Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the vibrant colors of the Mawrth Vallis region of Mars. The image reveals a landscape abundant in iron, magnesium, and aluminum.&nbsp;



Mawrth Vallis lies just south of the dichotomy boundary, a ridge marking the divide between Mars' southern highlands and northern lowlands. Layered, clay-rich deposits found in this valley indicate prolonged interactions with water. 



Mawrth Vallis is considered a prime candidate for studying past habitability and the potential for preserved biosignatures. The region continues to captivate scientists due to its geological complexity and history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-a-water-reservoir-two-miles-deep-enough-to-fill-earths-red-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid water</a> flow. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-colors-of-mars">The colors of Mars</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-samples-from-mars-could-reveal-fascinating-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> gets its distinctive red color from iron oxides, or rust, on its surface. The Martian soil and dust are rich in iron minerals, which oxidize when exposed to the small amounts of oxygen present in the Martian atmosphere.&nbsp;



This oxidation process gives the planet its reddish hue, similar to how iron objects on Earth develop rust. 



The scattering of sunlight by these iron oxide particles further enhances the reddish appearance when viewed from a distance. However, the human eye can only perceive a fraction of Mars' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">true color</a> palette.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-colors-revealed">Striking colors revealed</h2>



The European Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) aboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) offers a more detailed view, showcasing a striking diversity of colors.&nbsp;



This CaSSIS <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2024/06/Metallic_Mars_landscape" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> reveals yellow layers rich in iron and magnesium clays, overlain by white and blue layers abundant in aluminum.&nbsp;



The area is draped by a dark, heavily eroded layer, illustrating a vibrant, metallic landscape formed around 3.6 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upcoming-rosalind-franklin-mission">Upcoming Rosalind Franklin mission</h2>



The Rosalind Franklin mission is a joint mission by the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos aimed at exploring the surface of Mars to search for signs of past or present life. 



The mission is named after Rosalind Franklin, the pioneering British scientist whose work was crucial in the discovery of DNA's structure.



The rover is designed to drill up to two meters below the Martian surface, where it is believed any signs of life may be better preserved, away from the harsh surface radiation. 



The Rosalind Franklin rover was originally scheduled to launch in 2020, but technical delays and the COVID-19 pandemic pushed the launch window to 2028. 



Once on Mars, the rover will collaborate with other missions like NASA's Perseverance and Curiosity rovers to advance our understanding of the Red Planet's habitability and history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-mars-ancient-past">Studying Mars’ ancient past</h2>



While Rosalind Franklin prepares for its mission, the TGO remains in orbit, conducting crucial research to unravel Mars' ancient past and assess its potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-seismic-discoveries-and-the-quest-for-past-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitability</a>.&nbsp;



Since beginning its full science mission in 2018, TGO has not only captured stunning images but also provided a comprehensive inventory of Mars' atmospheric gases and mapped water-rich locations on the planet's surface.



For six years, CaSSIS has delivered breathtaking views of Mars in vivid color, documenting features ranging from volcanic landscapes to active dust devils and immense sand dunes.&nbsp;



Understanding Mars' water history and its implications for past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> remains a core focus of ESA’s ExoMars missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metals-on-mars">Metals on Mars</h2>



Mars is rich in various metals that contribute to its geological and mineralogical diversity. 



While iron is the most prominent, magnesium is also abundant. It is often found in the form of clays, contributing to the planet's diverse mineral composition. 



Aluminum is another significant metal present on Mars, commonly found in layered deposits and sediments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-changes-over-time">Major changes over time</h2>



The metals are not evenly distributed but are found in various concentrations across the Martian surface. 



For instance, regions like Mawrth Vallis exhibit a complex layering of different metal-rich minerals, including iron and magnesium-rich clays overlain by aluminium-rich layers.&nbsp;



This diversity indicates a rich geological history involving water activity, volcanic processes, and sedimentary deposition.



The presence of these metals suggests that Mars has undergone significant chemical and physical processes over billions of years, shaping its current landscape.&nbsp;



Understanding the distribution and composition of metals on Mars helps scientists piece together the planet's history and assess its past potential for habitability.



