Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today.



Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two.



Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as beetleweed (Galax urceolata) shows just how powerful - and complicated - this mechanism can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-mistake-sparks-new-species">DNA mistake sparks new species</h2>



Most organisms, humans included, are diploid: they carry two complete sets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a>, one from each parent.



In autopolyploidy, something unusual happens during the production of sperm or egg cells. Instead of halving the chromosome count, the cell leaves the full complement intact. When such a gamete meets another, the resulting embryo inherits double - or even triple - the usual DNA.



The newcomer may still manage to reproduce with its diploid relatives, but the hybrid offspring generally fare poorly. That mismatch in fertility often pushes the polyploid lineage to mate among its own kind, launching an instant reproductive barrier and, effectively, a new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-types-one-plant">Three types, one plant</h2>



For decades botanists assumed these chromosome copycats were evolutionary curiosities - unlikely to survive, let alone thrive, alongside their diploid parents.



Field surveys later overturned that view: autopolyploids are widespread and resilient. 



The lingering mystery was whether several cytotypes - diploids, triploids, tetraploids - could share the same patch of ground without one eventually eliminating the others through sheer competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-herb-with-three-identities">Mountain herb with three identities</h2>



Beetleweed, a low evergreen that carpets portions of the Appalachian Mountains, provided the perfect natural experiment. Earlier surveys revealed that some stands contain plants with two, three, or four chromosome sets.



“Through my fieldwork, I discovered that a single population could have a mishmash of cytotypes, which fascinated me,” remarked Shelly Gaynor, lead author of the new study that she&nbsp;completed at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



“With this study, I set out to understand if these populations could persist over time. Would one cytotype eventually outcompete the others, or could all three cytotypes persist?”



Answering that required tools beyond the transect tape and microscope. Gaynor and colleagues designed a mathematical framework that treats population change as inherently noisy - subject to random swings in birth, death, climate, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> flow.



Their model tracks how diploids, triploids, and autotetraploids form, spread, and interact when gene flow keeps tossing new genetic combinations into the mix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chromosomes-coexist-in-plants">Chromosomes coexist in plants</h2>



Two ingredients emerged as critical for long-term coexistence. First, self-fertilization rates matter. 



The more often a plant can pollinate itself, the easier it becomes for an odd-ploidy seedling to find a genetically compatible mate - sometimes its own flowers - without relying on scarce partners.



Second, partial reproductive isolation improves balance. If crosses between cytotypes rarely succeed, each form can maintain its numbers without being swamped by unfit hybrids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-favors-the-strongest">Stress favors the strongest</h2>



Environmental hardship then tilts the playing field. Under harsh conditions and intense competition, the model predicts that autotetraploids gain an edge over their diploid ancestors.



Extra chromosome copies may buffer them against stress, confer broader ecological tolerance or fuel faster adaptation. Triploids, by contrast, often act as a genetic bridge, forming when diploids and tetraploids interbreed but typically suffer lower fertility.



Because Gaynor’s simulations embed both demographic randomness and shifting weather, they reveal outcomes conventional equations might miss.



Sometimes all three cytotypes coexist for centuries; other times one prevails after a long stalemate. The key lesson is that stochasticity - the roll of the “evolutionary dice” - cannot be ignored when forecasting which lineages persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-beyond-one-plant">Impacts beyond one plant</h2>



Although the work focuses on a single Appalachia endemic plant, its reach extends far. Crop breeders deliberately create autopolyploids to enlarge fruit, boost resilience, or break <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-disease-experts-discover-how-bacteria-hijack-plant-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a> cycles.



Understanding how mixed-ploidy fields behave over time could help manage gene flow between improved varieties and their wild relatives.



Conservationists, meanwhile, wrestle with how best to protect rare plants that harbor multiple chromosome races within the same reserve; the new model offers a scaffold for predicting viability under climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-evolutionary-assumptions">Challenging evolutionary assumptions</h2>



The research also nudges evolutionary theory. Instant speciation via autopolyploidy sits at one extreme of the continuum of reproductive isolation. 



By showing that such sudden splits can persist even when parents and offspring rub shoulders, the beetleweed study challenges the tidy notion that new species must always occupy distinct niches or territories to survive.



Gaynor’s findings do not close the book on polyploid dynamics; rather, they open new chapters. 



Field experiments that monitor marked plants through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>, fires, and pathogen outbreaks could test whether tetraploids really weather adversity better.



Genetic analyses might uncover which genes, duplicated in extra copies, underpin that resilience. And satellite imagery paired with ecological modelling may reveal whether mixed-cytotype populations correlate with particular microclimates across the Appalachian ridges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-evolutionary-pathways">New evolutionary pathways </h2>



For now, the humble beetleweed stands as living proof that life need not wait for continental drift or glacial cycles to carve new evolutionary pathways.



Sometimes a single cellular hiccup - one missed step in plant chromosome division - is enough to spin off an enduring lineage. 



In the grand narrative that began with rogue molecules self-assembling eons ago, autopolyploidy writes its own rapid-fire chapter, reminding us that the processes that generate biodiversity can be as swift as they are surprising.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/734411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>.



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Plant chromosome glitch fast-tracks evolution

Around 3.7 billion years ago, early molecules on the young Earth learned to copy themselves. Over time, this simple act of replication - with help from chance and chemistry - blossomed into the plants and animals we see today. Charles Darwin later explained how slow, steady change - natural selection acting on isolated populations - could split one species into two. Yet in the plant kingdom, an alternative route to diversity exists. It is called autopolyploidy, and a new theoretical study of a woodland herb known as...

Celebrated on the last Wednesday in March, Manatee Appreciation Day is more than just a tribute - it's a global call to protect the gentle giants of the sea.&nbsp;



Manatees have no natural predators, which contributes to their serene demeanor. However, this does not mean they are without threats.&nbsp;



Human activities pose significant risks to manatee populations. Despite these challenges, manatees have shown remarkable resilience, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-now-at-the-forefront-of-saving-endangered-manatees-the-cows-of-the-sea/">conservation efforts</a> playing a crucial role in protecting them.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plight-of-the-manatee">The plight of the manatee</h2>



Human activities have not been kind to manatees. Boating, pollution, and habitat destruction stand out as the three greatest threats.



Despite legal protections against hunting, manatees continue to be poached for their meat and hides. Furthermore, their natural habitats, crucial for their survival, are being decimated by human development and intrusion.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boat-strikes-are-a-growing-threat-to-manatees-in-belize/">Boat strikes</a> are particularly alarming, leading to tragic injuries or even death for these gentle creatures. This dire situation underlines the urgency of increasing awareness so that manatees will continue to exist in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-to-know-manatees">Getting to know manatees</h2>



Manatees, also known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-now-at-the-forefront-of-saving-endangered-manatees-the-cows-of-the-sea/">sea cows</a>, are a marvel of marine life, characterized by their gentle nature and slow-moving grace. These large, aquatic mammals belong to the order Sirenia, which also includes three species of dugongs.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



One of the most captivating aspects of manatees is their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-restoration-could-help-save-starving-manatees/">herbivorous diet</a>, as they feed on a wide variety of submerged, floating, and emergent plants in both fresh and saltwater environments.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-and-movement">Size and movement</h3>



With a physique that seems almost comical in its roundness, manatees can reach lengths of up to 13 feet and weigh as much as 1,300 pounds. 



Despite their size, they are known for their docility and slow pace, typically cruising through the waters at just a few miles per hour, though they can sprint up to 15 mph in short bursts.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-nbsp">Appearance&nbsp;</h3>



Manatees possess a sparse covering of hair and use their flippers for tasks such as feeding and movement. Their tails are paddle-shaped, providing powerful propulsion through the water. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



These creatures have a highly developed sense of hearing, although their eyesight is relatively poor. They communicate through a range of sounds, especially when interacting with their young or during courtship rituals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-nbsp">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



One of the most intriguing aspects of manatees is their reproductive cycle. Female manatees typically give birth to a single calf every two to five years, with a gestation period of about 12 months. 



The bond between the mother and calf is strong, with the calf often seen nursing and staying close to its mother for up to two years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-nbsp">Distribution&nbsp;</h3>



Found primarily in warm waters of the Southeastern United States, particularly Florida, manatees are also located in parts of the Caribbean, South America, and West Africa.&nbsp;



Their preference for warm waters often leads them to gather around springs or power plant discharges during colder months, searching for the warmth necessary for their survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



Conservation efforts for manatees focus on habitat protection, reducing boat-related injuries and deaths, and rescuing and rehabilitating injured individuals. 



