For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

Saturn’s largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>, Titan, is the only other planetary body in our solar system with active rivers, lakes, seas and waves. These rivers are thought to be filled with liquid methane and ethane, flowing into large lakes and seas that rival the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-great-lakes-are-running-low-on-ice-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Lakes</a> on Earth.



According to NASA, the largest of Titan's seas are hundreds of feet deep and hundreds of miles wide.&nbsp;



In 2007, NASA’s Cassini spacecraft confirmed the existence of Titan’s large seas and smaller lakes. Since then, scientists have been analyzing these and other images to understand Titan’s mysterious liquid environment. 



A recent study by geologists has revealed that waves likely shaped Titan’s large seas, a finding based on simulations rather than direct observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-waves-on-titan">Simulating waves on Titan</h2>



Geologists from the <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> explored Titan’s shorelines using simulations. They first modeled how a lake erodes on Earth and then applied these models to Titan’s seas to identify the most likely erosion mechanisms seen in Cassini’s images.



Waves, they concluded, were the most probable cause. Direct observations of wave activity on Titan are still needed to confirm this theory.



“If the coastlines of Titan’s seas have eroded, waves are the most likely culprit,” explained Taylor Perron, a professor of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences at MIT.



“Standing at the edge of one of Titan’s seas, we might see waves of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-space-mission-saturn-moon-titan-gets-greenlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid methane</a> and ethane lapping on the shore and crashing during storms, capable of eroding the coastal material.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-wave-activity-on-titan">Understanding wave activity on Titan </h2>



The presence of waves on Titan has been debated since Cassini spotted liquid bodies on the surface of the moon. Some scientists saw no evidence of waves, describing the seas as "mirror-smooth," while others noticed roughness but could not confirm if it was caused by waves.



Understanding wave activity on Titan could provide insights into the moon’s climate, wind strength, and how its seas might evolve over time.



Instead of searching for direct wave evidence in images, the MIT team examined the shape of the shorelines to deduce what might be eroding the coasts. Titan’s seas are believed to have formed as rising liquid levels flooded a landscape crisscrossed by river valleys. 



The researchers considered three scenarios: erosion driven by waves, no coastal erosion, and uniform erosion driven by dissolution or gradual sloughing off of the coast under its own weight.



Based on a property known as fetch, which is the distance over which wind can blow and waves can grow, they simulated how shoreline shapes would evolve under each scenario. The simulations showed that wave-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-erosion-is-picking-up-speed-across-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">erosion</a> produced distinctly different shoreline shapes compared to uniform erosion.



“We found that you get a really different final shape under uniform erosion versus wave erosion,” said Perron. “Wave erosion mainly smooths parts of the shorelines exposed to long fetch distances, leaving the flooded valleys narrow and rough.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-earth-and-titan">Comparing Earth and Titan</h2>



The researchers validated their simulations by comparing them to actual lakes on Earth. They observed the same differences in shape between Earth lakes eroded by waves and those affected by uniform erosion.



The team then focused on Titan’s largest, well-mapped seas: Kraken Mare, Ligeia Mare, Punga Mare, and Ontario Lacus.



Mapping Titan’s shorelines using Cassini’s radar images, the researchers found that all four seas fit solidly within the wave-driven erosion model. This suggests that waves likely shaped these seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strength-of-titan-s-winds">Strength of Titan’s winds</h2>



The team is now working to determine how strong Titan’s winds must be in order to generate waves capable of eroding the coasts. By studying the shapes of Titan's shorelines, the experts also aim to identify the predominant wind directions.



This dual approach helps to understand how wind forces contribute to coastal erosion and the overall landscape dynamics of Titan. The insights could provide valuable information about the moon’s climate and its evolving geological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stealth-ocean-discovered-on-one-of-saturns-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">features</a>.



“Titan presents a case of a completely untouched system,” noted Rose Palermo, a former MIT-WHOI Joint Program graduate student and a research geologist at the U.S. Geological Survey.



“It could help us learn more fundamental things about how coasts erode without human influence, and maybe that can help us better manage our coastlines on Earth in the future.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn4192">Science Advances</a>.



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Saturn's moon Titan has shorelines shaped by waves

Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, is the only other planetary body...

Resilience,&nbsp;the ability to bounce back from adversity,&nbsp;isn't just a mental trait.&nbsp;New research from <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> Health suggests resilience is deeply connected to both our brain activity and the bustling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-migrate-from-the-gut-to-other-organs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> within our gut,&nbsp;the microbiome.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-brain-resilience-connection">Gut-brain-resilience connection</h2>



Scientists have long known about the intricate link between the gut and the brain,&nbsp;often referred to as the "gut-brain axis." This bidirectional communication system involves a complex interplay of nerves,&nbsp;hormones,&nbsp;and immune cells.



But what about resilience?&nbsp;Could our ability to cope with stress,&nbsp;a key component of resilience,&nbsp;be influenced by the gut microbiome?&nbsp;That's the question a team of researchers at UCLA Health set out to answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-during-resilience">Brain during resilience </h2>



In a recent study,&nbsp;the researchers surveyed 116 people about their resilience, examining factors like trust in one's instincts and acceptance of change.&nbsp;They also conducted MRI scans to analyze brain activity and collected stool samples to assess gut microbiome composition.



"If we can identify what a healthy resilient brain and microbiome look like, then we can develop targeted interventions to those areas to reduce stress," said Dr.&nbsp;Arpana Gupta,&nbsp;the study's senior author and co-director of the UCLA <a href="https://www.uclahealth.org/departments/medicine/gastro/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goodman-Luskin Microbiome Center</a>.



The results were fascinating.&nbsp;Individuals with high resilience scores showed distinct patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> activity,&nbsp;with heightened activity in regions associated with emotional regulation and cognition.



In essence,&nbsp;resilient individuals seem to have better "brakes" on their emotional responses to stress,&nbsp;preventing them from spiraling into anxiety or catastrophizing.&nbsp;



"But the highly resilient individuals in the study were found to be better at regulating their emotions, less likely to catastrophize, and keep a level head," noted Desiree Delgadillo, one of the study's lead authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resilient-gut-a-thriving-ecosystem">Resilient gut: A thriving ecosystem</h2>



The surprises didn't stop there. The researchers also found that the gut microbiomes of highly resilient individuals were different.



People with high resilience had microbiomes that produced brain metabolites and exhibited gene activity associated with low inflammation and a strong, healthy gut barrier.



The gut barrier,&nbsp;a layer of cells lining the intestines,&nbsp;acts as a gatekeeper,&nbsp;controlling what enters the body from the gut.&nbsp;A weakened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fat-diets-cause-high-anxiety-through-changes-in-gut-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut</a> barrier,&nbsp;often called "leaky gut," has been linked to various health problems,&nbsp;including inflammation and impaired nutrient absorption.