Image Credit: ESA/TGO/CaSSIS



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Metallic Mars: The diverse colors of the Red Planet

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the vibrant colors of the Mawrth Vallis region of Mars. The image reveals a landscape abundant in iron, magnesium, and aluminum.&nbsp; Mawrth Vallis lies just south of the dichotomy boundary, a ridge marking the divide between Mars' southern highlands and northern lowlands. Layered, clay-rich deposits found in this valley indicate prolonged interactions with water. Mawrth Vallis is considered a prime candidate for studying past habitability and the potential for preserved biosignatures. The...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name of the galaxy pair comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions - offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Pink,Sand,Beaches,Elethera,Bahamas

Featuring three miles of pink sand and clear, turquoise water, Pink Sands Beach is a heavenly escape. The ocean is warm year-round, making it is the perfect spot for swimming.

Pink Sands Beach    Harbour Island, Bahamas

Featuring three miles of pink sand and clear, turquoise water,...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the desert landscape of northwestern Namibia in southwest Africa. The valleys that cut through the plateaus, which were once fjords filled with seawater, are extremely old and well preserved.



According to NASA, new research indicates that the valleys are ancient relics of a time long before dinosaurs walked the Earth - when Africa was close to the South Pole, still part of the supercontinent Gondwana, and covered with ice.&nbsp;



Eventually, the ice flow carved out long, narrow valleys that filled up with water and created fjords that have managed to persist for hundreds of millions of years. The area is so well preserved that scientists call it a “fossil glacial landscape.”



“One who looks at these valleys has a snapshot of what the fjords looked like 300 million years ago, except that the ice here has long disappeared,” said Pierre Dietrich, a scientist at University of Rennes.



“Large-scale glacial landforms such as fjords are usually thought to be transient features, prone to be rapidly erased over geological timescales, which was obviously not the case here. One might therefore ask: what will happen to the fjords of Greenland and Norway in a distant future?”



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The fossil fjords of Namibia

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> shows oil slicks off the coast of southeastern Louisiana near Port Fourchon, a major hub of the oil and gas industry.



Two weeks ago, Hurricane Ida disrupted up to 95 percent of the region’s crude oil and gas production and damaged both operational and abandoned pipelines and structures. It is not yet known how much oil has spilled into the Gulf of Mexico.



According to NASA, several federal and state agencies and some private companies are working to find and contain oil leaks in the Gulf of Mexico.



The U.S. Coast Guard says it is prioritizing nearly 350 reported incidents of pollution in the Gulf and in Louisiana.



The natural-color image was captured on September 3, 2021 by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Oil slicks visible in the Gulf of Mexico after Hurricane Ida

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory shows...

One Big Rock This particular piece of space rock was officially called 14321, but it is more commonly known as Big Bertha. And we can see just how it picked up this moniker if we consider its size. The stone was much larger than any other collected during this mission – weighing in at almost 20 pounds.

40. One Big Rock

One Big Rock This particular piece of space rock was...

Of course, Shepard recognized that Big Bertha was an important specimen all those years ago, but it wouldn’t be until nearly half a century later that all its secrets were finally revealed. A piece of research published 48 years down the line put forth an incredible theory. Big Bertha, it seems, has an even stranger origin story than anyone could have predicted.

39. A Strange History

Of course, Shepard recognized that Big Bertha was an important...

Shepard and Mitchell had been a part of the Apollo 14 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emissions-cause-major-economic-losses-in-other-countries/">mission,</a> which was the third undertaking to touch down upon the Moon. And throughout its duration, crew members from Apollo 14 walked along the surface of the natural satellite on two separate occasions.

38. Apollo 14

Shepard and Mitchell had been a part of the Apollo...

The Apollo 14 mission’s leader was Shepard (the first American to reach space, but not the moon) with Mitchell and Stuart Roosa making up the rest of the three-man team. The trio left Earth on the final day of January 1971 from Florida’s Kennedy Space Center. February 1971 would prove to be the strangest month in any of their lives.

37. A Three Man Team

The Apollo 14 mission’s leader was Shepard (the first American...

The Apollo 14 mission was focused on an area of the Moon called Fra Mauro.&nbsp;This&nbsp;is a crater which took its name from an Italian monk and cartographer who lived during the 1400s. Furthermore, the bowl isn’t exactly insignificant in size; it has a diameter measuring up at around 50 miles. Soon, the astronauts would see it for themselves.

36. Fra Mauro

The Apollo 14 mission was focused on an area of...

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a stir among paleontologists worldwide. These tracks suggest reptiles roamed Earth far earlier than anyone suspected. 



