Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. It is one of the world's longest glaciers outside of the polar regions.&nbsp;



“An astronaut aboard the International Space Station took this photo of glaciers in the high-elevation valleys of the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia. The upper portion of Fedchenko Glacier crosses the center of the scene.”



NASA noted that most of the larger glaciers in the image show a prominent pattern of light- and dark-brown parallel lines.&nbsp;



“The darker ‘streamlines,’ known as medial moraines, give a sense of the direction of flow of the ice down the valleys. These are concentrations of debris that has been eroded by the glacier from the adjacent mountainsides or a rocky outcrop,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fedchenko-a-high-altitude-glacier">Fedchenko: A high-altitude glacier</h2>



Fedchenko Glacier stretches for approximately 48 miles and covers an area of around 270 square miles. This massive glacier is a critical source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-reveal-a-sudden-drop-in-global-freshwater-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a>, feeding several rivers and influencing the region's hydrology.



Fedchenko Glacier lies at high altitudes, with its origins in the high peaks of the Pamirs, where snow accumulates heavily. Despite being situated in a relatively arid region, the glacier's significant size and volume are maintained by substantial snowfall.&nbsp;



Named after Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, a Russian explorer and naturalist, the glacier was first surveyed in 1928 during Soviet-era expeditions. It plays a crucial role in climate studies, as changes in its length and mass provide insights into the effects of global warming in Central Asia.&nbsp;



The glacier is also part of a spectacular and remote landscape, surrounded by towering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-preferred-the-mountains-and-it-changed-our-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a> and rugged terrain, making it a key feature of the Pamirs' natural beauty.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-glaciers-worldwide">Threats to glaciers worldwide</h2>



Like many glaciers worldwide, Fedchenko faces the threat of retreat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peru-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a>, raising concerns about water availability and ecosystem changes in the region.



Rising global temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions are the primary driver of glacier melting. Warmer temperatures not only melt glacier surfaces but also increase the flow of meltwater beneath them, accelerating their disintegration.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-pollution-nbsp">Human activities and pollution&nbsp;</h3>



Deforestation and urbanization exacerbate these effects by reducing reflective snow cover and increasing heat absorption in nearby areas.&nbsp;



Airborne pollutants like soot and black carbon darken glacier surfaces, reducing their ability to reflect sunlight and speeding up the rate of melting. 



Industrial activities and tourism in glacier regions add physical stress and pollution, further degrading these fragile ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-supplies">Water supplies</h3>



The loss of glaciers has far-reaching consequences. It disrupts freshwater supplies for millions of people who depend on glacial runoff for drinking water, agriculture, and hydropower.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising sea levels</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-unleash-invasive-species-into-unexpected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melting glaciers</a> contribute to rising sea levels, threatening coastal communities and ecosystems worldwide. Additionally, the loss of glaciers impacts biodiversity, as many species rely on cold, glacial habitats for survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-glaciers">Protecting glaciers</h3>



Efforts to mitigate these threats focus on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> emissions, protecting glacier regions from industrial exploitation, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.&nbsp;



However, without urgent action, the continued decline of glaciers will have profound implications for the planet's climate, water systems, and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-pamir-mountains-nbsp">The Pamir Mountains&nbsp;</h2>



The Pamir Mountains, often called the "Roof of the World," are a vast and rugged mountain range located in Central Asia.&nbsp;



They span across Tajikistan, Afghanistan, China, and Kyrgyzstan, forming a vital part of the junction where the Himalayas, the Tian Shan, the Karakoram, the Kunlun, and the Hindu Kush converge.&nbsp;



With peaks soaring over 7,000 meters, including Ismoil Somoni Peak, the range is home to some of the highest altitudes on Earth.



The Pamir Mountains have been central to trade and cultural exchange for centuries, serving as a critical segment of the ancient Silk Road.&nbsp;



Today, the mountains are a popular destination for trekkers and explorers drawn by their breathtaking beauty and challenging terrain.



The Pamirs are not only a natural wonder but also a biological treasure trove, supporting unique wildlife that is adapted to extreme altitudes.&nbsp;



Culturally, the mountains are home to diverse communities, each with its unique traditions and ways of life, shaped by the harsh but majestic environment.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Fedchenko Glacier in the Pamir Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency (ESA) features the distant galaxy LEDA 22057, which is located about 650 million light-years away in the constellation Gemini. 



Within the galaxy lies a pale blue dot - SN 2024PI, a supernova explosion that was discovered by an automated survey in January 2024.



“The survey covers the entire northern half of the night sky every two days and has cataloged more than 10,000 supernovae,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2025/01/Pale_blue_supernova_dot" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The supernova is visible in this image: located just down and to the right of the galactic nucleus, the pale blue dot of SN 2024PI stands out against the galaxy’s ghostly spiral arms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-remnants-of-a-supernova-nbsp">The remnants of a supernova&nbsp;</h2>



ESA noted that the image was taken about a month and a half after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> was discovered, so it appears many times fainter than its maximum brilliance.



“SN 2024PI is classified as a Type Ia supernova. This type of supernova requires a remarkable object called a white dwarf, the crystallized core of a star with a mass less than about eight times the mass of the Sun,” explained ESA.



“When a star of this size uses up the supply of hydrogen in its core, it balloons into a red giant, becoming cool, puffy and luminous. Over time, pulsations and stellar winds cause the star to shed its outer layers, leaving behind a white dwarf and a colorful planetary nebula.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-white-dwarfs">The fate of white dwarfs</h2>



Most stars in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> will eventually end their lives as white dwarfs. Whether a star becomes a white dwarf depends on its mass.&nbsp;



Stars that are significantly more massive will end their lives differently. Massive stars - which exceed the critical mass threshold of eight times the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/team-creates-video-showing-the-sun-in-gamma-rays-over-a-14-year-period/">Sun</a> - undergo more violent deaths.&nbsp;



After exhausting their nuclear fuel, they can collapse under their immense gravity and trigger a supernova explosion. Depending on the remaining core mass, they may leave behind either a neutron star or a black hole, rather than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a>.&nbsp;



These remnants represent extreme outcomes of stellar evolution and are fundamentally different from white dwarfs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-gemini-nbsp">The constellation Gemini&nbsp;</h2>



Gemini is one of the twelve zodiac constellations located in the northern celestial hemisphere.&nbsp;



Its name means "twins" in Latin, reflecting its representation of the mythological twins Castor and Pollux from Greek and Roman mythology.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-of-gemini">Stars of Gemini</h3>



The stars Castor and Pollux, which form the heads of the twins, are the brightest stars in Gemini and are key to its identification.&nbsp;



Pollux is a bright orange giant star, while Castor is a multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-in-the-habitable-zone-of-a-binary-star-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star system</a> made up of six stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighboring-constellations">Neighboring constellations</h3>



Gemini lies between Taurus to the west and Cancer to the east, and it is bordered by several other constellations, including Orion to the south.



