Monarch butterflies are icons of long-distance migration, drifting each autumn from inland western states to sheltered groves on California’s coast. 



Yet some in the growing butterfly population now skip the journey, living and breeding year-round among neighborhood gardens.



New research from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a> has found that these "stay-at-home" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-are-delaying-their-migration-in-a-warmer-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarch butterflies</a> represent a largely self-contained group - neither helping nor harming their declining migratory cousins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-monarchs-stay-at-home">Why some monarchs stay at home</h2>



Historically, western monarchs spent spring and summer in places such as Arizona, Nevada, and Idaho, then flew to coastal California for the winter. 



Over the past decade, winter counts of those migrants have collapsed, sparking alarm among conservationists. At the same time, sightings of monarchs flitting through San Francisco Bay Area streets in January and February have multiplied.



One suspected driver is the popularity of tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milkweed-gardens-are-needed-to-save-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milkweed</a> in urban yards. Unlike California’s native milkweed species, which die back in winter, the evergreen tropical variety offers continuous foliage and flowers.



The tropical milkweed is a tempting resource that can encourage butterflies to breed instead of migrate. Critics worry the practice fosters parasite outbreaks and disrupts the century-old monarch butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-new-forests-to-assist-monarch-butterfly-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-success-story-or-a-disaster">Success story or a disaster?</h2>



Elizabeth Crone is the study's author and a professor in UC Davis’ Department of Evolution and Ecology.



“Although in many ways monarchs seem to be doing just fine in cities, there are a lot of concerns that these non-migratory populations build up high levels of parasites, even to the point that some counties have outlawed planting the non-native evergreen milkweeds that monarch butterflies use in winter,” said Professor Crone.



“We were curious about whether the establishment of these resident populations was a conservation success story or a conservation disaster.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-surveys-in-cities">Monarch surveys in cities</h2>



To test the connection, Crone’s team walked fifteen three-mile routes across East Bay suburbs every month in 2022 and 2023. 



They recorded milkweed plants - native and non-native - in yards and roadsides, counted monarch eggs, caterpillars, and adults, and briefly netted butterflies to check for a debilitating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-monarch-butterflies-are-killed-by-parasites-yearly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protozoan parasite</a>.



Surveys showed milkweed abundant year-round, peaking in summer. Monarch butterfly activity matched an urban breeding cycle rather than seasonal migration.



Adults were most numerous in summer and scarcer in winter; heavily infected butterflies mirrored that pattern, with high parasite burdens in late summer and autumn but far fewer during the colder months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-overlap-with-migratory-monarchs"><a></a>Little overlap with migratory monarchs</h2>



"These resident monarchs in urban areas are almost unconnected from the migratory population, so helping resident monarchs likely doesn't help or hurt the migratory population,” said lead author Emily Erickson. She completed the work while a postdoctoral fellow in Crone’s lab.



Because the two groups show minimal exchange, local bans on tropical milkweed may be misplaced, the researchers argue.



“I think it's reasonable to focus on planting native milkweeds, but ripping out all of the milkweeds in urban gardens in the Bay Area or in Los Angeles does not need to be the immediate focus for monarch conservation," Erickson added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-help-all">Urban gardens help all</h2>



The study suggests resident monarchs bring other advantages. “Having people see monarch butterflies every day makes them want to invest in the conservation of butterflies, and in conservation in general,” Erickson said.



“And no matter what milkweed you're planting, native or non-native, it supports a lot of things beyond monarchs.”



Crone likewise noted that urban habitat can complement broader recovery strategies. “Some people believe that these resident populations are a major cause of monarch butterfly populations declining, but our research suggests it's a bit of a red herring,” she said.



“Our results highlight the potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-biodiversity-is-not-a-luxury-it-is-attainable-for-everyone/">urban ecosyst</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-biodiversity-is-not-a-luxury-it-is-attainable-for-everyone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-biodiversity-is-not-a-luxury-it-is-attainable-for-everyone/">ms</a> to contribute to the conservation of some species. In the West, resident monarchs can persist in urban gardens without impacting fluctuations in migratory monarchs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-joins-butterfly-research">Tech joins butterfly research</h2>



Funding for the project came from Google, which has supported monarch habitat initiatives since 2021. “We are really grateful to Google,” Crone said.