The fact that a strong gut barrier was associated with high resilience was a significant discovery,&nbsp;suggesting a whole-body connection to this critical trait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resilience-a-whole-body-phenomenon">Resilience: A whole-body phenomenon</h2>



"Resilience truly is a whole-body phenomenon that not only affects your brain but also your microbiome and what metabolites that it is producing," said Dr.&nbsp;Gupta.



These findings open up a whole new avenue for understanding and potentially enhancing resilience and its connection to gut and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-maps-help-the-brain-remember-places-and-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>.



"We have this whole community of microbes in our gut that exudes these therapeutic properties and biochemicals, so I’m looking forward to building upon this research," stated Delgadillo,&nbsp;the postdoctoral researcher,&nbsp;is excited about the future of this research.



The team's future research will delve deeper into this connection,&nbsp;exploring whether interventions to boost resilience can actually change brain and gut microbiome activity.&nbsp;If so,&nbsp;this could lead to novel treatments that target both the brain and the gut,&nbsp;potentially preventing diseases linked to chronic stress.



"We could have treatments that target both the brain and the gut that can maybe one day prevent disease," Gupta said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resilience-is-more-than-meets-the-eye">Resilience is more than meets the eye</h2>



The research broadens the definition of resilience beyond psychological factors, revealing a significant physiological component linked to gut health. 



The study indicates that resilience is a multi-faceted trait influenced by both the brain's emotional regulation processes and the gut microbiome's composition and activity. 



While the exact mechanisms underlying this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut</a>-brain-resilience connection remain to be fully elucidated, the findings offer promising implications for developing novel interventions to enhance resilience. 



By focusing on strategies that promote both mental well-being and a healthy gut microbiome,&nbsp;individuals may be able to cultivate greater resilience,&nbsp;enabling them to cope more effectively with stress and adversity.&nbsp;



This holistic approach to resilience recognizes the interconnectedness of mind and body, highlighting the importance of addressing both mental and physical health in order to achieve optimal well-being and adaptability in the face of life's challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44220-024-00266-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Mental Health</a>.



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Resilience is surprisingly linked to gut and brain health

Resilience,&nbsp;the ability to bounce back from adversity,&nbsp;isn't just a mental...

In a remarkable archaeological study, a team of researchers has identified what is now considered the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-drinking-in-the-americas-traced-back-to-the-15th-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wine</a> ever found in still in liquid form.



The wine was discovered in an ancient Roman tomb in Carmona, Spain, where six individuals were buried over 2,000 years ago.



Among them were Hispana and Senicio, whose funerary rituals have provided us with an extraordinary glimpse into ancient practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-wine-in-a-roman-tomb">Ancient wine in a Roman tomb</h2>



The Roman tomb was unearthed by archaeologists in 2019. Among the remains, a man’s bones were immersed in a liquid within a glass urn. This liquid, preserved since the first century AD, had taken on a reddish hue.



Initially, it was hard to believe that the liquid could remain intact for over two millennia. However, the tomb’s exceptional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-summers-and-wet-winters-produce-superior-quality-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation conditions</a>, being fully sealed and intact, allowed the liquid to be preserved without external contamination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-once-in-a-lifetime-discovery">Once-in-a-lifetime discovery</h2>



The initial surprise gave way to scientific curiosity. To verify that the liquid was indeed wine, researchers from the <a href="https://www.uco.es/quimica-organica/index.php/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Organic Chemistry</a> at the University of Cordoba conducted a series of chemical analyses.



The research was led by Professor José Rafael Ruiz Arrebola in collaboration with the City of Carmona. The analyses were performed at the Central Research Support Service (SCAI).



“It’s something unique,” said Ruiz Arrebola. “We have been lucky to find it and analyze it – it’s something you only see once in your life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-wine-analysis">Ancient wine analysis</h2>



The team examined the liquid's pH, mineral salts, and chemical compounds related to the glass urn and the bones. They compared these findings to modern wines from Montilla-Moriles, Jerez, and Sanlúcar.



"Given that the liquid contained in the ash urn was about 2,000&nbsp;years old, determining its elemental composition was of utmost importance because any organic matter in it should either be present in very low contents or have disappeared altogether," noted the researchers.



They set out to detect specific polyphenols - biomarkers that are present in all wine. Using advanced techniques, the team identified seven polyphenols common among the modern wines examined for the study.



Notably, the absence of syringic acid indicated that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wine</a> was white, though its absence might also result from degradation over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-and-funerary-rituals">Gender and funerary rituals</h2>



The discovery revealed more than just ancient wine; it also shed light on Roman funerary practices and gender roles.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-ancient-rome-smelled-like-patchouli/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient Rome</a>, wine was predominantly a man’s drink, and women were generally prohibited from consuming it. This societal norm was reflected in the Carmona tomb.



The man's urn contained wine, a gold ring, and bone remains from his cremation bed. In contrast, the woman’s urn held amber jewels, a perfume bottle with patchouli scent, and silk fabric remnants - with no trace of wine.



These items were part of a funerary trousseau meant to accompany the deceased into the afterlife. Such practices highlight how death in ancient Rome had profound significance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roman-funerary-traditions">Roman funerary traditions</h2>



The Carmona <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neolithic-tomb-reveals-ancient-burial-practices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomb</a>, once a circular mausoleum likely belonging to a wealthy family, now stands as a testament to the rich funerary traditions of ancient Rome.



Located along the road connecting Carmo with Hispalis (Seville), the mausoleum has offered invaluable insights into historical rituals.



The discovery of the world’s oldest wine not only brings us closer to understanding these ancient customs but also immortalizes Hispana, Senicio, and their companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-ancient-wine">Significance of the ancient wine</h2>



The implications of finding ancient wine extend into various fields of study and offer new avenues for future research.



Archaeologists and historians can further explore the sociocultural significance of wine in different ancient civilizations, comparing Roman practices with those of other cultures.



Chemists and biologists may analyze the wine's composition to understand ancient preservation techniques and agricultural practices, providing insights into how ancient peoples cultivated and stored their food and beverages.



"So far, all studies aimed at the chemical characterization of Roman wines - or ancient wines in general - have relied on analyses of absorbed remains (carboxylic acids and polyphenols, mainly) in various types of vessels, but never on liquids," noted the study authors.



Moreover, this discovery opens up possibilities for modern winemakers and food preservationists to learn from ancient methods, potentially reviving lost techniques that could improve contemporary practices.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X24002645?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Archaeological Science Reports</a>.