It is most visible in the night sky during the winter months in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in January and February.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-gemini">Significance of Gemini</h3>



The constellation is part of the ecliptic, the path that the Sun appears to take through the sky, making it significant in both astronomy and astrology.



Astronomically, Gemini is home to several interesting deep-sky objects, including the open star cluster M35, which is easily visible with binoculars or a small telescope.&nbsp;



The constellation also contains several stars and stellar systems of interest, such as variable stars and binary systems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greek-mythology-nbsp">Greek mythology&nbsp;</h3>



In Greek mythology, Castor and Pollux were the sons of Leda, but they had different fathers - Castor was mortal, while Pollux was divine, being the son of Zeus.&nbsp;



Their story is one of loyalty and brotherhood, as Pollux begged Zeus to share his immortality with Castor after his brother's death. As a result, Zeus placed them in the sky as the constellation Gemini, symbolizing their eternal bond.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-culture">Modern culture</h3>



In modern culture, Gemini continues to be associated with duality, adaptability, and communication in astrology.&nbsp;



The constellation also holds significance in space science, lending its name to NASA's Gemini program in the 1960s. This program conducted critical missions that paved the way for the Apollo moon landings.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Supernova explosion captured in the constellation Gemini 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Southern Ring Nebula, also known as NGC 3132.



The nebula is located about 2,000 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Vela. This remarkably detailed image was created using data from Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam).



The Southern Ring Nebula is one of the more famous examples of planetary nebulae. It is often studied for its beauty and valuable insights into the end stages of stellar evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-power-the-southern-ring-nebula-nbsp">Stars power the Southern Ring Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragons-egg-nebula-is-a-truly-stunning-sight-to-behold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a> is powered by two central stars in a binary system. The brighter star is actually a less massive companion. The fainter, dimmer star is the dying, hot central star that has shed its outer layers to form the nebula. 



The dimmer star is a white dwarf and is responsible for the ionization of the gas in the nebula, causing it to glow.



“The bright star at the center of NGC 3132, while prominent when viewed by NASA’s Webb Telescope in near-infrared light, plays a supporting role in sculpting the surrounding nebula," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"A second star, barely visible at lower left along one of the bright star’s diffraction spikes, is the nebula’s source. It has ejected at least eight layers of gas and dust over thousands of years.” 



“But the bright central star visible here has helped ‘stir’ the pot, changing the shape of this planetary nebula’s highly intricate rings by creating turbulence." 



ESA explained that the pair of stars are locked in a tight orbit, which leads the dimmer star to spray ejected material in a range of directions as they orbit one another, resulting in these jagged rings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics-of-the-southern-ring-nebula-nbsp">Key characteristics of the Southern Ring Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Southern Ring Nebula displays a complex structure with multiple layers of gas and dust. 



The outer shells of the nebula consist of hydrogen and other elements that were ejected from the dying star in previous stages of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-stellar-objects-observing-the-early-lives-of-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>. These layers are illuminated by ultraviolet radiation from the central white dwarf.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coloration">Coloration</h3>



The colors seen in the Southern Ring Nebula come from the different gases present. For example, hydrogen emits red light, while oxygen emits blue-green light. 



These colors help astronomers study the composition and dynamics of the nebula.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-and-shape">Size and shape</h3>



The nebula spans about half a light-year in diameter. Its intricate, symmetrical structure provides valuable insights into the late stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-collapse-black-hole-instead-of-supernova-vanish-from-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a>, especially the processes involved in the shedding of outer layers by dying stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotlights-from-the-bright-star">Spotlights from the bright star</h2>



ESA noted that hundreds of straight, brightly-lit lines pierce through the rings of gas and dust. “These ‘spotlights’ emanate from the bright star and stream through holes in the nebula like sunlight through gaps in a cloud."



“But not all of the starlight can escape. The density of the central region, set off in teal, is reflected by how transparent or opaque it is. Areas that are a deeper teal indicate that the gas and dust are denser - and light is unable to break free.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-image">More about the image</h2>



According to ESA, this is not only a crisp image of a planetary nebula - it also shows us objects in the vast distances of space behind it. The transparent red sections of the nebula are filled with distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-have-hearts-and-lungs-that-help-them-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>.



“Look for the bright angled line at the upper left. It is not starlight - it is a faraway galaxy seen edge-on. Distant spirals, of many shapes and colors, also dot the scene. Those that are farthest away - or very dusty - are small and red,” said ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-vela-nbsp">The constellation Vela&nbsp;</h2>



Vela is a southern constellation that represents the sails of a ship. It was once part of a larger constellation called Argo Navis, which depicted the ship of the mythological hero Jason and the Argonauts. 



In the 18th century, Argo Navis was divided into three separate constellations: Vela (the sails), Carina (the keel), and Puppis (the stern).



Vela is notable for containing several interesting astronomical features. One of its most prominent stars is Gamma Velorum, also known as Suhail or Regor, which is a bright, massive star system consisting of multiple stars.&nbsp;



The constellation also hosts the Vela Supernova Remnant, the remains of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> explosion that occurred about 11,000 years ago. 



This remnant is associated with the Vela Pulsar, a neutron star that formed during the supernova explosion, which is one of the brightest pulsars in the sky.



Vela is best observed in the Southern Hemisphere, where it can be seen in the summer months. Its position along the Milky Way makes it a popular region for both amateur and professional astronomers to explore.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI



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Southern Ring Nebula in the constellation Vela 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy NGC 2090, located approximately 40 million light-years away in the constellation Columba.



NGC 2090 is a stunning spiral galaxy that is notable for its well-defined structure, featuring a bright central core surrounded by tightly wound spiral arms.&nbsp;



These arms are filled with young, hot stars and interstellar gas, indicating active star formation.&nbsp;



Captured by the Webb Telescope’s MIRI and NIRCam instruments, the image reveals the galaxy's winding spiral arms and the swirling gas and dust of its disc in magnificent and unique detail, noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-ngc-2090">Observations of NGC 2090</h2>



The galaxy’s spiral pattern is relatively symmetrical, making it a fascinating object of study for astronomers interested in galactic evolution and dynamics.&nbsp;



Observations of NGC 2090, including those conducted by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-helps-solve-the-mystery-of-a-young-eruptive-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope, have provided valuable insights into the properties of its stellar populations, gas content, and the nature of its spiral structure.



“NGC 2090 was one of many galaxies studied by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to refine the measurement of the Universe’s expansion rate, or ‘Hubble constant,’” said ESA.&nbsp;



“This can be done by observing a special type of variable stars named ‘Cepheids’ in relatively nearby galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-ngc-2090">New insights into NGC 2090</h2>



A Cepheid-based measurement from 1998 indicated that NGC 2090 is 37 million light-years away from Earth. However, the latest measurements suggest that the galaxy is 40 million light-years away.



