches in the tree,” said Per Ahlberg of Uppsala University. “This method helps us pinpoint evolutionary phases with a poor fossil record.”



By overlaying DNA branch lengths onto known fossil dates, the team estimated the age of the tetrapod crown-group node to be in the Devonian, contemporaneous with transitional 'fishapods' like Tiktaalik. This finding suggests that tetrapods diversified earlier and faster than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-previous-theories">Challenging previous theories</h2>



The Snowy Plains Formation trackway slab is more than just a piece of stone. It represents a pivotal moment in the history of life on Earth, a moment when reptiles first set clawed feet on land.



“A single track-bearing slab, which one person can lift, calls into question everything we thought we knew about when modern tetrapods evolved,” said Per Ahlberg. The slab, found in Taungurung Country, is now housed in Museums Victoria.



The tracks show a consistent foot morphology, with five slender digits splayed out in a fan shape. Claws are present on four digits, with the fifth digit carrying a shorter claw. 



The trackmaker’s hip-to-shoulder distance suggests a body length of approximately 80 cm, similar to that of a modern water monitor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-evidence-in-gondwana">Search for evidence in Gondwana</h2>



Mansfield, Victoria, has long been a hotspot for fossil discoveries. Since 1980, researchers have uncovered fossilized fish and sharks in the area, but finding terrestrial vertebrate tracks had remained elusive.



“The Mansfield area has produced many famous fossils, beginning with spectacular fossil fishes found 120 years ago, and ancient sharks. But the holy grail that we were always looking for was evidence of land animals,” explained Professor Long.



The Snowy Plains Formation trackways provide crucial evidence that reptiles and other amniotes were already present in Gondwana during the early Carboniferous. This challenges previous theories that placed the origin of amniotes solely in the Northern Hemisphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-evolution-a-broader-timeline">Reptile evolution: A broader timeline</h2>



The discovery of clawed tracks from the early Carboniferous has profound implications for the timeline of tetrapod evolution. It suggests that the tetrapod crown-group node must be located deep within the Devonian, not the Carboniferous as previously thought.



The findings also reveal that tetrapod evolution was a more rapid and complex process than previously recognized. The appearance of clawed amniotes in both Gondwana and Euramerica indicates that these groups may have evolved in parallel across different regions.



“This discovery rewrites this part of evolutionary history,” said Dr. Jillian Garvey of La Trobe University. “It indicates there is so much that has happened in Australia and Gondwana that we are still yet to uncover.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-fossil-research">The future of fossil research </h2>



While the Australian tracks provide valuable insights, they also raise new questions about the evolutionary history of reptiles. The fossil record in Gondwana remains incomplete, and future discoveries may further alter our understanding of when and where reptiles first emerged.



“The most interesting discoveries are yet to come and that there is still much to be found in the field,” said Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki. “These footprints from Australia are just one example of this.”



The Snowy Plains Formation slab stands as a powerful reminder that even a single piece of rock can reshape our understanding of the past. 



As researchers continue to search the Devonian and Carboniferous formations of Gondwana, the story of reptile evolution may undergo even more dramatic revisions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Marcin Ambrozik.



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Animal evolution theory turned upside down by new fossil discovery

The origin of reptiles on Earth has been pushed back...

A Middle Jurassic dinosaur has been unearthed 166 million years after it died. It was the size of a large dog and ate a vegetarian diet. The newly-uncovered juvenile from Scottish rocks is making waves among paleontology fans. 



This skeleton was first noticed decades ago but stayed in place due to tricky access along the Isle of Skye. It ended up being the first and most complete partial dinosaur <a href="http://earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skeleton</a> yet recognized from Scotland.



No one expected such an important specimen to lie overlooked for so long. Yet its remote position made collection efforts difficult until more recent years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tough-spot-for-fossil-hunting">A tough spot for fossil hunting</h2>



Getting this fossil out wasn’t easy. The skeleton was wedged into hard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-microbes-burrowed-into-rock-millions-of-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">limestone</a> along a rocky coastline, in a spot that is only reachable at low tide.



It took ropes, wedges, and even a motorboat to haul the block safely to a harbor. The team had to work under strict permits since the area is part of a protected <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protected-areas-sites-of-special-scientific-interest" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-curious-middle-jurassic-vegetarian-dinosaur">A curious, Middle Jurassic vegetarian dinosaur</h2>



Researchers have pieced together enough fossils to suggest that this creature reached roughly the size of a large dog and followed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-high-body-temperatures-often-become-herbivores/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivorous diet</a>. Its fragmentary but well-preserved bones indicate that it likely moved around on sturdy legs and feasted on vegetation.



“Dinosaurs from the Triassic and Early Jurassic were generally small, bipedal carnivores and omnivores, but by the Late Jurassic they had radiated into a highly diverse range of species that included some of the largest terrestrial vertebrates to ever walk the Earth,” observed <a href="https://www.nms.ac.uk/profile/dr-elsa-panciroli" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Elsa Panciroli</a>, a paleobiologist at National Museums Scotland. 



Although this creature remained modest in size, it lived during a period in which some dinosaurs were rapidly branching into new forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tapping-into-scarce-middle-jurassic-secrets">Tapping into scarce Middle Jurassic secrets</h2>



These <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/timeline/mid-jurassic/gallery.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middle Jurassic</a> deposits rarely give up well-preserved dinosaur skeletons. Many known specimens from that stretch of prehistory consist simply of fragmentary teeth or broken limb bones.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_ornithischian_small-herbivorous_extraction-process-montage_credit-Royal-Society_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_ornithischian_small-herbivorous_extraction-process-montage_credit-Royal-Society_1s.webp" alt="The process of extracting the dinosaur-bearing block: (a) the area of interest was supported by expanding eye bolts attached to a static anchor by slings, and a series of 25 mm diameter holes were drilled around this area; (b), plug-and-feather steel expanding wedges were inserted into the drill holes and struck with hammers in order to propagate cracks that separated the block from the rest of the pinnacle; (c–e) the detached block was lowered to the next level using a ratchet winch, and guided onto a board on a ramp constructed from 100 mm fencing posts onto the limestone pavement beneath; (f) the block was then secured to a wooden cradle by ratchet straps and carried over the beach to be loaded onto a rigid inflatable dinghy, which was towed (g) through Loch Scavaig to the landing jetty at Elgol; (h) the excavation team, from left to right: Roger Close, Brett Crawford, Stig Walsh (top), Andrzej Wolniewicz (bottom), Matt Fair, Elsa Panciroli, Richard Butler and Roger Benson. Photographs a-g by Elsa Panciroli." class="wp-image-1969758"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Click image to enlarge. The process of extracting the dinosaur-bearing block: (a) the area of interest was supported by expanding eye bolts attached to a static anchor by slings, and a series of 25 mm diameter holes were drilled around this area; (b), plug-and-feather steel expanding wedges were inserted into the drill holes and struck with hammers in order to propagate cracks that separated the block from the rest of the pinnacle; (c–e) the detached block was lowered to the next level using a ratchet winch, and guided onto a board on a ramp constructed from 100 mm fencing posts onto the limestone pavement beneath; (f) the block was then secured to a wooden cradle by ratchet straps and carried over the beach to be loaded onto a rigid inflatable dinghy, which was towed (g) through Loch Scavaig to the landing jetty at Elgol; (h) the excavation team, from left to right: Roger Close, Brett Crawford, Stig Walsh (top), Andrzej Wolniewicz (bottom), Matt Fair, Elsa Panciroli, Richard Butler and Roger Benson. Photographs a-g by Elsa Panciroli.</figcaption></figure>



Scientists crave more fossils from this interval to help fill gaps in dinosaur family trees. Every new example helps them map out when plant-eaters and meat-eaters evolved novel traits or reached record sizes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-dinosaur-fossil-fragment-matters">Every dinosaur fossil fragment matters</h2>



Experts analyzed the dinosaur’s skeletal features and found hints that it could belong to a group called <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/ornithischia/ornithischia.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithischian</a> dinosaurs. 