Public awareness and education campaigns also play a vital role in protecting these unique creatures, encouraging people to appreciate and conserve the natural world manatees inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interesting-facts-about-manatees">Interesting facts about manatees</h2>



Manatees are among the most enchanting marine mammals. Here are some interesting facts about them:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-relatives">Ancient relatives</h3>



Manatees are believed to share a common ancestor with elephants. This is reflected in several of their physical traits, such as their tough, wrinkled skin and the bristly hairs covering their bodies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-built-in-buoyancy-control">Built-in buoyancy control</h3>



Manatees have a unique way to control their buoyancy through an endless cycle of farting. Their digestive processes generate gas, which helps them maintain buoyancy and float through the water columns.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communicative-creatures-nbsp">Communicative creatures&nbsp;</h3>



Despite their quiet demeanor, manatees are quite vocal. They communicate with each other through a variety of sounds, especially important among mothers and their calves.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marathon-migrants">Marathon migrants</h3>



While manatees are generally slow-moving, they can travel long distances. Florida manatees have been known to migrate up the Eastern U.S. coast to as far as Virginia in the summer.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vegetarian-giants">Vegetarian giants</h3>



Manatees eat about 10 to 15% of their body weight in vegetation daily. Given that an adult manatee can weigh over 1,000 pounds, their daily intake can be upwards of 100 pounds of plants.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-lifespan">Long lifespan</h3>



Manatees can live for a long time, often reaching ages of 40 to 60 years in the wild. Their slow reproduction rate, however, makes them vulnerable to threats.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitive-whiskers">Sensitive whiskers</h3>



The whiskers on a manatee's face, or vibrissae, are highly tactile and sensitive. They use these whiskers to explore their environment and find food.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-lawnmowers">Natural lawnmowers</h3>



By feeding on water plants, manatees play a crucial role in maintaining healthy marine environments. They help keep aquatic plant growth in check, which is essential for the balance of aquatic ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-manatee-appreciation-day">Origins of Manatee Appreciation Day</h2>



The inception of Manatee Appreciation Day is a testament to the long-standing efforts to protect these marine mammals. 



This occasion was established more than 40 years ago, in 1981, through the collaborative efforts of the <a href="https://savethemanatee.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Save the Manatees Club</a>, singer/songwriter Jimmy Buffett, and former U.S.Senator Bob Graham. The goal was to cast a spotlight on the manatees, encouraging actions to ensure their survival.



Manatee Appreciation Day is not just a day of reflection but also of celebration and education. Events are typically hosted in regions thriving with manatee populations, such as Florida, Mexico, and the Caribbean. 



These celebrations involve educational programs, conservation activities, and opportunities to observe manatees in their natural environments, fostering a deeper connection and understanding between humans and these majestic sea creatures.



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Manatee Appreciation Day: Protecting the gentle giants of the sea

Celebrated on the last Wednesday in March, Manatee Appreciation Day...

Microplastics,In,Sand.,Soil,Contaminated,With,Microplastics.,Micro,Waste,In

Researchers have unveiled the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-discovered-in-every-human-placenta-tested-after-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> in archaeological soil samples, challenging long-held perceptions about the purity of ancient deposits. 



This disconcerting discovery, made by a collaborative effort between the universities of <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York</a> and <a href="https://www.hull.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hull</a>, alongside <a href="https://yorkarchaeology.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York Archaeology</a>, links environmental pollution directly to archaeological preservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-are-everywhere">Microplastics are everywhere</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-found-in-every-aquatic-species-tested/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> are tiny plastic fragments, measuring from one-thousandth of a millimeter to 5mm. They stem from a variety of sources, such as the disintegration of larger plastic items and resin pellets from manufacturing processes.



Initially, microplastics were believed to affect mainly oceans and rivers. However, finding these particles in ancient soil samples indicates a contamination that reaches far beyond, spanning both time and technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-windows-to-the-past-clouded-by-plastic">Windows to the past, clouded by plastic</h2>



Professor John Schofield of the University of York’s Department of Archaeology emphasized the implications of these findings. 



"This feels like an important moment, confirming what we should have expected: that what were previously thought to be pristine archaeological deposits, ripe for investigation, are in fact contaminated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-exposure-linked-to-changes-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>," Schofield explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reassessing-archaeological-preservation-from-microplastics">Reassessing archaeological preservation from microplastics</h2>



This revelation suggests that the preservation strategies for historical sites, which have favored in situ conservation for decades, may need reassessment due to the risk of contamination compromising the integrity of archaeological remains.



David Jennings, the Chief Executive of York Archaeology, reflected on the novelty of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/contamination-crisis-microplastics-found-in-88-of-protein-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> as a contemporary issue, citing their recent identification despite being a product of the post-war boom in plastic production. 



He noted, "This new study shows that the particles have infiltrated archaeological deposits," drawing a parallel to the gradual recognition of microplastics in oceans since the 1960s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contamination-of-historical-deposits">Contamination of historical deposits</h2>



The research team identified 16 types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-able-to-travel-thousands-of-miles-because-of-their-shape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic polymers</a> in both contemporary and archived soil samples. 



This diversity highlights the extent of plastic pollution and its threat to the integrity and value of archaeological findings.



Jennings further elaborated on the risk posed by microplastics to well-preserved archaeological sites, such as the Viking finds at Coppergate. 



“The chemistry of the soil, altered by the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-clouds-may-be-affecting-the-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, could accelerate the decay of organic materials, challenging the current practices of in-situ preservation,” he stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-microplastics-threaten-archaeological-integrity">How microplastics threaten archaeological integrity</h2>



In summary, the recent discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-driving-the-surge-of-microplastics-found-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> in ancient archaeological sites signals a critical juncture in our fight against pollution, underscoring its pervasive grip on both our environment and historical legacy. 



This revelation challenges us to rethink preservation strategies and intensify our research efforts to understand the full impact of these contaminants on our past. 



As archaeologists and environmental scientists join forces to address this issue, the urgency to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-breakthrough-plastics-that-wont-make-us-sick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">find solutions</a> that can protect our cultural heritage from the insidious spread of microplastics grows ever more apparent. 



This shared challenge calls for a global response, leveraging innovation and collaboration to ensure that our history, and the lessons it holds, remain intact for future generations to learn from and cherish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-history-of-microplastics-and-archaeological-sites">More history of microplastics and archaeological sites</h2>



As discussed above, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> have emerged as a significant environmental issue, infiltrating ecosystems and archaeological sites worldwide. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-and-early-research">Discovery and early research</h3>



The term "microplastics" was not commonly known until researchers began investigating small plastic particles in the early 21st century. 



However, the presence of microscopic plastic fragments in the environment predates this focus, with scientists and environmentalists noting the accumulation of plastic debris in oceans and on beaches throughout the latter half of the 20th century.



One of the earliest mentions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-a-new-method-to-estimate-the-age-of-microplastics-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> in scientific literature dates back to the 1970s when researchers observed tiny, plastic pellets, often referred to as "nurdles," along coastlines. These pellets serve as raw materials in the manufacturing of plastic products. 



Over the years, the scope of research expanded from these visible particles to include much smaller pieces resulting from the breakdown of larger plastic waste.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-in-awareness-and-concern">Rise in awareness and concern</h3>



Awareness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-embedded-in-tissues-of-whales-and-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> significantly increased in the early 2000s as scientists began to uncover their ubiquitous presence in marine environments, freshwater systems, and even terrestrial ecosystems. 



A landmark study in 2004 by Richard Thompson et al. coined the term "microplastics" and highlighted the widespread distribution of these particles across marine habitats. This study spurred a surge in research focusing on the sources, distribution, and effects of microplastics.



The revelation that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galapagos-penguins-at-risk-in-polluted-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> were not just confined to water bodies but had also been found in the air we breathe and the food we consume underscored the pervasiveness of the issue. 



Investigations revealed that microplastics could originate from a variety of sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic items, synthetic textiles, cosmetics, and industrial processes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-health-impacts">Environmental and health impacts</h3>



As research into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-shows-how-microplastics-are-harming-global-soil-and-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> expanded, so did our understanding of their environmental and health impacts. Studies have found that microplastics can harm marine life and birds, leading to ingestion, physical harm, and potential chemical exposure due to the pollutants these plastics can carry. 



Concerns also grew regarding the human health implications of microplastic exposure, with research exploring how these particles might affect human tissues and organs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-response-and-mitigation-efforts">Global response and mitigation efforts</h3>



The mounting evidence of the detrimental effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/table-salt-contains-a-shocking-number-of-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> has prompted global action to address the issue. Governments, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations have initiated efforts to reduce plastic pollution and specifically target microplastics. 



Measures have included bans on microbeads in personal care products, improvements in waste management systems, and increased funding for research on the environmental impacts of microplastics and potential mitigation strategies.



Additionally, there has been a growing movement towards circular economy models that prioritize sustainability, reduce reliance on single-use plastics, and promote recycling and reuse. 



Public awareness campaigns have also played a crucial role in educating individuals about the importance of reducing plastic consumption and properly disposing of plastic waste.



While efforts to address microplastic pollution are underway, the journey towards significantly reducing their presence in our environment is ongoing, requiring concerted efforts from individuals, communities, and nations alike.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724000755?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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Microplastics have infiltrated archaeological soil samples

Researchers have unveiled the presence of microplastics in archaeological soil...

Meet the tobacco hornworm, a green caterpillar you might not find pretty, but its blood characteristics will surprise you. This caterpillar is a wound-healing wonder that can stop itself from bleeding with incredible speed, sealing up wounds in less than a minute. 



Scientists have finally figured out how, and their discoveries could revolutionize the way we think about emergency blood clotting treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hemolymph-caterpillar-blood">Hemolymph: Caterpillar blood</h2>



Humans have blood. Insects sport a similar fluid known as hemolymph. Both are essential, circulating nutrients and crucial substances throughout the body. Yet, this is where their common ground largely ends. 



