Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope. 



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionized nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers who study stellar evolution and the life cycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that contain young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. 



The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



The Reticulum constellation is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope. 



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.  "The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted ESA. "Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features smoke from wildfires across the southeastern region of South Korea.



NASA noted that dozens of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-identified-the-key-driver-of-severe-wildfires-in-canada/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildland fires</a> broke out as dry winds swept across the country.



“Blazes began igniting on March 21, prompting evacuations as well as the deployment of thousands of personnel and more than 100 helicopters to combat the fires.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-from-wildfires-in-south-korea">Smoke from wildfires in South Korea </h2>



“Smoke from some of the larger fires is visible in this image, acquired by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on March 22,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154083/outbreak-of-fire-across-south-korea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



One of the plumes is streaming from a wildfire near Andong in Uiseong County, where hundreds of people were evacuated.&nbsp;



“To the south, another large smoke plume originated from rural Sancheong County,” noted NASA.



‘A large, fast-moving fire had burned over 500 hectares (2 square miles) by the evening of March 22, the Associated Press reported, and caused multiple injuries and deaths.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-the-fires">Impacts of the fires</h2>



The devastating wildfires in South Korea have caused significant loss of life and property. The fires have claimed at least 24 lives, including four firefighters and a helicopter pilot who crashed while assisting in the efforts. 



Approximately 27,000 residents have been forced to evacuate as the flames have burned more than 17,000 hectares of land.&nbsp;



The fires have caused extensive damage to infrastructure and cultural heritage sites. More than 200 structures, including historical structures such as a seventh century Buddhist temple, have been destroyed.



The wildfires have spread rapidly. Lee Byung-doo, a forest disaster expert at the National Institute of Forest Science, told The Guardian that the Uiseong fire spread with “unimaginable” <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speed</a>.&nbsp;



Dry, windy conditions and record-high temperatures have made the fires difficult to contain.&nbsp;



The government has elevated the crisis alert to its highest level, deploying thousands of firefighters and over 130 helicopters to combat the blazes.



The hardest hit regions have been designated as disaster areas to expedite recovery efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-wildfire-dynamics-nbsp">Climate change and wildfire dynamics&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-fire-risk-has-grown-exponentially-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> is significantly influencing wildfire intensity by creating conditions that make fires more frequent, larger, and more severe.&nbsp;



Rising global temperatures lead to prolonged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, drier vegetation, and higher evaporation rates, all of which contribute to an increased likelihood of wildfires.&nbsp;



As heat waves become more extreme and prolonged, forests and grasslands become more susceptible to ignition, whether from natural sources like lightning or human activity.



Shifting precipitation patterns also play a role in wildfire dynamics. Some regions experience less frequent but more intense rainfall, leading to rapid vegetation growth that, once dried out, becomes highly flammable fuel for fires.&nbsp;



In other areas, persistent droughts reduce soil moisture and weaken plant health, making ecosystems more vulnerable to burning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-and-unpredictable-fires-nbsp">Rapid and unpredictable fires&nbsp;</h2>



The warming climate is also altering wind patterns, which can spread fires more rapidly and unpredictably. Stronger winds carry embers over long distances, igniting new fires far from the original source.&nbsp;



Additionally, changes in seasonal patterns, such as earlier snowmelt and delayed autumn rains, extend the wildfire season, allowing fires to burn longer and with greater intensity.



These intensifying wildfires have cascading effects on ecosystems and human communities. Increased fire severity can lead to soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, and long-term changes in forest composition.&nbsp;



In populated areas, wildfires pose serious threats to human life, property, and air quality, with smoke from large fires contributing to respiratory health issues and worsening climate change by releasing massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-escalating-cycle-nbsp">An escalating cycle&nbsp;</h2>



Ultimately, climate change and wildfires form a dangerous feedback loop. As wildfires become more intense and widespread, they release more carbon, accelerating climate change and increasing future fire risks.&nbsp;



This escalating cycle highlights the urgent need for strategies to mitigate climate change and improve wildfire management through policies that address both emissions reductions and adaptive land-use practices.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Smoke and destruction: South Korea’s wildfire crisis

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.



“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.



“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.



“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”



This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;



The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. 



“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.



“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;



The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. 



Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.



The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;



The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;



These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;



Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;



This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. 



Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;



This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. 



The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.



The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.



The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a galaxy that is located about 600 million light-years away in the constellation Gemini. The Hubble Space Telescope observed a supernova in this galaxy - which appears as a bright blue dot in the photograph.



“This picture was taken roughly two months after a supernova named SN 2022aajn was discovered in this galaxy. The supernova is visible as a blue dot at the center of the image, brightening the hazy body of the galaxy,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-supernova">What is a supernova?</h2>



Supernovae are spectacular explosions marking the violent deaths of stars. These cosmic events are so luminous they can briefly outshine entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and radiate more energy in a few weeks than our Sun will in its entire lifetime.&nbsp;



Supernovae explosions release heavy elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron into the interstellar medium. This stellar debris becomes the building blocks for new stars, planets, and even life itself. 



Supernovae also produce neutron stars or black holes, depending on the remaining core’s mass after the explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-supernovae-nbsp">Types of supernovae&nbsp;</h2>



There are two main types of supernovae, classified based on their causes. Type I supernovae occur when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white dwarf</a> in a binary system accretes material from its companion star, eventually reaching a critical mass and triggering a runaway nuclear reaction.&nbsp;



Type II supernovae happen when a massive star, at least eight times the mass of the Sun, exhausts its nuclear fuel. Unable to support its own gravity, the core collapses, resulting in a massive explosion that ejects the outer layers into space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-distance-to-faraway-galaxies-nbsp">Measuring the distance to faraway galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, SN 2022aajn is a Type Ia supernova. “Supernovae of this type help astronomers measure the distance to faraway galaxies. This is possible because Type Ia supernovae are thought to be of the same intrinsic luminosity - no matter how bright they seem from Earth, they put out the same amount of light as other Type Ia supernovae.”



This means that researchers can calculate the distance to the supernova and its host galaxy by comparing the observed brightness to the expected brightness.



“This seemingly simple measurement method is complicated by cosmic dust. The farther away a supernova is, the fainter and redder it will appear - but intergalactic dust can make a supernova appear fainter and redder as well,” explained ESA.



“To understand this complication, researchers will use Hubble to survey a total of 100 Type Ia supernovae in seven wavelength bands from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared.”



By analyzing the brightness of supernovae across multiple wavelengths, researchers can distinguish between the influences of dust and distance, refining our measurements of galaxies that exist billions of light-years away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-many-galaxies-exist">How many galaxies exist?</h2>



The number of galaxies in the universe is estimated to be around two trillion, based on observations from Hubble and more recent data from the James Webb Space Telescope. 