This clade includes many plant-eating forms that left footprints and sporadic remains, but few skeletons, from this geological slice.



“If the specimen does represent an ornithischian, as tentatively suggested from the partial ilium and histological sectioning, it represents the geologically youngest known occurrence in Scotland, and first from the Kilmaluag Formation,” shared Dr. Panciroli. 



Researchers plan to compare these fossils with similar plant-munching species to confirm its family ties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-middle-jurassic-dinosaur-research">Looking ahead: Middle Jurassic dinosaur research</h2>



New finds do more than scratch scientific curiosity. They paint a picture of how life in the Jurassic Period thrived, long before famous beasts like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stegosaurus</a> and giant sauropods reached towering heights.



Additional fieldwork is in the works, with paleontologists combing Scottish shores in hopes of spotting more hidden remains. They suspect there may be other small herbivores tucked away in the rugged rock layers of Skye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-jurassic-dinosaur-bones-reveal">What the Jurassic dinosaur bones reveal</h2>



The fossilized bone tissue showed clear signs of cyclical growth marks - rings laid down each year like those in trees. At least eight of these marks were visible, which suggests the dinosaur was eight years old, or older, when it died.



Despite its age, the creature hadn't yet reached full size. Its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bones</a> were still actively growing, though at a slower pace. Researchers believe it was a subadult, probably approaching maturity but not quite there yet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-dinosaur-might-change-the-timeline">Why this dinosaur might change the timeline</h2>



If the team’s identification holds, this could be the earliest known example of an <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/body-shape/large-ornithopod/gallery.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithopod</a>, a group of herbivorous Jurassic dinosaurs that later produced well-known species like Iguanodon and Hadrosaurus. That would shift back the clock on when these animals first appeared in the fossil record.



There’s even a chance it could be the oldest body fossil of an <a href="https://geology.utah.gov/map-pub/survey-notes/the-iguanodontians-of-early-cretaceous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iguanodontian</a>, a subgroup within ornithopods. Footprints have hinted at their presence this early, but until now, no bones backed this up.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/first-and-most-complete-dinosaur-skeleton-from-the-middle-jurassic-of-scotland/A738B17F5A78106E6B8C75D211153333" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Environmental Science</a>.



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Dog-sized baby dinosaur unearthed after 166 million years

A Middle Jurassic dinosaur has been unearthed 166 million years...

Paleontologists have identified a new finger-sized hunter from the Cambrian seas, whose fossils preserve eyes, nerves, gut, and even traces of blood.



The creature, named Mosura fentoni, prowled Canadian waters 506 million years ago and shows that early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golden-fossil-450-million-year-old-arthropod-found-inside-a-block-of-fools-gold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a> were diversifying in unexpected ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arthropod-fossil-found-in-rockies">Arthropod fossil found in Rockies</h2>



The research comes from an international team working with the <a href="https://manitobamuseum.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manitoba Museum</a> and the <a href="https://www.rom.on.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Ontario Museum</a> (ROM).



Over nearly five decades, collectors retrieved sixty-one specimens from Yoho and Kootenay National Parks. 



Most were lifted from Raymond Quarry; others came from the Marble Canyon area, which has yielded a flurry of spectacular Burgess Shale fossils.



The new study adds a fresh branch to the extinct radiodonts, a group that already includes the meter-long apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bastetodon-fearsome-predator-was-once-king-of-the-ancient-egyptian-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> Anomalocaris.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-mosura-fentoni-was-a-predator">Tiny Mosura fentoni was a predator</h2>



Mosura measured roughly the length of an index finger. Its head carried three eyes and a circular, toothed mouth. Jointed, spiny claws jutted forward to snatch prey, while broad swimming flaps rippled down each side of the body.



Collectors nicknamed it the “sea-moth” because the midsection flaps and narrow tail suggested the silhouette of a hovering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-defense-against-the-invasive-spongy-moth-is-fading/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moth</a>, a nod later echoed in the formal genus name, which references the Japanese film monster Mothra.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-abdomen">An unexpected abdomen</h2>



Radiodonts normally finish with a short, paddle-like tail, but Mosura breaks this pattern. “Mosura has sixteen tightly packed segments lined with gills at the rear end of its body," said study leader Joe Moysiuk, Curator of Palaeontology and Geology at the Manitoba Museum.



"This is a neat example of evolutionary convergence with modern groups, like horseshoe crabs, woodlice, and insects, which share a batch of segments bearing respiratory organs at the rear of the body,” 



The extra segments may have boosted oxygen uptake, hinting at a lifestyle or habitat that demanded efficient respiration, though the exact advantage remains unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nerves-preserved-in-mosura-fentoni">Nerves preserved in Mosura fentoni</h2>



Few places on Earth preserve soft anatomy as well as the Burgess Shale, and Mosura takes full advantage of that rarity.



“Very few fossil sites in the world offer this level of insight into soft internal anatomy," said co-author Jean-Bernard Caron, Curator of Invertebrate Palaeontology at ROM. 



"We can see traces representing bundles of nerves in the eyes that would have been involved in image processing - just like in living arthropods. The details are astounding.” 



The arthropod fossils also capture reflective patches that fill the trunk and extend into the flaps. These mark blood spaces, or lacunae, part of an ancient open circulatory system.



“The well-preserved lacunae of the circulatory system in Mosura help us to interpret similar but less clear features that we’ve seen before in other fossils. Their identity has been controversial,” added Moysiuk, who is also a research associate at ROM. 



“It turns out that preservation of these structures is widespread, confirming the ancient origin of this type of circulatory system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-arthropods-surprised-scientists">First arthropods surprised scientists</h2>



Radiodonts occupy the deepest branch on the arthropod family tree - well before the lineages that lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-gene-edited-spiders-spin-red-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, insects, or crabs.



“Radiodonts were the first group of arthropods to branch out in the evolutionary tree, so they provide key insight into ancestral traits for the entire group,” Caron explained. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mosura-fentoni_fossil_credit-Jean-Bernard-Caron_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mosura-fentoni_fossil_credit-Jean-Bernard-Caron_1s.webp" alt="Fossil specimen of Mosura fentoni, ROMIP 67520 from the Marble Canyon area. The head is at the left and the dark, three-dimensional bulges represent minerals replacing the gills and circulatory lacunae. Credit: Jean-Bernard Caron ROM" class="wp-image-1969739"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fossil specimen of Mosura fentoni, ROMIP 67520 from the Marble Canyon area. The head is at the left and the dark, three-dimensional bulges represent minerals replacing the gills and circulatory lacunae. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Jean-Bernard Caron ROM</figcaption></figure>



“The new species emphasizes that these early arthropods were already surprisingly diverse and were adapting in a comparable way to their distant modern relatives.”



The convergent abdomen of Mosura suggests that complex body regions bearing gills evolved more than once, long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worm-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-explains-insect-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> or crustaceans refined the same solution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fossil-treasure-trove">A fossil treasure trove</h2>



Of the sixty-one known specimens, all but one were collected by ROM teams between 1975 and 2022. The lone outlier was recovered a century earlier by Charles Walcott, discoverer of the Burgess Shale itself.



“Museum collections, old and new, are a bottomless treasure trove of information about the past. If you think you’ve seen it all before, you just need to open a museum drawer,” Moysiuk said.