Our blood boasts a rich composition, teeming with red blood cells and platelets. These components are vital for clotting, a natural defense against bleeding out from injuries.



On the flip side, insects navigate through life with a distinct setup. Their hemolymph lacks the red blood cells and platelets found in humans. Instead, it contains hemocytes. These cells are the insects' multitaskers. They play a pivotal role in the immune system, combating infections and ensuring the insect remains healthy.



But their abilities stretch beyond defense against microbes. Hemocytes have another, equally crucial function. They're key players in repairing damage. When an insect gets hurt, hemocytes spring into action. They converge at the injury site, working together to form a patch. This process is fast and efficient, sealing the wound and preventing further harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-caterpillars-stop-the-bleeding">How caterpillars stop the bleeding</h2>



"These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-defense-sticky-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a>, called tobacco hornworms, can seal the wounds in a minute," said Dr. Konstantin Kornev, a professor specializing in materials science at Clemson University. So, how do they do it?



Here's the step-by-step:



Insect hemolymph is typically watery. Yet, once it exits the body, an extraordinary transformation occurs. It morphs into a viscoelastic material. Imagine it becoming slimy and stretchable. “A good example of a viscoelastic fluid is saliva,” said Dr. Kornev. 



“When you smear a drop between your fingers, it behaves like water: materials scientists will say it is purely viscous. But thanks to very large molecules called mucins in it, saliva forms a bridge when you move your fingers apart. Therefore, it’s properly called viscoelastic: viscous when you shear it and elastic when you stretch it.”



Then, the hemocytes spring into action. They converge on the injury, clustering to form a barrier atop the now gooey hemolymph. As time passes, this barrier crystallizes into a crust, effectively sealing the cut. This process is vital for an insect's survival, preventing excessive loss of hemolymph and warding off infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-caterpillar-blood">Benefits of caterpillar blood</h2>



“Turning hemolymph into a viscoelastic fluid appears to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-caterpillars-become-very-aggressive-when-food-is-limited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a> and cockroaches to stop any bleeding, by retracting dripping droplets back to the wound in a few seconds,” explained Dr. Kornev. 



“We conclude that their hemolymph has an extraordinary ability to instantaneously change its material properties. Unlike silk-producing insects and spiders, which have a special organ for making fibers, these insects can make hemolymph filaments at any location upon wounding.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-should-we-pay-attention-to-caterpillar-bleeding">Why should we pay attention to caterpillar bleeding?</h2>



"Our discoveries open the door for designing fast-working thickeners of human blood," explained Dr. Kornev. "We needn't necessarily copy the exact biochemistry, but should focus on designing drugs that could turn blood into a viscoelastic material that stops bleeding."



Imagine paramedics having access to a medicine that could temporarily thicken blood at the site of an injury. This could buy precious time for someone seriously hurt or even increase survival rates during complex surgeries. 



Beyond emergency care, the study of caterpillar blood clotting mechanisms offers exciting possibilities for various medical fields. Here are a few applications:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wound-healing">Wound healing</h3>



Faster, controlled clotting can significantly enhance wound healing. For patients with chronic wounds or those recovering from surgery, a drug mimicking caterpillar hemolymph could speed up the healing process.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hemophilia-treatment">Hemophilia treatment</h3>



Individuals with hemophilia, a disorder that impairs blood clotting, could benefit immensely. A treatment derived from these findings might offer them a safer, more natural way to manage their condition, reducing the risk of bleeding episodes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-surgery">Cancer surgery</h3>



In cancer surgeries, precise blood management is crucial. A viscoelastic blood thickener could help surgeons operate more effectively, minimizing blood loss while excising tumors.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transplant-procedures">Transplant procedures</h3>



During organ transplants, managing the recipient's blood properties is vital. This technology could stabilize patients, ensuring their bodies are in optimal condition to receive new organs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-military-medicine">Military medicine</h3>



In battlefield conditions, where rapid medical response is essential, such a drug could save lives. Medics could administer it to stabilize injured soldiers before evacuation, increasing survival rates in combat zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-tobacco-hornworm">More about the tobacco hornworm</h2>



The tobacco hornworm, known scientifically as Manduca sexta, is a fascinating creature. It's the larval stage of the Carolina sphinx moth. These caterpillars are easily recognized by their vibrant green color and the characteristic horn-like spike on their rear end.



Primarily, they feed on tobacco and tomato plants, which is where their name originates. Gardeners often find them munching on leaves, making them notorious pests in vegetable gardens. Yet, despite their bad reputation among gardeners, these caterpillars play a crucial role in the study of insect biology.



Tobacco hornworms grow rapidly, thanks to their high-protein diet of leaf material. This growth makes them an ideal subject for scientific research. Scientists study them to understand more about insect metabolism, physiology, and development. Additionally, their large size, reaching up to 10 centimeters in length, allows for easier handling and examination in laboratory settings.



Interestingly, when it's time to pupate, the tobacco hornworm burrows into the ground. It transforms into a pupa, the stage before emerging as a Carolina sphinx moth. This metamorphosis is a stunning example of insect development and adaptation.



Moreover, researchers are fascinated by the hornworm's defense mechanisms. Apart from their cryptic green coloration that camouflages them among leaves, they have a unique ability to metabolize nicotine from tobacco leaves. They convert it into a toxic compound, deterring predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-caterpillars">Lessons from caterpillars</h2>



This study is a reminder that nature has a knack for finding elegant ways to overcome challenges. We humans are pretty smart, but sometimes the best solutions come from the unlikeliest places. 



By paying close attention to the natural world – even the squirmy, crawly bits – we might unlock life-saving innovations we haven't even imagined yet. From blood-stopping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-spotted-for-the-first-time-on-alpine-rose-leaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a> to life-changing medicine, the possibilities are thrilling.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/frsfm.2024.1341129" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Soft Matter</a>.



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Caterpillars can stop their bleeding and seal wounds in seconds

Meet the tobacco hornworm, a green caterpillar you might not...

A new study led by Professor Bryan Fry at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> offers interesting insights into how lizards have adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-blue-tongue-lizard-evolved-resistance-to-deadly-snake-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survive</a> snake venom attacks.



Lizards and snakes have been locked in a remarkable evolutionary battle for millennia. Venomous snakes wield a powerful weapon, but their reptilian cousins have developed fascinating ways to stay alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-snakes-and-evolution">Lizards, snakes, and evolution</h2>



Australia serves as a dynamic arena for an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snake-evolution-legless-lizards-into-slithering-snakes-100-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary</a> face-off. On one side are the venomous snakes, including the lethal death adder, equipped with venom powerful enough to kill a human. 



On the other side, lizards, ranging from the imposing Komodo dragon to the smaller goannas, are locked in a survival struggle.



Professor Bryan Fry and his team, partnering with museums across Australia, dove deep into this epic conflict. Their research reveals a riveting arms race. 



They discovered how some lizards have cleverly evolved to resist the deadly neurotoxins of Australia's venomous snakes. 



“Australian snakes have developed potent venoms to counteract the lizards’ defenses, highlighting an intense predator-prey dynamic," said PhD candidate Uthpala Chandrasekara. "Once the lizards evolve, the snakes fire back with even more potent toxins. It's a biological arms race where the only constant is change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizard-s-defense-against-snake-venom">Lizard's defense against snake venom</h2>



"Evolution has equipped these giant lizards with the ability to combat venoms, but not all shield themselves in the same way," says Professor Fry. That's where it gets really interesting.



In the battle for survival, lizards have developed some fascinating defenses against venomous snakes. Their first line of defense? A unique form of chemical resistance. 



Many of these large, predatory lizards have evolved an immunity to the neurotoxins in snake venom. This venom is deadly, designed to paralyze prey by attacking the nervous system. 



But for these lizards, it's as if they've been granted a superpower. They can face off against venomous snakes without fearing the lethal effects of their bites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-komodo-dragon">Komodo dragon</h2>



But, not all lizards play the game of chemical warfare. Enter the heavyweights: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/all-about-the-mysterious-komodo-dragon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragon</a> and the perentie, Australia's own giant lizard. 



These behemoths take a different approach to defense. According to Professor Bryan Fry, they rely on sheer physical strength. 



Their defense doesn't come from within but from their armor. Thick, bone-filled scales act as a natural shield against snake bites. And if a snake does get too close? 



These lizards use their massive teeth to quickly neutralize the threat, treating the snakes like "fettuccini" to be swiftly cut and dispatched. In this case, brute force trumps biochemical resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-small-size">Advantages of small size</h2>



Now, not all lizards are titans. What about the little ones? Smaller species, like tree monitors, have found a different path to survival. By taking to the trees, they escape the ground-dwelling predators armed with deadly venom.



This arboreal lifestyle led to an interesting shift: tree monitors gradually lost their chemical defenses against snake venom. High above the dangers of the forest floor, the need for this resistance dwindled.



But evolution is a winding road. Some of these small lizards eventually ventured back to the ground, becoming burrowers. This return exposed them to lurking dangers – the same venomous snakes their ancestors had escaped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-lizards-and-snakes">History of lizards and snakes</h2>



The evolutionary relation between lizards and snakes is a riveting chapter in Earth's history, a testament to the intricate web of predator-prey relationships that shape the biosphere. 



This ongoing saga, rooted in the distant past, reflects the relentless adaptation, survival, and natural selection.