This estimate is derived from deep-field surveys that reveal countless galaxies, each containing billions to trillions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>.&nbsp;



However, because our observations are limited by current technology and the vastness of the cosmos, the actual number could be even higher.&nbsp;



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxies-formed-from-the-earliest-elements-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> remain unseen due to their extreme distances, faintness, or obstruction by cosmic dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-gemini-nbsp">The constellation Gemini&nbsp;</h2>



Gemini is one of the 12 zodiac constellations and is best known for representing the mythological twins Castor and Pollux. It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere and is most visible during winter in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



The constellation is bordered by Taurus to the west, Cancer to the east, and Orion to the south.



The two brightest stars in Gemini - Castor and Pollux - represent the heads of the twins and are easy to spot. Pollux, the brighter of the two, is an orange giant star about 34 light-years from Earth, while Castor is a more complex system made up of six stars. 



The constellation also contains several notable deep-sky objects, including the open cluster Messier 35, which is a beautiful collection of young stars located near Gemini’s western border.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Hubble spots a supernova in the constellation Gemini 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. 



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 1333, a reflection nebula located in the Perseus molecular cloud about 960 light-years away from Earth. The photo is a mosaic of images captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.



“Webb’s superb sensitivity allows astronomers to investigate young objects with extremely low masses. Some of the faintest ‘stars’ in the picture are in fact newly born free-floating brown dwarfs with masses comparable to those of giant planets,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



The same cluster was featured in the 33rd anniversary image of the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2023. 



According to ESA, Hubble’s image just scratched the surface of this region, because clouds of dust obscure much of the star formation process. 



"Observing with larger aperture and in the infrared part of the spectrum, Webb is capable of peering through the dusty veil to reveal newborn stars, brown dwarfs and planetary mass objects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-view-of-ngc-1333">Webb’s view of NGC 1333</h2>



ESA noted that the center of the image presents a deep peek into the heart of the NGC 1333 cloud.&nbsp;



“Across the image we see large patches of orange, which represent gas glowing in the infrared. These so-called Herbig-Haro objects form when ionized material ejected from young stars collides with the surrounding cloud. They are hallmarks of a very active site of star formation."



The disks of gas and dust that surround the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in this image may eventually produce planetary systems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-in-the-sun-s-birth-cluster">Stars in the Sun's birth cluster</h2>



“Similar to the young stars in this mosaic, our own Sun and planets formed inside a dusty molecular cloud, 4.6 billion years ago. Our Sun did not form in isolation but as part of a cluster, which was perhaps even more massive than NGC 1333,” explained ESA.



Over time, the stars in the Sun's birth cluster would have drifted apart due to gravitational interactions and the dispersion of gas in the region.



Astronomers have been studying certain clues, such as isotopic signatures in meteorites, that hint the Sun may have formed near massive stars. These stars likely produced supernovae, which could have influenced the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> by injecting heavy elements like iron-60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1333">Star formation in NGC 1333</h2>



NGC 1333 is a vibrant example of a stellar nursery, where active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> is ongoing. It is known for its chaotic appearance, shaped by the interactions between newborn stars and the surrounding material.



Within NGC 1333, astronomers have observed a high level of turbulence, which makes the region dynamic and complex. 



These disturbances are caused by the outflows of young stars as they eject material into their surroundings, creating shock waves and influencing further star formation.&nbsp;



These outflows are often seen as jets, which are visible in multiple wavelengths of light, especially infrared, as the surrounding dust absorbs visible light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-stages-of-planet-formation">Early stages of planet formation </h2>



NGC 1333 is also an area of interest for studying the early stages of star and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, as many of the stars within the cluster are in their infancy.



These stars are still in the process of gathering material and developing protoplanetary disks. 



In images, NGC 1333 is marked by bright patches of blue and red, representing reflection <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and the ionized gas created by energetic young stars.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-perseus-molecular-cloud-nbsp">The Perseus molecular cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Perseus molecular cloud is a vast region of cold gas and dust located about 600 light-years away from Earth in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1500-billion-orphan-stars-discovered-in-the-perseus-galaxy-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseus</a>.&nbsp;



It is one of the most studied star-forming regions in our galaxy due to its relative proximity and the diversity of its young stellar objects. This cloud spans several hundred light-years and contains dense pockets of gas where new stars are actively forming.&nbsp;



These areas are often enshrouded in thick dust, which obscures them in visible light but allows astronomers to study them using infrared and radio wavelengths.



The Perseus molecular cloud is particularly interesting because of the chemistry taking place within it, including the formation of complex organic molecules that could be precursors to life.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Stellar nursery shines in the Perseus cloud

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral galaxy NGC 2566, which is located 76 million light-years away in the constellation Puppis. The image was captured by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope.



“A prominent bar of stars stretches across the center of this galaxy, and spiral arms emerge from each end of the bar. Because NGC 2566 appears tilted from our perspective, its disk takes on an almond shape, giving the galaxy the appearance of a cosmic eye,” said <a href="https://phys.org/news/2024-12-hubble-spies-spiral-galaxy-ngc.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“As NGC 2566 appears to gaze at us, astronomers gaze right back, using Hubble to survey the galaxy's star clusters and star-forming regions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-appearance-of-ngc-2566">Complex appearance of NGC 2566</h2>



NGC 2566 lies at a considerable distance from Earth, making it a challenging object for amateur astronomers to observe in detail without powerful telescopes.&nbsp;



It can be seen in the Southern Hemisphere sky and is better observed from locations with minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-light-pollution-influences-interest-in-astronomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a>.&nbsp;



The galaxy's arms are populated with young, bright stars, regions of active star formation, and interstellar gas and dust - giving it a dynamic and complex appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ages-of-stars">Measuring the ages of stars</h2>



According to NASA, data from Hubble is especially valuable for studying stars that are just a few million years old. “These stars are bright at the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths to which Hubble is sensitive.”



“Using these data, researchers can measure the ages of NGC 2566's stars, which helps piece together the timeline of the galaxy's star formation and the exchange of gas between star-forming clouds and the stars themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-galaxies">Star formation in galaxies</h2>



Star formation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> is a fascinating and complex process that unfolds over millions of years. It begins in vast clouds of gas and dust, known as molecular clouds, which are often found in the spiral arms of galaxies or in regions of irregular or starburst galaxies.&nbsp;



These clouds provide the raw material for star formation, consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements.



As the molecular clouds collapse under their own gravity, regions within them begin to condense and fragment, forming dense clumps. Within these clumps, protostars emerge. Their formation is driven by the gravitational pull drawing in surrounding gas.&nbsp;



During this process, the gas heats up due to increasing pressure, eventually igniting nuclear fusion in the core, signaling the birth of a new star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rate-of-star-formation-nbsp-across-galaxies">Rate of star formation&nbsp;across galaxies</h2>



The rate of star formation varies across galaxies is influenced by numerous factors. In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, star formation is most active in the spiral arms, where density waves compress gas and dust, triggering the collapse of molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Elliptical galaxies, which often have little cold gas and dust, typically exhibit low rates of star formation or none at all.