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2,000-year-old wine discovered in ancient Roman tomb

In a remarkable archaeological study, a team of researchers has...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-germinate-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> are extremely adaptable organisms that have evolved remarkable strategies to survive in various environments. One such strategy is seed dormancy, which prevents seeds from germinating even under optimal conditions, reducing the risk to seedlings during adverse periods.



In Mediterranean climates like Cyprus, summers can be extremely hot and dry, posing a significant threat to young seedlings.&nbsp;



A subspecies of Aethionema arabicum in Cyprus has evolved a unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seed-germination-is-controlled-by-an-internal-thermometer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a> to avoid germination during these harsh months. In a recent study, experts investigated the molecular basis of this adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-suppression-of-germination-nbsp">Long-term suppression of germination&nbsp;</h2>



Previously, researchers discovered that direct light exposure inhibits the germination of Aethionema arabicum seeds.&nbsp;



The new study explored whether light exposure could also induce long-term suppression of germination, known as secondary dormancy. The investigation revealed that the length of daily light exposure was crucial in establishing secondary dormancy.&nbsp;



“This mechanism makes a lot of sense: day length is a much more stable condition than temperature or humidity, which may vary significantly from one day to the next,” said lead author Zsuzsanna Mérai, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.oeaw.ac.at/gmi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gregor Mendel Institute</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-seedlings">Protecting the seedlings</h2>



As days lengthen in summer, seeds exposed to longer light periods avoid germinating, thereby preventing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seedlings</a> from facing lethal conditions.



The researchers demonstrated that exposing seeds to 16 hours of light per day resulted in long-term suppression of germination, even when the seeds were later placed in darkness.&nbsp;



“Even if we put the seeds back to dark conditions, they will not germinate because they will remember that the conditions were not good for sprouting,” Mérai explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triggers-nbsp-of-seed-dormancy">Triggers&nbsp;of seed dormancy </h2>



While secondary dormancy has been observed before, its molecular triggers were not well understood. By screening a library of mutated seeds unable to establish secondary dormancy, the researchers identified RGL2 as the primary regulator.&nbsp;



“Seeds with mutations in the RGL2 gene are still inhibited by light, but only short term. Lacking RGL2, secondary dormancy induction fails,” Mérai said.&nbsp;



Moreover, the analyses revealed that RGL2 regulates over 3,300 genes associated with secondary dormancy, affecting both pro-dormancy and dormancy-repressing genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-basis-of-secondary-dormancy-nbsp">Molecular basis of secondary dormancy&nbsp;</h2>



Previous research has shown that seed dormancy results from the balance between abscisic acid (ABA), a dormancy-promoting hormone, and gibberellin (GA), a dormancy-repressing hormone.&nbsp;



The study showed that RGL2 suppresses GA production and enhances ABA synthesis in seeds exposed to light.&nbsp;



However, the scientists discovered that only the reduction of GA levels, not the increase of ABA levels, was essential for inducing secondary dormancy.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-germination-patterns">Adapting germination patterns </h2>



These findings reveal how some plants adapt their germination patterns to avoid harsh summer conditions, differing from the traditional view that light induces germination.&nbsp;



“Some plants seem to have tweaked germination to adapt to specific climates,” Mérai said.&nbsp;



The study also showed that summer heat and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-crisis-un-warns-of-unprecedented-emergency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> trigger the end of dormancy, preparing seeds for favorable conditions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research">Ongoing research</h2>



The researchers plan to investigate if similar mechanisms exist in other plants, which could have significant implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-can-help-make-crops-more-resilient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop resilience</a> in warming climates.&nbsp;



“Our findings could be applied to make new crops that are better adapted to warmer climates and the continuously rising temperatures,” Mérai concluded.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-plants-use-seed-dormancy">Which plants use seed dormancy?</h2>



Seed dormancy is a survival strategy that is used across a wide range of plant species, each adapted to their unique ecological niches.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees">Trees</h3>



Trees such as oak, pine, and maple exhibit seed dormancy to ensure germination at the optimal time for growth.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasses">Grasses</h3>



Several grass species, including wild grasses and some cultivated varieties like wheat and barley, also use seed dormancy to avoid germination under unfavorable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-way-of-telling-us-what-climate-they-can-survive-in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legumes-nbsp">Legumes&nbsp;</h3>



Plants in the legume family, such as peas, beans, and clovers, often have hard seed coats that contribute to dormancy.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildflowers">Wildflowers</h3>



Many wildflower species, like lupines and poppies, exhibit seed dormancy to ensure they germinate when conditions are ideal for survival.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrubs-nbsp">Shrubs&nbsp;</h3>



Various shrubs, including those in the genus Rosa (roses) and Rubus (blackberries and raspberries), also use seed dormancy to synchronize germination with favorable environmental conditions.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.05.043" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Plant seeds go dormant to avoid harsh conditions

Plants are extremely adaptable organisms that have evolved remarkable strategies...

In late 2019, the previously unremarkable galaxy SDSS1335+0728 unexpectedly brightened, prompting astronomers to investigate the cause using data from various observatories, including the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Southern Observatory</a>’s Very Large Telescope (ESO’s VLT). 



The study, recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/sciencepapers/eso2409/eso2409a.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>, suggests an unprecedented event: the sudden awakening of the massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-holes-are-very-messy-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> at the galaxy's core.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-changes-in-a-distant-galaxy-nbsp">Dramatic changes in a distant galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



“Imagine you’ve been observing a distant galaxy for years, and it always seemed calm and inactive,” said Paula Sánchez Sáez, an astronomer at ESO. 



“Suddenly, its core starts showing dramatic changes in brightness, unlike any typical events we've seen before.” 



While phenomena like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosions</a> or tidal disruption events can cause galaxies to suddenly light up, these typically last only a short period. 



However, SDSS1335+0728 has continued to grow brighter over four years. The galaxy, located 300 million light-years away in the constellation Virgo, displayed unusual brightness variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-behavior-nbsp">Unprecedented behavior&nbsp;</h2>



To understand these changes, the team used archival data and new observations from several facilities, including the VLT’s X-shooter instrument.&nbsp;



By comparing data from before and after December 2019, they found that SDSS1335+0728 now emits much more light at ultraviolet, optical, and infrared wavelengths.&nbsp;



Additionally, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> began emitting X-rays in February 2024. “This behavior is unprecedented,” Sánchez Sáez said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activation-of-a-massive-black-hole">Activation of a massive black hole</h2>



“The most tangible option to explain this phenomenon is that we are seeing how the [core] of the galaxy is beginning to show activity,” noted study co-author Lorena Hernández García, an astronomer at the <a href="https://www.valpo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Valparaiso University</a>. 



If this is true, it would be the first time the activation of a massive black hole has been observed in real time.