Parks Canada manages the fossil sites and guides visitors on award-winning hikes. The Burgess Shale gained UNESCO World Heritage status in 1980 and now forms part of the broader Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks listing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosura-fentoni-expands-early-life-story">Mosura fentoni expands early life story</h2>



Specimens of many radiodonts, including the new “sea-moth,” are on display in Toronto’s <a href="https://www.rom.on.ca/whats-on/galleries/willner-madge-gallery-dawn-life" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Willner Madge Gallery: Dawn of Life</a>, while Mosura will make its public debut in Winnipeg later this year.



As curators prepare those showcases, researchers continue sifting through Burgess Shale slabs for still-undiscovered species. Each one fills another gap in the early history of animals, clarifying how complex bodies, limbs, and organ systems evolved.



The finger-sized Mosura fentoni reminds us that even the smallest arthropod fossil can overturn assumptions about life half a billion years ago - and that the archives of museums still hold many secrets waiting to be discovered.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.242122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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506-million-year-old predator used to swim the Cambrian seas

Paleontologists have identified a new finger-sized hunter from the Cambrian...

Young,Female,Tourist,In,Friendly,Contact,With,Cow,Met,In

City dwellers in the Netherlands have a curious way of clearing their heads. Rather than see a psychologist or seek therapy through other means, they hop on a train, ramble into the green lowlands, and hug a cow.



The practice, known as “koeknuffelen,” sounds quirky until you try it; within minutes most visitors feel their shoulders drop and their pulse slow.



Scientists have long suspected that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-cats-make-excellent-therapy-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal-assisted therapy</a> works in part because soft noses, steady heartbeats, and wordless company nudge our nervous system toward calm. 



Until now, almost every formal study has focused on dogs, cats, or the occasional rabbit. Cows, though, linger on the fringes - huge, sweet, and largely untested.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuddling-cows-as-therapy">Cuddling cows as therapy</h2>



Two researchers - Dr. Katherine Compitus of <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a> and Dr. Sonya Bierbower of the United States Military Academy at <a href="https://www.westpoint.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Point</a> - set out to change that. 



Their paper, “Cow Cuddling: Cognitive Considerations in Bovine-Assisted Therapy,” appears in the journal Human-Animal Interactions and may tip the field toward larger pasture-mates. 



Conducted at <a href="https://www.shsanctuary.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Surrey Hills Sanctuary</a> in New York State, the pilot project paired 11 volunteers, ages 13 to 79, with two mellow steers named Magnus and Callum.



The work used the 24-item <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312371308_HAIS_The_Human-Animal_Interaction_Scale_Manual" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human-Animal Interaction Scale</a>, a survey that captures how often people stroke, lean on, or otherwise connect with an animal and records the animal’s own moves in return. Each session lasted 45 minutes to prevent fatigue on either side of the fence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cows-and-people-respond">How cows and people respond</h2>



Magnus and Callum greeted their guests with slow sniffs, accepted hay pellets from open palms, and even settled onto the grass for a shared lounge. 



When interested, they licked sleeves - a bovine version of social grooming - and, when finished, they simply rose and wandered off. Unfriendly gestures were scarce. 



One teenager admitted she had expected headbutts but, instead, “fell in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grass-scarcity-alters-cow-feed-and-dairy-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">love with cows</a>” before the session ended.



The steers’ preferences turned out to be surprisingly specific. 



“We have discovered in the current study that bovine-assisted therapy may not only be an effective treatment model that benefits human participants but appears to be enriching to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-makes-dairy-cows-produce-less-milk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cattle participants</a> as well, as shown by their proximity to and continuous interactions with humans,” Dr. Compitus said. 



The data also revealed a gender twist: the animals spent more time beside women than men, and the women, in turn, reported stronger feelings of attachment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-calm-signals-from-cow-therapy">Measuring calm signals from cow therapy</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-a-pill-stop-cows-from-burping-methane/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stress in cattle</a> shows up as loud calls, quick tail flicks, or rigid backs. None spiked during these cuddle sessions. Instead, the animals’ easy breathing and willingness to lie down suggested comfort. 



“Two of the gaps in the research we address in this study are the inclusion of cattle in AAT and an examination of the cognitive processes of animals involved in AAT,” Dr. Bierbower noted. 



For a field that often views animals as passive tools, tracking the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-want-to-talk-to-their-cows-so-ai-is-helping-them-interpret-moos-and-burps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cow’s point of view</a> marks an important shift.



Therapists already use dogs to ease anxiety during dental visits and miniature horses to coax speech from children on the autism spectrum. Cattle bring a different scale. 



A mature steer may top 1,500 pounds, yet these gentle giants lower their heads for scratches much like a Labrador does. That contrast - immense size, peaceful manner - can amplify the sense of safety that therapy animals provide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-size-matters">Why size matters</h2>



Touch triggers a release of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-holds-the-keys-to-both-your-heart-and-your-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxytocin</a>, sometimes called the “bonding hormone,” in both humans and many mammals. The hormone slows heart rate, reduces cortisol, and boosts feelings of trust. 



While a purring cat can spark that reaction, leaning against a broad cow magnifies the tactile cue: more surface area, deeper vibrations, and a steadier baseline heart rhythm.



Researchers in earlier dog-based trials found that even brief petting lowers blood pressure. The current cattle study hints the same benefit may hold when the animal outweighs the participant by a ton. 



Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-gallstones-insanely-valuable-are-the-new-must-have-item-in-global-smuggling-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cows live in herds</a> and often groom one another, they may already possess social wiring that lets them extend calm to another species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



Dr. Compitus reaffirmed that the therapy appeared enriching for the steers, citing their close proximity and continuous interactions with humans. 



Yet she also cautioned, “It is unclear without further testing whether the animals sought out the attention of women in general or if the women were more likely to initiate the actions when compared to the men participants.”



Future work will need larger herds, more diverse volunteers, and perhaps heart-rate monitors on both sides of the cuddle. It will also need to check whether cattle enjoy the work long-term or simply tolerate it for snacks. 



Ethical guidelines already require therapy dogs to rest between client visits; similar safeguards for bovine partners will be crucial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-cow-cuddle-therapy">What's next for cow cuddle therapy?</h2>



Animal-assisted therapy grew from a fringe idea in the 1960s to a mainstream adjunct in hospitals and schools today. 



Adding cows may seem like a pastoral gimmick, yet the early numbers suggest genuine promise. Eleven participants is small, but every study starts somewhere, and Magnus and Callum appear to have opened the gate.



As Dr. Bierbower and Dr. Compitus refine their protocols, mental-health clinics might soon book time at local farms, giving stressed-out teens and weary adults a chance to swap city noise for the slow beat of a cud-chewing companion. 



If larger trials confirm the soothing power of a 1,500-pound hug, the phrase “therapy animal” could soon conjure more than wagging tails - it might also bring to mind a soft-eyed steer waiting beneath an open sky.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/hai.2024.0016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human-Animal Interactions</a>.



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Cows who are 'cuddled' as therapy animals strongly prefer women over men

City dwellers in the Netherlands have a curious way of...

Seafood,On,Ice,At,The,Fish,Market

Alternative seafood is emerging as a vital solution in the fight to protect marine ecosystems. As pressure from overfishing, pollution, and climate change intensifies, scientists and policymakers are exploring new ways to reduce strain on the ocean. 



While many marine mysteries remain, one issue is clear - traditional fishing practices are pushing the ocean toward ecological collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-global-impact-of-overfishing">The global impact of overfishing</h2>



Researchers point out that nearly 90% of marine fisheries today are either fully exploited or already overfished. On top of that, pollution and habitat degradation are erasing biodiversity across oceans, rivers, and coasts. 



<a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/global-industrial-fishing-footprint-spd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A 2018 study</a> showed that commercial fishing operations now cover more than 55% of the ocean surface - four times more than the land used for agriculture.



This crisis impacts people as well as marine life. Around 3 billion rely on the ocean for food and jobs. With the population expected to hit 10 billion by 2050, seafood demand is rising twice as fast.