Starburst galaxies, on the other hand, experience episodes of exceptionally high star formation, often triggered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-galaxy-collision-with-a-radiant-smile/">galactic collisions</a> or interactions. 



These events can funnel large amounts of gas into central regions, leading to intense star-forming activity. However, such bursts are usually short-lived on cosmic timescales, exhausting the available gas quickly.



The environment within a galaxy also plays a significant role. Stellar winds and supernova explosions from existing stars can both inhibit and promote star formation. They may disperse gas, preventing further collapse, or compress nearby clouds, triggering new star formation.&nbsp;



Over time, as galaxies evolve, the availability of gas diminishes, leading to a gradual decline in star formation activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puppis-constellation-nbsp">The Puppis constellation&nbsp;</h2>



The Puppis constellation in the southern sky represents the stern of a ship. It was once part of a larger constellation known as Argo Navis, which depicted the mythical ship of Jason and the Argonauts.&nbsp;



However, Argo Navis was later divided into three separate constellations: Puppis, Carina (the keel), and Vela (the sails). Puppis is the largest of these three and contains many notable celestial objects.



This constellation is home to several bright stars, including Naos (Zeta Puppis), a hot, massive star that emits intense ultraviolet radiation. Puppis also hosts a wide variety of deep-sky objects, such as open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-star-clusters-captured-in-the-extreme-outskirts-of-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and nebulae.&nbsp;



Among these, Messier 46 and Messier 47 stand out. Both are beautiful star clusters that are visible through binoculars or small telescopes. The region is dense with stars because it lies along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-collision-may-change-everything-we-know-about-our-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, making it a prime area for stargazing and astrophotography. 



Image Credit: NASA



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A cosmic eye in the Puppis constellation

Today's Image of the Day from NASA features the spiral...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features UGC 5460, a spiral galaxy that is located about 60 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



“This image combines four different wavelengths of light to reveal UGC 5460’s central bar of stars, winding spiral arms and bright blue star clusters. Also captured in the upper left-hand corner of this image is a far closer object: a star just 577 light-years away in our own galaxy,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“UGC 5460 has hosted two recent supernovae named SN 2011ht and SN 2015as. It’s because of these two stellar explosions that Hubble targeted this galaxy, collecting data for three observing programmes that aim to study various kinds of supernovae.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-core-collapse-supernova-nbsp">A core-collapse supernova&nbsp;</h2>



SN 2015as is an example of a core-collapse supernova. This type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> occurs when the core of a massive star - typically with more than 8 times the mass of the sun - can no longer support its own gravity after exhausting its nuclear fuel. 



This causes the core to collapse under its own weight, leading to an extremely violent explosion. The collapse triggers the release of an enormous amount of energy, expelling the outer layers of the star into space.



In the aftermath of the explosion, a dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remnant</a> is created. This is often a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the original star. Core-collapse supernovae are some of the most powerful events in the universe.



According to ESA, Hubble observations of SN 2015as will help researchers understand what happens when the expanding shockwave of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> collides with the gas that surrounds the exploded star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-stars-with-large-eruptions-nbsp">Rare stars with large eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



“SN 2011ht might have been a core-collapse supernova as well, but it could also be an impostor called a luminous blue variable. Luminous blue variables are rare stars that experience eruptions so large that they can mimic supernovae,” noted ESA.



“Crucially, luminous blue variables emerge from these eruptions unscathed, while stars that go supernova do not. Hubble will search for a stellar survivor at SN 2011ht’s location, and the explosion’s identity may be revealed at last.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-spiral-galaxy">What is a spiral galaxy?</h2>



Spiral galaxies are some of the most recognizable and beautiful structures in the universe. They are known for their distinctive arms that spiral outward from a central bulge.&nbsp;



These galaxies are typically composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The arms are often sites of intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>, where clouds of gas collapse to form new stars. 



In the center of a spiral galaxy lies a dense concentration of older stars and, often, a supermassive black hole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-of-a-spiral-galaxy-nbsp">Structure of a spiral galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The structure of a spiral galaxy is generally divided into three main components: the disk, the bulge, and the halo.&nbsp;



The disk is where the spiral arms are located and contains most of the galaxy's visible stars and interstellar medium.&nbsp;



The bulge is a tightly packed region of older stars at the core, and the halo consists of a sparse collection of stars and globular clusters that surround the galaxy.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies can be classified into different types based on the tightness and number of their spiral arms, as well as the size of their central bulge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-galaxy">The Milky Way galaxy</h2>



Our solar system is located within a large spiral galaxy known as the Milky Way. The name refers to its appearance as a dim, milky band of light stretching across the night sky.&nbsp;



The term "Milky Way" comes from ancient Greek mythology, where it was associated the goddess Hera's milk spilling into the sky. In Greek, it was called "Galaxias Kyklos," meaning "milky circle."&nbsp;



Spanning about 100,000 light-years in diameter, the Milky Way is composed of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter. The galaxy has a distinct disk shape with spiral arms that wind outward from a central bulge, which houses a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>. 



Our sun is located in one of the spiral arms - known as the Orion Arm - positioned roughly halfway from the center to the outer edge.&nbsp;



The Milky Way is part of a small group of galaxies called the Local Group, which includes the Andromeda Galaxy and several smaller galaxies.



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Hubble views a spiral galaxy with stellar explosions

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features an incredible image of the Crab Nebula in bright neon colors.&nbsp;



“The unusual image was produced by combining data from telescopes spanning nearly the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to X-rays,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.&nbsp;



Colored in red, the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) provided information about the nebula gathered in the radio regime.



NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope took infrared images, which appear yellow, while the NASA/ESA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-captures-another-cosmic-masterpiece-in-galaxy-ngc-2217/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope provided images made in optical wavelengths, colored in green.&nbsp;



Blue colors represent ultraviolet observations made by ESA’s XMM-Newton telescope, and the purple colors are X-ray radiation data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-crab-nebula">What is the Crab Nebula? </h2>



The Crab Nebula, located in the constellation Taurus, contains the remnants of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosion</a> first observed on Earth in 1054 AD. This explosion was recorded by Chinese astronomers and possibly by Native American rock art.&nbsp;



The nebula spans about 11 light-years across and lies approximately 6,500 light-years away from Earth. It is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied objects</a> in the sky, largely due to its status as a bright and dynamic supernova remnant.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-crab-pulsar">The Crab Pulsar</h2>



The Crab Nebula contains a pulsar at its center, which is a rapidly rotating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-spinning-neutron-star-completely-defies-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> that emits pulses of radiation. This pulsar, known as the Crab Pulsar, spins about 30 times per second and is a significant source of gamma rays and other forms of high-energy radiation.&nbsp;



The nebula itself is a complex structure of filaments and synchrotron radiation. The filaments are remnants of the original star's outer layers, while the synchrotron radiation emerges from electrons spiraling in the magnetic fields produced by the pulsar.