“Already before that Hubble project in 1998, NGC 2090 had been well studied as a very prominent nearby example of star formation,” noted ESA.&nbsp;



“Described as a ‘flocculent’ spiral, this galaxy has a patchy, dusty disc and arms that are flaky or not visible at all. We can see those patterns well in Hubble's visible-light images. However, Webb’s NIRCam near-infrared data reveal the spiral arms with remarkable clarity.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-spiral-galaxies">What are spiral galaxies?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are among the most common and visually striking types of galaxies in the universe.&nbsp;



They are characterized by their flat, disk-like shape with a bright central bulge surrounded by sweeping spiral arms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-arms-and-central-bulge-nbsp">Spiral arms and central bulge&nbsp;</h3>



The arms of a spiral galaxy are regions where stars, gas, and dust are concentrated, often glowing brightly with the light of young, hot stars that form within them.&nbsp;



The central bulge typically contains older stars and can host a supermassive black hole at its core.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Types of spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on how tightly their arms are wound and the size of their central bulge, ranging from tightly wound "Sa" galaxies to loosely wound "Sc" types.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-nbsp">Star formation&nbsp;</h3>



The structure of spiral galaxies is maintained by the interplay of gravity and angular momentum, with a rotating disk of stars and gas giving rise to their iconic shape.&nbsp;



They are active sites of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> due to the abundance of gas in their arms.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies often have a halo of older stars and globular clusters surrounding their disks, which provides clues about their formation and evolution.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, the galaxy that contains our Solar System, is a prime example of a barred spiral galaxy, a subtype where a bar-shaped structure of stars extends from the central bulge.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-columba-nbsp">The constellation Columba&nbsp;</h2>



Columba is a small and relatively faint constellation in the southern sky, whose name means "dove" in Latin. It was introduced in the late 16th century by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius and first appeared in a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in 1603.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation</a> is said to represent the dove sent out by Noah during the biblical flood, tying it to themes of hope and peace.



Columba lies near the larger constellation Canis Major and is bordered by others such as Lepus and Puppis.&nbsp;



Although it lacks particularly bright stars, its most notable star, Alpha Columbae (also called Phact), shines at a magnitude of approximately 2.6 and is a hot blue-white star. Beta Columbae, another prominent star in the constellation, is a slightly cooler, yellow-white star.



The constellation is best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere during the summer months, though it can also be seen from lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope&nbsp;



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Webb unveils spiral galaxy NGC 2090 in magnificent detail

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."



According to ESA, this concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means that NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.&nbsp;



NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies. This group includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.



“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.



"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. In the cores of stars, elements heavier than helium are created.



The elements are spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material - either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. 



The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion (the process that powers stars) to occur.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. 



Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Young, massive stars in the Triangulum Galaxy

The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is the world’s rarest marine mammal, with fewer than 10 surviving in the wild. It faces grave challenges, from illegal fishing nets to black-market demand for totoaba swim bladders. 



Experts worry that this unique creature could disappear before most people even learn it exists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaquitas-a-species-in-peril">Vaquitas: A species in peril</h2>



<a href="https://seashepherd.org/2024/06/11/2024-vaquita-survey/#">Populations</a> of this small porpoise have plummeted at an astonishing rate since the late 1990s.



Vaquitas inhabit the northern Gulf of California, and are restricted to an area of roughly 1,500 square miles (3,900 square kilometers). This small region, combined with the pressures of organized poaching activity, has given vaquitas little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">room for recovery</a>. 



Jamie Knaub from Florida Atlantic University (<a href="https://www.fau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>) and her colleagues believe that drastic measures are necessary to preserve any record of these animals for generations to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rescuing-a-rare-vaquita-skeleton">Rescuing a rare vaquita skeleton</h2>



A complete <a href="https://fox5sandiego.com/news/local-news/photos-san-diego-researchers-scan-rare-skeleton-of-worlds-smallest-endangered-porpoise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaquita skeleton</a> in the United States is hard to find. Such a specimen recently appeared at SeaWorld San Diego, with ties to the San Diego Natural History Museum.&nbsp;



“We are delighted to collaborate with likeminded organizations to make our collections as useful and accessible as possible,” said Phil Unitt, curator of birds and mammals at the San Diego Natural History Museum.&nbsp;



“A complete skeleton of a vaquita is an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-concern-over-species-extinctions-fades-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremely rare specimen</a>, so we’re thrilled to learn its replica will be available to the public.”



<a href="https://www.fau.edu/newsdesk/articles/fau-high-school-opens-one-of-a-kind-owls-imaging-lab.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU’s High School Owls Imaging Lab</a> carried out micro-CT scans on the skeleton. Knaub transported it back to Florida as precious carry-on luggage.&nbsp;



She spent 165 hours conducting high-resolution scans, gathering nearly three terabytes of data. When finished, Knaub carefully returned the vaquita remains to SeaWorld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-hopes-for-the-tiniest-porpoise">High hopes for the tiniest porpoise</h2>



Researchers are eager to share 3D scans of this delicate skeleton on the <a href="https://www.morphosource.org/docs/about" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MorphoSource</a> online repository. The goal is to let educators and researchers worldwide access and learn from the files.&nbsp;



With vaquitas vanishing at a high rate, preserving their anatomy through digital replicas could be the only way to keep them on the radar.&nbsp;



“At the rate that vaquita’s are disappearing, it’s extremely important to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserve</a> as much about this species as we can. They are very elusive and not many physical specimens from this species exist,” said Knaub.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-and-replication-efforts">Education and replication efforts</h2>



The experts hope that these skeleton scans, once turned into models, can be placed in museums or classrooms. Brittany Aja Dolan from SeaWorld San Diego, who pushed this plan forward, wants everyone to see the small porpoise up close.&nbsp;



“We hope that by creating replicas, which will be available worldwide, and hopefully on display at SeaWorld San Diego in the near future, everyone will have the opportunity to learn about the world’s most endangered marine mammal and what we can all do to help,” explained Dolan.



Some genetic <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm1742" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> suggests the surviving vaquitas retain enough diversity to bounce back if threats cease. However, rapid action is crucial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-vaquita-data-for-future-research">Preserving vaquita data for future research</h2>



FAU’s advanced imaging technology captured the skeleton’s intricate details. 



The lab’s <a href="https://www.microphotonics.com/what-is-micro-ct-an-introduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro-CT machine</a> is known for its ability to scan minute structures within skeletal fragments. Knaub, along with her mentors, previously used similar equipment to study thresher shark vertebrae, a study that is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231473" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



The same techniques have now preserved the precise shape of each vaquita bone, thus mapping out a piece of history that might soon be gone if illegal nets continue to harm the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-laboratory-environment">A unique laboratory environment</h2>



FAU’s Owls Imaging Lab attracts student researchers from across various disciplines. This facility contains tools like scanning electron microscopes and microtomes, and offers early exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-is-tracking-endangered-animal-habitats-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high-level projects</a>.&nbsp;



“The primary aim of our open-access research hub is to create a dynamic environment that promotes meaningful collaborations between our students and university mentors," said Tricia Meredith, director of research for FAU’s on-site lab schools.