Researchers uncovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a>-like footprints in northern Victoria, Australia, and matched them to the era that started around 359 million years ago.



According to Professor John Long from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, these imprints challenge the traditional view of reptile evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



According to the experts, the tracks suggest that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> may have appeared roughly 350 million years ago. That date pushes them back to 40 million years earlier than what was previously recorded.



One set of partial prints had distinct claw marks, hinting that these creatures were true reptiles rather than amphibians. Another set showed a smaller front foot and a larger hind foot, which is typical of land-walking vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-origins-in-gondwana">Reptile origins in Gondwana</h2>



Scientists have long studied the southern supercontinent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/41714/chapter-abstract/353976691?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, where many early tetrapods left behind their skeletons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracks</a>. This find in Victoria adds weight to the idea that pivotal evolutionary steps began in these territories.



At the time, Australia formed a central piece of this landmass. Warmer climates may have played a role in encouraging new adaptations among reptile forerunners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-timeline-of-reptile-evolution">New timeline of reptile evolution</h2>



Paleontologists analyze footprints to piece together how ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> moved. A set of clawed toes can reveal whether a creature was an amphibian or a reptile.



“This pushes back the likely origin of crown-group amniotes by at least 35-40 million years,” said Professor John Long. The research highlights how vital footprints can be for revealing new timelines.



Reptiles are part of the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amniota.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amniote</a> group, which includes birds and mammals. The discovery of claw marks in these fossil tracks implies full independence from watery environments, which is a characteristic of reptiles.



Many scientists once assumed that amniotes emerged in the Northern Hemisphere. These footprints raise questions about when and where some of the earliest reptiles spread across ancient landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-landscapes-and-animal-diversity">Shifting landscapes and animal diversity</h2>



Researchers plan to explore other parts of Victoria for more trace fossils that could fill gaps in the record. They hope future finds will clarify how these animals became adapted for dry land.



Unearthing additional trackways may add to our understanding of how reptiles branched off from amphibians. Each new print can reveal details about posture, movement, and survival tactics.



The Carboniferous Period stretched from about 359 million to 299 million years ago. It featured vast swampy forests, giant insects, and a rise in atmospheric oxygen levels.



Land masses were arranged differently than they are today. Some scientists believe shifting coastlines created niches that spurred new adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats-of-reptile-ancestors">Habitats of reptile ancestors</h2>



Some reptile ancestors likely ventured onto stable ground while others stayed near water. Traces of this transition remain scarce, so every fossil footprint matters.



Even a single impression can show scientists how early amniotes balanced their weight or held their tails. The shape, depth, and spacing can reveal clues about speed or range of motion.



A single fossil slab from Victoria has opened up this debate about reptile origins. Researchers suggest it is significant to re-check older formations in case more reptile evidence has been overlooked.



Professor Long and his team emphasize the need for more fieldwork to confirm whether reptiles appeared across multiple regions at around the same time. They believe this discovery highlights how a single trackway can reshape our ideas about early amniotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-more-reptile-footprints">Seeking more reptile footprints</h2>



Future excavations may uncover more footprints from the early stages of reptile evolution. That could bring clarity to how quickly these animals adapted to life away from water.



Technological advancements like high-resolution scans can make it easier to analyze the details of each print. Insights like these help paleontologists reconstruct entire ecosystems from a few traces left in stone.



Footprint analysis often involves laser scanning to capture 3D shapes. These scans can highlight fine ridges that point to muscle strength or toe flexibility.



Traces of skin patterns, though rare, can also indicate the texture of scales. Each layer of mud or sand holds hints about local conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-land-adaptation-of-reptiles">Early land adaptation of reptiles </h2>



Before amniotes, vertebrates such as fish and amphibians still needed water for reproduction. Over time, eggs with protective membranes evolved and these allowed animals such as reptiles to venture inland.



That transition set the stage for reptiles, birds, and mammals to diversify into countless forms. These footprints mark a link in that long chain.



Researchers compare new prints to known trackways from synapsids and early amphibians. Key distinctions include toe curvature and the presence of claws.



Synapsids, which later led to mammals, often left broader footprints with different digit spacing. Reptile-like tracks, on the other hand, typically show sharper claw impressions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Ancient footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



These ancient footprints connect modern wildlife to ancestors that once explored muddy banks. Each imprint brings a sense of wonder about how life took shape on land.