“Surrounding the pulsar lies a mix of material; some of it was originally expelled from the star before it went supernova, and the rest was ejected during the explosion itself,” explained ESA.&nbsp;



“Fast-moving winds of particles fly off from the neutron star, energizing the dust and gas around it. These different layers and intricacies of the nebula can be observed in all of the different wavelengths of light.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-nebula-observations-nbsp">Crab Nebula observations&nbsp;</h2>



Throughout its history, the Crab Nebula has provided critical insights into the processes of stellar death, the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pulsars-are-helping-astronomers-pinpoint-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pulsars</a>, and the mechanics of supernova remnants.&nbsp;



Its continuous observation has revealed changes over time, such as the expansion of its filaments and variations in its brightness, offering a dynamic laboratory for astrophysical studies.



Overall, the Crab Nebula is a highly energetic and object, providing valuable insights into the processes following a supernova explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-facts-about-nebulae">Fascinating facts about nebulae</h2>



Nebulae are some of the most breathtaking and intriguing structures in the universe. They are vast clouds of gas and dust, often considered stellar nurseries where new stars are born. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-of-nebulae">Colors of nebulae </h3>



One of the most fascinating aspects of nebulae is their ability to glow in different colors. This occurs because they either reflect the light of nearby stars or emit light due to the ionization of gases within them, particularly hydrogen. 



Some nebulae, like the famous Orion Nebula, are visible to the naked eye and serve as one of the nearest regions of active star formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-nebulae">Planetary nebulae </h3>



Stars are born in dense regions of nebulae, and when they die, some will expel their outer layers, creating stunning structures known as planetary nebulae. The colorful clouds left behind can shine brightly for thousands of years. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-size">Massive size</h3>



Another amazing fact is that some nebulae are so vast that light can take years to travel from one side to the other, stretching across hundreds of light-years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-remnants">Star remnants </h3>



Perhaps even more mind-boggling is the fact that nebulae are the remnants of previous generations of stars. Supernova explosions of massive stars can create these glowing clouds of gas and dust, seeding the cosmos with the elements necessary for the formation of new stars and planets.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, G. Dubner (IAFE, CONICET-University of Buenos Aires) et al.; A. Loll et al.; T. Temim et al.; F. Seward et al.; VLA/NRAO/AUI/NSF; Chandra/CXC; Spitzer/JPL-Caltech; XMM-Newton/ESA; and Hubble/STScI



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Crab Nebula: The remains of a massive star explosion

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features an astronaut photograph of Fayzabad, a culturally diverse city in the Kokcha River valley of Northern Afghanistan. 



The photo was captured as the International Space Station passed over central Asia.



Fayzabad is the capital of the Badakhshan Province. It is located in a mountainous part of northeastern Afghanistan at an elevation of about 4,000 feet.



“The city is situated along the Kokcha River, which flows northward within a deep river valley surrounded by the Hindu Kush Mountains and eventually discharges into the Amu Darya River,” noted NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-of-fayzabad-nbsp">Climate of Fayzabad&nbsp;</h2>



The climate of Fayzabad varies from cold semi-arid to Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental, according to <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



The summer months are warm, with average high temperatures ranging from 77 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit.&nbsp;



The winter months are cold, with average low temperatures often dropping below freezing - sometimes reaching as low as 14 degrees Fahrenheit.&nbsp;



The region receives moderate precipitation, mostly during the spring and winter. Snowfall is common in winter, adding to the picturesque landscape.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fayzabad-culture">Fayzabad culture</h2>



Historically, Fayzabad has been a center of learning and culture, though its development has been hampered by years of conflict.&nbsp;



Despite these challenges, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-started-cumulative-culture-around-600000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culture</a> remains a vital component of the region, which is known for its traditional crafts including weaving and embroidery.



Cultural life in Fayzabad is influenced by its predominantly Tajik population, along with other ethnic groups such as Uzbeks and Hazaras. The local cuisine is a blend of traditional Afghan flavors, incorporating ingredients like rice, meat, and a variety of spices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-changes-nbsp">Land use changes&nbsp;</h2>



“This territory has experienced notable changes in its land use in recent decades, especially with commercial and administrative growth near the airport,” noted NASA.



“Among the changes: a new airstrip built west of the Kokcha River. However, mountains hem in the city and limit how much development is possible.”



“Despite these topographical barriers, some development has spread into hilly areas south of Fayzabad. Green vegetation is mostly confined to mountain valleys, stream channels, and the Kokcha River floodplain.”&nbsp;



“The Kokcha River meanders through the valley, providing a vital water resource for the region. Fields of predominantly wheat and rice cover much of the floodplain, though these flat areas are mixed with residential, industrial, and commercial activity as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kokcha-river-nbsp">Kokcha River&nbsp;</h2>



The Kokcha River originates in the Hindu Kush mountains. It stretches approximately 360 kilometers before joining the Amu Darya, one of Central Asia's major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hypoxia-is-a-serious-problem-in-rivers-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>.&nbsp;



The Kokcha River traverses rugged terrain, providing vital irrigation for agriculture in the region and supporting local communities' livelihoods.&nbsp;The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> basin features diverse landscapes that include mountainous areas and fertile valleys.&nbsp;



Throughout history, the Kokcha River has played a crucial role in the region's cultural and economic development, serving as a natural resource for the inhabitants and influencing settlement patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-afghanistan">Northern Afghanistan </h2>



Northern Afghanistan is known for its diverse landscape, featuring fertile plains, rugged mountains, and strategic rivers such as the Amu Darya. 



Historically, northern Afghanistan has been an important cultural and trade center. The city of Balkh, often referred to as "the mother of cities," is a hub of early civilization and a major stop on the Silk Road.



Northern Afghanistan has experienced periods of relative stability compared to the rest of the country, though it has also seen conflict - particularly during the Soviet invasion, the civil war of the 1990s, and the more recent Taliban resurgence.



The region's economy traditionally revolves around agriculture. Wheat, cotton, and fruits are key crops. In addition, there are vast mineral resources, although instability has hindered their full exploitation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-of-northern-afghanistan">Wildlife of Northern Afghanistan </h2>



In mountainous regions of Northern Afghanistan, such as the Hindu Kush, you can find species like the elusive snow leopard, which is well-adapted to the rugged terrain. 