Millions of years ago, the ancestors of modern lizards and snakes diverged from a common lineage. This split set the stage for a journey marked by incredible diversity. 



Lizards, in their myriad forms, colonized habitats from forests to deserts. Snakes, losing their limbs, became masters of stealth and deadly precision. As these paths crossed, a dynamic predator-prey relationship ignited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



The struggle between snakes and lizards isn't simply about survival – it's an engine of evolution. Venomous snakes wield potent toxins to subdue their prey, including lizards. 



In response, some lizards evolved sophisticated defenses like neurotoxin resistance, a testament to the power of natural selection in shaping biological arms races. This isn't a one-sided battle, but a constant back-and-forth, innovation met with counter-innovation.



This intricate interplay influences the broader ecosystem. Predator-prey dynamics are crucial for ecological balance, regulating populations and driving biodiversity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-never-dull">Nature's never dull</h2>



The biggest takeaway from this study? "This complex dance of adaptation has resulted in a Russian doll-like nesting of gains and losses over time and suggests that the evolutionary battle doesn't always head in one direction," said Chandrasekara . 



Just when you think you've got nature figured out, it throws a curveball. Lizards gain resistance, then lose it, then gain it back. It's proof that evolution is messy, unpredictable, and incredibly fascinating.



While there's still more to unravel in this ongoing snake-lizard duel, remember: the next time you see a lizard basking in the sun, it might be a tiny survivor packing far more secrets and evolutionary tricks than you could ever imagine.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25052628" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Molecular Sciences</a>.



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Some lizards have evolved to resist deadly snake venom

A new study led by Professor Bryan Fry at the...

Red,Ants,Army,Fighting,With,Queen,Black,Ant

Your work environment shapes your job, and guess what? It's the same for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/there-are-2-5-million-ants-for-each-human-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>. A new study discovers that ant queens aren't born destined to be egg-laying machines -- they actually change their behavior based on who's around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-queen-s-job-description">Ant queen's job description</h2>



The traditional view of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-build-higher-nests-when-there-are-no-visible-landmarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant colonies</a> has always painted a clear division of labor: the queen, as the reproductive engine, solely dedicates herself to egg-laying, while the worker ants buzz around performing all the other necessary tasks to maintain and expand the colony. 



This almost industrial efficiency, with roles seemingly assigned at the genetic level in some species, underscores the perceived rigidity of social insect societies. But what if this understanding is more of a generalization than a universal truth?



Dr. Romain Libbrecht and his research team from <a href="https://international.univ-tours.fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tours</a> have thrown a wrench into this neatly sorted mechanism. Their research suggests that the roles within ant colonies, particularly that of the queen, may not be as fixed as once thought. 



Through their detailed observations and experiments, they have shown that the queen's behavior and role can significantly change depending on the social environment of the colony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-of-ant-queen-behavior">Shifting of ant queen behavior</h2>



The scientists studied the common black garden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-have-a-communications-system-that-closely-resembles-mental-telepathy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> (Lasius niger). Here's the wild part: When a new queen starts a colony, she's a Jill-of-all-trades. She takes care of the brood herself at first, ensuring those first precious workers hatch. 



But, once those workers arrive on the scene? She transforms. Suddenly, egg-laying becomes her sole focus, and the workers take over everything else.



If you take an established, egg-laying queen away from her workers, she switches back to all-purpose mode.



"With regard to the ant species we studied, it is social factors that control whether queens become specialized or not. Our findings challenge the widely accepted notion of social insect queens as inherently specialized egg-laying machines," Dr. Libbrecht said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-ant-queen-the-boss">Is ant queen the boss?</h2>



This discovery flips the script. We thought queens were in charge, giving orders to the workers. Now, it looks like workers might subtly control the queen's behavior, shaping the whole colony's division of labor.



Why would this system evolve? Scientists are still working that out. Maybe a queen that can help out when the colony is tiny has a better survival chance. 



Or, maybe a colony can respond better to food shortages or danger if the queen isn't always tied to egg-laying duties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



This isn't just about ant trivia. "If social environment shapes such a fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edible-ants-art-science-sustainable-food-source-ant-cuisine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> colonies, what else might it influence?" Dr. Libbrecht wonders. It turns out, studying critters with seemingly simple lives can teach us profound lessons. 



Perhaps the way genes and environment interact is far more flexible than we ever thought. This has potential implications for all kinds of biological systems -- maybe even ourselves!



Dr. Libbrecht is fascinated by how critters adapt to their environment. He used to work at<a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> and now digs into insect mysteries at the <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a> in France. He wants to know what makes insects change their behavior and even their bodies in response to the world around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparison-with-other-insects">Comparison with other insects</h2>



When we peer into the miniature societies of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matabele-ants-produce-antibiotics-to-treat-wounded-nestmates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a>, bees, and wasps, we witness marvels of cooperation and efficiency. Each group displays a unique social system that shapes its survival and success. 



By exploring their differences, we gain a deeper understanding of the fascinating diversity of the natural world.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-adaptable-and-resilient">Ants: Adaptable and resilient </h3>



Ant colonies are renowned for their rigid division of labor. The queen presides as the sole egg-layer, while workers diligently forage, care for the young, and defend their home. 



Yet, as researchers like Dr. Romain Libbrecht reveal, even within this structure, there's room for flexibility. Ant queens may adapt their roles based on their colony's needs, adding a surprising layer to their complex society.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-masters-of-specialization">Bees: Masters of specialization </h3>



Unlike ants, honeybee societies exhibit extreme specialization. The queen's sole purpose is reproduction, while sterile female workers handle all other tasks. 



Male drones exist only to mate with a queen. These unyielding roles enable remarkable efficiency and productivity within the hive.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasps-a-balance-of-structure-and-flexibility">Wasps: A balance of structure and flexibility </h3>



Wasp societies bridge the gap, with queens, workers, and males performing fairly distinct roles. However, a key difference lies in their adaptability. 



If a wasp queen dies, worker wasps may step into the reproductive role -- a flexibility rarely seen in bees or ants. This underscores the importance of adaptability within a social structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-principles-across-insect-species">Shared principles across insect species</h2>



Despite their differences, ants, bees, and wasps rely on some shared principles. Communication, via intricate methods like pheromones or dances, is vital to their coordination. 



Their division of labor, whether rigid or fluid, demonstrates how specialization promotes a thriving community.



Exploring these insect societies reveals incredible diversity, adaptability, and the undeniable benefits of cooperation. Ants teach us about resilience within a strict order, while bees exemplify unwavering specialization. Wasps showcase the value of flexibility in social roles. 



These insect empires offer potent lessons for understanding our own world, potentially inspiring better organizational structures and technology.



The study is published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14536" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Functional Ecology</a>. -----



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Ant queen behavior changes based on their social environment

Your work environment shapes your job, and guess what? It's...

Triceratops,Horridus,Group,,Herd,Of,Dinosaurs,Enjoying,The,Beach,(3d

Fans of Jurassic Park might remember the iconic scene where Dr. Alan Grant and the kids encounter a sick Triceratops -- a gentle, social giant of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-rocks-reveal-new-details-about-earths-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric world</a>. 



These herbivorous dinosaurs, with their massive three-horned heads and protective frills, have long captured our imaginations. 



But did these impressive creatures roam the earth alone, or did Triceratops have a complex social structure, as Spielberg seemed to suggest?



New research from the <a href="https://www.naturalis.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naturalis Biodiversity Center</a> in the Netherlands provides tantalizing clues that these titans of the Cretaceous period might have been more than solitary wanderers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behaviour-from-triceratops-fossils">Social behaviour from Triceratops fossils</h2>



The discovery begins with a team of paleontologists led by Jimmy de Rooij. Back in 2013, the team ventured to Wyoming with hopes of unearthing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-tyrannosaurus-mcraeensis-discovered-in-new-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus</a>. Instead, they hit the paleontological jackpot -- stumbling across a treasure trove of Triceratops fossils.



What began as a routine expedition transformed into a decade-long project. Over 1200 bones and fragments emerged from the dig site, meticulously removed and analyzed. 



This wasn't just about finding cool fossils -- it was about reconstructing the lives (and deaths) of these magnificent creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-triceratops-characteristics">Triceratops characteristics </h2>



The key discoveries that led de Rooij and his team to this herd hypothesis includes:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-and-steady-growth">Slow and steady growth</h3>



"The material is of very good quality. This enabled us to show that these triceratops grew really slowly, for instance," noted de Rooij. 



Similar to tree rings, the growth patterns trapped in the fossilized bones reveal that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-horns-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triceratops</a> likely didn't reach full size for many years. 



This extended growing period hints at social structures where adults potentially cared for and protected younger members.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-swamp-of-doom">The swamp of doom</h3>



The fossils were clustered within a thin layer of rock with no other species present. It's possible that these unlucky Triceratops became bogged down in a swamp -- a tragic but revealing mass death that preserved their remains together.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-and-tales-of-travel">Teeth and tales of travel</h3>



"Research into the physical and chemical properties of the hundreds of triceratops teeth tells of a migratory existence - one that was the same for all five of the dinos," de Rooij explained. 