Understanding those steps may also shed light on broader evolutionary processes. After all, reptile success paved the way for the future rise of dinosaurs and beyond.



Scientists emphasize that no single discovery stands alone. Footprints, bones, and environmental data must all be pieced together to form a coherent story.



Though incomplete, this record keeps expanding thanks to fresh finds in unexpected places. Each new track offers a glimpse into a time of rapid evolutionary change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Reptile ancestors appeared 40 million years earlier than we thought

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a...

What makes one child genetically different from another? In a recent study, experts examined how ancestry, genetic makeup, and lifestyle choices like smoking influence the rate of new genetic mutations in children.



The team analyzed over 10,000 parent-child trios, using data from the <a href="https://www.genomicsengland.co.uk/initiatives/100000-genomes-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">100,000 Genomes Project</a>. The researchers aimed to uncover how new genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a> - also known as de novo mutations (DNMs) - form in sperm and egg cells and pass down to offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-new-genetic-mutations-form">How do new genetic mutations form?</h2>



DNMs are not present in the DNA of either parent and are not inherited. They are fresh mutations that arise in the reproductive cells of parents (sperm and eggs) and get passed on to children. 



Sometimes, these changes have no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-gene-edited-spiders-spin-red-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a>. Other times, they can lead to severe genetic disorders.



Parental age, especially the father's, plays a role in increasing DNMs. Each year that a father ages adds around 1.5 mutations to his child’s genetic makeup. 



A mother’s aging adds about 0.4 mutations. But is that all? What else could be stirring the genetic pot?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-ancestry-differences-in-mutations">Subtle ancestry differences in mutations</h2>



To find out, the researchers scoured genetic data from 10,557 parent-child trios. They looked for genetic variants present in the child but absent in both parents. This approach allowed them to map nearly 689,000 DNMs. It’s the biggest DNM catalog ever created.



But the sheer size of the dataset wasn’t the only notable feature. The researchers explored a diverse range of ancestries, including European, African, South Asian, and American groups. This diversity helped them detect subtle differences in mutation rates linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestry</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-ancestry-matter">Does ancestry matter?</h2>



It turns out, ancestry does matter. African ancestry groups exhibited slightly higher DNM rates than other populations. 



On average, children of African ancestry inherited about 67 new DNMs per generation. European, South Asian, and American groups inherited about 64 DNMs.



The gap seems minor, but it is statistically significant. The researchers suggest that genetic and environmental factors tied to ancestry may be at play.



Still, age had a far more pronounced effect than ancestry. A two-year <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-regulation-controlling-cells-to-improve-medical-treatments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">difference</a> in a father’s age at the conception of his child could offset the ancestral differences in DNM rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-variants-don-t-explain-mutation">Genetic variants don’t explain mutation</h2>



Genetic variations within populations could theoretically affect DNM rates. To investigate, the researchers zoomed in on European-ancestry trios. They searched for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are small genetic changes that might influence mutation rates.



The experts found nothing conclusive. No common genetic variants appeared to affect DNM rates significantly.



"The sheer scale of the 100,000 Genomes Project presented a great opportunity to look into the effects and exposures that explain rates and patterns of DNA changes," said Dr. Aylwyn Scally from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-affects-genetic-mutation-rates">Smoking affects genetic mutation rates</h2>



Does smoking alter the genetic blueprint passed to children? Yes, but the effect is small. The researchers found a slight increase in DNMs among children of parents who smoked.



On average, the increase was about 2% - less than one extra DNM over a parent’s reproductive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-of-human-genetic-mutations-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



Still, this slight increase caught the researchers’ attention. They noted that while the effect size was small, it was statistically significant. 



"While evolution has done its best to develop mechanisms to protect the DNA we pass on to our offspring, our study has shown that it's not fully protected from certain exposures," said Dr. Raheleh Rahbari from the Wellcome Sanger Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-genetic-studies">Implications for genetic studies</h2>



The findings matter for genetic research. Current models assume that mutation rates are the same across populations. But what if they aren’t? What if ancestry subtly shapes mutation rates, as this study suggests?