Other mountain-dwelling animals include the Asiatic black bear and the Siberian ibex, both of which thrive in the high-altitude environments.



The plains and valleys are home to various species of antelope, such as the goitered gazelle, as well as foxes, wolves, and smaller mammals like hares. 



Birdlife is also abundant, with species ranging from eagles and vultures in the mountains to waterfowl along rivers and wetlands. The region’s rivers and lakes, though under environmental pressure, support fish species and amphibians.



However, many of these species are under threat. Decades of war and instability have impacted conservation efforts, with illegal hunting and habitat destruction taking a toll on populations. 



Some areas, such as the Wakhan Corridor in the northeast, remain relatively untouched and serve as crucial refuges for wildlife where rare species like the Marco Polo sheep still roam. These havens are increasingly important for conservation efforts in the region.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Fayzabad and the Kokcha River valley 

Space journeys that stretch far beyond home are on the horizon. Crews heading for Mars will face conditions quite different from those on Earth, and researchers have been working to figure out what might happen to the human body during these extended voyages. 



Kidneys have been a big question mark. Recent work reveals that these important organs could face more trouble than previously assumed, including a higher risk of stones and lasting damage.



Several studies have hinted at health concerns for astronauts ever since humans first ventured outside Earth’s protective zone, but the new findings shed light on why such problems arise in the kidneys. 



Dr. Keith Siew from the <a href="https://www.londontubularcentre.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">London Tubular Centre</a>, based at the UCL Department of Renal Medicine, and his colleagues have pieced together a detailed picture of what happens when living beings - human and otherwise - experience space-like conditions for weeks to years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-missions-and-human-kidneys">Space missions and human kidneys</h2>



The latest study was conducted under a UCL-led initiative involving over 40 institutions on five continents.



The team considered data from 20 different research cohorts and samples linked to over 40 Low Earth orbit missions to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-says-the-international-space-station-is-too-clean-add-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Space Station</a>, plus 11 simulations with mice and rats. 



The work is described as the largest analysis of kidney health in spaceflight so far and includes the first health dataset for commercial astronauts. 



It also involved seven simulations in which mice were exposed to radiation that mimicked up to 2.5 years of cosmic travel beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetic field</a>. 



Findings revealed that the structure and function of the kidneys are altered by spaceflight, with galactic radiation causing permanent damage that would jeopardize any long-distance mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidneys-and-deep-space-radiation">Kidneys and deep space radiation</h2>



Astronauts in Low Earth orbit still benefit from partial shielding by our planet’s magnetic field. 



Only 24 people - the ones who went to the moon - have been exposed to the full brunt of Galactic Cosmic Radiation for short trips of about 6-12 days. 



Nobody has ventured on a years-long mission beyond the Earth’s magnetic boundary, so it was unclear how organs might hold up under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/voyager-spacecraft-fighting-survival-cosmic-threats-outside-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more extreme conditions</a>.



As part of the new study, researchers found that certain kidney tubules, which control delicate balances of salts and calcium, shrink after just a month in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microgravity-causes-big-problems-with-human-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a>. 



The kidneys also process salts in a way that increases the likelihood of kidney stone formation. 



This new insight shifts the focus away from an older assumption that stones in space result mainly from bone loss causing elevated calcium in urine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-distance-more-radiation">Longer distance, more radiation</h2>



The research highlighted that cosmic radiation cannot be fully blocked by typical shielding. When mice were given doses of simulated <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/galactic-cosmic-rays" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Galactic Cosmic Radiation</a> equal to a mission length of up to 2.5 years, the animals showed irreversible kidney damage. 



Some of the key observations point to changes in how the kidneys manage vital minerals, which impacts long-term health during space travel.



“We know what has happened to astronauts on the relatively short space missions conducted so far, in terms of an increase in health issues such as kidney stones,” explained Dr. Siew. 



“What we don’t know is why these issues occur, nor what is going to happen to astronauts on longer flights such as the proposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mission to Mars</a>.”



If scientists don’t develop new ways to protect the kidneys, any astronaut that makes it to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-organic-molecules-ever-found-on-mars-confirm-life-forming-chemistry-is-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> will likely need dialysis on the way home or upon arrival.



"We know that the kidneys are late to show signs of radiation damage; by the time this becomes apparent it’s probably too late to prevent failure, which would be catastrophic for the mission’s chances of success," Dr. Siew concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-kidneys-and-future-space-travel">Human kidneys and future space travel</h2>



Space agencies have been aware since the 1970s that journeys outside our planet’s natural defenses lead to health concerns involving bones, eyes, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular system</a>. 



This new work puts fresh focus on the kidneys. It also highlights the importance of managing both microgravity and radiation, especially with more ambitious missions on the table.



“Our study highlights the fact that if you’re planning a space mission, kidneys really matter. You can’t protect them from galactic radiation using shielding," noted Professor Stephen B. Walsh from the London Tubular Centre, UCL Department of Renal Medicine.



"But as we learn more about renal biology it may be possible to develop technological or pharmaceutical measures to facilitate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-unexpected-effects-on-gut-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extended space travel</a>."



Any drugs developed for astronauts may also be beneficial here on Earth. For instance, by enabling cancer patients’ kidneys to tolerate higher doses of radiotherapy, which is currently an impediment to that form of treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Though this work only outlines organ changes up to two and a half years, it stands as the most comprehensive data currently available for that timescale. 



Researchers say that pinpointing these risks is a vital first step before reliable solutions can be introduced. 



The study’s international collaboration suggests momentum is building to safeguard astronauts’ kidneys, and future innovations could reach beyond space missions to help patients on Earth.



Experts note that learning how to handle the combined effects of microgravity and cosmic radiation will be key to making ambitious missions safer. 



With evidence pointing to serious kidney challenges, careful planning will be needed to keep crews healthy on journeys that last far longer than any undertaken before.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49212-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Astronauts can survive a trip to Mars, but this vital organ will be permanently damaged

Space journeys that stretch far beyond home are on the...

As you walk through a busy airport, crosswalk, or train station, take a look at the crowd around you. Are people moving smoothly in organized lanes, or chaotically zigzagging through one another?&nbsp;



A new study from the <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has revealed a mathematical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-tipping-points-report-shows-humanity-on-a-disastrous-trajectory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tipping point</a> that explains when crowds transition from orderly flow to disorganized congestion -&nbsp; a discovery that could help design safer and more efficient public spaces.



MIT applied mathematics instructor Karol Bacik and an international team of researchers have pinpointed a precise factor that determines crowd behavior. The key lies in something called “angular spread” - a measure of how varied people’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-quick-daily-walk-reduces-the-risk-of-early-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walking</a> directions are.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-organization-to-chaos">From organization to chaos</h2>



The analysis shows that when pedestrians cross paths from roughly opposite directions - like in a typical crosswalk - they tend to self-organize into lanes, flowing like vehicles in traffic. 