But wild fisheries can only do so much. Even under perfect management, there’s a ceiling on how many fish can be caught each year. 



The researchers note that reducing the burden of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a> through better fishery management is possible, but it requires setting limits on how much can be caught, where and when, and with which methods. There’s another way forward - one that doesn’t get as much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-seafood-as-a-sustainable-solution">Alternative seafood as a sustainable solution</h2>



Alternative seafood - like plant-based fish or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sushi-of-the-future-the-first-ever-lab-grown-eel-is-a-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lab-grown</a> (cultivated) tuna - is emerging as a powerful tool to meet demand without draining the ocean. 



These products can help shift consumer choices away from wild-caught fish and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmed-seafood-supply-is-at-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farmed seafood</a> that contribute to environmental stress.



As the researchers explain, plant-based and cultivated fish hold enormous potential for feeding a growing population the fish they love while easing pressure on the conventional fishing industry and, in turn, reducing harm to our oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reshaping-the-seafood-industry">Reshaping the seafood industry</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-communities-cooperate-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fishing</a> isn’t just affected by climate change - it’s also a contributor. Fuel-intensive vessels and aquaculture feed production release greenhouse gases.



But climate change is striking back. Rising ocean temperatures are pushing fish populations toward the poles, leaving tropical waters increasingly empty. Some regions could see up to a 40% drop in seafood catch potential by 2050.



To make matters worse, warming waters are also making seafood riskier. Infections from Vibrio bacteria, which can be deadly, are increasing worldwide. Still, there’s hope. 



Research shows that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2705-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based and cultivated seafood</a> - especially when produced using renewable energy - could offer a more climate-resilient alternative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversifying-the-seafood-supply">Diversifying the seafood supply </h2>



A recent whitepaper titled <a href="https://gfi.org/resource/climate-benefits-of-accelerating-global-production-of-alternative-seafood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Building climate policy momentum for alternative seafood</a> highlights the potential environmental benefits of diversifying the seafood supply.



“Renewable energy is critical to realizing the climate benefits of cultivated meat and seafood. Life-cycle assessments project that emissions from cultivated meat produced with renewable energy will be in the lower range of aquaculture emissions and less than the emissions of most wild-capture," noted the researchers.



"Further, cultivated seafood is expected to require even less energy than cultivated red meat and poultry, in large part because seafood can be cultivated at lower temperatures than terrestrial meats."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafood-and-biodiversity-loss">Seafood and biodiversity loss</h2>



The ocean does more than provide seafood - it helps regulate the climate, generates oxygen, and supports global food systems. 



But marine biodiversity is rapidly declining. A 2019 report found that human activity has significantly altered two-thirds of marine areas, up from 40% just a decade earlier.



Pollution, overfishing, climate change, and ocean acidification are driving this loss, leading to ecosystem collapse, food insecurity, and rising disease risk. 



Even aquaculture, which now accounts for half of global seafood production, can harm coastal habitats and disrupt ecosystems when poorly managed.



While some fisheries and farms have adopted more sustainable practices, they haven’t kept pace with environmental pressures. Diversifying the seafood supply with alternative proteins is becoming increasingly important.



The New Blue Foods for Biodiversity <a href="https://gfi.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/New-blue-foods-for-biodiversity.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whitepaper</a> outlines how plant-based and cultivated seafood can help ease the strain. By reducing overfishing and bycatch, these alternatives give wild stocks a chance to recover.



They also help prevent habitat damage and pollution, since they require less land and don’t disturb the ocean floor. And unlike many aquaculture systems, they minimize antibiotic use, supporting microbial diversity and slowing the spread of resistant pathogens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-high-cost-of-tuna-popularity">The high cost of tuna popularity</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bluefin-tuna-a-sushi-delicacy-will-likely-be-extinct-within-50-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tuna</a> is a favorite across the globe, especially in the U.S. where canned tuna is second only to shrimp in popularity. 



Americans eat nearly one billion pounds a year. Worldwide, more than 7 million metric tons of tuna and similar species are harvested annually. That demand has consequences.



Seven out of 61 known tuna species were labeled as threatened in 2011. Tuna fishing also harms other marine animals, like turtles and sharks, that get caught in the same waters. 



Thankfully, innovation is catching up. Several companies are now creating tuna alternatives without fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-seafood-companies">Alternative seafood companies</h2>



In Chicago, Aqua Cultured Foods raised $5.5 million to expand its production of fungi-based seafood. Using a special fermentation process, the company creates whole-muscle seafood cuts like scallops, shrimp, and tuna. 



Their products offer a sustainable and allergen-free option, and the new investment will help launch them in restaurants this year.



In Canada, Konscious Foods received a $5 million investment through the PacifiCan Business Scale-up and Productivity program. This support will help the company increase production, grow exports, and create over 40 new jobs in British Columbia. 



The company makes frozen sushi meals - including tuna avocado rolls - using Canadian-grown ingredients like quinoa, carrots, and tomatoes. They’re also working on new items, such as plant-based smoked salmon, crab cakes, and shrimp.



In Austria, Berlin-based BettaF!sh partnered with supermarket chain BILLA AG to launch the TU-NAH sandwich, now available across BILLA and BILLA PLUS stores. 



This collaboration reflects a shared focus on sustainability and aims to bring plant-based seafood to more consumers across Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-seafood-as-a-global-opportunity">Alternative seafood as a global opportunity</h2>



A New York Times article once suggested that if you can't find anything good from the sea, it might be better to cook something else. Thanks to alternative seafood, that “something else” no longer means compromising on flavor or nutrition.



By scaling plant-based and cultivated seafood, it’s possible to feed a growing population without pushing marine ecosystems to the brink. As the researchers emphasize: “Building a better food system will require a diversity of solutions.”



“Alternative seafood is the future of sustainable seafood. To scale this industry, we need bold innovators and committed champions - across climate, biodiversity, public health, and food security - who are ready to make it a global priority. An ocean of opportunity awaits.”



Thanks to the <a href="https://gfi.org/">The Good Food Institute</a> for providing the background research for this article.



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There are not "plenty of fish" in Earth's oceans to feed 10 billion people, something must change

Alternative seafood is emerging as a vital solution in the...

Scientists working in eastern North America have announced an unexpected find that has stirred wide interest among insect enthusiasts. A previously unrecognized butterfly, known as Papilio solstitius, has been described as the newest member of the iconic tiger swallowtail group.



According to preliminary observations, this tiger swallowtail butterfly group stands out for its <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/TigerSwallowtail.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">late-summer emergence</a>. It shows traits that set it apart from its close relatives, which include the widely known Papilio glaucus, Papilio canadensis, and Papilio appalachiensis.



<a href="https://scholar.google.ca/citations?user=DpnnbjIAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. B. Christian Schmidt</a> from the Canadian National Collection of Insects, Arachnids, and Nematodes contributed significantly to this work, and noted that “the Papilio glaucus group is a model study system in insect evolutionary biology.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiger-swallowtail-butterfly-behavior">Tiger swallowtail butterfly behavior</h2>



Entomologists realized early on that Papilio solstitius behaves differently from other tiger swallowtails. They found that it has a unique seasonal timing, which separates it from its spring-flying neighbors. 



Researchers stated that “the most significant differences are apparent in developmental biology and phenology” .



A key point is its late post-diapause schedule, which results in adults appearing around early July. 



One group member remarked that Papilio solstitius is unique in its long <a href="https://zenodo.org/records/14877845" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">post-diapause emergence</a> delay, with adult eclosion beginning in late June to early July, compared to May for all other species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-the-butterfly-s-neighborhood">Examining the butterfly's neighborhood</h2>



This new discovery occupies a broad section of eastern North America. Specialists tracking its distribution report that the <a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0141.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geographic range</a> stretches across southeastern Canada and parts of the northeastern United States.&nbsp;



“The core range of Papilio solstitius includes eastern and south-central Ontario, northern and central New York and adjacent Vermont, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania, encompassing a minimum land area of approximately 174,000 km2," noted the investigators. 