"By providing opportunities for hands-on teaching, innovative demonstrations, experimentation, and robust data collection, the hub seeks to enhance the educational experience and advance research excellence.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-brink">Looking beyond the brink</h2>



Those involved in the vaquita project see it as a chance to save the species in some form, even if the real animals fade away. There is also motivation to rescue any remaining individuals in the Gulf of California.&nbsp;



Organizations like FAU, SeaWorld San Diego, and the San Diego Natural History Museum keep shining a light on this small porpoise, stressing that the vaquita’s future rests on determined human intervention.&nbsp;



Until effective solutions disrupt the illegal fishing trade, digital scans and educational displays might be the closest many of us will ever come to encountering the vaquita in real life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phys.org/journals/royal-society-open-science/">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Vaquitas may disappear before most people know they exist

The vaquita (Phocoena sinus) is the world’s rarest marine mammal,...

Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for years with their peculiar ability to eat the toxic creosote bush. Creosote leaves are laden with resin that would make most animals sick, but these tenacious creatures feast on it day after day.&nbsp;



For decades, researchers wondered whether woodrats adapted by evolving highly specialized enzymes or if they simply produce an enormous amount of more general detoxification enzymes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-eat-toxic-plants-without-harm">Woodrats eat toxic plants without harm</h2>



Scientists investigating this question observed that woodrats can live in areas where creosote has taken over.



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-rats-using-ultrasonic-sounds-to-enhance-their-sense-of-smell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> avoid the spindly green shrub because it’s coated with a chemical mix that can disrupt crucial processes in their bodies. Yet, these rodents thrive. 



In a recent study, researchers discovered a twist in the woodrat enzyme story: it isn’t about better tools, but more of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-survival-through-gene-duplication">Woodrat survival through gene duplication</h2>



This discovery was led by postdoctoral researcher Dylan Klure, along with a team of colleagues at the University of Utah. The experts zeroed in on how two woodrat species independently evolved to handle large doses of resin that would debilitate other mammals.&nbsp;



After comparing both creosote-tolerant and creosote-sensitive woodrats, the results pointed toward a surge in gene copies rather than improved enzyme function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-quick-jump-in-evolutionary-terms">A quick jump in evolutionary terms</h2>



Creosote may have entered the southwestern desert around the end of the last ice age, about 15,000 years ago.&nbsp;



“These woodrats have only been exposed to creosote bush for about 15,000 years, and in an evolutionary timescale, that’s very little time,” said Klure, postdoctoral researcher at the University of Utah and lead author of the study.&nbsp;



This short window hasn’t stopped woodrats from crafting a workable solution. When food is scarce, animals can either adapt to what’s available or starve. 



Woodrats apparently adapted by copying existing detoxification genes and pumping out the related enzymes at high levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrats-churning-out-enzymes">Woodrats churning out enzymes</h2>



According to the researchers, these detox genes are part of the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35599377/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glucuronidation pathway.</a> In humans, this <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7660525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathway</a> helps metabolize a notable chunk of prescription drugs.&nbsp;



By mapping which genes were active in woodrats’ livers, the scientists found an abundance of duplicates that churn out enzymes strong enough to process resin toxins. 



The presence of multiple copies means a single woodrat can manufacture waves of enzyme molecules to quickly flush harmful compounds out of its system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-alternative-to-specialized-enzymes">An alternative to specialized enzymes</h2>



“Rather than new tools specially designed for metabolizing this toxin, evolution made use of existing machinery - just by making more of it,” said senior author Denise Dearing, professor of biology at the University of Utah.&nbsp;



This stands in contrast to earlier findings in other species where smaller numbers of finely tuned enzymes handle toxins. In the woodrats’ case, the key isn’t building a fancy detox gadget - it’s mass-producing what they already have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-did-woodrats-shift-to-toxic-plants">Why did woodrats shift to toxic plants?</h2>



Historically, woodrats dined on more abundant plants like juniper. However, climatic shifts dried up many parts of the Southwest, giving the <a href="https://btarboretum.org/creosote/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creosote bush</a> room to spread. This forced the local animals to either move or adapt.&nbsp;



Some rodent populations picked the new leaves, survived, and reproduced - thus passing along their genetic advantage to the next generation.



Over time, these gene duplications reached surprisingly high levels in regions where creosote has been around the longest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodrat-nests-reveal-their-changing-diet">Woodrat nests reveal their changing diet</h2>



Paleontologists studying ancient woodrat nests found <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7081288/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that their diet mirrored changes in plant communities. Woodrats left behind “middens,” or nest sites stacked with plant fragments, seeds, and twigs.&nbsp;



By comparing fossils from different time periods, the experts traced the shift from juniper to creosote. 



The rodents’ DNA adapted alongside this changing meal plan, illustrating how an environmental upheaval can nudge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> down a new dietary path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzyme-gene-duplication-in-woodrats">Enzyme gene duplication in woodrats</h2>



The genetic shift happened separately in two species of woodrats that faced similar conditions. This kind of parallel evolution suggests a powerful nudge from nature.&nbsp;



“When creosote invades, it just takes over. It’s kind of an adapt-or-die situation,” said Klure. For woodrats, duplication of existing genes was apparently an easier workaround than redesigning detoxification enzymes from scratch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-humans">Implications for humans</h2>



Scientists see a parallel between woodrats’ enzyme explosion and differences in detoxifying chemicals among humans.



People vary in the number of detoxification genes they carry, partly due to ancestral diets rich in tough-to-digest plant toxins.&nbsp;



This might explain why individuals respond differently to medications or certain foods. Studying woodrats in controlled experiments could shine more light on these variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expansions-tell-a-bigger-story">Gene expansions tell a bigger story</h2>



At first glance, the woodrats’ solution seems simple: copy genes until you can safely eat a toxic shrub. Yet, this adaptation demonstrates that quantity sometimes trumps refinement in the race to survive.&nbsp;



Frequent duplications of existing detox genes allowed these rodents to remain in dry habitats overrun by a bush most mammals avoid. Such repeated expansions may be a more common strategy across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rodent-borne-diseases-spill-over-into-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a> than previously thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp7978" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Woodrats duplicated their genes to survive eating poisonous plants

Woodrats are small desert rodents that have baffled scientists for...

Solar storms have attracted curiosity for centuries. People often admire the bright colors they cause in the sky, but they rarely suspect that these same solar events can bring widespread outages that force industries to a grinding halt.