But when the range of directions people walk in expands beyond an average angle of 13 degrees from a straight path, that orderly structure collapses into a disordered, inefficient tangle.



“This all is very commonsense,” Bacik said. “The question is whether we can tackle it precisely and mathematically, and where the transition is. Now we have a way to quantify when to expect lanes - this spontaneous, organized, safe flow - versus disordered, less efficient, potentially more dangerous flow.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-social-distancing-to-crowd-dynamics">From social distancing to crowd dynamics</h2>



Bacik, originally trained in fluid dynamics and granular flow, first became interested in human crowd behavior during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdowns-weakened-our-immune-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> pandemic, when he and collaborators began studying how people move while maintaining social distance. That research eventually evolved into a broader investigation of how people navigate crowds.



In 2023, Bacik and his colleagues explored “lane formation,” a phenomenon where pedestrians moving in opposite directions naturally form structured lanes. This happens, the team discovered, when small imbalances in how people choose to pass others - left versus right - cause paths to align and solidify. 



Those early findings raised a new question: how much variation in walking direction can that organized system tolerate before it breaks down?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-t-reating-a-crowd-like-a-fluid">Treating a crowd like a fluid</h2>



To answer that, the researchers used mathematical equations typically used to describe the average behavior of fluid particles. By treating a crowd like a fluid, they could model global patterns without tracking each individual. 



The team focused on a scenario common in urban life: people walking from one side of a space to the other, trying to avoid bumping into others headed in various directions. They adjusted parameters like the width of the space, the angle at which people walked, and how often individuals dodged one another. 



The calculations showed that when people walk nearly straight across - within 13 degrees of a head-on path - lanes naturally form. But when the average path deviates beyond that, disorder takes over. The more chaotic the angles, the more inefficient the overall flow becomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-math-in-the-real-world">Testing math in the real world</h2>



To see whether these predictions held up outside the equations, the team set up an experiment in a gymnasium. Volunteers wore paper hats marked with unique barcodes, which allowed an overhead camera to track their movements in detail. 



Participants were instructed to walk from assigned starting points to specific destinations on the other side of the space, avoiding collisions.



The experiment was repeated many times, each time changing the configuration of start and end points to simulate different crowd flows. The results were clear: as the angular spread increased, the natural lanes broke down. Just like in the simulations, the tipping point was around 13 degrees.



The more disorganized the flow, the more time and effort it took for people to reach their destinations - suggesting real-world implications for managing foot traffic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-smarter-spaces">Designing smarter spaces</h2>



“We would like to analyze footage and compare that with our theory,” Bacik said. “And we can imagine that, for anyone designing a public space, if they want to have a safe and efficient pedestrian flow, our work could provide a simpler guideline, or some rules of thumb.”



These findings could help architects, urban planners, and event organizers design more navigable environments. 



By keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distracted-walking-texting-puts-pedestrians-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pedestrian</a> angles within that 13-degree threshold - whether through signage, visual cues, or the layout of paths and barriers - spaces could be optimized to encourage natural, organized lanes of traffic.



What began as an effort to understand socially distanced movement has evolved into a deeper understanding of how people unconsciously self-organize - and when that organization fails. 



With a blend of mathematics, experiments, and real-world insights, Bacik and his colleagues are helping to decode the flow of human motion, one crowd at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2420697122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>,



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Simple math explains how big crowds keep moving

As you walk through a busy airport, crosswalk, or train...

When reading words on a page or recognizing a familiar face in a crowd, your brain activates highly specialized regions for processing text or facial features. Strikingly, these visual processing areas are located in nearly identical positions in the brains of different individuals.&nbsp;



For years, neuroscientists have debated whether these specialized regions emerge entirely through experience or if they are innately structured from birth.



A recent study from <a href="https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University’s Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute</a> challenges this long-standing dichotomy, revealing that while some aspects of brain organization are present from birth, experience plays a crucial role in refining these neural networks.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025-02116-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behavior</a>, was led by graduate student Emily Kubota and professor Kalanit Grill-Spector, along with an international team of collaborators.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that the human brain is neither completely pre-wired nor a blank slate, but rather a dynamic system with both built-in architecture and adaptability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-visual-recognition-hub">Investigating the visual recognition hub</h2>



The study focused on the ventral temporal cortex (VTC), a region responsible for processing visual categories such as objects, faces, words, and places.&nbsp;



Previous research has shown that in adults, these specialized areas appear in consistent locations across different individuals. However, it has remained unclear whether this organization is innate or shaped entirely by visual experience.



To answer this question, the researchers needed to examine infant brains - an endeavor made challenging by the limitations of traditional MRI techniques. 



Grill-Spector’s lab has been pioneering new imaging technologies through the <a href="https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/research/funded-research/neurodevelopment-accelerator" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wu Tsai NeuroDevelopment Initiative</a>, which enabled the researchers to develop baby-specific MRI coils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imaging-infant-brains">Imaging infant brains</h2>



Grill-Spector credits the collaboration with Boris Keil, an expert in MRI coil design at the <a href="https://www.thm.de/site/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Applied Sciences Mittelhessen</a>, for making it possible to image the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wearable-imaging-device-reveals-infant-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains of infants</a> from birth to two years old.&nbsp;



“Baby brains actually grow a lot in the first year, so having different-sized coils lets us study how their neural networks change over time,” she said.



Using these custom coils and advanced diffusion MRI (dMRI) techniques, the researchers mapped neural connections in the brains of sleeping infants, ranging from newborns to six months old. 



For comparison, they also scanned adult brains to observe how these connections evolved over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-level-of-early-brain-organization">Surprising level of early brain organization</h2>



One of the study’s most striking findings was that distinct neural connectivity patterns exist from birth. Even in newborns, the white matter pathways - the brain’s network of nerve fiber connections - were already organized in a way that foreshadowed the development of specialized visual processing regions.



The researchers discovered that different regions within the VTC exhibited unique cellular architectures and connectivity patterns. Notably, these pathways were arranged according to visual eccentricity, a principle that determines whether an area processes central or peripheral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-brain-processes-visual-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual information</a>.



Regions that would later specialize in face and word recognition were already more connected to central visual processing pathways, while areas destined to process places were more linked to peripheral visual pathways.&nbsp;



This organization persisted into adulthood, suggesting that the brain is structured from birth in a way that guides - but does not fully dictate - its future functional development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-in-brain-development">Flexibility in brain development</h2>



Despite the presence of innate neural architecture, the researchers also found evidence of developmental plasticity - the ability of the brain to adapt based on experience.&nbsp;



Over time, the strength of connections to different regions changed, suggesting that white matter pathways remain malleable as infants interact with their environment.