That covers about 67,212 square miles (174,000 square kilometers).



Papilio solstitius thrives in forested landscapes, and it appears to favor habitats where host plants, such as certain ashes and cherries, flourish. Its presence in a variety of woods suggests it has adapted to multiple microclimates within its range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-new-butterfly-matters">Why the new butterfly matters</h2>



“Papilio solstitius is closely related to these three species, but differs from all in a suite of characters,” wrote the authors who first described it.&nbsp;



The tiger swallowtail butterfly family often draw attention because of their impressive colors and important role in local ecosystems. 



The discovery of an overlooked species invites curiosity about what else might be hidden in seemingly well-studied areas. 



It took time for this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scents-of-survival-how-plant-aromas-shape-insect-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> to get recognized because it blends features of its close cousins yet follows its own schedule. 



Many observers likely confused it with spring-flying species that can look quite similar, especially at a quick glance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connections-to-everyday-science">Connections to everyday science</h2>



Scientists describe this research effort as a reminder that our planet still holds surprises, even in places where people have long kept an eye on wildlife. 



They also believe it highlights how shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-effect-in-reverse-climate-change-turns-havens-into-traps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> or local environments may influence species boundaries in ways that remain poorly documented.



These evolving landscapes give researchers new incentives to keep testing assumptions about distribution. 



Some entomologists hope that the formal naming of this butterfly will help pinpoint trends in temperature and habitat that might be guiding its spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-species-of-interest">Butterfly species of interest</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiously-isolated-butterfly-found-in-canadas-rocky-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recognition</a> and delimitation of Papilio glaucus and Papilio canadensis as a classic sibling species pair led to three decades of study in speciation, host plant adaptation, hybridization, and molecular evolution,” explained the researchers.&nbsp;



The larger Papilio glaucus group includes various swallowtails long studied for their vivid appearance and ecological variety. 



Their different preferences for temperature and region have served as a window into how insects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiously-isolated-butterfly-found-in-canadas-rocky-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolve</a> in response to changing conditions.



Papilio solstitius adds another layer to that puzzle. By clearly marking the features that define it, specialists open new discussions on how similar species might have emerged in tandem or split off over time. The research team emphasized their hope that others will explore these patterns further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-the-tiger-swallowtail-butterfly">Future of the Tiger swallowtail butterfly</h2>



Questions remain about what triggered the emergence of Papilio solstitius as a separate species and how far it might expand its distribution. 



More fieldwork could clarify whether there are additional undiscovered pockets of “late-flight” tiger swallowtails or if these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/technology-offers-new-hope-for-declining-insect-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> mix with other populations in regions farther south.



The authors are confident that this novel species will energize further study. 



“It is our hope that recognizing and defining the taxonomic identity of this unique evolutionary lineage provides a staging point in the fertile grounds for future research,” one of them said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-important-finding">An important finding</h2>



Papilio solstitius stands out not only for its timing in the summer but also for its combination of physical characteristics. 



Experts believe these differences, combined with modern genetics, will yield clues about how hybrids and local adaptations fuel biodiversity.



Still, many mysteries remain unresolved. Insect watchers are now encouraged to record when and where they see midseason tiger swallowtails, because such sightings could fine-tune scientific understanding of this butterfly’s behavior. 



People across the Northeast might find it fascinating to learn that a seemingly familiar “tiger” can carry fresh significance.



The study is published in <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/142202/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



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New species of 'tiger swallowtail' butterfly discovered in the U.S. had gone unnoticed by scientists

Scientists working in eastern North America have announced an unexpected...

Western Chimpanzee mum and daughter

Young chimpanzees in a West African forest form either trusting or independent ties with their mothers, but they do not display the confused, “disorganized” attachment style seen in many human children. 



That pattern, common among orphaned chimps raised by people, seems to be absent when animals grow up under natural survival pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-attachment-styles"><a></a>A tale of two attachment styles</h2>



Field observers followed mother-infant pairs in Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, for four years. They noted the parenting style of the chimpanzees. In particular, the experts studied how youngsters reacted when separated from or reunited with their mothers, and how boldly they explored.



Most fell into one of two familiar human categories. Some were secure: they checked in with their mothers during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a>, then ranged out with confidence.



Others showed insecure-avoidant attachment: they coped alone and rarely sought comfort. No infant behaved in the erratic, approach-and-retreat fashion that defines disorganized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-way-you-send-emojis-shows-your-attachment-style/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attachment</a>.



According to attachment theory, secure bonds foster resilience, while insecure or disorganized ties can predict later anxiety or social trouble. In people, about one child in four shows the disorganized style.



Among captive, human-reared chimp orphans the rate soars to three out of five. The absence of that pattern in nature raises a striking possibility: the style may be maladaptive outside of sheltered environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parenting-style-of-wild-chimpanzees">Parenting style of wild chimpanzees </h2>



Disorganized attachment often follows trauma, fear, or unpredictable care. In forest life, any infant who hesitates at danger may expose itself to leopards, rival males, or territorial disputes. 



“In the wild, we found no evidence of disorganized attachment patterns among chimpanzees, which supports the hypothesis that this type of attachment may not be an adaptive survival strategy in the face of environmental constraints,” said first author Eléonore Rolland, a scientist at the <a href="http://www.isc.cnrs.fr/index.rvt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Cognitive Sciences Marc Jeannerod</a>.



If the response ever arises, its bearers probably fail to thrive or reproduce, erasing the trait from the visible population.



Captive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, by contrast, may live inside small enclosures, face no predators and rely on rotating human keepers. That unstable social mix can trigger the conflicted behaviors catalogued in laboratory tests. 



A parallel may exist for modern children who experience institutional care, high caregiver turnover, or chronic stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-lessons-for-parenting">Chimpanzee lessons for parenting</h2>



A deeper look at the findings nudges parents and policymakers to ask hard questions. “Our results deepen our understanding of chimpanzees' social development and show that humans and chimpanzees are not so different after all,” Rolland said.



“But they also make us think: have some modern human institutions or caregiving practices moved away from what is best for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infant development</a>?”



Secure attachment in the forest emerged through steady proximity, gentle reassurance, and the freedom to explore within sight of the mother. Avoidant youngsters still stayed near but preferred self-soothing. Both strategies, the authors argue, work under natural constraints.



The third style appears only when normal mammalian care breaks down. If children in wealthy societies show that style at notable rates, the disruption may lie not in genetics but in caregiving routines: overstretched parents, frequent moves, rushed schedules, devices replacing touch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-and-human-attachment">Chimpanzee and human attachment</h2>



“By identifying attachment patterns in wild chimpanzees, we provide important insights into the roots of human social behavior,” said senior author Roman Wittig from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.



The work links psychology with field primatology and anthropology, tracing how early bonds shape adult society across species.



“Our findings suggest that shared attachment strategies in primates may reflect a common evolutionary heritage,” said co-author Catherine Crockford, a scientist at the same institute.



“The high prevalence of disorganized attachment in humans and captive orphan chimpanzees, in contrast to wild chimpanzees, also supports the idea that the rearing environment plays an important role in shaping attachment types.”



That insight underlines a long-standing debate. Are certain emotional disorders products of modern life rather than ancient biology? If wild primates, who share 98 percent of human DNA, avoid a pattern linked to later mood and relationship problems, then context - not species - may tip the scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-child-welfare">Conservation and child welfare</h2>



Protecting chimpanzee habitats does more than save a charismatic animal; it preserves the social conditions that allow normal attachment to flourish. 



Orphan rescue centers might adjust caregiving protocols to reduce inconsistency and replicate maternal security rather than relying on multiple human feeders.