Adjusting genetic models to account for ancestry and lifestyle factors could refine predictions about rare genetic disorders. It could also help scientists pinpoint mutations that are linked to diseases, leading to more accurate diagnoses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-health-and-genetic-mutations">Reproductive health and genetic mutations</h2>



Germ cells - sperm and eggs - guard genetic information. Their mutation rates stay low and minimize the risk of transmitting harmful changes. But factors like age, ancestry, and smoking can still nudge those rates higher.



"Ancestry and lifestyle choices like smoking are associated with the number of new DNA changes that arise in the genome," stated Dr. Hilary Martin from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a>.



"The effects are small, but they deepen our understanding of genetic variation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Despite its scale, the study had limits. The number of participants from certain ancestry groups was relatively small. And while the researchers examined smoking, they did not explore other potential environmental factors, such as alcohol use or pollutants.



Future studies with larger, more diverse datasets could reveal additional influences on mutation rates. As genetic sequencing becomes cheaper and faster, the ability to track DNMs across generations will most certainly improve.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59750-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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What causes genetic mutations in children? New factors have been identified

What makes one child genetically different from another? In a...

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western Amazon. This small creature, which belongs to the poison dart frog family, stands out with unusual copper accents on its limbs and an overall eye-catching look.



Dr. Evan D. Koch, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nm.cz/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of the Czech Republic</a>, helped document the new species in an underexplored region near the Juruá River.



The team first encountered the frog in March 2023, although its official recognition as a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-tree-frog-origins-back-55-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> was only documented on May 14, 2025.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-blue-poison-dart-frog">Striking blue poison dart frog</h2>



The new species of frog bears light blue stripes set against a darker upper body. Its metallic-hued legs are patterned with irregular brown spots, making the species a definite standout. 



Experts have formally named it <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ranitomeya aetherea</a>, referencing its sky-like tones that bring to mind something almost beyond this world.



Early observations suggest it inhabits lowland Amazonian forests, roughly 443 ft (135 meters) above sea level. Individuals often perch on broad-leafed plants within these humid, palm-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-colors-and-potential-toxicity">Unusual colors and potential toxicity</h2>



Members of the broader family, Dendrobatidae, are well known for their potent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a>, though each species has its own chemical profile.



Many rely on <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2133521100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic coloration</a> to warn potential predators that making a meal of it would be a bad idea. Even though researchers have only examined a handful of R. aetherea specimens, they suspect that the frog’s bright patches hint at toxic defenses, much like in its colorful cousins.



For locals, the presence of vibrant frogs is nothing new, but the copper and pale stripes on this one are not something they typically see. Field teams were quick to note that the frog’s underside shares this light-blue tone, and is spotted with dark blotches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-of-the-blue-frog">Characteristics of the blue frog</h2>



Study participants noted that these frogs stay near water-filled compartments in certain broad-leaf flora. The watery pockets, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytotelmata" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytotelmata</a>, cradle single R. aetherea tadpoles at various stages of development.



Each juvenile has a tinted tail and a small oval mouth. Once they reach more advanced stages, faint stripes start to appear on the tiny bodies.



According to field notes, adults seem most active in the early morning or late afternoon. Males will climb small plants, typically a few feet off the ground, to call out in a series of fast, chirping notes. 



Observers say that solitary males can gather within the same area without obvious conflict, though they appear to react strongly to call playbacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-vocal-patterns">Unique vocal patterns </h2>



Calling sessions last under a second and carry a quick flurry of distinct, tonal notes. That pattern sets it apart from a few other relatives whose calls have fewer notes or run at a different pitch. 



In one instance, a male produced a longer series when a female approached, suggesting there may be a special “courtship call.”



That same male was spotted leading the curious female toward a hidden leaf base with water trapped inside. This behavior offers a peek into how they might bond or share parental tasks. 



Previous <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/650727" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on other species in this group have documented complex childrearing steps, and the research team suspects that R. aetherea may have similar habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strict-habitat-requirements">Strict habitat requirements </h2>



Across South America, frogs of the genus Ranitomeya often occupy extremely specific habitats. It has been over ten years since a new species in this genus was named, which makes this a significant find for biologists who are keen on amphibian diversity.



Some of its relatives, like Ranitomeya imitator, feature more greens and spots, while others go for bolder oranges or reds. R. aetherea’s softly tinted copper legs represent a separate thread in the group’s evolutionary tree.



Further genetic work suggests it clusters close to other species from the southwestern Amazon, yet it holds its own distinct lineage.