Many experts say the risk may be rising because our world depends more and more on advanced technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-solar-storms-start">How solar storms start</h2>



<a href="https://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SunspotCycle.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar flares</a>, which are bursts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-severe-solar-storm-expected-to-reach-earth-tomorrow-october-10-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high-energy particles</a> from the Sun, cause these disruptions. When those particles reach Earth, they interact with the atmosphere in ways that sometimes produce remarkable light shows.&nbsp;



They can also feed into our power grids and satellites - which may lead to major problems. The current solar cycle is expected to reach its most intense phase through <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/heliophysics/nasa-noaa-sun-reaches-maximum-phase-in-11-year-solar-cycle/">2025</a>, making scientists vigilant of the storms that may unfold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-dangers-of-solar-storms">Potential dangers of solar storms</h2>



Experts from many corners of the globe have sounded alarm bells about these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-solar-storm-warning-issued-as-two-cmes-will-hit-earth-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>. 



Dr. Kęstutis Ikamas from Vilnius University points to serious vulnerabilities in places with large power <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12507/severe-space-weather-events-understanding-societal-and-economic-impacts-a">networks</a>, such as the United States and Canada. He has studied the unpredictable nature of solar storms and sees a need for widespread protective measures.



“A strong geomagnetic storm could incapacitate vital systems such as electricity, water supply, and telecommunications, leading to extended blackouts, communication breakdowns, and logistical paralysis,” explained Dr. Ikamas, who also warned that months-long disruptions might follow in the worst scenario.&nbsp;



One event in 1859, known as the <a href="https://scijinks.gov/what-was-the-carrington-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carrington Event</a>, caused telegraph networks to fail across continents. That was at a time when technology was nowhere near as complex as it is today.&nbsp;



More recently, a 2022 solar disturbance caused 40 newly launched Starlink satellites to burn up in Earth’s atmosphere, taking a serious toll on the mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-countries-face-higher-risks">Large countries face higher risks</h2>



Extended electricity lines cover thousands of miles across certain regions. That makes them sensitive to currents induced by solar storms. 



According to Dr. Ikamas, a blast of charged particles can spark voltage swings that damage transformers. When that happens on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-and-severe-solar-storms-will-continue-through-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wide scale</a>, entire power grids are at risk of being knocked out for an unknown length of time.



Systems that protect satellites and power grids do exist, but they may not hold up against a massive solar storm. Organizations often weigh the cost of upgrading equipment against the chance of a storm happening soon.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, NOAA uses a G1 through G5 <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/noaa-scales-explanation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scale</a> to categorize the intensity of geomagnetic storms. The effects become more severe at each level, with the most intense storms putting everything from radio signals to entire networks in jeopardy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concern-for-space-travelers-and-wildlife">Concern for space travelers and wildlife</h2>



Humans on Earth are not the only ones in harm’s way. Astronauts orbiting outside our planet’s magnetic shield can be exposed to harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storm-triggered-stunning-auroras-worldwide-october-11-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a>. That may force agencies to adjust schedules for spacewalks and other tasks.&nbsp;



Additionally, animals that rely on magnetic fields for navigation might lose their usual sense of direction during these solar storms. Some bird species and marine life have been <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2306317120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noted</a> to show unusual migration paths when solar activity spikes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooperation-is-key">Global cooperation is key</h2>



Dr. Ikamas believes individual action, while useful, is not enough to fight these large-scale threats. This is especially true in an era when countries are more interlinked by communication systems than ever before.&nbsp;



He suggests that technology producers, utility companies, and governments need to come together with detailed protocols that can be put into place if a sudden storm warning appears.



Some experts compare the investments required for stronger safeguards to insurance premiums. The immediate expense may seem big, but the price tag could soar into the trillions if a crisis actually hits.&nbsp;



With digital networks stretching across continents, an outage in one region can have almost immediate effects in other regions. Dr. Ikamas warns that limited spending on grid upgrades today might open the door to large-scale chaos down the road.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-solar-storms-are-rare">Major solar storms are rare</h2>



Even though major solar storms are rare, the chance of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-warning-strong-solar-storm-headed-to-earth-auroras-expected-sept-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">powerful one</a> happening in the next few years has sparked conversations among scientists, policymakers, and power companies.&nbsp;



“If a strong storm is reported, individuals should disconnect their devices from power sources to prevent damage,” said Dr. Ikamas. He noted that bigger protection calls for considerable investments on a global scale.



Information for this article came from a <a href="https://www.riverreporter.com/stories/the-beauty-and-danger-of-solar-storms,179702">press release</a> in the River Reporter.



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The next big solar storm could plunge us into darkness

Solar storms have attracted curiosity for centuries. People often admire...

An active galactic nucleus (AGN) is a region at the center of a galaxy where a supermassive black hole is actively consuming surrounding material. 



As this matter spirals toward the black hole, it forms a hot, glowing disk called an accretion disk, which emits enormous amounts of energy across the electromagnetic spectrum. This process makes AGNs some of the brightest and most energetic objects in the universe.



Now, astronomers at the University of Arizona and the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy have captured the sharpest infrared images ever taken of an AGN.



Using the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer (LBTI), the researchers observed the AGN in NGC 1068 - one of the closest active galaxies to the Milky Way. 



The images reveal new details about how black holes interact with their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capabilities-of-an-extremely-large-telescope">Capabilities of an extremely large telescope </h2>



The&nbsp;Large Binocular Telescope (<a href="https://www.lbto.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LBT</a>), located on&nbsp;Mount Graham in Arizona, features two 8.4-meter mirrors mounted side by side. When combined through interferometry, they function as a single, extremely large telescope.



"The Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer can be considered the first extremely large telescope, so it's very exciting to prove this is possible," said&nbsp;Jacob Isbell, postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://astro.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steward Observatory</a> and lead author of the study.



The LBTI&nbsp;has already demonstrated its ability to capture incredibly detailed images of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-supermassive-black-holes-are-hidden-by-gas-and-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial objects</a>. One of its most notable achievements was studying&nbsp;volcanoes on Jupiter’s moon Io, where it provided unprecedented observations of volcanic activity on another world.



Building on this success, scientists decided to apply the same imaging technique to studying&nbsp;active galactic nuclei. They believed that if the interferometer could capture fine details on Io, it could also reveal new insights about the structure and behavior of AGN. 



This decision led to the highest-resolution infrared images ever taken of an AGN, marking a major step forward in understanding how supermassive black holes interact with their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-an-active-galactic-nucleus">Closer look at an active galactic nucleus</h2>



Supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> sit at the center of many galaxies, but they are not always "active." A black hole becomes active when it pulls in a significant amount of surrounding material, such as gas and dust. 



The more material that enters the spinning accretion disk, the hotter and brighter it becomes, emitting intense light.



In galaxies like&nbsp;NGC 1068, the accretion disk is extremely bright, indicating that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-black-hole-is-seen-taking-a-nap-after-eating-too-much/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> is actively consuming matter. This brightness is a key sign of an&nbsp;active galactic nucleus, meaning the black hole is in a feeding phase, releasing vast amounts of energy that can affect its surrounding galaxy.



"The AGN within the galaxy NGC 1068 is especially bright, so it was the perfect opportunity to test this method," Isbell said. "These are the highest resolution direct images of an AGN taken so far."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-images-capture-black-hole-behavior">Images capture black hole behavior </h2>



The new images of the active galactic nucleus from <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Astronomy</a> revealed multiple cosmic processes occurring at the same time.