Like tiny time capsules, the chemical makeup of their teeth suggests that the entire group roamed together, seeking out food or perhaps seasonally moving to better grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behavior-of-triceratops">Social behavior of Triceratops</h2>



While not conclusive proof, the evidence strongly suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-triceratops-relative-two-feet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triceratops</a> formed groups for various reasons. Maybe strength in numbers provided protection from predators. 



Perhaps they banded together for long migrations, relying on collective knowledge of routes and resources. Some experts even speculate that there might have been complex social structures within the herd.



"And that of course leads to all kinds of new questions. How complex was this social behavior, exactly?" de Rooij wondered. It's an exciting new chapter in our understanding of dinosaur behavior. 



Did they share parenting duties? Engage in play-fighting like young elephants? Did they have leaders to guide them? The possibilities are thrilling and inspire a whole new range of research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-landmark-discovery">A landmark discovery</h2>



The impact of this research is undeniable. Prof. Anne Schulp, de Rooij's supervisor, declares: "Naturalis, the national natural history museum of the Netherlands, now has the biggest triceratops find in the world, and <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> has the first Dr Triceratops in the Netherlands."



But the story doesn't end in the lab. This October, the Naturalis Museum will unveil an exhibition showcasing the Triceratops herd in all its glory. 



The exhibit aims to recreate their lives and ill-fated end, giving visitors a glimpse into the social world of these ancient giants before they embark on a world tour.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-social-characteristics-of-triceratops">Beyond social characteristics of Triceratops</h2>



As discussed above, Triceratops is a name that stirs images of ancient forests and the thunderous roar of dinosaurs. They have fascinated scientists and enthusiasts alike for over a century. 



This magnificent creature, whose name means "three-horned face," roamed the Earth around 68 to 66 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous period. 



Its most striking features were its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-john-had-a-skull-injury-from-fighting-another-triceratops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large skull</a>, adorned with two impressive horns above the eyes and a smaller one on the nose, and its massive neck frill.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-discovery">First discovery</h3>



First discovered in the late 19th century, Triceratops quickly became a subject of intrigue and study. Paleontologists have unearthed numerous fossils, primarily in North America, where this dinosaur once thrived. Over the years, these discoveries have shed light on the life and habits of Triceratops.



Interestingly, Triceratops was a herbivore. It used its beaked mouth to clip off leaves and plants. Its teeth, arranged in groups called batteries, were perfectly adapted for shredding tough plant material. 



Scientists believe this diet played a crucial role in its large size, with some adults reaching over 9 meters in length and weighing up to 12 tons.



Moreover, the structure of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triceratops-horns-attract-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horns</a> and frill suggests they were not just for show. They likely served multiple purposes, including defense against predators like the fearsome Tyrannosaurus rex. 



Additionally, these features may have been used in mating rituals or to establish dominance within their herds, indicating a complex social structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-triceratops-as-a-social-creature">Implications of Triceratops as a social creature</h2>



This research adds a fascinating wrinkle to the way we view the prehistoric world. Finally, the continuous discovery and study of Triceratops fossils are not just about piecing together the past. 



They inspire questions and curiosity about life on Earth, its diversity, and evolution. Each bone, each fragment tells a story of a world long gone but still deeply connected to our own. 



Our understanding of dinosaurs is constantly evolving, and discoveries like this hint at far more intricate behaviors and relationships than we once imagined. 



Who knows, those classic images of dinosaurs we grew up with might someday feature entire herds thundering across the landscape.



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Triceratops dinosaurs seem to have developed complex social structures

Fans of Jurassic Park might remember the iconic scene where...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a> has uncovered a fascinating aspect of bird communication. The study reveals that the Japanese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-tits-are-nesting-earlier-due-to-climate-change/">tit</a> (Parus minor) utilizes wing gestures to communicate a polite "after you" to its mate.&nbsp;



This discovery challenges the prevailing assumption that complex gestural communication, akin to the symbolic gestures observed in humans and great apes, was beyond the capacity of birds. 



The findings mark a significant advancement in our understanding of non-verbal communication mechanisms in the animal kingdom, particularly among birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gestures-and-communication-nbsp">Gestures and communication&nbsp;</h2>



Human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-gestures-we-see-can-change-what-we-hear/">communication</a> heavily relies on gestures, such as giving a thumbs up, waving goodbye, or pointing to convey messages without the use of words. This mode of communication was once thought to be exclusively human until observations of great apes like chimpanzees and bonobos demonstrated their ability to use body movements to express themselves nonverbally.&nbsp;



Further studies extended this understanding to other animals, including ravens and fish, which exhibited simple gestural behaviors like pointing to indicate objects or interests.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symbolic-gesturing-in-a-non-human-species-nbsp">Symbolic gesturing in a non-human species&nbsp;</h2>



However, the concept of symbolic gesturing, which implies a higher level of cognitive processing - such as a human showing an open hand to signal "after you" - had not been definitively observed in non-human species until now.



“In our latest discovery, we revealed that the Japanese tit uses gestures to communicate with their mate,” said study lead author Toshitaka Suzuki, an assistant professor of animal communication at the University of Tokyo.&nbsp;



“For over 17 years, I have been engaged in the study of these fascinating birds. They not only use specific calls to convey particular meanings, but also combine different calls into phrases using syntactic rules. These diverse vocalizations led me to initiate this research into their potential use of physical gestures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-form-of-gestural-communication">Unique form of gestural communication</h2>



Observations conducted during the breeding season provided valuable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-is-not-the-only-thing-changing-the-behavior-of-birds/">behavior</a> of Japanese tits. These birds, which form mating pairs and construct their nests within tree cavities, displayed a unique form of gestural communication.&nbsp;



The researchers focused on 16 parent birds across eight pairs, closely monitoring their interactions during nest visits. Notably, when arriving at the nest with food, the birds would often perch nearby, and one would flutter its wings toward the other, signaling for its mate to enter the nest first.&nbsp;



This wing-fluttering gesture, primarily exhibited by females, effectively determined the order of nest entry, mirroring the human ‘after you’ gesture.



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<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinctive-wing-gestures">Distinctive wing gestures </h2>



“We were surprised to find that the results were much clearer than we had expected. We observed that Japanese tits flutter their wings exclusively in the presence of their mate, and upon witnessing this behavior, the mate almost always entered the nest box first,” Suzuki said.&nbsp;



The researchers concluded that this behavior satisfies the criteria for a symbolic gesture, as it is aimed at the mate rather than the nest box, distinguishing it from deictic gestures that indicate the location of an object of interest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-evolution-of-gestures">Understanding the evolution of gestures</h2>



Suzuki also touched on the broader implications of their findings for understanding the evolution of gestures, drawing parallels between the freed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wing-shape-is-driven-by-environment-and-behavior/">wings</a> of perching birds and the mobility of human hands due to upright posture and bipedalism.&nbsp;



"There is a hypothesis that walking on two legs allowed humans to maintain an upright posture, freeing up their hands for greater mobility, which in turn contributed to the evolution of gestures. Similarly, when birds perch on branches, their wings become free, which we think may facilitate the development of gestural communication," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-and-cognition-across-species">Communication and cognition across species</h2>



As scientists continue to unravel the complexities of avian communication, their work not only sheds light on the rich tapestry of animal languages but also offers key insights into the origins and evolution of language itself.&nbsp;



This research underscores the importance of expanding our perspective on communication and cognition across species, bridging the gap between human and animal non-verbal interactions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>. A video of the ‘after you’ gesture in Japanese tits can be found <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6DtO8hXBmzM">here</a>.



Video Credit: Suzuki and Sugita, 2024/ Current Biology



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Wild bird uses wing gestures to politely say, 'after you'

A team of researchers led by the University of Tokyo...

Younger adults, specifically those 35 to 45 years old, might face a heightened risk of suffering a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-higher-risk-of-stroke/">stroke</a> - not from the widely recognized traditional risk factors such as hypertension - but rather from nontraditional risk factors, including migraines. This is the conclusion of a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.123.010307" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes</a>.



The research shifts the narrative towards the substantial role that these less conventional factors play in stroke risk among younger adults, challenging the established understanding of stroke etiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-stroke-risk-factors">Traditional stroke risk factors</h2>



Historically, the medical community has pinpointed a series of traditional risk factors responsible for the majority of stroke cases. These include, but are not limited to, high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, Type 2 diabetes, smoking habits, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, excessive alcohol consumption, and coronary heart disease.&nbsp;



However, a disturbing trend has been observed with a rising number of stroke incidents reported among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cigarette-smoking-stroke-risk/">young adults</a> who do not exhibit these conventional risk factors, pointing towards the significant influence of environmental and lifestyle factors in stroke occurrence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributors-to-stroke-among-young-adults">Contributors to stroke among young adults</h2>



“We wanted to understand which risk factors were the top contributors to stroke risk among young adults,” said lead author Michelle Leppert, an assistant professor of neurology at the <a href="https://medschool.cuanschutz.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado School of Medicine</a> in Aurora, Colorado. To achieve this, the researchers utilized a robust administrative database encompassing health insurance claims within Colorado. 