In the human realm, the research supports policies that stabilize early care: parental leave, low child-to-caregiver ratios, trauma-informed schooling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-parenting-next-steps">Chimpanzee parenting: Next steps</h2>



The Taï study followed infants until weaning, around age four to five. Future projects could test whether early attachment style predicts later rank, alliance skills, or parenting success.



Researchers also plan to compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>, whose matriarchal societies differ from chimpanzees, and to track hormone levels that might signal stress during separations. 



At the same time, developmental psychologists may revisit human data from cultures with extended family caregiving or from hunter-gatherer groups that mirror ancestral conditions.



If disorganized attachment drops in those settings, it would strengthen the case that modern disruptions - not innate tendencies - fuel the pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trust-risk-and-survival">Trust, risk, and survival</h2>



In the forest canopy, a mother chimp pauses, her infant scrambling over branches before returning to her side. The scene looks simple, yet it echoes deep principles about trust, risk and survival.



By watching our closest relatives, scientists remind us that the first ties we form still guide us decades later - and that nurturing those ties may be one of the most ancient, and vital, tasks any society undertakes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02176-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



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What wild chimpanzees can teach us about parenting

Young chimpanzees in a West African forest form either trusting...

At first glance, a flamingo feeding in shallow, alkaline water seems calm and graceful. Its long neck arcs gently, and its head remains submerged, giving the impression of a bird quietly filtering water. 



But beneath the surface, there’s a flurry of activity. Flamingos are far from passive feeders. They are busy stirring up the water, creating tiny underwater tornados to trap their prey.



This behavior, observed in Chilean flamingos at the Nashville Zoo, has been the subject of extensive research by scientists from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, in collaboration with teams from Georgia Institute of Technology, and Kennesaw State University.



By combining footage of real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> with experiments using 3D-printed models of flamingo beaks and feet, the researchers discovered how these birds rely on a mix of footwork, head movement, and rapid beak clapping to catch live prey.



"Flamingos are actually predators, they are actively looking for animals that are moving in the water, and the problem they face is how to concentrate these animals, to pull them together and feed," said Victor Ortega Jiménez, an assistant professor of integrative biology at UC Berkeley who specializes in biomechanics. 



"Think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-adapt-their-webs-to-filter-out-human-made-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, which produce webs to trap insects. Flamingos are using vortices to trap animals, like brine shrimp."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-flamingos-dance-they-re-hunting">When flamingos dance, they’re hunting</h2>



The team found that flamingos use their webbed, flexible feet to stir up sediment from the lakebed. As they “dance” in place or move in circles, they lift and press their feet gently into the mud. These movements send spirals of water and sediment swirling outward.



At the same time, the bird plunges its head straight up and down, beak first, into the water. This creates a spinning vortex that sucks the loosened particles - including prey - upward. 



The flamingo’s head remains upside down while its specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-beak-shape-can-predict-nest-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beak</a> goes to work, clapping rapidly to generate even more motion.



"It seems like they are filtering just passive particles, but no, these animals are actually taking animals that are moving," Ortega Jiménez explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-beak-gets-the-job-done">How the beak gets the job done</h2>



The shape of a flamingo’s beak is unlike any other bird. Flattened at the front and bent like an L, it’s designed to function upside down. 



When the bird pushes its head forward, it performs a motion called skimming. During this, the bird claps its beak quickly, generating sheet-like currents known as von Kármán vortices. These swirling currents help trap fast-moving prey like brine shrimp.



The study also examined how this chattering action influences the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-pink-flamingos-are-healthier-and-more-aggressive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feeding</a> process. Using a 3D-printed beak attached to an actuator and a small pump to mimic the flamingo’s tongue, the researchers were able to measure the effects.



"The chattering actually is increasing seven times the number of brine shrimp passing through the tube," said Ortega Jiménez. "So it's clear that the chattering is enhancing the number of individuals that are captured by the beak."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanics-of-flamingo-feeding">Mechanics of flamingo feeding</h2>



Ortega Jiménez’s curiosity about flamingos began during a family visit to Zoo Atlanta just before the COVID-19 pandemic. He noticed that although the birds seemed to be feeding peacefully, something more complex had to be happening beneath the surface.



"We don't know anything about what is happening inside. That was my question," he said.



Back then, Ortega Jiménez was a postdoctoral fellow at Kennesaw State University. From there, his research path led him to Georgia Tech and later to UC Berkeley, with time at the University of Maine in between. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/flamingoes_feet_water-tornadoes_illustration_credit-Aztli-Ortega_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/flamingoes_feet_water-tornadoes_illustration_credit-Aztli-Ortega_1s-1.webp" alt="Flamingos feed by dragging their flattened beaks forward along the bottom of shallow lakes. To increase the efficiency of feeding, they stomp dance to churn the bottom, create an upwelling vortex with their heads and clap their beaks constantly to draw food, like brine shrimp, into their mouths. Credit: Aztli Ortega" class="wp-image-1969623"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Flamingos feed by dragging their flattened beaks forward along the bottom of shallow lakes. To increase the efficiency of feeding, they stomp dance to churn the bottom, create an upwelling vortex with their heads and clap their beaks constantly to draw food, like brine shrimp, into their mouths. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Aztli Ortega</figcaption></figure>



At each stage, he collaborated with engineers and used technology like lasers and high-speed imaging to get a clearer view of the hidden mechanics behind flamingo feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-flamingo-feet">The power of flamingo feet</h2>



Flamingo feet are as important as their beaks. Their webbed feet are soft and floppy, which helps them avoid suction when lifting their feet from muddy bottoms. 



Ortega Jiménez created rigid and flexible models of the feet to test their effects in water. He discovered that the floppy design is much better at generating forward-moving vortices, while rigid ones mostly just create turbulence.



In shallow water, you might catch a glimpse of a flamingo’s dance. It's not just for show. Each motion helps concentrate prey in just the right spot for the flamingo to feed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-in-full-motion">Feeding in full motion</h2>



The team also built a 3D model of the L-shaped beak to test how upward head motions create vertical vortices. These movements trap particles and small creatures like copepods and brine shrimp. 



The head moves at about 40 centimeters per second - fast enough to capture even quick-swimming prey.



The chattering motion involves the lower beak moving about 12 times per second, while the upper beak stays still.



"We observed when we put a 3D printed model in a flume to mimic what we call skimming, they are producing symmetrical vortices on the sides of the beak that recirculate the particles in the water so they actually get into the beak," Ortega Jiménez said. "It's this trick of fluid dynamics."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-more-to-learn-from-flamingos">Still more to learn from flamingos</h2>



The next step for Ortega Jiménez is to study how the flamingo's tongue and the beak’s comb-like edges help it filter out food from salty, sometimes toxic water. These features could inspire future designs for environmental tools.



"Flamingos are super-specialized animals for filter feeding," he said. "It's not just the head, but the neck, their legs, their feet and all the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flamingos-of-a-feather-flock-together/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> they use just to effectively capture these tiny and agile organisms."



From lakebeds to lab models, the flamingo’s feeding technique is more than a quirky behavior - it’s a glimpse into nature’s quiet engineering. As the research continues, these elegant birds may help shape future tools for water cleaning and soft-footed robotics.



Click here to watch a <a href="https://youtu.be/3cgcF8th5Nk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video of flamingoes making water tornadoes...</a>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503495122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.
</blockquote>



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You’ll never guess what flamingos are doing with their feet in the water

At first glance, a flamingo feeding in shallow, alkaline water...

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long timeline. Every chip of flint or shard of bone builds a narrative of how early humans used tools to feed themselves, cooperated, and thought about the places they called home. 



Fresh finds from two sites just northeast of today’s Tel Aviv - Jaljulia and Qesem Cave - add an eye-opening chapter to that story. 