Kubota sees this as an encouraging finding. “It’s an optimistic story because it suggests that you have this underlying neural architecture from birth that can be used to build the ability to recognize different categories, but it's not so tied to the category itself,” she said. “It means there can be some kind of flexibility as these representations emerge.”



Interestingly, the researchers also observed that functional regions within the VTC that shared similar cellular architecture developed in parallel, indicating that these areas follow a shared developmental trajectory rather than emerging independently.



“This insight is only possible because we’ve been able to measure the white matter of specific functional regions at birth for the first time,” said Grill-Spector. 



“I’d like to think our research can shift the discussion away from the dichotomous ‘Is this innate or not innate’ kind of conversation to a more nuanced understanding of what is present at birth and what is malleable with visual experience to produce our adult brains and behavior.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-developmental-disorders">Implications for developmental disorders</h2>



The findings have profound implications beyond understanding normal brain development.&nbsp;



By pinpointing which aspects of brain organization are present at birth and which are shaped by experience, this research could lead to earlier diagnoses and interventions for neurodevelopmental disorders such as dyslexia, developmental face blindness (prosopagnosia), and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-with-autism-benefit-from-learning-multiple-languages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a>.



“It tells us about the limits of the flexibility of our visual system and also has health implications about how to diagnose developmental delays or deficiencies,” Grill-Spector said. “Maybe it can even help us determine what would be the critical time periods to intervene.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-infant-brain-research">The future of infant brain research</h2>



Building on these findings, the team plans to expand their research by incorporating functional brain activity measurements and quantitative MRI to develop a more comprehensive picture of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poverty-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain development</a>.



This study represents a major breakthrough in neuroscience, demonstrating that while certain organizational features of the brain are present from birth, experience still plays a crucial role in shaping how visual recognition abilities develop.&nbsp;



By moving beyond the rigid nature versus nurture debate, the research provides a nuanced understanding of how the brain integrates innate structure and experience-driven plasticity to form the complex visual processing system we rely on every day.



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Infant brains are more organized and adaptable than we thought 

When reading words on a page or recognizing a familiar...

Animals love to show off with color, especially when it comes to mating. Birds, in particular, often use bright feathers to catch the eye of a potential mate. But lately, scientists have noticed something even cooler - some birds glow using biofluorescence.



This incredible transformation happens when their feathers absorb UV light and shine it back as visible color - usually green or yellowish.



In a recent study, researchers took a close look at all 45 species of birds-of-paradise, those famously flashy birds known for their over-the-top feathers and wild dance moves. 



Turns out, almost all of them glow in some way - 37 species to be exact. Only a few closely related ones didn’t.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofluorescence-and-birds-of-paradise">Biofluorescence and birds-of-paradise</h2>



Male birds-of-paradise show off their glow in all the right places: their beaks, the insides of their mouths, and feathers on their heads, necks, bellies, and those fancy plumes. 



Female birds glow too, but mainly on the chest and belly.



Most of the glowing colors fall into that green to yellow-green range, shining brightest around 520–560 nanometers on the light spectrum. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_plummage_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_plummage_1s.webp" alt="Some Birds-of-paradise, like this one, use biofluorescence and glow in wavelengths that humans can't see." class="wp-image-1963524"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some Birds-of-paradise, like this one, use biofluorescence and glow in wavelengths that humans can't see. Click to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



All signs point to one thing: male birds-of-paradise probably use this glowing trick to turn up the wow factor during mating displays and social interactions.



The research was conducted by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMNH</a>) and the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adding-a-glow-to-mating-rituals">Adding a glow to mating rituals</h2>



Birds-of-paradise inhabit regions in eastern Australia, Indonesia, and New Guinea. For generations, they have intrigued scientists with elaborate feather displays and acrobatic dances that males use to court females.&nbsp;



Bioluminescence is a phenomenon in which an organism absorbs light at one wavelength, then emits it at another



The new evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofluorescence</a> suggests that these dazzling birds might have yet another visual trick: a layer of fluorescent signals invisible to humans without specialized instruments.



Rene Martin is the study’s lead author and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>.&nbsp;



“The unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating rituals</a> and displays of birds-of-paradise have fascinated scientists and spurred a myriad of studies focused on trait evolution and sexual selection,” said Martin. 



“It seems fitting that these flashy birds are likely signaling to each other in additional, flashy ways.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-fluorescence-in-birds-of-paradise">Detecting fluorescence in birds-of-paradise </h2>



The research draws on specimens collected since the 1800s, held in the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a>’s extensive ornithology collection.&nbsp;



A decade ago, Museum Curator John Sparks - an ichthyologist by training - noticed that certain bird species, including some birds-of-paradise, glowed green-yellow when exposed to specific wavelengths of light. This led him and colleagues to begin a deeper exploration of avian biofluorescence.



“Despite there being over 10,000 described avian species, with numerous studies that have documented their bright plumage, elaborate mating displays, and excellent vision, surprisingly very few have investigated the presence of biofluorescence,” Sparks said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_credit-Rene-Martin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_credit-Rene-Martin_1s.webp" alt="Biofluorescence is seen on an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Credit: Rene Martin" class="wp-image-1963519"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Biofluorescence is seen on an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Click to enlarge. Credit: Rene Martin</figcaption></figure>



Martin, who conducted this work while a postdoctoral researcher at the Museum, and Emily Carr, a PhD candidate in the Museum’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a>, took Sparks’ initial findings and broadened the analysis. 



Using ultraviolet (UV) light, the team discovered that the birds not only glow under blue wavelengths but also fluoresce strongly under UV exposure. 



This effect was mainly observed on male plumage patches crucial to courtship, such as the head, belly, and neck, as well as mouth and bill linings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofluorescence-is-most-pronounced-in-males">Biofluorescence is most pronounced in males</h2>



The researchers found that this fluorescence is especially vibrant in males, often concentrated in areas highlighted during mating rituals.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, females also exhibit it, though to a lesser degree - primarily on their chests and bellies. The study suggests that the equatorial environments in which these birds live offer abundant and varied light conditions, possibly enhancing the visibility and function of biofluorescence.