The team meticulously compared the data of over 2,600 individuals who had experienced strokes against a control group of more than 7,800 individuals without stroke history to pinpoint the predominant risk factors leading to strokes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nontraditional-stroke-risk-factors">Nontraditional stroke risk factors</h2>



The investigation revealed a significant association between nontraditional stroke risk factors - including migraines, blood clotting disorders, kidney failure, autoimmune diseases, and malignancy - and the development of strokes in individuals aged 18 to 44 years.&nbsp;



Notably, this association was even stronger among adults younger than 35 years, highlighting the disproportionate impact of these nontraditional risk factors on the younger population.



Specifically, the analysis indicated that within the 18 to 34-year-old demographic, strokes linked to nontraditional risk factors constituted 31% in men and approximately 43% in women, surpassing those attributed to traditional risk factors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migraines-emerged-as-a-critical-nontraditional-risk-factor">Migraines emerged as a critical nontraditional risk factor</h2>



Remarkably, migraines emerged as a critical nontraditional risk factor, responsible for 20% of strokes in men and nearly 35% in women within this age group. While the relevance of traditional stroke risk factors seemed to peak among adults aged 35 to 44, the influence of nontraditional risk factors remained substantial across different age groups.



“These findings are significant because most of our attention has been focused on traditional risk factors. We should not ignore nontraditional stroke risk factors and only focus on traditional risk factors; both are important to the development of strokes among young people,” Leppert said.&nbsp;



“In fact, the younger they are at the time of stroke, the more likely their stroke is due to a nontraditional risk factor. We need to better understand the underlying mechanisms of these nontraditional risk factors to develop targeted interventions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-association-between-migraines-and-stroke-risk">Association between migraines and stroke risk</h2>



Furthermore, the study brought to light the unexpected prominence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-migraines/">migraines</a> in the etiology of strokes among young adults - a connection previously noted in the medical literature but not quantified to this extent.&nbsp;



“There have been many studies demonstrating the association between migraines and strokes, but to our knowledge, this study may be the first to demonstrate just how much stroke risk may be attributable to migraines,” Leppert explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-study-limitations-nbsp">Possible study limitations&nbsp;</h2>



Derived from data spanning 2012 to 2019 from the Colorado All Payer Claims Database, the study's robust dataset allowed for an in-depth analysis, although it acknowledged certain limitations such as the reliance on administrative databases which might influence the accuracy in risk factor identification, and a lack of comprehensive data on race and ethnicity for a sizable portion of participants.&nbsp;



In addition, the research was focused on metropolitan areas one mile or more above sea level, so altitude may create unique conditions which are not applicable to individuals living at other altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-stroke-risk-assessment-studies-are-needed">Further stroke risk assessment studies are needed</h2>



By casting a spotlight on the crucial role of nontraditional risk factors in stroke development among younger populations, this research enriches our current understanding of stroke risk factors, while calling for further risk assessment studies.&nbsp;



These future endeavors should aim to clarify the full spectrum of influences contributing to stroke risk, ultimately paving the way for more effective prevention strategies tailored to the needs of younger adults.



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Young adults with migraines have a greater stroke risk 

Younger adults, specifically those 35 to 45 years old, might...

Reconstruction,Of,The,Human,Dwelling,Of,The,Stone,Bronze,Age.

Scientists have revealed the Persian Plateau as a crucial crossroads for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-cooling-event-caused-extinction-of-first-early-humans-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Homo sapiens </a>during their migration out of Africa. This discovery challenges prior theories about human expansion into Eurasia and provides a clearer picture of this pivotal era in human history.



The study meticulously combined genetic analysis, paleoecological data, and archaeological findings to pinpoint the Persian Plateau as a significant settlement area. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pivotal-role-in-human-migration-out-of-africa">Pivotal role in human migration out of Africa</h2>



Between approximately 70,000 to 45,000 years ago, a time previously marked by gaps in our historical understanding, this region served as the starting point for populations that eventually spread across Eurasia.



Key insights from this research include the identification of the Persian Plateau as not only a major hub for early human settlement but also as a region that could support larger populations compared to other West Asian areas. This suitability was likely a factor in its role as a cradle for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-survived-the-eruption-of-toba-supervolcano/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human dispersal</a> across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-and-humans-on-the-persian-plateau">Neanderthals and humans on the Persian Plateau</h2>



Leonardo Vallini, the study's first author from the <a href="https://www.unipd.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Padova</a>, Italy, remarked on the significance of the findings. 



“The discovery elucidates a 20,000 year long portion of the history of Homo sapiens outside of Africa, a timeframe during which we interacted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-belong-to-the-same-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthal populations</a>, and sheds light on the relationships between various Eurasian populations.” 



Vallini's comments underscore the study's role in bridging the knowledge gap regarding our species’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-humans-almost-went-extinct-as-population-declined-to-1280-individuals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">demographic history</a> across Europe, East Asia, and Oceania.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-analysis-helps-unravel-human-history">Genetic analysis helps unravel human history</h2>



The genetic analysis part of the study unveiled a distinct genetic signature present in both ancient and modern populations within the Persian Plateau. 



This signature, which was uncovered through a new method that separates 40,000 years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-how-neanderthal-dna-got-diluted-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic mixing</a> and other complex events, highlights the long-standing significance of the Persian Plateau in human evolutionary history. It suggests that this area was a linchpin for early human settlement and later migrations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-out-of-africa-and-into-eurasia">Out of Africa and into Eurasia</h2>



Professor Michael Petraglia, a co-author of the study and Director of <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/australian-research-centre-human-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>’s Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, emphasized the importance of this multidisciplinary research. 



“Our multidisciplinary study provides a more coherent view of the ancient past, offering insights into the critical period between the Out of Africa expansion and the differentiation of Eurasian populations,” Petraglia explained. “The Persian Plateau emerges as a key region, underlining the need for further archaeological explorations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-persian-plateau-s-legacy-in-human-migration">The Persian Plateau's legacy in human migration</h2>



Professor Luca Pagani, the senior author, echoed the sentiments of his colleagues, pointing out the Persian Plateau's newfound importance. 



“The revelation of the Persian Plateau as a hub for early human migration opens new doors for archaeological exploration, enriching our understanding of our species' journey across continents and highlighting this region's pivotal role in shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-the-americas-10000-years-earlier-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human history</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-chapter-in-the-early-human-prehistory">New chapter in the early human prehistory</h2>



This important study places the Persian Plateau at the center of early human migration discussions while opening new doors for archaeological and genetic research. 



By unveiling the region's pivotal role in the dispersal of Homo sapiens from Africa to Eurasia, the research challenges previous understandings and enriches our knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human history</a>. 



This discovery highlights the importance of the Persian Plateau, both as a hub for early human settlements and as a launching point for populations that would eventually populate continents far and wide. 



As scientists continue to explore this key region, our understanding of human evolution and migration is set to deepen, revealing more about our shared past and the journeys that shaped the diversity of humanity today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-persian-plateau">More about the Persian Plateau</h2>



As discussed above, the Persian Plateau is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-preferred-mosaic-landscapes-with-diverse-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vast expanse</a> of land enveloping much of Iran and extending into parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan.



This region, characterized by its rugged mountains, vast deserts, and fertile valleys, has been a cradle of civilization for thousands of years, nurturing societies that have significantly influenced the course of human history.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographical-overview">Geographical overview</h3>



The Persian Plateau is defined by its diverse topography, which ranges from the lofty peaks of the Zagros Mountains to the arid expanse of the Iranian Desert. 



This unique landscape has played a crucial role in the development of the region's societies, providing both challenges and opportunities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-of-large-prey-drove-evolutionary-changes-in-early-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient settlers</a>. 



The Zagros Mountains, in particular, have served as a natural barrier and a source of water, fostering the growth of agriculture and the rise of early settlements.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-significance-of-the-persian-plateau">Historical significance of the Persian Plateau</h3>



The plateau has witnessed the rise and fall of many empires, including the Medes, Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids, each leaving behind a rich tapestry of cultural and architectural achievements. 



The Achaemenid Empire, known for its tolerance and efficient administration, built the famous Persepolis, a symbol of Persian architectural and cultural sophistication. 



These civilizations contributed significantly to various fields, including art, science, and governance, influencing neighboring regions and beyond.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-heritage">Cultural heritage</h3>



The Persian Plateau is a living, breathing landscape that continues to sustain a rich tapestry of cultural traditions. The region's music, poetry, and art have deep roots that stretch back centuries, embodying the spirit and resilience of its people. 



Persian literature, epitomized by poets like Hafez and Rumi, continues to inspire and enchant readers worldwide with its profound insights into the human condition.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-implications">Modern implications</h3>



Today, the Persian Plateau remains a region of geopolitical and economic significance. Its rich natural resources, including oil and gas, play a crucial role in the global economy. 



Moreover, the plateau's strategic location, bridging East and West, adds to its geopolitical importance. Despite modern challenges, the region retains its cultural richness, drawing visitors eager to explore its ancient ruins and vibrant traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stopping-point-during-early-human-migration">Stopping point during early human migration</h2>



The Persian Plateau, with its rugged landscapes and rich historical tapestry, remains a symbol of human resilience and cultural achievement. 



From its ancient empires to its modern significance, the region offers a fascinating glimpse into the complexities of human history and the enduring power of culture. 



As we continue to explore and understand this ancient cradle of civilization, the Persian Plateau reminds us of the intricate connections between geography, history, and the human spirit.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46161-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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The Persian Plateau fills a 20,000-year gap in early human history

Scientists have revealed the Persian Plateau as a crucial crossroads...