They point to a moment, roughly 400,000 years ago, when hunters in the Levant not only pivoted to new prey but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tools-in-south-africa-reveal-early-human-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redesigned their tools</a> and, perhaps, their beliefs.



The discoveries revolve around a specialized flint implement known as a Quina scraper. 



At first glance the artifact looks modest - smaller than a modern smartphone. Its scalloped edge, though, is razor-sharp, built for slicing through muscle and hide with an efficiency that would have impressed any butcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flint-tools-and-shifting-appetites">Flint tools and shifting appetites</h2>



For nearly a million years, large game dominated dinner menus here - especially elephants that roamed plains stretching from Africa into Eurasia. 



When those giants dwindled, hunting parties had to recalibrate. 



The speedier, leaner fallow deer offered far less meat per kill, so hunters needed to process many more carcasses to match the calories once supplied by a single elephant. That change forced a rethink of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategy and gear</a>.



Fallow deer thrived in mixed woodlands along what are now the Samarian highlands. Their bones fill layers in Jaljulia and Qesem Cave, signaling a dietary shift that mirrors broader environmental turnover during the late Lower Paleolithic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-carved-with-flint-for-venison">Tools carved with flint for venison</h2>



Enter the Quina scraper. Unlike earlier, more rudimentary scrapers, this one features a stepped, scale-like working edge that holds a keen bevel. 



Microscopic wear marks reveal repeated motions suited to neatly removing skin and sinew. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool design</a> likely spared hunters valuable time at the kill site, reducing exposure to scavengers and rival predators that could steal a hard-won carcass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2s.webp" alt="A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020)" class="wp-image-1970089"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Modern experiments with replicas confirm that the tool excels at producing long, clean strips of hide - ideal for lashing shelters, wrapping meat, or even tailoring early garments. 



A single scraper could be resharpened several times, making it a portable workhorse on multi-day forays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-from-sacred-hills">Stone from sacred hills</h2>



The most unexpected twist lies not in the tool’s shape but in its raw material. Quina scrapers at both sites were made of flint hauled roughly 12.4 miles from the western slopes of the Samarian mountains, bypassing closer outcrops. 



That same upland served as a calving ground for fallow deer. Hunters, then, were linking an essential resource - flint - to the very landscape that provided their new staple food.



The study’s lead authors - Vlad Litov and Prof. Ran Barkai of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> - spell out what that pairing means. 



"In this study we tried to understand why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools changed</a> during prehistoric times, with a focus on a technological change in scrapers in the Lower Paleolithic, about 400,000 years ago," Litov explained. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forced-to-hunt-smaller-animals">Forced to hunt smaller animals</h2>



We found a dramatic change in the human diet during this period, probably resulting from a change in the available fauna: the large game, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particularly elephants</a>, had disappeared, and humans were forced to hunt smaller animals, especially fallow deer.



Clearly, butchering a large elephant is one thing, and processing a much smaller and more delicate fallow deer is quite a different challenge. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e)" class="wp-image-1970087"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Systematic processing of numerous fallow deer to compensate for a single elephant was a complex and demanding task that required the development of new implements. 



"Consequently, we see the emergence of the new Quina scrapers, with a better-shaped, sharper, more uniform working edge compared to the simple scrapers used previously," Litov added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-advancement-shown-in-flint-tools">Tech advancement shown in flint tools</h2>



Prof. Barkai explains that the study reveals “links between technological developments and changes in the fauna hunted and consumed by early humans.” 



While previous theories credited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advancements in stone tools</a> to biological evolution, he and his team suggest a “double connection, both practical and perceptual.”



Practically, tool sophistication evolved to meet the demands of hunting smaller, faster prey. Perceptually, Barkai points to a symbolic association between specific locations and resources. 



“We found a connection between the plentiful source of fallow deer and the source of flint used to butcher them,” he notes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prehistoric hunters</a> seemed to favor flint from the same region where the deer roamed - Mounts Ebal and Gerizim - suggesting a deep-rooted awareness of the landscape and its significance.



“This behavior,” he adds, “is familiar from many other places worldwide and is still widely practiced by native hunter-gatherer communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



According to Litov, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mountains of Samaria</a> held deep significance for prehistoric people living at Qesem Cave and Jaljulia. 



“We believe that the Mountains of Samaria were sacred to the prehistoric people… because that’s where the fallow deer came from,” he says.



As elephant populations declined, early humans in the region shifted their focus to fallow deer. Tools made from a variety of local stones have been found at Jaljulia, but something unique occurred when they began sourcing both their prey and tool-making materials from the Samarian highlands.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3s.webp" alt="A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1970091"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



“Identifying the deer's plentiful source, they began to develop the unique scrapers in the same place,” Litov explains. 



These specialized tools - first appearing in Jaljulia around 500,000 years ago - later spread more broadly, showing up at Qesem Cave between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago.



Archaeological evidence, including fallow deer bones from Mount Gerizim and other sites, suggests that the area supported deer populations well into the Holocene. 



“Apparently, the Mountains of Samaria gained a prominent or even sacred status as early as the Paleolithic period,” Litov concludes, “and retained their unique cultural position for hundreds of thousands of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-man-was-smarter-than-we-thought">Prehistoric man was smarter than we thought</h2>



Pairing a resource with a place crops up again and again in human history, from obsidian quarries in the American Southwest to jade rivers in ancient China. 



The Jaljulia and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qesem_cave" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qesem Cave</a> findings push that behavior deep into the past, showing that meaning and material were already intertwined long before written lore. Technology did not change in a vacuum; it mirrored environmental stress and social imagination.



Understanding how early communities adapted to shrinking megafauna offers a cautionary parallel for modern ecosystems losing key species. Innovation can soften the blow, but it also reshapes culture in ways that echo far beyond survival. 



A humble flint scraper, carried miles across rugged ground, reminds us that tools are never just tools. They are signatures of what people value, where they find sustenance, and how they make sense of their world.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11759-024-09493-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeologies</a>.



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Stone tools created 400,000 years show technological advancement of early humans

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long...

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost the invisible shield that keeps its surface hospitable. Earth's magnetic field, generated by whirling molten iron deep below our feet, faded until it was so weak it was barely detectable.



At the same moment, oxygen flooded the oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, and curious soft-bodied creatures began sliding across the seafloor. The coincidence has fascinated geologists and biologists for decades.



Fresh measurements from ancient crystals now reveal just how close Earth came to a magnetic stall. They also strengthen the suspicion that a waning field set the stage for the rise of complex life. 



The new data trace a dramatic drop in magnetic intensity and help explain why the field later rebounded, saving Earth from becoming a dry, radiation-blasted rock like Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-ancient-magnetic-field">Earth's ancient magnetic field</h2>



To read the planet’s magnetic diary, researchers collected grains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroxenite and gabbro</a> from South Africa, Brazil, and Canada.



Each mineral contains microscopic iron needles that froze in alignment with the ambient field when the rocks cooled. 



By reheating single crystals in a carefully shielded furnace, the team coaxed out tiny magnetic signals that record field strength at the time of eruption.



After analyzing hundreds of crystals, <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> geophysicist John Tarduno and colleagues saw a clear pattern. 



“In general, the field is protective. If we had not had a field early in Earth history, water would have been stripped from the planet by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> (a stream of energized particles flowing from the Sun toward Earth),” Tarduno explained.



“But in the Ediacaran, we had a fascinating period in the development of the deep Earth when processes creating the magnetic field … had become so inefficient after billions of years that the field almost completely collapsed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-very-weak-magnetic-field">Very weak magnetic field</h2>



Crystals dated to 591 million years ago indicate a magnetic field about 30 times weaker than today - the most feeble long-term value ever measured. 



Follow-up samples show the enfeebled state persisted for at least 26 million years.