One of these is&nbsp;radiation pressure and dusty winds, where the intense light from the accretion disk pushes surrounding dust outward, creating a wind of tiny particles. This phenomenon occurs because the powerful radiation from the black hole exerts pressure on the dust, forcing it to move away.



Another process observed is&nbsp;radio jet feedback, where a powerful jet of radiation and particles emitted by the black hole collides with nearby clouds of molecular gas and dust. This collision heats the gas to temperatures much higher than expected, significantly impacting the surrounding environment.



In previous studies, lower-resolution images could not separate these distinct processes, making them appear as a single blended effect.



However, the exceptional clarity of the&nbsp; LBTI&nbsp;has now allowed astronomers to distinguish between these individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-x-ray-flashes-are-accelerating-in-a-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phenomena</a>, providing a much clearer understanding of how AGN interact with their host galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-frontiers-of-astronomy">Expanding the frontiers of astronomy </h2>



The observations mark a major step forward in AGN research and set the stage for future discoveries with even larger telescopes, like the Giant Magellan Telescope (<a href="https://giantmagellan.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GMT</a>) in Chile.



"This type of imaging can be used on any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronomical object</a>," Isbell said. "We've already started looking at disks around stars or very large, evolved stars, which have dusty envelopes around them."



As telescope technology advances, scientists will gain an even deeper understanding of black holes and their influence on galaxies. The new tools and their images will help unravel the mysteries of how black holes shape the universe, leading to groundbreaking discoveries in astrophysics.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02461-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: European Southern Observatory



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Infrared images reveal how black holes affect the space around them

An active galactic nucleus (AGN) is a region at the...

Most life on Earth depends on sunlight, yet some organisms flourish in the dark depths of the ocean where sunlight never reaches.&nbsp;



A study led by the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/who-we-are/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) provides new details about the survival of foraminifera - tiny, single-celled eukaryotes found in diverse marine environments.



The experts investigated how a species of foraminifera thrives in an oxygen-free, lightless, deep-sea habitat by employing a remarkable metabolic strategy: chemoautotrophy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organisms-in-the-depths-of-the-ocean">Organisms in the depths of the ocean</h2>



Chemoautotrophy is a process where organisms harness energy from inorganic compounds, such as sulfide, to assimilate carbon and sustain life in the absence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-deep-ocean-microbes-survive-without-sunlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunlight</a>. 



While this metabolic pathway is common among prokaryotic bacteria and archaea (which have no nucleus in their cells), it is unusual in eukaryotes (organisms with a nucleus in each cell), that typically rely on sunlight or organic matter for their source of energy.&nbsp;



Foraminifera, though eukaryotic, have adapted to use chemoautotrophy to enable them to survive where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> and sunlight are absent.



“Animals, plants, seaweed, and foraminifera are all eukaryotes. We were interested in studying this foraminiferan because it thrives in a very similar environment to [that present on] Earth during the Precambrian, a time before the evolution of animals,” explained Fatma Gomaa, a research associate in WHOI’s Geology &amp; Geophysics Department.&nbsp;



“During that time, there was very little to no available oxygen in the oceans and higher concentrations of toxic inorganic compounds; conditions similar to some modern environments found on the seafloor, especially within sediments.”



According to Gomaa, understanding the energy and carbon sources used by this foraminiferan helps to answer questions on how these species adapt to environmental changes, as well as advancing our knowledge on the evolution of eukaryotic life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-life-in-an-extreme-habitat">Investigating life in an extreme habitat</h2>



The research team collected sediment samples containing these foraminiferans approximately 570 meters (1,870 feet) beneath the ocean’s surface off the coast of California. For this, they used the remotely operated vehicle Hercules, which was deployed from the vessel E/V Nautilus.&nbsp;



To study these organisms in their natural state, scientists infused samples with a preservative containing red dye and preserved them in situ, which avoided the destructive changes that can occur when organisms are brought from depth to the surface.



Two primary techniques were used to understand the foraminiferan’s metabolic strategies. First, gene expression analyses were conducted on preserved samples to identify metabolic pathways.&nbsp;



Second, in situ incubations were carried out using an isotopic carbon tracer, which allowed researchers to track how the organisms incorporated carbon over a 24-hour period while still on the seafloor.



“When we analyzed the seafloor tracer incubations, we could see that the tracer moved from the water and was associated with the foraminifera biomass. This gave us an idea of where these organisms were getting their carbon,” said Daniel Rogers, an associate professor of chemistry and department chair at Stonehill College.&nbsp;



Professor Rogers noted that it was important to make these observations at depth, where these organisms are in their natural state.&nbsp;



“By bringing them to the surface, we expose them to light, increase the temperature of their environment, and change the amount of pressure they’re under. This in situ approach gives us a more accurate depiction of how these organisms survive in such harsh environments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stealing-chloroplasts-in-the-dark">Stealing chloroplasts in the dark</h2>



Another intriguing discovery is the process of kleptoplasty observed in these foraminiferans. Despite living in complete darkness, this species sequesters <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chloroplasts-play-an-unexpected-role-in-plant-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chloroplasts</a> - organelles typically used for photosynthesis - from other organisms.&nbsp;



Although these stolen chloroplasts cannot perform photosynthesis without light, their presence may confer other advantages, aiding the foraminiferan in nutrient acquisition or other metabolic processes.



“Foraminifera are extremely abundant on earth. Most are only about 300 microns in diameter, so rather small. In a volume as small as a pencil eraser, there could be about 500 of this particular species in this dark, oxygen-free and sulfidic habitat,” explained Joan Bernhard, a senior scientist at WHOI, and an expert on foraminifera.&nbsp;



“This species takes up unrelated organism’s chloroplasts - organelles that perform photosynthesis if exposed to sunlight. This process is called kleptoplasty, in which an organism steals chloroplasts from another type of organism, even though these foraminifera are never exposed to sunlight.”&nbsp;



“We know kleptoplasty is happening here, but we needed more research to understand why this foraminiferan is so successful in the dark, without oxygen.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-science">Broader implications for science</h2>



The ability of foraminiferans to thrive in extreme environments not only expands our understanding of eukaryotic survival strategies but also has implications for climate change research and the search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraterrestrial life</a>.&nbsp;



Foraminifera shells serve as important climate proxies, preserving a fossil record that spans over half a billion years. These fossils help scientists reconstruct past environmental conditions, but the discovery of chemoautotrophy prompts a reevaluation of how these organisms acquire energy and how their shells reflect ancient climates.



“By studying these fossils, we can see how their shells have responded to changes in the environment,” Bernhard noted.&nbsp;



The metabolic adaptations of deep-sea foraminifera may require scientists to reconsider interpretations of geochemical records in their shells, potentially revealing new insights into Earth’s history.