The health of our oceans is a barometer for the planet's overall environmental condition, with ocean currents playing a critical role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ripple-effects-of-climate-change-have-created-a-new-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulating Earth's climate</a>. 



A recent study has shed new light on the impact of rising ocean temperatures on one of these vital current systems. 



This significant research provides the first documented evidence of a significant slowdown in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) -- a key player in the ocean's climate-regulating conveyor belt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amoc-the-pulse-of-our-planet-is-slowing-down">AMOC: The pulse of our planet is slowing down</h2>



Alexey Mishonov and his team dive deep into the decades of data compiled in NOAA's <a href="https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/world-ocean-atlas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Ocean Atlas</a> to trace the AMOC's performance over time. 



Their findings reveal a startling shift: from 1955 to 1994, the AMOC's flow was stable and consistent. 



However, starting in the mid-1990s, a marked decline in its strength was observed, coinciding with a notable reduction in its speed. 



The researchers attribute this slowdown to the ocean surface's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-dipole-the-atmospheric-pattern-shaping-our-future-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continued warming</a> and resultant changes in the upper layers' salinity.



The AMOC is instrumental in transporting warm water towards higher latitudes and returning cooler waters to the tropics -- a cycle that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/additional-heat-is-being-transferred-to-the-arctic-ocean-as-the-climate-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redistributes heat</a> across the ocean. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-consequences-of-climate-science">Real-world consequences of climate science</h2>



Mishonov explains the implications of weakening circulation in Atlantic ocean currents, stating, "If AMOC slows down, the heat exchange will be reduced, which in turn will affect the climate, causing hot areas to get hotter and cold areas to get colder." 



This imbalance could have far-reaching effects on global <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/how-the-ocean-and-climate-influence-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate patterns</a>, potentially leading to more extreme weather conditions, rising sea levels, disruptions to marine ecosystems, and a cascade of other climate feedbacks.



Mishonov's research also touches on the cultural zeitgeist, referencing the dramatic portrayal of a similar scenario in the 2004 disaster movie "The Day After Tomorrow." 



While he clarifies that the film's depiction is highly exaggerated and not supported by the scientific community, the underlying message -- that a significant slowdown in the AMOC could lead to unpredictable and profound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-from-the-last-ice-age-help-predict-oceans-response-to-continued-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a> -- resonates with many experts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-amoc-dynamics">Science behind AMOC dynamics</h2>



The study utilized an extensive array of data, including climate reanalysis data on decadal wind stress and sea surface height fields from UMD's <a href="http://soda.umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simple Ocean Data Assimilation</a> project, to analyze the North Atlantic's ocean current patterns and AMOC dynamics. 



The findings underscore the complex nature of the ocean's climate trajectory and the diverse climate patterns within different subregions of the North Atlantic. 



Despite systematic warming across the entire North Atlantic, regional decadal variability suggests a range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-paradox-ocean-current-collapse-could-plunge-europe-into-cold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate responses</a>, underscoring the unpredictable nature of future AMOC behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-ocean-currents-and-earth-s-future">Slowing ocean currents and Earth's future</h2>



As the scientific community continues to unravel the mysteries of our oceans, the significance of Mishonov and his colleagues' work cannot be overstated. 



Their research contributes to our understanding of the intricate relationship between ocean currents and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/relationship-between-ocean-currents-and-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global climate</a> and highlights the importance of monitoring these critical systems as we navigate the challenges of a warming world.



The team is already planning further studies to explore similar patterns in long-term temperature and salinity variability across other global ocean regions, emphasizing the ongoing need for robust climate research and observation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ocean-currents">More about ocean currents</h2>



As discussed above, ocean currents play a pivotal role in shaping the climate, marine ecosystems, and human activities around the globe. 



These vast, continuous movements of seawater are driven by various factors, including wind patterns, the Earth's rotation, salinity levels, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature differences</a> in the water.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-ocean-currents">Defining ocean currents</h3>



Ocean currents are large-scale movements of seawater that flow in complex patterns across the Earth's oceans. 



They can occur at the surface, influenced by wind, or in the deep ocean, driven by density differences resulting from variations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature and salinity</a>. 



These currents are essential for distributing heat around the planet, supporting marine life, and influencing weather patterns and climate.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-driving-forces-behind-ocean-currents">Driving forces behind ocean currents</h3>



Several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-circulation-is-key-to-climate-change-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">key factors</a> work together to create and shape ocean currents:



Wind Patterns: The primary force that drives surface currents is the wind. The interaction between wind and the ocean's surface causes water to move, creating currents that can travel vast distances. The Coriolis effect, a result of the Earth's rotation, also influences the direction of these currents, causing them to veer to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.



Temperature and Salinity: Differences in water density, affected by temperature and salinity, are the main drivers of deep ocean currents. Colder, saltier water is denser and tends to sink, while warmer, less salty water is less dense and rises. This process creates a global conveyor belt of deep ocean currents that plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate.



The Earth's Rotation: The Coriolis effect, caused by the Earth's rotation, significantly impacts the direction of ocean currents. This force deflects the path of moving water and air across the planet, shaping the flow of currents and influencing their speed and direction.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-ocean-currents">Types of ocean currents</h3>



Earth has two main types of ocean currents: surface currents and deep ocean currents.



Surface Currents: These currents make up about 10% of all the water in the ocean. These currents are primarily driven by wind and are influenced by the Earth's rotation and the shape of the ocean basins. They play a vital role in weather patterns and marine ecosystems, transporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-has-nearly-doubled-in-the-last-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warm water</a> from the equator towards the poles and cold water from the poles towards the equator.



Deep Ocean Currents: Also known as the thermohaline circulation, deep ocean currents move slowly and are driven by differences in water density. These currents are crucial for moving nutrients and oxygen deep into the ocean and play a key role in regulating the Earth's climate by distributing heat.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-ocean-currents">Impact of ocean currents</h3>



Earth's ocean circulation system has a profound impact on the planet, influencing climate, weather patterns, marine ecosystems, and human activities.



Climate Regulation: Ocean currents act as a global conveyor belt, distributing heat from the equator to the poles and vice versa. This process helps to regulate the Earth's climate, making some regions warmer or cooler than they would be otherwise.



Marine Ecosystems: Currents transport nutrients and oxygen, supporting diverse marine ecosystems. They also influence the distribution of marine species by carrying larvae and plankton along their paths.



Human Activities: Ocean currents affect human activities such as shipping, fishing, and recreational boating. Understanding these currents is crucial for navigation, safety, and maximizing fishing yields.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-study-and-climate-implications">Future study and climate implications</h3>



In summary, ocean currents are a dynamic and vital component of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's system</a>. They regulate our climate and support marine life while simultaneously impacting human activities in numerous ways. 



By understanding the forces behind these currents and their effects, we can better appreciate the intricate balance of our planet's ecosystems and work towards their preservation.



This research was led by <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Alexey Mishonov, in collaboration with Dan Seidov and James Reagan from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>). The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1345426/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Ocean currents, the pulse of our planet, are slowing as water temperature rises

The health of our oceans is a barometer for the...

A collaborative effort involving 25 scientists from around the globe has put forth a comprehensive plan aimed at preventing future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/to-avoid-future-pandemics-we-must-protect-nature/">pandemics</a> through the conservation of natural habitats and the enhancement of biodiversity.&nbsp;



This initiative seeks to ensure animals have access to sufficient food, safe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/">environments</a>, and enough space to reduce interactions and the subsequent transmission of pathogens to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encounters-between-humans-and-disease-carrying-animals">Encounters between humans and disease-carrying animals</h2>



Pandemics often originate from close encounters between humans and disease-carrying animals like bats, which can transmit new pathogens directly or indirectly to people.&nbsp;



The viruses responsible for outbreaks such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-way-transmission-of-coronavirus-confirmed-between-humans-and-minks/">SARS-CoV-2</a>, SARS-CoV-1, Nipah, Hendra, and possibly Ebola, have all been traced back to bats, highlighting the danger of spillover events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-the-focus-to-preventing-future-pandemics">Shifting the focus to preventing future pandemics </h2>



“The world is focused on how can we detect and then contain a novel pathogen once it is circulating in humans, rather than how can we prevent that pathogen from entering the human population in the first place,” said lead author Raina Plowright, a professor of public and ecosystem health at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>.



Drawing on findings from two studies conducted in 2022, which investigated the transmission of the Hendra virus from bats to horses and humans, the team's prevention strategy emphasizes the importance of maintaining natural habitats for wildlife.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stressed-bats-linked-to-higher-pathogen-exposure-risk">Stressed bats linked to higher pathogen exposure risk</h2>



The studies revealed that habitat loss and diminished winter food sources lead to bats migrating into agricultural and urban areas, where stressed conditions cause them to excrete more of the virus.&nbsp;



This chain of events facilitates the transfer of viruses from bats to horses, and from horses to humans. Conversely, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-carry-viruses-infect-people/">bats</a> have access to sufficient natural food sources, their migration patterns normalize, significantly reducing virus shedding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-the-pathogen-transmission-pathways">Disrupting the pathogen transmission pathways</h2>



The proposed roadmap outlines a series of ecological interventions and policy recommendations aimed at disrupting the pathways through which pathogens are transmitted from animals to humans.&nbsp;



Key measures include ensuring consistent food availability for wildlife throughout the year, especially during critical periods such as reproduction and migration; protecting natural habitats where animals roost or gather in large numbers; and establishing buffer zones between human populations and wildlife to minimize contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimizing-the-risk-of-pathogen-exposure-nbsp">Minimizing the risk of pathogen exposure&nbsp;</h2>



The experts emphasize the rarity of disease transmission under natural conditions, discussing the multitude of barriers that typically prevent pathogens from reaching humans. However, they stress the importance of protective measures for communities that interact closely with wildlife, to minimize the risk of pathogen exposure.