Before and after that window, rocks more than 2 billion years old and younger than 565 million years record a field as sturdy as the modern one, revealing just how exceptional the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran lull</a> was.



During the low-field stretch, solar wind could punch far deeper into the atmosphere. Charged particles stripped away lightweight hydrogen, a process that left relatively heavy oxygen behind. 



The timing lines up with multiple geochemical markers that show a sharp increase in oxygen levels, supporting the idea that the weakened shield helped push Earth past a threshold needed for the development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large, mobile animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinner-armor-richer-air">Thinner armor, richer air</h2>



The atmospheric link also finds support from geobiologist Shuhai Xiao of <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere shields the Earth</a> from solar wind, thus holding the atmosphere to the Earth. Thus, a weaker magnetosphere means that lighter gases such as hydrogen would be lost from the Earth’s atmosphere,” Xiao explained to CNN.



As hydrogen escaped, oxygen concentrations rose, allowing metabolism-hungry organisms to branch out.



Tarduno agrees that other processes - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-no-photosynthesis-baffles-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic microbes</a> - were certainly at work.



“We do not challenge that one or more of these processes were happening concurrently. But the weak field may have allowed oxygenation to cross a threshold, aiding animal radiation (evolution),” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-and-earth-s-core">Magnetic field and Earth's core</h2>



Rock records also solve a puzzle about when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s inner core</a> began to form. Once field strength hit its nadir, it bounced back quickly.



“The observations appear to support the claim that the inner core first nucleated soon after this time, pushing the geodynamo (the mechanism that creates the magnetic field) from a weak, unstable state into a strong, stable dipolar field,” noted Peter Driscoll of the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>. 



A solid seed at the center released extra heat, turbocharging convection in the outer core and restoring the magnetic screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-seafloor-pioneers">Strange seafloor pioneers</h2>



While the field flickered, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran seas</a> hosted life forms unlike anything alive today.



Disk-shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dickinsonia</a> spread as wide as 4.6 feet (1.4 meters) across the mud; quilted fronds waved gently in the currents; and slug-like Kimberella scraped microbial mats for food.



These pioneers vanished before the Cambrian period began, around 539 million years ago, but their brief reign proved that multicellular bodies could flourish once oxygen climbed to breathable levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-if-it-happens-again">What if it happens again?</h2>



Not every expert is convinced the magnetic dip directly influenced the course of evolution.



“It is hard for me to evaluate the veracity of this claim because the influence that planetary magnetic fields might have on climate is not very well understood,” Driscoll cautioned. 



Untangling all the variables - solar activity, mantle chemistry, biological innovation - will take years of careful detective work.



For now, the crystal record points to a simple narrative: Earth’s shield weakened, gases escaped, oxygen levels increased, and life took a bold new turn.



By tracing that chain of events, scientists gain insight into how planets and biospheres interact, a lesson that will guide the search for living worlds far beyond our own.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications, Earth and Environment</a>.



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Complex life emerged on Earth 591 million years ago, scientists think they finally know how and why

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost...

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures about four feet was recently spotted at a mining facility on a small island off Papua New Guinea’s southeastern coast. Its sleek color and large black eyes stopped researchers in their tracks, and inspired a closer.



This newly identified reptile, named Dendrelaphis atra, belongs to a group of tree-dwelling snakes with a history of murky classification. 



It was described by Fred Kraus from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan Ann Arbor</a> after he spent time surveying the local serpent population for a broader research project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unusual-snake-discovery">An unusual snake discovery</h2>



One specimen slithered along old building structures and well-trodden terrain, making the moment feel like a real needle in a haystack. Its strong yet subtle features hinted at a species that is different from the rest of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-coral-snakes-caught-in-rare-food-fight-over-caecilian/">relatives</a>.



These snakes appear quite dark when older, a trait linked to ontogenetic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/melanization" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanization</a>, where color deepens over time.



A smaller, younger version displayed muted shades, revealing the striking contrast between juveniles and adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-setting-and-snake-biodiversity">The setting and snake biodiversity</h2>



<a href="https://www.undp.org/papua-new-guinea/environment-and-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papua New Guinea</a> sits in the heart of a region that supports a vast range of unique endemic plants and animals. 



The land and offshore islands host incredible numbers of reptiles, as well as other species that have yet to be fully cataloged. The presence of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259869057_A_Guide_to_the_Snakes_of_Papua_New_Guinea_The_first_comprehensive_guide_to_the_snake_fauna_of_Papua_New_Guinea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 80 known snake species</a> in this country speaks to its natural abundance.



“Herein I examine the taxonomic status of Dendrelaphis specimens from outlying large islands in Milne Bay Province,” said Kraus, who authored the study. 



The Milne Bay province, located in the southeastern tip of the country, consists of many scattered islands. Each major island has unique ecosystems that shelter creatures found nowhere else on Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-snake-stands-out">Why this snake stands out</h2>



Many members of this genus show lighter tones or distinct patterns. This one shows an almost uniform midnight color, especially as it matures. That difference sets it apart from its close relatives in the D. punctulatus group.



Scientists often rely on scale arrangement, body shape, and even snake genitalia to establish taxonomic differences. 



This approach helped confirm that D. atra is a separate entity. The species takes its name from the Latin word for black, which reflects its appearance in adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-hidden-snake-treasures">Other hidden snake treasures</h2>



This black tree snake was not alone in being an unexpected find. Researchers who surveyed nearby islands in the Milne Bay province realized that each large island in the region seems to have its own native Dendrelaphis species. That pattern shows how island isolation can give rise to new and distinct lifeforms.



Kraus also turned up three other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-coffee-snake-discovered-in-the-cloud-forests-of-ecuador/">serpents</a> - each inhabiting a different island. Experts say it is a reminder that scattered landmasses create pockets of biodiversity that evolve in relative seclusion.



Much about these newly documented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-brains-have-evolved-to-rapidly-detect-snakes/">reptiles</a> remains unknown, leaving room for fresh insights in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-shaped-habitat">Human-shaped habitat</h2>



It is intriguing that the black tree snake first appeared in a degraded setting on a mining island. The site’s developed landscape had buildings, pathways, and other signs of heavy human activity. 



Snakes often prefer wilder spots, yet this species was found thriving in altered environments as well.



Papua New Guinea’s island topography makes it tricky for outsiders to conduct wildlife surveys. Rugged terrain, dense vegetation, and unpredictable weather can limit reliable fieldwork. 



These factors emphasize the importance of any documented sighting, especially when it leads to the classification of an entirely new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



“The Milne Bay province has the richest habitat for endemic reptiles and amphibians on the planet,” Kraus said. 



Multiple researchers have suggested that this corner of the Pacific holds many more undiscovered reptiles and amphibians. 



That richness shows up in the form of unusual snakes, frogs, and lizards that can surprise even seasoned experts.



Biodiversity in this area supports local communities, influences the ecology, and expands our overall scientific understanding. 



Each new species provides a clue about the evolutionary paths and environmental conditions that shape life in remote locales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-things-go-next">Where things go next</h2>



The specifics of D. atra’s diet, reproduction, and daily habits still remain to be established. Scientists usually piece together such details by observing the animals across seasons, and collecting data that confirm patterns in the wild. 



For now, the presence of multiple, island-exclusive <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/26637-Dendrelaphis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendrelaphis snakes</a> highlights the hidden variety waiting to be described.



Ongoing studies may reveal how these reptiles adapt to changes in their environment. Further findings might guide conservation strategies to ensure that future generations can appreciate the region’s diverse wildlife. 



Fresh research could also spark collaboration with local groups that have long been aware of the extraordinary creatures in their midst.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5618.4.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New species of tree snakes with completely black eyes is discovered

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures...

species in Xenophoridae

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