Massive black holes, with masses over one hundred thousand times that of our Sun, exist at the centers of most galaxies. “These giant monsters usually are sleeping and not directly visible,” said co-author Claudio Ricci, an astronomer at the <a href="https://diegoportalesuniversity.udp.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diego Portales University</a>. 



“In the case of SDSS1335+0728, we were able to observe the awakening of the massive black hole, which suddenly started to feast on gas available in its surroundings, becoming very bright.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-witnessing-the-black-hole-s-awakening">Witnessing the black hole’s awakening</h2>



This process had never been observed before. While previous studies have reported inactive galaxies becoming active after several years, this is the first time the actual awakening process has been witnessed.&nbsp;



“This is something that could happen also to our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-hole-at-the-center-of-our-galaxy-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sgr A*</a>, the massive black hole located at the center of our galaxy,” although the likelihood is uncertain, Ricci said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-a-brightening-galaxy">Studying a brightening galaxy</h2>



Follow-up observations are needed to rule out alternative explanations, such as a slow tidal disruption event or a new phenomenon.&nbsp;



If it is a tidal disruption event, it would be the longest and faintest one ever observed. Regardless of the cause, this event provides valuable insights into how black holes grow and evolve.&nbsp;



“We expect that instruments like [MUSE on the VLT or those on the upcoming Extremely Large Telescope (ELT)] will be key in understanding why the galaxy is brightening,” Sánchez Sáez concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awakening-of-black-holes">Awakening of black holes</h2>



The awakening of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-black-hole-found-in-our-galaxy-is-33-times-the-suns-mass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> refers to the process when a dormant or inactive black hole becomes active again. 



This can occur when the black hole begins to accrete material from its surroundings, such as gas, dust, or even a star that ventures too close.&nbsp;



As the black hole pulls in this material, the intense gravitational forces cause the matter to heat up and emit radiation, often in the form of X-rays. This radiation can be detected by astronomers, signaling that the black hole has "awakened."



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-galactic-nuclei">Active galactic nuclei</h3>



In the case of supermassive black holes located at the centers of galaxies, their reawakening can lead to the formation of active galactic nuclei (AGN).&nbsp;



These AGN can emit vast amounts of energy, sometimes outshining the entire galaxy in which they reside.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-particle-jets">Particle jets</h3>



The process of awakening can also produce powerful jets of particles that shoot out from the black hole's poles at nearly the speed of light.



These jets influence the surrounding interstellar medium and potentially trigger star formation in nearby regions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-objects-nbsp">Mysterious objects&nbsp;</h3>



The awakening of a black hole is a dynamic event that provides valuable insights into the behavior of these mysterious objects and their impact on their cosmic environment.



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‘Awakening’ of a black hole witnessed for the first time 

In late 2019, the previously unremarkable galaxy SDSS1335+0728 unexpectedly brightened,...

When neutron <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-stars-may-hold-the-key-to-understanding-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> collide, they create one of the most spectacular and complex events in the universe. Neutron stars, remnants of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-collapse-black-hole-instead-of-supernova-vanish-from-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collapsed stars</a>, are incredibly dense and small.



When two such stars are in close proximity, they spiral towards each other and eventually collide. This collision generates extreme heat and fascinating physical phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-a-neutron-star">What is a neutron star?</h2>



A neutron star is a compact remnant of a massive star that has undergone a supernova explosion.



When a star with a mass between about 8 and 20 times that of our Sun exhausts its nuclear fuel, it collapses under its own gravity. The core compresses so much that protons and electrons combine to form neutrons, resulting in a neutron star.



These stars are only about 20 kilometers (12 miles) in diameter but have masses of up to twice that of the Sun. To illustrate their density, a single teaspoon of neutron star material would weigh around a billion tons on Earth.



Neutron stars possess extremely strong magnetic fields and can rotate rapidly, emitting beams of radiation detectable as pulsars. 



Despite their small size, neutron stars provide a unique laboratory for studying the behavior of matter under extreme conditions, contributing to our understanding of fundamental physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-physics-of-neutron-star-mergers">Hidden physics of neutron star mergers</h2>



Recent simulations conducted by physicists from <a href="https://www.worldcampus.psu.edu/?cid=CPC39865&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw7NmzBhBLEiwAxrHQ-bUZiYNumOlNQan5uGBSb-myDzP1GY_sQHly81ODXKkuA8gIdf8PlBoC5DoQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a> have provided new insights into neutron star collisions. The simulations revealed that hot neutrinos, which are tiny and nearly massless particles, can be briefly trapped at the interface where the stars merge.



This happens for just 2 to 3 milliseconds, during which the neutrinos interact with the star matter, helping drive particles back toward equilibrium.



“For the first time in 2017, we observed signals, including gravitational waves, from a binary neutron <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredibly-profound-evidence-of-nuclear-fission-discovered-in-the-cosmos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star merger</a>,” said Pedro Luis Espino, a postdoctoral researcher at Penn State and the University of California, Berkeley, who led the research.



“This discovery sparked immense interest in binary neutron star astrophysics. Since we cannot replicate these events in a lab, simulations based on Einstein’s theory of general relativity are our best tool for understanding them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-of-neutron-stars">Nature of neutron stars</h2>



Neutron stars are thought to be composed almost entirely of neutrons. Their incredible density, surpassed only by black holes, results from the fusion of protons and electrons into neutrons.



“Before they merge, neutron stars are effectively cold, despite their temperatures reaching billions of degrees Kelvin,” explained Professor David Radice, a leader of the research team.



“Their density means this heat adds very little to the system’s energy. Upon collision, however, the interface can reach temperatures in the trillions of degrees Kelvin. Photons cannot escape this dense environment to dissipate the heat, so the stars cool down by emitting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-gravity-search-south-pole-neutrinos-experiment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutrinos</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-post-collision-interactions">Post-collision interactions</h2>



During the collision, neutrons in the stars break apart into protons, electrons, and neutrinos. 



The immediate aftermath of this process has long been a mystery in astrophysics. To address this, the research team created detailed simulations that model the merger and the resulting physics.



These simulations, requiring immense computing power, showed that even neutrinos can be briefly trapped by the collision’s heat and density. 



Out of equilibrium with the cooler star cores, these hot neutrinos interact with the star matter.



“These extreme events push the limits of our understanding of physics,” noted Professor Radice. “The brief 2 to 3 milliseconds out-of-equilibrium phase is when the most intriguing physics occurs. Once equilibrium is restored, the physics becomes more comprehensible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-observing-the-mergers">Implications for observing the mergers</h2>



The interactions during the merger can influence the signals we detect on Earth from these events.



“How neutrinos interact with star matter and are emitted affects the oscillations of the merged remnants,” explained Espino. 