Additionally, the funding interest from NASA highlights the relevance of this research beyond Earth.&nbsp;



The deep-sea environment shares similarities with extraterrestrial settings - such as low temperatures, darkness, and an absence of oxygen - providing a model for how life might survive on other planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-foraminifera">Future research on foraminifera </h2>



The study preserved specimens of two other foraminiferan species, with preliminary results suggesting distinct biological differences in their energy and carbon acquisition strategies.&nbsp;



Ongoing research aims to compare these species, and to illuminate how various foraminifera thrive in diverse and extreme marine habitats.



As scientists continue to investigate these remarkable organisms, their findings not only advance our understanding of deep-sea life but also offer a glimpse into early eukaryotic evolution on a young, oxygen-poor Earth.&nbsp;



Through the study of foraminifera, researchers gain insights into life’s resilience under harsh conditions - a knowledge that could inform our search for life beyond our planet and deepen our comprehension of Earth’s complex biological history.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ismejo/wrae248" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The ISME Journal</a>.



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Life in total darkness: Foraminifera survive with no light or oxygen

Most life on Earth depends on sunlight, yet some organisms...

The Met Office has issued a dire warning: global warming is accelerating beyond control, pushing Earth off-track from meeting the 1.5°C (2.7°F) target set in the Paris Agreement. 



The latest data shows a rapid rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and record-breaking temperatures - raising serious concerns about the future of our planet.



Scientists warn that without immediate and drastic action, we are heading toward a climate crisis that will be difficult to reverse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-breaking-year-for-global-warming">Record-breaking year for global warming</h2>



The year 2024 officially became the hottest on record, with global average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> exceeding 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels for the first time. This milestone highlights the increasing intensity of climate change and the urgent need for action. 



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Last week, it was confirmed that 2024 was the warmest year on record, with annual average temperatures higher than 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels for the first time," stated Professor Richard Betts, who led the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Met Office</a>’s forecast.
</blockquote>



Although this single year does not yet represent a complete failure to meet the Paris Agreement’s target - since long-term warming trends are the true measure of success - scientists warn that this marks a dangerous turning point.



While 2025 may be slightly cooler due to natural climate variations, the overall warming trend will continue unless CO2 emissions decrease dramatically.



The data aligns with findings from the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), which reported that global temperatures in 2024 were 0.12°C (0.22°F) higher than in 2023, the previous record-holding year. This confirms that humanity is now dangerously close to breaching the Paris Agreement’s long-term warming limit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-very-large-rise-in-co2-levels">Very large rise in CO2 levels </h2>



Perhaps even more concerning than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a> is the unprecedented increase in atmospheric CO2 levels. 



Measurements taken at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, revealed that CO2 concentrations rose by 3.58 parts per million (ppm) in 2024 - the fastest annual increase since records began in 1958. This increase far exceeded the Met Office’s prediction of 2.84 ppm, highlighting that emissions are outpacing even the worst-case scenarios.



Satellite data further confirmed a "very large rise" in CO2 levels globally. This increase is partly attributed to the El Niño phenomenon, which created widespread hot and dry conditions, reducing the ability of forests and ecosystems to absorb CO2. 



However, human activities - particularly the burning of fossil fuels - remain the primary driver of rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-surge-in-global-warming-may-have-an-unexpected-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> and global warming.



To meet the 1.5°C goal, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>) has stated that CO2 emissions must be reduced by 1.8 ppm per year. Instead, we are seeing an accelerating rise, making it increasingly difficult to stay within safe climate limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-natural-climate-patterns">Role of natural climate patterns</h2>



Looking ahead, scientists predict that CO2 levels will continue to rise in 2025, though at a slightly slower rate. 



The Met Office estimates an increase of 2.26 ± 0.56 ppm, which is lower than the extreme rise seen in 2024. This expected decrease is linked to the transition from El Niño to La Niña conditions, which will help ecosystems absorb more CO2.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"La Niña conditions are expected to cause forests and other ecosystems to soak up more carbon than last year, temporarily slowing the atmospheric CO2 rise," explained Professor Richard Betts.
</blockquote>



While this temporary relief may slightly reduce the speed of warming, it is not nearly enough to counteract the long-term accumulation of greenhouse gases. As Betts warns, stabilizing global temperatures will require emissions to not only stop increasing but to reverse entirely.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Stopping global warming needs the build-up of greenhouse gases in the air to come to a complete halt and then start to reduce. Large, rapid emissions cuts could limit the extent to which global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> exceeds 1.5°C. But this needs urgent action internationally," said Betts.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-global-warming-and-temperature-rise">Long-term global warming and temperature rise</h2>



Although natural climate variations like El Niño contribute to short-term temperature fluctuations, scientists overwhelmingly agree that human activities are the main force behind long-term global warming. 



The continued burning of coal, oil, and gas is releasing vast amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere, pushing the planet toward more extreme and unpredictable weather events.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"This record needs to be a reality check. The climate is heating to levels we've spent years trying to avoid because countries are still burning huge amounts of oil, gas and coal," noted Dr. Friederike Otto, a climate policy expert from <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>.
</blockquote>



This statement highlights the failure of global leaders to take sufficient action to reduce emissions. While renewable energy sources like wind and solar are expanding, they are not replacing fossil fuels quickly enough to prevent further warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dire-consequences-of-inaction">Dire consequences of inaction</h2>



If global warming continues at its current pace, the consequences will be severe. 



Rising temperatures contribute to more frequent and intense natural disasters, including heatwaves, wildfires, hurricanes, and flooding. In 2024 alone, extreme weather events linked to climate change caused devastation worldwide.



For example, the ongoing wildfires in Los Angeles serve as a grim reminder of what the future could hold if global temperatures continue to rise unchecked. Higher temperatures dry out vegetation, creating the perfect conditions for large, uncontrollable fires.



The rise of global warming also threatens food security, water supplies, and human health. Crops struggle to grow in extreme heat, while changing weather patterns lead to droughts and flooding.



Additionally, air pollution from fossil fuel combustion contributes to respiratory illnesses and premature deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-needs-to-happen-now">What needs to happen now?</h2>



Scientists warn that immediate action is necessary to cut greenhouse gas emissions. The shift to renewable energy is happening, but it must accelerate significantly. 



Governments, businesses, and individuals all have a crucial role to play in addressing climate change. Countries must phase out fossil fuels while expanding clean energy sources.



Protecting and restoring forests, wetlands, and oceans will help absorb more CO2. Reducing energy waste in industries, buildings, and transportation can lower emissions. 



Governments must enforce stricter regulations, support sustainable development, and invest in green technology. Public awareness is essential, as people must understand their impact and choose more sustainable lifestyles.



The world is running out of time to prevent catastrophic global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-has-regulated-earths-climate-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. The warnings from scientists are louder than ever, and the evidence is undeniable. The question remains - will humanity rise to the challenge before it’s too late?



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Global warming is accelerating beyond control as CO2 levels rise

The Met Office has issued a dire warning: global warming...