Investigators suspect that these frogs may have strict habitat requirements and boundaries around their living space, which means they may potentially have very limited range sizes.



Such a focus on exact territory often makes each species vulnerable to land-use changes or deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-blue-frog-discovery">Significance of the blue frog discovery</h2>



Local communities were aware of various frogs in their forest, but the scientific world had no formal record of frogs with this patterning until now.



Its presence highlights that the southwestern Amazon, with patches that are still difficult to reach, can house animal groups that slip under the radar. Additional exploration may uncover other new amphibians, especially within pockets that share similar vegetation or water sources.



Researchers plan to keep monitoring these populations over the coming years. This effort is essential for tracking any environmental threats that could place these frogs at risk. 



Given the increasing human activities in this region, timely observation may help shape protective measures in the near future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



Image Credit: Koch et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0



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Blue frog with copper legs discovered in the Amazon rainforest

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western...

The central California coast hides a dimpled and pockmarked seafloor region that is roughly the size of Los Angeles - five hundred square miles of soft‑edged pits stretching from Big Sur to Morro Bay. 



For decades ocean scientists assumed these round depressions - a whopping six‑football‑field stretch from rim to rim and about 16 feet deep - were scars left by bubbles of methane burping up through the mud. 



That tidy explanation raised eyebrows once plans for an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-are-now-habitats-for-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">offshore wind farm</a> landed on the same patch of continental slope between 1,600 and 5,200 feet below the waves. If methane were still leaking, could turbine anchors stay put?



Curiosity turned urgent when more than 5,200 of the formations, known as pockmarks, appeared to be distributed with "eerie regularity."



The pattern suggested an active force was sculpting and preserving the craters even today. 



To settle the debate, a research team rolled out a fleet of high‑tech robots and a mountain of sensors - and overturned a favorite myth about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/only-001-percent-of-earths-deep-seafloor-has-ever-been-directly-observed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how the seafloor breathes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafloor-full-of-large-pockmarks">Seafloor full of large pockmarks</h2>



Autonomous underwater vehicles zipped barely yards above the bottom, beaming back sonar so sharp it mapped individual ripples of sand. 



The survey refined ship‑based maps and revealed that most pockmarks sit almost perfectly spaced apart, each nearly circular and averaging 656 feet across. 



Back at mission control aboard the research vessel, experts from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>), the U.S. Geological Survey (<a href="https://www.usgs.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USGS</a>), and <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> watched the topography scroll across their monitors at one‑foot resolution.



The robots also carried a <a href="https://www2.whoi.edu/site/coastalgroup/about/how-we-work/field-methods/chirp-sub-bottom-profiler/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHIRP sub‑bottom profiler</a>, a sound cannon that peeks some 25 feet beneath the mud. 



Instead of pockets of gas, profiles showed neat layers: thin bands of fine silt interrupted by coarser sand sheets. Those buried sand sheets hinted at something far more dramatic than gentle gas seepage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sending-in-the-robots">Sending in the robots</h2>



Guided by the maps, MBARI’s remotely operated vehicle <a href="https://www.mbari.org/technology/rov-doc-ricketts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doc Ricketts</a> descended for 30 dives, clocking 185 hours of video and punching 107 vibracores and 433 shallow pushcores into the pockmark floors. 



An additional cruise brought up piston cores nearly 25 feet long for comparison outside the craters. Not a whiff - chemical or acoustic - of methane turned up in any sample.



“There are many unanswered questions about the seafloor and its processes,” said MBARI Senior Research Technician Eve Lundsten. 



“This research provides important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-relic-uncovers-earths-ancient-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data about the seafloor</a> for resource managers and others considering potential offshore sites for underwater infrastructure to guide their decision‑making.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafloor-avalanches-and-pockmarks">Seafloor avalanches and pockmarks</h2>



Each core carried a timeline of turmoil. Fine mud settled quietly for millennia, then a blanket of gritty sand crashed in, marking a colossal underwater avalanche called a sediment gravity flow. 



The team counted turbidite layers back at least 280,000 years, with the most recent flow sweeping through roughly 14,000 years ago. 