“This impacts the electromagnetic and gravitational wave signals observed on Earth. Next-generation gravitational-wave detectors could be designed to detect these signal differences. Thus, our simulations not only enhance our understanding but also guide future experiments and observations.”



These groundbreaking simulations open new windows into the physics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kilonova-explosion-light-years-away-would-devastate-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star collisions</a>, helping us understand one of the most extreme and fascinating phenomena in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.132.211001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Neutron star collisions push the limits of extreme physics

When neutron stars collide, they create one of the most...

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have provided the first conclusive evidence that at least one species of terrestrial leech can jump.



This behavior, which has been debated by scientists for over a century, was captured on video and analyzed in a new study. 



The findings were published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/btp.13340" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotropica</a> by researchers from several renowned institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-documenting-leech-behavior">Documenting leech behavior</h2>



The team, including scientists from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a>, Fordham University, and CUNY’s Medgar Evers College, documented this surprising behavior during expeditions to Madagascar in 2017 and 2023.



The footage shows leeches from the genus Chtonobdella coiling back on a leaf and then launching themselves into the air. 



This motion has been likened to a "backbending cobra" or a spring being pulled back, highlighting a significant departure from their usual inchworm-like movements.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="CW2LlMWMc9-3697710-12187" type="single"]</div>



"We believe this is the first convincing evidence that leeches can jump and do so with visible energy expenditure," explained study lead author, Mai Fahmy, a visiting scientist at the Museum and a postdoctoral researcher at Fordham University.



Previous accounts of leeches jumping were often dismissed as leeches merely attaching to passersby or dropping from branches above. This study challenges that notion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-graceful-jump-of-leeches">The graceful jump of leeches</h2>



During the 2023 expedition, the researchers captured video evidence of these jumps. The leech extends its body while in mid-air, before landing. This unique movement was described as a "graceful jump but with a seemingly hard landing."



Several other worm-like invertebrates are known to jump, including gall midge larvae, Mediterranean fruit fly larvae, "skipper flies," and certain caterpillars.



However, until now, there has been little concrete evidence to support claims that terrestrial leeches, particularly those in the family Haemadipsidae, could also jump.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-s-impact">Study's impact</h2>



The researchers identified the leech observed in the 2023 footage as Chtonobdella fallax, a species commonly found in Madagascar. 



The larger Chtonobdella group is widespread across Madagascar, the Seychelles, the Malay Archipelago, and the South Pacific Islands. 



Given that multiple jumps were recorded in a short period, it is likely that the behavior is common among this species.



"We do not know how often this may happen or whether these leeches use this ability to seek out hosts," said co-author Michael Tessler, an assistant professor at CUNY’s Medgar Evers College. "However, this discovery opens new avenues for understanding leech behavior."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leech-behavior-and-conservation-efforts">Leech behavior and conservation efforts</h2>



Understanding leech behavior is crucial for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2024-a-call-for-land-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. Leeches, particularly their blood meals, are increasingly collected to survey vertebrate biodiversity.



By identifying how leeches find and attach to hosts, researchers can better interpret the results of gut content analyses.



"Leeches are often overlooked and understudied," said Fahmy. "As a natural part of the ecosystem, they themselves may be in need of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation protection</a>."



This discovery not only sheds light on an unusual leech behavior but also emphasizes the importance of studying even the most overlooked creatures in our ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-leech-jumping">Significance of leech jumping</h2>



The implications of this study extend to the fields of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-cannot-outrun-animals-but-theyre-evolving-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomechanics</a> and evolutionary biology. Understanding the mechanics of leech jumping could inspire advancements in bio-inspired robotics, where mimicking leech movements could lead to the development of more efficient and adaptable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots</a>. 



This research also provides a new perspective on the evolutionary adaptations of leeches, suggesting that their ability to jump may have developed as a survival mechanism, potentially offering advantages in predation or escaping threats.



Additionally, this discovery might impact ecological monitoring techniques. Researchers could explore whether other overlooked behaviors exist in leech species across different habitats. 



This could lead to more accurate and comprehensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-animal-species-will-soon-vanish-from-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity assessments</a>, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions where leeches are common. 



The findings may also influence public perception, increasing interest and funding for invertebrate studies, which are often overshadowed by research on more charismatic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-leeches">More about leeches</h2>



Leeches are fascinating creatures with unique abilities beyond jumping. Some leeches have anticoagulant properties in their saliva, used medically to prevent blood clotting during surgeries. 



Leeches can consume blood up to ten times their body weight in a single meal, allowing them to go months between feedings. They exhibit remarkable regenerative capabilities, able to regrow lost segments. 



Certain species of leeches are sensitive to light and can detect changes in their environment. Additionally, their ancient lineage dates back over 200 million years, making them living witnesses to significant evolutionary changes on Earth.



Video Credit: © Mai Fahmy



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First proof of leeches jumping captured on video

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have provided the first conclusive...

A recent discovery has revealed a massive energy imbalance on Saturn, offering new insights into planetary science and evolution. This revelation challenges existing climate models for the solar system's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-is-more-gassy-less-icy-than-we-ever-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas</a> giants.



Using data from the Cassini probe mission, researchers at the <a href="https://www.uh.edu/news-events/stories/2024/june/06182024-saturn-energy-imbalance.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Houston</a> identified a significant and previously unknown seasonal energy imbalance on Saturn.



“This is the first time that a global energy imbalance on a seasonal scale has been observed on a gas giant,” noted Liming Li, a professor in the UH College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics.



“Not only does this give us new insight into the formation and evolution of planets, but it also changes the way we should think about planetary and atmospheric science.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-energy-imbalance-on-saturn">Seasonal energy imbalance on Saturn</h2>



Saturn's energy imbalance is primarily due to its large orbital eccentricity, which varies by nearly 20% from aphelion (the farthest point from the sun) to perihelion (the closest point to the sun). This causes significant seasonal variations in absorbed solar energy.



Unlike Earth, which has a negligible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">internal heat</a> contribution and short seasons, Saturn's internal heat significantly affects its thermal structure and climate.



"Every planet gets energy from the sun in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientist-sun-umbrella-tethered-to-an-asteroid-will-mitigate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar radiation</a> and loses energy by emitting thermal radiation," explained Xinyue Wang, a third-year doctoral student in NSM’s Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences.



"But Saturn, like the other gas giants, has another energy input in the form of deep internal heat affecting its thermal structure and climate."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-weather-and-climate-models">Impact on weather and climate models</h2>



The data suggests that Saturn's unbalanced energy budget plays a key role in the development of giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megastorms-on-saturn-are-larger-than-the-earth-and-last-for-hundreds-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>, which dominate the planet's atmospheric system. This discovery could also provide insights into Earth's weather systems.