On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you can witness one of the most awe-inspiring sights in the sky - the Andromeda Galaxy.



Just northeast of the&nbsp;Great Square of Pegasus, this celestial wonder appears as a faint, elongated smudge, easily visible to the naked eye. Despite its dim glow, this galaxy is the&nbsp;largest and closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way, spanning an astonishing 220,000 light-years across.



The light reaching your eyes tonight&nbsp;left Andromeda 2.5 million years ago. At that time, early human ancestors,&nbsp;Homo habilis, had just begun making stone tools on Earth.



That means when you look at Andromeda, you are gazing into the distant past - at a galaxy whose light began its journey long before modern humans even existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-that-changed-cosmology">Discovery that changed cosmology</h2>



For centuries, astronomers debated the nature of Andromeda. Was it merely a nearby&nbsp;"spiral nebula," a swirling cloud of gas and dust within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>? Or was it something more? The answer arrived in the early&nbsp;20th century, thanks to the work of&nbsp;Edwin Hubble.



Using the&nbsp;Hooker Telescope&nbsp;at <a href="https://www.mtwilson.edu/100-telescope-observing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mount Wilson Observatory</a>, Hubble identified&nbsp;Cepheid variable stars&nbsp;in Andromeda - special stars whose brightness fluctuates predictably, allowing astronomers to calculate their distance.



Hubble’s calculations revealed something astonishing:&nbsp;Andromeda was far beyond the Milky Way, proving it was a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-galaxy-with-quasar-jet-surprises-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> altogether. This revelation shattered the belief that the Milky Way encompassed the entire universe.



In the years that followed, our understanding of the cosmos expanded from a single galaxy to a vast universe teeming with billions of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mission-to-capture-andromeda-s-light">Mission to capture Andromeda’s light</h2>



A century after Edwin Hubble’s remarkable discovery, the space telescope bearing his name set out to photograph Andromeda in&nbsp;unprecedented detail. 



The&nbsp;Hubble Space Telescope (<a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HST</a>), one of the most powerful astronomical tools ever built, spent over&nbsp;a decade capturing a high-resolution photomosaic of the Andromeda Galaxy.



This monumental survey required&nbsp;over 600 individual exposures, resulting in a final image containing&nbsp;2.5 billion pixels. The mosaic spans the full width of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>, covering an area&nbsp;six times larger than the full Moon&nbsp;in the night sky. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="FTThfGq0yb-4239179-12187" type="single"]</div>



Because Hubble is designed for pinpoint accuracy rather than wide-field imaging, assembling a complete portrait of Andromeda was an immense challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-millions-of-stars">Mapping millions of stars</h2>



The first phase of this project, known as the&nbsp;Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury (PHAT), focused on Andromeda’s&nbsp;northern half. Using Hubble’s&nbsp;Advanced Camera for Surveys&nbsp;and&nbsp;Wide Field Camera 3, astronomers captured Andromeda’s stars at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths.



A decade later, this work was expanded with the&nbsp;Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Southern Treasury (PHAST), a follow-up study led by&nbsp;Zhuo Chen&nbsp;at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>. 



This program mapped an additional&nbsp;100 million stars&nbsp;in the&nbsp;southern half&nbsp;of Andromeda - an area particularly valuable for studying the galaxy’s&nbsp;merger history.



The combined&nbsp;PHAT and PHAST mosaics now encompass the entire disk of Andromeda, revealing stunning details of its structure and stellar population. Hubble’s high-resolution imaging allows astronomers to study individual stars in Andromeda just as easily as those within our own Milky Way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-andromeda-s-violent-history">Andromeda’s violent history</h2>



While Andromeda and the Milky Way likely formed around the&nbsp;same time, their evolutionary paths have been strikingly different. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> has experienced relatively stable growth, while Andromeda appears to have undergone a much more chaotic past, marked by&nbsp;violent interactions and mergers.



"Andromeda’s a train wreck," said&nbsp;Daniel Weisz&nbsp;of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. "It looks like it has been through some kind of event that caused it to form a lot of stars and then just shut down."



A key clue to this turbulent history lies in the presence of&nbsp;coherent streams of stars - trails of ancient stellar material likely left behind by smaller galaxies that Andromeda absorbed over time.



One possible culprit is the compact satellite galaxy&nbsp;Messier 32, which astronomers suspect may be the stripped-down core of a once-larger spiral galaxy that was devoured by Andromeda in the distant past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-the-andromeda-galaxy">The future of the Andromeda galaxy </h2>



The&nbsp;detailed stellar census&nbsp;provided by Hubble helps astronomers reconstruct Andromeda’s&nbsp;merger history&nbsp;and predict its&nbsp;future evolution. The findings suggest that Andromeda is gradually transitioning from a&nbsp;star-forming spiral&nbsp;to a&nbsp;more elliptical structure, where star formation is winding down.



"Andromeda looks like a transitional type of galaxy that’s between a star-forming spiral and a sort of elliptical galaxy dominated by aging red stars," said&nbsp;Weisz.



However, Andromeda’s journey is far from over. In about&nbsp;4.5 billion years, it will&nbsp;collide with the Milky Way, triggering an immense cosmic event that will reshape both galaxies into a single, massive elliptical galaxy. 



This future merger - already set in motion by their mutual gravitational pull - will not be a destructive explosion but rather a slow gravitational dance that will mix and redistribute billions of stars over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-chapter-beyond-hubble">The next chapter: Beyond Hubble</h2>



Although the Hubble Space Telescope has provided humanity with an unprecedented view of Andromeda, its work is only the beginning. 



Future telescopes, such as&nbsp;NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>&nbsp;and the upcoming&nbsp;Nancy Grace <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Space Telescope</a>, will take this research even further.



James Webb’s&nbsp;infrared vision&nbsp;will allow astronomers to peer through Andromeda’s&nbsp;dusty regions, uncovering details about star formation, planetary systems, and the galaxy’s hidden structure. 



Meanwhile, the Roman Space Telescope, often described as a&nbsp;"wide-angle version of Hubble," will capture panoramic views of Andromeda with&nbsp;100 times the field of view of Hubble. This will provide an even broader perspective of its vast stellar population.



The Andromeda Galaxy stands as one of the most important astronomical objects in human history. 



From ancient civilizations who saw it as a mysterious celestial cloud to the Hubble Space Telescope’s&nbsp;2.5-billion-pixel portrait - Andromeda has continuously reshaped our understanding of the cosmos.



With each new observation, we learn more about our&nbsp;neighboring galaxy’s past, present, and future. 



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7e2b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 



Video Credit: NASA, ESA, Greg Bacon (STScI)



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Andromeda galaxy: The violent history of our closest cosmic neighbor

On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

So Annette was essentially stuck. There was no way she could take a chance walking the now-treacherous trails given her less than stellar condition. With that in mind, the mother stayed put in the area where she suffered her fall. The three pooches also sat with her as evening started to draw in. Photo Credit: 12019/Pixabay

Hunkering down