When such a slurry roars downslope, it scours the center of every pockmark in its path and drops a fresh sand layer across the field in one go - resetting the craters like simultaneous footprints.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pockmark-chains_seafloor-holes_distribution-map_MBARI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pockmark-chains_seafloor-holes_distribution-map_MBARI_1s.webp" alt="Location Map showing the Sur Pockmark Field outlined in green, individual pockmarks are shown as small red dots. This study focuses on the largest section of the pockmark field, from the Lucia Chica Channel down to the San Simeon Channel. Red stars show the location of AUV-collected Chirp data from beneath pockmarks in Figure 3. Inset maps contain AUV-collected bathymetry showing pockmarks in detail with 5 meter contours. Credit: MBARI" class="wp-image-1969422"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Location Map showing the Sur Pockmark Field outlined in green, individual pockmarks are shown as small red dots. This study focuses on the largest section of the pockmark field, from the Lucia Chica Channel down to the San Simeon Channel. Red stars show the location of AUV-collected Chirp data from beneath pockmarks in Figure 3. Inset maps contain AUV-collected bathymetry showing pockmarks in detail with 5 meter contours. Click image to enlarge. Credit: MBARI</figcaption></figure>



“We collected a massive amount of data, allowing us to make a surprising link between pockmarks and sediment gravity flows," Lundsten explained.



"We were unable to determine exactly how these pockmarks were initially formed, but with MBARI's advanced underwater technology, we've gained new insight into how and why these features have persisted on the seafloor for hundreds of thousands of years."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clean-energy-from-seafloor-pockmarks">Clean energy from seafloor pockmarks</h2>



Undersea avalanches strike tens of thousands of years apart, yet their legacy shapes today’s renewable energy blueprint. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-wind-turbines-impact-property-values-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Turbine foundations</a> must grip rock‑steady ground for decades; a bubbling gas pocket could undermine that. The new findings relieve a major worry. 



Instead of methane, the main architect here is long‑dormant sediment flow, meaning the crust has remained effectively quiet since well before humans started farming California’s Central Valley.



“Expanding renewable energy is critical to achieving the dramatic cuts in carbon dioxide emissions needed to prevent further irreversible climate change," noted MBARI President and CEO Chris Scholin.



"However, there are still many unanswered questions about the possible environmental impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-threaten-marine-life-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">offshore wind energy development</a>,” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-still-need-answers">Many questions still need answers</h2>



Although the study pinned down how the craters stay fresh, their birth story remains elusive. 



Did an ancient mega‑flow carve the first depressions, or did subtle currents gradually nudge sediment aside until a small hollow invited bigger scours? 



Computer models will test whether an unconfined flow racing over the dimpled plain can muster enough force to keep those bowls tidy without help from escaping gas.



Future research will also track how water and sediment swirl through the neighboring Lucia Chica and San Simeon Channels - twin conduits that may funnel slurries into the field. 



For now, the Sur Pockmark Field stands as the best‑charted seafloor province on North America’s west coast, a natural laboratory where wind‑farm planners, geologists, and marine ecologists share common ground.



What they'll find next is anyone's guess.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JF007374" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface</a>.



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Thousands of enormous holes discovered on the seafloor, evenly-spaced with "eerie regularity"

The central California coast hides a dimpled and pockmarked seafloor...

Every seed begins life with a simple aim: to reach water, collect nutrients, and stay upright. Beneath the surface, root tips probe the soil and spread into branches that keep the plant alive.



Getting those branches to appear at just the right spot and moment matters even more now that weather swings between long dry spells and sudden cloudbursts.



Researchers have traced that timing to autophagy, the recycling pathway many people associate with health benefits from fasting.



By following a shape‑shifting protein through Arabidopsis roots, the team uncovered how brief clean‑up pulses let new branches form and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationship-plant-roots-underground-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">help crops cope</a> with tougher conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-roots-cellular-clean-up-crew">Plant roots' cellular clean‑up crew</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> mapped the pathway in living seedlings. They watched the transcription factor ARF7 vanish and return in predictable waves, each tied to a jump in the growth hormone auxin. 



“Fasting has become popular as it seems to have a range of health‑promoting effects in humans, as periods without food cause the body to activate clean‑up processes to dispose of various waste products in cells," explains Assistant Professor Eleazar Rodriguez from the Department of Biology, who led the study.



"We have proven that the same mechanism, which also exists in the plant kingdom, plays a vital role in the ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant roots to grow</a> and absorb water and nutrients for the rest of the plant.” 



The process relies on NBR1, a tag that guides used proteins toward a vacuole for breakdown. Each removal of ARF7 resets the signaling circuit so it can fire again a few hours later. 