"To our knowledge, the role of energy budget in the development of moist, convective storms on Earth has not been fully examined, so we plan to investigate that as well to see if there's a connection," said Wang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-mission-and-future-research">Cassini mission and future research</h2>



The Cassini mission, a collaborative effort between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Italian Space Agency, launched in 1997 and explored Saturn for nearly 20 years. 



The researchers monitored three onboard instruments that observed Saturn's radiant energy budget.



The team now aims to study the other gas giants, including Uranus, where a flagship probe mission is planned in the next decade. They predict Uranus will have the strongest energy imbalance due to its orbital eccentricity and high obliquity.



"Our data suggests these planets will have significant energy imbalances as well, especially Uranus," noted Wang. "What we're investigating now will identify limitations in current observations and formulate testable hypotheses which will benefit that future flagship mission."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-foundation-for-future-exploration">Foundation for future exploration </h2>



In addition to the primary research team, the study included scientists from NASA, the University of Wisconsin, the University of Maryland, the University of Central Florida, and the University of California, Santa Cruz, as well as researchers from France and Spain.



The discovery of Saturn's seasonal energy imbalance necessitates a reevaluation of current models and theories regarding the atmosphere, climate, and evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megastorms-on-saturn-are-larger-than-the-earth-and-last-for-hundreds-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas giants</a>.



This research not only enhances our understanding of Saturn but also provides a foundation for future exploration and study of other planets in our solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturn-s-energy-dynamics">Saturn's energy dynamics</h2>



Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, has fascinated scientists with its unique energy dynamics. Unlike Earth, Saturn emits more energy than it receives from the Sun. 



This excess energy results from the planet's internal heat, generated by the slow gravitational compression of its core and possibly the precipitation of helium. 



Saturn's seasonal variations significantly affect its energy balance. Its large orbital eccentricity, which causes the distance from the Sun to vary, results in fluctuating solar energy absorption.



Additionally, Saturn's tilt and lengthy seasons - each lasting over seven Earth years - contribute to these energy variations. The Cassini mission has provided valuable data, revealing how these factors influence Saturn's weather patterns, including its iconic storms and bands.



Future missions aim to explore similar phenomena on other gas giants, enhancing our understanding of planetary science and the dynamics of energy distribution in our solar system. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48969-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Massive energy imbalance discovered on Saturn

A recent discovery has revealed a massive energy imbalance on...

Air pollution, a pervasive and often <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-composition-of-us-air-pollution-has-changed-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invisible threat</a>, has been literally brought to light through an innovative collaboration between researchers and artists.



By combining digital light painting with low-cost air pollution sensors, a team has created striking photographic evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-air-pollution-levels-have-dropped-but-not-for-everyone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution levels</a> in cities across Ethiopia, India, and the UK.



This project not only highlights the health risks posed by this environmental hazard but also sparks crucial discussions within local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visible-air-pollution-in-images">Visible air pollution in images</h2>



Photographs from the "Air of the Anthropocene" project have fostered dialogue about the impacts of air pollution. The project was created by photographer Robin Price and Professor Francis Pope, an environmental scientist at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>.



"Air pollution is the leading global environmental risk factor," noted Professor Pope. "By painting with light to create impactful images, we provide people with an easy-to-understand way of comparing air pollution in different contexts - making something that was largely invisible visible."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-meets-science">Art meets science</h2>



The team used low-cost air pollution sensors to measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-farming-and-wildfires-is-more-likely-to-cause-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particulate matter</a> (PM) concentrations.



The real-time signals of the sensors controlled a moving LED array, programmed to flash more rapidly as PM concentrations increased. This innovative approach turned data into visual art.



"By providing a visual understanding of air pollution that is accessible to people who don’t necessarily have a scientific background, the light painting approach can demonstrate that managing air pollution levels can have a significant impact on people’s day-to-day lives," noted Price.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-comparisons-across-continents">Striking comparisons across continents</h2>



The project revealed stark differences in air pollution across various locations:



<ul>
<li>In Ethiopia, indoor PM2.5 concentrations in a kitchen using biomass stoves were up to 20 times higher than nearby outdoor levels.</li>



<li>In India, PM2.5 values in a rural playground in Palampur were at least 12.5 times lower than those in an urban playground in Delhi.</li>



<li>In Wales, PM2.5 concentrations around the Port Talbot steelworks varied between 30-40 mg/m3, compared to an hourly average of 24 mg/m3.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engaging-the-public-through-art">Engaging the public through art</h2>



"Air of the Anthropocene creates spaces and places for discussion about air pollution, using art as a proxy to communicate and create dialogues about the issues associated with air pollution," said Professor Pope.



Study co-author Carlo Luiu from the University of Birmingham emphasized the power of images in provoking emotions, fostering awareness, and encouraging action to tackle this environmental threat.



The photos have been exhibited at gallery shows in Los Angeles, Belfast, and Birmingham. 



The project has also been used to raise air pollution awareness by UN International Organization for Migration (IOM), the Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office (FCDO), and UN-Habitat - which commissioned four pollution light paintings and texts to be displayed in Kampala, Uganda.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-air-pollution-crisis">Global air pollution crisis</h2>



Air pollution is a major environmental and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-an-underestimated-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health threat</a>, responsible for millions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tens-of-thousands-of-premature-deaths-linked-to-human-ignited-fires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">premature deaths</a> annually.



The World Health Organization estimates that 99% of the global population breathes polluted air, causing around seven million deaths each year.



The issue is particularly severe in Asia and Africa, where rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to significant air quality deterioration.



Particulate matter is the primary pollutant responsible for health issues, including heart disease, stroke, and cancers. The innovative approach of the "Air of the Anthropocene" project shines a light on this invisible killer, urging communities and policymakers to take action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The study has significant implications for both public health and environmental policy. By making particulate matter visible through digital light painting, the harsh reality of air pollution becomes tangible and accessible to the general public.



This innovative approach can enhance public awareness of the health risks associated with pollution, potentially leading to increased community engagement and advocacy for cleaner air. Policymakers can use the visual data to support stricter air quality regulations and promote sustainable practices.



The project also highlights the global nature of air pollution, encouraging international cooperation to address this widespread issue. 



By comparing pollution levels across diverse regions, the research underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions in areas with the highest pollution levels.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01409-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Robin Price 



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'Painting with light' project makes air pollution visible

Air pollution, a pervasive and often invisible threat, has been...

Picture this: a tropical paradise teeming with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-changes-social-behavior-in-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">playful monkeys</a>, lush foliage providing ample shade from the Caribbean sun. But then, disaster strikes. A devastating hurricane rips through the island, stripping away the trees and leaving the monkeys exposed to the harsh elements. 