“These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/">birds</a> live near the equator, where there is an abundance of bright solar light year-round, and they live in forests where the complexity of light is significantly affected by differences in the canopy and where biofluorescent signals may be enhanced,” Carr said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bird-fluorescence-matters">Why bird fluorescence matters</h2>



Recent studies in closely related species indicate that birds-of-paradise have eye pigments aligned with the fluorescence peaks measured in this study - meaning they can likely perceive these glowing patches.&nbsp;



In a species group already known for visually striking performances, these fluorescent signals may offer an even finer scale of detail for courtship and territorial displays.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_plummage_credit-Rene-Martin_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-of-paradise_Paradisaea-guilielmi_Biofluorescence_plummage_credit-Rene-Martin_1s.webp" alt="Biofluorescence is seen on the plumage of an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Credit: Rene Martin" class="wp-image-1963522"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Biofluorescence is seen on the plumage of an emperor bird-of-paradise (Paradisaea guilielmi) in the American Museum of Natural History's collection. Click to enlarge. Credit: Rene Martin</figcaption></figure>



When a male bird-of-paradise performs an intricate dance, the green-yellow glow from certain feathers might act like a hidden spotlight, contrasting sharply against the bird’s darker plumage. This could help catch a female’s attention or signal social status among competitors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



Although birds-of-paradise are among the best-studied avian groups for behavior and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coloration</a>, the discovery of broad-scale fluorescence suggests that birds may have more complex signaling systems than previously realized.&nbsp;



The presence of fluorescent patches in so many species raises the possibility that other bird lineages, especially those with striking plumage or elaborate displays, could also exhibit biofluorescence.



Moving forward, the researchers plan to investigate how environmental factors - like canopy cover, seasonal light availability, and even habitat degradation - might affect these glowing displays.&nbsp;



Understanding how birds-of-paradise perceive biofluorescence could also inform broader questions about the evolution of sexual selection and signaling in avian species.



Ultimately, this study reshapes scientists’ understanding of the “secret language of light” that these flamboyant birds use to communicate.&nbsp;



With improved imaging technologies and heightened awareness of avian fluorescence, researchers may soon discover that a hidden glow permeates many corners of the bird world, especially in those known for their spectacular visual allure.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.241905" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Some birds use biofluorescence to attract mates, glowing in colors that humans can't see

Animals love to show off with color, especially when it...

Marine ecosystems in the deep ocean show little sign of recovery even decades after experimental mining, according to new research that raises major concerns about the long-term impact of future seabed mining operations.



Published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08921-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, the study examined a deep-sea mining test site in the North Pacific that was first disturbed in 1979. Forty-four years later, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in that area remains lower than in nearby untouched regions.&nbsp;



The research team, which returned to the site in 2023 and 2024, worked in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone (CCZ), a vast abyssal plain about halfway between Hawaii and Mexico.&nbsp;



Situated 5,000 meters below the ocean surface, this deep seabed region holds rich reserves of polymetallic nodules - potato-sized mineral lumps containing metals like cobalt, nickel, and manganese, all crucial for clean energy technologies.



The study was led by scientists at the <a href="https://noc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanography Center</a> in Southampton and involved a consortium of British institutions, including the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a>, the <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Geological Survey</a>, <a href="https://www.hw.ac.uk/">Heriot-Watt University</a>, and several universities.&nbsp;



Together, the experts form <a href="https://smartexccz.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMARTEX</a> (Seabed Mining and Resilience to Experimental Impact), a project funded by the UK’s Natural Environment Research Council.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-recovery-from-deep-sea-mining-nbsp">Long recovery from deep-sea mining&nbsp;</h2>



The original mining test involved a mechanical seabed rake that stripped nodules from a 14-meter-wide path. Despite the small scale and brief duration of the experiment, the site still bears visible scars.&nbsp;



Areas stripped of nodules and track marks from the mining machine are clearly evident. The surrounding biological communities have yet to fully rebound.



“To tackle the crucial question of recovery from deep-sea mining, we need first to look to the past and use old mining tests to help understand long-term impacts,” said Professor Daniel Jones, the study’s lead author. 



“Forty four years later, the mining tracks themselves look very similar to when they were first made, with an 8-meter-wide strip of seabed cleared of nodules and two large furrows in the seafloor where the machine passed.”&nbsp;



“The numbers of many animals were reduced within the tracks but we did see some of the first signs of biological recovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-that-clings-to-nodules">Life that clings to nodules</h2>



The Clarion–Clipperton Zone covers over six million square kilometres - 25 times the size of the UK - and holds an estimated 21 billion tons of nodules. These nodules are essential to the deep-sea ecosystem, offering a rare hard surface for life to cling to in an otherwise sediment-heavy environment.&nbsp;



“These nodules are potato-sized mineral deposits that have built up in layers over thousands of years. Mining companies want to mine these for critical metals like cobalt and nickel,” said Mark Hartl, a marine ecotoxicologist from Heriot-Watt University and co-author of the study.



“But there are so many unanswered questions. For example, we know the nodules produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-galaxy-contains-surprising-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a>. If they’re removed, will that reduce the amount of oxygen in the deep sea and affect the organisms that live there?”



“What is the effect of animal exposure to metal-containing sediment plumes churned up during the mining process? These are some of the questions we’re trying to answer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-impacts-of-deep-sea-mining-nbsp">Biological impacts of deep-sea mining&nbsp;</h2>



Hartl’s work focused on the biological effects of sediment exposure. He developed new methods to evaluate whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-forms-dust-clouds-that-devastate-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a> damages DNA in deep-sea fish. 



“This has never been done before,” said Hartl. “So we had no baseline data to compare any effects of mining against. We are currently optimising tests for other signs of stress applicable to the deep sea.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-may-be-measured-in-centuries">Recovery may be measured in centuries</h2>



The deep sea’s slow pace of life is one reason recovery is so limited. Many organisms grow slowly, reproduce infrequently, or are adapted to highly specific habitats.&nbsp;



“General ecological theory will predict that following disturbance, any ecosystem will go through a series of successional stages of recolonization and growth," said Adrian Glover of the Natural History Museum.



"However, until this study, we had no idea of the timescales of this critical process in the deep-sea mining regions, or how different parts of the community respond in different ways.” 



“Our results don’t provide an answer to whether deep-sea mining is societally acceptable, but they do provide the data needed to make better informed policy decisions such as the creation and refinement of protected regions and how we would monitor future impacts,” Glover added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-question-of-future-trade-offs">A question of future trade-offs</h2>



The <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Seabed Authority</a> (ISA), the organization responsible for managing mineral-related activity in international waters, currently maintains a moratorium on commercial deep-sea mining. It is still developing a legal and environmental framework to guide future exploitation, and the SMARTEX research may influence how those guidelines take shape.



In their paper, the scientists note that mining operations are expected to cause “immediate impacts” to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafloor-relic-uncovers-earths-ancient-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafloor</a> habitats. Collector vehicles will remove nodules, compact sediments, and stir up sediment plumes that may travel beyond mining sites. These plumes, they argue, could have “significant impacts on ecosystems” well outside the directly affected zones.



While proponents of deep-sea mining argue that it could provide critical materials for a net-zero future, the study underscores that such gains may come at a long-term ecological cost. The scars of the past, still visible and measurable after 44 years, may well be a preview of the risks ahead.



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Deep-sea mining impacts marine life for decades

Marine ecosystems in the deep ocean show little sign of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

Spiral galaxy NGC 1559 is a loner in outer space

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