Highlighting the need for a dedicated international body to oversee pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response, the scientists advocate for the creation of an agency or panel capable of evaluating data on ecological integrity, landscape intactness, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/">biodiversity</a> as key factors in preventing future pandemics.&nbsp;



This approach marks a significant shift towards proactive measures designed to safeguard public health by preserving the natural environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-future-pandemics-nbsp">Predicting future pandemics&nbsp;</h2>



Predicting the next pandemic's specifics, such as its pathogen, origin, or timing, is difficult. However, understanding the facts and trends can help in developing strategies to mitigate the impact of future pandemics.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zoonotic-diseases-are-a-major-threat">Zoonotic diseases are a major threat</h3>



A significant proportion of new infectious diseases that affect humans originate in animals (zoonotic diseases). Changes in human activity, such as deforestation, wildlife trade, and intensified agriculture, increase the risk of zoonotic diseases spilling over to humans.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-globalization-and-mobility-increase-spread">Globalization and mobility increase spread</h3>



The high level of global interconnectedness through travel and trade means that infectious diseases can spread more rapidly and widely than in the past. A disease that emerges in one part of the world can reach distant countries within hours or days.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antimicrobial-resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</h3>



The rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a significant concern. It could lead to a situation where common infections become untreatable, compounding the challenges of controlling a pandemic.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Climate change is altering patterns of disease transmission. It can expand the habitats of vectors like mosquitoes, leading to the spread of diseases like malaria and dengue to new areas. It also impacts food security, which can contribute to conditions favorable for the emergence of diseases.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-will-be-key-in-preventing-future-pandemics">Technology will be key in preventing future pandemics </h3>



Advances in technology, such as genomic sequencing and artificial intelligence, will play a critical role in early detection and response to emerging pathogens. Improved surveillance and data sharing across borders can help identify and contain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-is-killing-thousands-of-seals-and-sea-lions-globally/">outbreaks</a> before they become pandemics.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparedness-and-response-plans">Preparedness and response plans</h3>



The COVID-19 pandemic underscored the importance of having robust preparedness and response plans at global, national, and local levels. This includes stockpiling essential medical supplies, having flexible healthcare systems, and establishing protocols for vaccine development and distribution.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-investment-nbsp">Public health investment&nbsp;</h3>



Sustained investment in public health infrastructure and systems is essential for detecting, preventing, and responding to pandemics. This includes strengthening healthcare systems, developing rapid diagnostic tests, vaccines, and treatments, and training healthcare workers.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-and-economic-disparities">Social and economic disparities</h3>



Pandemics disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, exacerbating social and economic inequalities. Addressing these disparities is critical to reducing the overall impact of future pandemics.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46151-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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We can prevent future pandemics by protecting nature

A collaborative effort involving 25 scientists from around the globe...

Did you know your brain is likely larger than your grandparents'? A fascinating new study from <a href="https://health.ucdavis.edu/welcome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis Health</a> shows that human brain sizes have been steadily growing over generations. 



If you were born after the 1930s, your brain is significantly bigger than that of someone born earlier in the 20th century. But before you start bragging about your superior intellect, let's explore why this size difference matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-brain-size">Decoding the brain size</h2>



The researchers delved into brain scans from thousands of participants in the Framingham Heart Study. This is a long-term project that has tracked health across multiple generations. This incredible study began in 1948. 



The team discovered that people born in the 1970s had an average brain volume 6.6% larger and 15% more brain surface area than folks born in the 1930s.



"The decade someone is born appears to impact brain size and potentially long-term brain health," explained Dr. Charles DeCarli, lead author of the study and a distinguished professor of neurology at UC Davis. 



"Genetics plays a major role in determining brain size, but our findings indicate external influences — such as health, social, cultural and educational factors — may also play a role.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-scientists-measure-brain-size">How do scientists measure brain size?</h2>



Let's talk about two important ways scientists measure the brain's building blocks:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intracranial-volume-icv">Intracranial volume (ICV)</h3>



Think of ICV as the total amount of space inside your skull – your brain's house. It also includes the fluid, blood vessels, and other tissues that keep your brain healthy. ICV can give clues about overall brain health. In some cases, a larger ICV might mean a larger brain, suggesting more brainpower. 



However, brain size isn't the whole story - how efficiently your brain works matters too. Doctors and researchers use ICV measurements to track changes in the brain. This can help diagnose conditions like Alzheimer's disease, where brain tissue may shrink over time.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surface-area">Surface area</h3>



Your brain's surface area is all about the outer layer, called the cerebral cortex. This part is incredibly wrinkly, with folds and grooves - imagine crumpling a piece of paper to fit more surface area into a small space. Those folds are packed with brain cells (neurons). 



More folds mean more brain cells, boosting your thinking power. Different parts of the cortex do different jobs. Some handle your senses, others control how you move, and others tackle complex things like problem-solving and emotions.



Overall, ICV gives a sense of your brain's overall size and surface area focuses on how complex your brain's 'wiring' can be, like how many rooms are in that house and how they're connected. 



Together, these measurements help us understand individual brain power, explaining why some people's brains might be better at certain tasks, and also track brain health as we age or if diseases affect the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-size-and-dementia-connection">Brain size and dementia connection</h2>



So, why should we care about having a slightly larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>? Scientists believe it has to do with a concept called "brain reserve." Imagine your brain as a fortress protecting your mental well-being. 



The bigger and stronger the fortress, the more resources (like healthy brain cells) you have to combat the assaults of age-related diseases like Alzheimer's dementia.



While the total number of people with dementia is growing because we're living longer, the percentage of the population affected by these diseases is actually decreasing. 



"Larger brain structures like those observed in our study may reflect improved brain development and improved brain health," said Dr. DeCarli. "A larger brain structure represents a larger brain reserve and may buffer the late-life effects of age-related brain diseases like Alzheimer’s and related dementias.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-so-why-the-growth-in-brain-size">So, why the growth in brain size?</h2>



Scientists have some intriguing theories:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-nutrition-and-health">Better nutrition and health</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrition</a> is the bedrock of brain development and function. The brain, especially during critical periods of childhood, depends on a healthy diet for growth. Essential nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals directly support the creation of brain structures and new neural connections.



Adequate nutrition during pregnancy and throughout childhood is vital for proper brain development, affecting everything from brain size to function.



Moreover, access to quality healthcare is equally vital – it ensures that potential health issues that could hinder brain development are caught and treated early. Immunizations, check-ups, and managing illnesses create a healthier environment for young brains to thrive.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-amp-mental-stimulation">Education &amp; mental stimulation</h3>



The power of education and mental stimulation in shaping our brains can't be underestimated. Complex learning tasks and challenges promote neural growth and reinforce the brain's plasticity – that amazing ability to adapt and form new connections throughout our lives.



Education helps build a "cognitive reserve," meaning that mentally engaging activities may make our brains more resilient to decline as we age.



Continuously exposing our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-gut-brain-communication-affect-emotional-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> to new information and challenges keeps them fit and flexible - just like exercise does for our bodies. This can lead to stronger brain networks and better overall cognitive function.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-amp-cultural-changes">Social &amp; cultural changes</h3>



Our evolving social and cultural landscapes hold intriguing possibilities for brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brain-development-aligns-closely-with-other-primates/">development</a>. Research suggests that changes in our society and lifestyles could also influence how our brains grow and adapt.



Digital technology and global connections expose us to a vast array of cultures, ideas, and ways of thinking. This could foster more adaptable brains, ready for a globalized world.



Shifts in how families function and what we value socially may nurture certain types of development. For instance, a focus on emotional intelligence and social skills could enhance the brain regions responsible for empathy and social thinking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-on-brain-size-and-development">Future directions on brain size and development</h2>



This discovery opens exciting possibilities for brain research. 



By pinpointing the factors that promote healthy brain development, scientists can create targeted strategies to boost brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-healthy-diet-can-reduce-brain-aging/">resilience</a> from a young age. Imagine interventions that enhance cognitive function throughout life.



Understanding how these factors contribute to larger and more complex brains could also lead to breakthroughs in treating dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases. 



New approaches might include nutritional supplements, educational programs designed to stimulate the brain, and therapies that mimic the benefits of a rich social environment. These strategies could revolutionize how we prevent and manage these diseases.



In essence, this research is a game-changer. It challenges our understanding of the brain while offering exciting possibilities for extending cognitive health and improving quality of life as we age. It's a significant step forward in the fight against dementia, offering a glimmer of hope for a future with sharper minds and healthier brains.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.0469" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Neurology</a>.



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Human brains are growing in size, possibly lowering dementia risk

Did you know your brain is likely larger than your...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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