What happens next? Do they fight over the remaining scraps of shade, or do they band together and share?



A recent study reveals a surprising twist: the monkeys actually became&nbsp;more tolerant of each other in the wake of the storm. This unexpected turn of events offers valuable insights into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rhesus-monkeys-quickly-learn-that-patience-is-rewarding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals adapt to environmental challenges</a> and the power of social connections in times of crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-storm-that-changed-everything">The storm that changed everything</h2>



In 2017,&nbsp;Hurricane Maria,&nbsp;a powerful Category 4 storm,&nbsp;made landfall in Puerto Rico,&nbsp;leaving a trail of destruction in its wake.&nbsp;The storm's impact was not limited to the mainland; the nearby island of Cayo Santiago,&nbsp;a small island off the coast of Puerto Rico,&nbsp;was also severely affected.&nbsp;



Cayo Santiago,&nbsp;often referred to as "Monkey Island," is home to a well-established population of rhesus macaques that have been the subject of scientific research for over 80 years.&nbsp;



The hurricane decimated the island's ecosystem,&nbsp;stripping away 63% of its vegetation.&nbsp;This loss of foliage significantly reduced the availability of shade,&nbsp;a crucial resource for the monkeys to cope with the intense tropical heat.&nbsp;The monkeys were suddenly confronted with a drastically altered environment and limited options for shelter from the sun.



“In response to the drastic changes caused by the hurricane, macaques persistently increased tolerance and decreased aggression towards each other,”&nbsp;said Dr. Camille Testard from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>.&nbsp;This change in behavior wasn't just a temporary blip; it persisted for years after the storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooperation-on-monkey-island-after-hurricane">Cooperation on Monkey Island after hurricane</h2>



Why did the monkeys suddenly become more cooperative? The answer lies in the concept of "selection pressure." 



In the pre-hurricane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>, where shade was plentiful, there was no evolutionary advantage to being tolerant of others. But after the storm, the ability to share shade became a matter of life or death. Monkeys who were more tolerant were more likely to survive and pass on their genes, leading to a shift in the overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-proboscis-monkeys-use-big-noses-attract-mates-nasalis-larvatus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social dynamics</a> of the population.



“Before the hurricane, tolerating others had no impact on risk of death. Afterwards, macaques that displayed more than average social tolerance - and were therefore better able to share shade - were 42% less likely to die than those that were less tolerant,”&nbsp;explained Dr. Testard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-social-order-on-monkey-island">A new social order on Monkey Island</h2>



The study revealed that the monkeys' newfound tolerance extended beyond just sharing shade. They also spent more time grooming each other and engaging in other affiliative behaviors.&nbsp;



“Macaques that began sharing shade also spend time together in the mornings, before the day’s heat forces them to seek shade. In effect, the hurricane changed the rules of the game in the monkeys’ society,”&nbsp;said Dr. Testard.



This remarkable transformation challenges the traditional view of rhesus macaques as aggressive and competitive. It demonstrates their surprising flexibility and resilience in the face of adversity. 



“We were surprised the macaques’ social behavior was so flexible, making them resilient to this environmental change, but some species may not display this same flexibility,” stated Professor Lauren Brent from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-a-changing-world">Lessons for a changing world</h2>



The implications of this research extend beyond the monkey island's adaptation to hurricanes and into the broader context of our changing world. As climate change intensifies,&nbsp;numerous species will encounter environmental pressures like those experienced by the Cayo Santiago macaques.



By studying how animals adapt to such challenges,&nbsp;we can gain valuable insights into the mechanisms of resilience and apply this knowledge to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-colobus-monkeys-are-threatened-by-poachers-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.&nbsp;



Understanding how social behavior can act as a buffer against environmental stress can inform strategies for protecting vulnerable populations and maintaining biodiversity in the face of climate change.



The remarkable adaptability of the Cayo Santiago macaques,&nbsp;who transformed adversity into an opportunity for increased cooperation and survival,&nbsp;serves as a beacon of hope.&nbsp;



Their story underscores the potential for resilience and adaptation even in the most challenging circumstances,&nbsp;reminding us that even when faced with seemingly insurmountable obstacles, the possibility for positive change and a brighter future remains.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk0606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Hurricane on Monkey Island made macaques more socially tolerant

Picture this: a tropical paradise teeming with playful monkeys, lush...

NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance rover</a> has been tirelessly collecting rock and soil samples on Mars. These samples are key to understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunspot-region-ar3664-blasted-earth-mars-may-2024-still-very-active/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Planet</a>'s history and whether life ever existed there. But, hidden within these sample tubes, like a secret message, lies a potential treasure trove for atmospheric scientists – the Martian air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-rocks-and-regolith">Not just rocks and regolith</h2>



"Atmospheric scientists get a little more excited with every rock core NASA's Perseverance Mars rover seals in its titanium sample tubes," noted one of the researchers involved in the Mars Sample Return campaign.



While the rock and regolith samples directly provide insights into Mars' geological composition and potential for past or present <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>,&nbsp;the trapped air,&nbsp;or "headspace," offers a unique and complementary perspective.&nbsp;



This air,&nbsp;sealed within the sample tubes alongside the solid materials,&nbsp;serves as a time capsule,&nbsp;preserving the atmospheric conditions at the time and location of collection.&nbsp;



By analyzing the composition and properties of this headspace air,&nbsp;scientists can glean valuable information about Mars' ancient and current climate,&nbsp;the evolution of its atmosphere,&nbsp;and the presence of trace gases that could shed light on the planet's habitability and history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-martian-atmosphere-a-time-capsule">Martian atmosphere: A time capsule</h2>



The Martian atmosphere, composed mainly of carbon dioxide, might contain trace amounts of other gases that have been around since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>'s formation. Studying this trapped air could help us understand how the Martian climate has changed over billions of years.



"The air samples from Mars would tell us not just about the current climate and atmosphere, but how it's changed over time. It will help us understand how climates different from our own evolve," explained Brandi Carrier, a planetary scientist at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-window-into-mars-water-cycle">A unique window into Mars' water cycle</h2>



The air trapped in the sample tubes is not just any Martian air. It has been interacting with the rock samples inside the tubes for years, creating a unique microenvironment. 



Analyzing this "headspace" air will give scientists insight into the amount of water vapor present near the Martian surface. This information is crucial for understanding why ice forms where it does on Mars and how the planet's water cycle has evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trace-gases-in-mars-samples">Trace gases in Mars samples</h2>



The possible presence of noble gases within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-holes-on-mars-might-harbor-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> atmosphere represents a tantalizing scientific opportunity.&nbsp;Noble gases,&nbsp;such as neon,&nbsp;argon,&nbsp;and xenon,&nbsp;are known for their chemical inertness,&nbsp;meaning they rarely react with other elements.&nbsp;



Due to this property,&nbsp;these gases could have persisted in the Martian atmosphere relatively unchanged since the planet's formation billions of years ago.&nbsp;



Analyzing the isotopic ratios and abundances of the noble gases could provide crucial insights into the initial composition of Mars' atmosphere, whether it was present from the beginning or developed later, and how it has evolved over time. 