When autophagy slows, ARF7 accumulates, messages run long, and the root loses its usual rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-and-auxin">Autophagy and auxin</h2>



Side branches normally form with steady precision. Roughly every four to six hours, auxin peaks at the root tip and switches on genes that mark a patch of tissue for future branching. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movement of a root</a> is almost like watching a snake slithering forward in search of water and nourishment in the soil. And we can see that the heartbeat is strongest every time the root meanders forth,” says Rodriguez.



Using a luminescent reporter, the team confirmed that ARF7 cycles in step with those hormone pulses. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/autophagy_Arabidopsis-plant_ezyme-study_credit-UCopenhagen_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/autophagy_Arabidopsis-plant_ezyme-study_credit-UCopenhagen_1s.jpg" alt="To investigate the significance of autophagy, the researchers developed a mutant Arabidopsis (thale cress) plant in which its autophagy was disabled which is shown on the right. With an enzyme from fire flies the researchers made it possible to distinguish the normal plant from the plant with its autophagy function disabled. The plant to the right has fewer light areas and thereby fewer potential places to grow new roots with it's autophagy function turned off. Credit: Eleazar Rodriguez, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen." class="wp-image-1969564"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">To investigate the significance of autophagy, the researchers developed a mutant Arabidopsis (thale cress) plant in which its autophagy was disabled which is shown on the right. With an enzyme from fire flies the researchers made it possible to distinguish the normal plant from the plant with its autophagy function disabled. The plant to the right has fewer light areas and thereby fewer potential places to grow new roots with it's autophagy function turned off. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Eleazar Rodriguez, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen. </figcaption></figure>



The pattern resembles the circadian rhythms that guide leaf opening, yet it runs on its own schedule and focuses solely on building the hidden half of the plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-autophagy-stalls">When autophagy stalls</h2>



The group then disabled key autophagy genes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">test the pathway’s limits</a>. Mutant seedlings produced fewer lateral roots and soaked up less water. 



“When we disrupted the plant's autophagy, there was waste everywhere, and we were able to detect the ARF7 protein among the waste,” says Rodriguez.



Microscopy revealed swollen vacuoles packed with debris. Growth zones that once cleared their protein stockpile before each auxin wave now stayed loaded, leaving no room for a fresh signal. The result was a sparse, inefficient root system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Because the recycling toolkit is shared across flowering plants, the findings open new options for breeders and for companies developing microbial soil additives. 



Numerous methods to change the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-use-their-roots-to-ration-water-during-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic characteristics of plants</a> are available today. These can be used to get plants to develop longer roots, faster, and in doing so, become more resistant to droughts or floods. 



"One of the methods enlists the help of bacteria that live in symbiosis with the plant and can cause the plant to change its growth pattern. Several companies in Denmark are working on this right now,” explains Ph.D. student Jeppe Ansbøl, who co‑authored the study.



Tuning autophagy or adjusting NBR1 tags could let roots chase moisture deeper in the soil and capture stray fertilizer before it washes away, improving harvests without extra inputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-makes-stronger-roots">Autophagy makes stronger roots</h2>



“The more roots the plants have, the more water and nutrients they can take up, so the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-microbes-in-tea-roots-grow-tastier-healthier-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants grow better, faster</a>," Rodriquez summarized.



"We're heavily dependent on plants because they feed us, extract CO2 from the atmosphere and produce the oxygen we breathe. As such, it is extremely important to understand them fully, to which end we have just taken a big step forward."



Pilot plots in Denmark are already testing these ideas under shifting rain patterns. Early observations hint that crops with tweaked recycling bounce back more quickly after both saturation and dry spells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-next-for-crops-and-autophagy">What next for crops and autophagy?</h2>



Upcoming work will examine whether other auxin response factors move through the same recycling pathway and how changes in light, temperature, or soil chemistry adjust the schedule. 



Studies in mosses and liverworts, which split from flowering plants roughly 400 million years ago, may reveal how old the link between autophagy and development really is.



For farmers, a timely cellular tidy‑up could translate into sturdier yields. By keeping root cells clear of clutter, plants gain the freedom to build the networks they need to thrive in a climate that rarely sits still.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44319-024-00142-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Reports</a>.



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Scientists finally learn what makes plants grow faster and stronger

Every seed begins life with a simple aim: to reach...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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