Furthermore,&nbsp;comparing the noble gas profiles of Mars and Earth could illuminate the processes involved in the formation and evolution of planetary atmospheres in our solar system.



The headspace could also provide valuable information about the size and toxicity of Martian dust particles. This data will be crucial for protecting future astronauts who venture to the Red Planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apollo-s-air-a-lesson-from-the-moon">Apollo's air: A lesson from the moon</h2>



The study of lunar samples returned by Apollo 17 has already demonstrated the feasibility and value of analyzing gases trapped in extraterrestrial materials. 



Although the Moon is commonly perceived as airless,&nbsp;it possesses a tenuous atmosphere that interacts with the lunar surface.&nbsp;



Justin Simon,&nbsp;a geochemist at NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johnson Space Center</a>, detailed how his team successfully extracted and analyzed gases from a 50-year-old lunar sample using a cold trap,&nbsp;a technique that involves rapidly cooling the gas to condense and separate its components.&nbsp;



This same methodology could be applied to the Martian air samples collected by Perseverance,&nbsp;providing valuable insights into the composition and evolution of the Martian atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-planetary-evolution-with-mars-samples">Unraveling planetary evolution with Mars samples</h2>



The Martian air trapped within the Perseverance sample tubes is not just a scientific curiosity; it's a potential game-changer. Studying it will help us understand how planets form and evolve, making it relevant to scientists across various disciplines.



"Even scientists who don't study Mars would be interested because it will shed light on how planets form and evolve," explained Simon, who is a key member of the team deciding which samples Perseverance collects.



The Martian air samples might be small, but their potential impact is enormous. They could unlock secrets about Mars' past, present, and future, providing valuable insights for both scientific exploration and human missions to the Red Planet.



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Air samples from Mars could reveal fascinating secrets

NASA's Perseverance rover has been tirelessly collecting rock and soil...

The significant role of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-southern-ocean-could-become-seven-times-hotter-this-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Ocean</a> in global biological processes and the carbon cycle has been reconfirmed by a recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh8199" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. The research reveals the overlooked importance of inorganic zinc particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zinc-and-dissolved-silica-nbsp">Zinc and dissolved silica&nbsp;</h2>



The Southern Ocean significantly contributes to global phytoplankton productivity, absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide.&nbsp;



Zinc, although present in trace amounts in seawater, is a crucial micronutrient - especially for polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/phytoplankton-resilient-nutrient-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> blooms. When phytoplankton blooms die off, zinc is released, playing a critical role in ocean processes.



Historically, scientists have noted a puzzling disconnection between zinc and phosphorus, despite both nutrients being co-located in phytoplankton regions. Instead, they discovered a strong and unexplained correlation between zinc and dissolved silica.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-ocean-s-zinc-cycle-nbsp">Understanding the ocean’s zinc cycle&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Alakendra Roychoudhury from <a href="https://www.sun.ac.za/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stellenbosch University</a>, a co-author of the study, argued that scientists can now confidently explain the biogeochemical processes driving the ocean’s zinc cycle. 



Since 2013, Roychoudhury's team has participated in expeditions on South Africa’s polar research vessel, the SA Agulhas II, collecting sea water and sediment samples across the Southern Ocean.



“Processes occurring in the Southern Ocean are imprinted on water masses which are then transported to the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans,” said co-lead author Ryan Cloete, a scientist at LEMAR in France. Collaborating with a team of international researchers, the scientists used X-ray spectroscopic techniques to analyze samples at the atomic and molecular levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replenishment-of-dissolved-zinc">Replenishment of dissolved zinc</h2>



The findings indicate that higher productivity in summer increases the availability of zinc in the surface ocean’s organic fraction for phytoplankton uptake. However, they also found high concentrations of zinc associated with debris from rocks, earth, and atmospheric dust.&nbsp;



This interplay between zinc’s association or dissociation from particles is crucial for replenishing dissolved zinc to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“In winter, poor growing conditions cause zinc particles to be ‘scavenged’ by inorganic solids like silica, iron, and aluminum oxides, explaining the strong association between zinc and silica in the oceans,” Cloete explained.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coupling-between-biochemical-processes">Coupling between biochemical processes</h2>



Zinc bound to organic ligands is easily absorbed by marine life, whereas zinc in mineral form is not readily available, leading to its eventual sinking to the deep ocean and becoming inaccessible to phytoplankton.



“A warmer climate increases erosion, leading to more atmospheric dust and more scavenging of zinc particles, reducing zinc availability for marine life,” noted Roychoudhury.&nbsp;



According to Cloete, such an approach to studying the oceanic zinc cycle opens the door to investigating other micronutrients, like copper, cadmium, and cobalt, which could also experience climate-induced changes.



“Our findings are a prime example of the coupling between biochemical processes at the molecular level and global processes like planetary warming,” Roychoudhury concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-zinc-important-to-marine-life">Why is zinc important to marine life?</h2>



Zinc is a vital micronutrient that supports numerous physiological and biochemical functions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



Zinc is involved in the activity of over 300 enzymes, many of which are critical for the metabolism and overall health of marine organisms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-synthesis">Protein synthesis</h3>



Zinc plays a crucial role in the synthesis and stabilization of proteins. It helps in the formation of structural proteins, enzymes, and other important molecules.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expression">Gene expression</h3>



Zinc is involved in the regulation of gene expression by influencing the activity of transcription factors. This regulation is vital for cellular functions and responses to environmental changes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-function-nbsp">Immune function&nbsp;</h3>



Zinc is important for the proper functioning of the immune system. It helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-organisms-may-adapt-to-climate-change-but-with-hidden-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine organisms</a> resist infections and recover from illness.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growth-and-reproduction-nbsp">Growth and reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



Adequate zinc levels are necessary for the growth and reproductive health of marine organisms. Zinc deficiency can lead to stunted growth and reproductive issues.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antioxidant-defense">Antioxidant defense</h3>



Zinc contributes to the antioxidant defense system by protecting cells from oxidative damage caused by free radicals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development">Development</h3>



Zinc is crucial during the development stages of marine organisms, influencing everything from embryonic development to the growth of larvae and juveniles.



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Zinc plays an overlooked role in ocean processes

The significant role of the Southern Ocean in global biological...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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