“It was a unique opportunity - it's the first time in my 28 years of being a professor that a corporation has reached out to us and said that they're interested in butterfly conservation and asked how they can help.”



While the Bay Area’s resident butterflies won’t by themselves rescue the declin­ing migratory population, they illustrate how adaptable some wildlife can be in city landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-and-migration">Urban gardens and migration</h2>



The authors emphasize that large-scale monarch recovery will still depend on restoring native milkweed and nectar sources across inland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a> grounds and coastal overwintering sites. Yet urban gardens can play a complementary role, sustaining local biodiversity and fostering public engagement.



Thus, while some people see tropical milkweed and resident monarchs as villains, data shows they’re not the cause of migratory decline.



Instead, they offer an unexpected bright spot: proof that cities, when planted thoughtfully, can support thriving butterfly populations. This happens without undermining the grand monarch migration scientists are working so hard to save.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70259" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosphere</a>. -----



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Why some monarch butterflies are skipping migration

Monarch butterflies are icons of long-distance migration, drifting each autumn from inland western states to sheltered groves on California’s coast. Yet some in the growing butterfly population now skip the journey, living and breeding year-round among neighborhood gardens. New research from the University of California, Davis has found that these "stay-at-home" monarch butterflies represent a largely self-contained group - neither helping nor harming their declining migratory cousins. Why some monarchs stay at home Historically, western monarchs spent spring and summer in places such as Arizona, Nevada, and...

A study from the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Plymouth</a> has revealed startling findings about the efficacy of chlorine disinfectants used in hospitals. Despite their widespread use for cleaning scrubs and surfaces, these disinfectants fail to kill Clostridioides difficile (C. diff), a major cause of antibiotic-associated sickness in healthcare settings.



The study was led by Dr. Tina Joshi, associate professor in Molecular Microbiology, and Humaira Ahmed, a fourth-year Medicine student. The team found that even high concentrations of bleach used in hospitals do not affect C. diff spores.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antimicrobial-resistance-nbsp">Antimicrobial resistance&nbsp;</h2>



The research indicates that using chlorine chemicals as a surface disinfectant is no more effective than using plain water. This revelation is particularly concerning given the rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-plastics-may-harbor-antimicrobial-resistance-genes/">antimicrobial resistance</a> (AMR) globally. The overuse of biocides, such as chlorine disinfectants, is contributing to this increase in AMR.&nbsp;



The study authors are calling for urgent research to identify alternative strategies to disinfect C. diff spores, emphasizing the need for disinfectants and guidelines that are effective against evolving bacterial threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-c-diff-spores-tolerate-disinfection-nbsp">C. diff spores tolerate disinfection&nbsp;</h2>



"With incidence of antimicrobial resistance on the rise, the threat posed by superbugs to human health is increasing. But far from demonstrating that our clinical environments are clean and safe for staff and patients, this study highlights the ability of C. diff spores to tolerate disinfection at in-use and recommended active chlorine concentrations," said Dr. Joshi.



"It shows we need disinfectants, and guidelines, that are fit for purpose and work in line with bacterial evolution, and the research should have significant impact on current disinfection protocols in the medical field globally.”



C. diff, a microbe causing diarrhea, colitis, and other bowel complications, infects millions annually worldwide. It is responsible for approximately 29,000 deaths each year in the USA and almost 8,500 in Europe. The incidence of C. diff infection was rising even before the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Prior research by Dr. Joshi and colleagues showed C. diff spores’ survival against recommended concentrations of sodium dichloroisocyanurate, used in liquid form and in personal protective fabrics like surgical gowns.&nbsp;



The new study took this further by testing the response of C. diff spores to different concentrations of sodium hypochlorite, a common ingredient in bleach. The spores were placed on surgical scrubs and patient gowns, with no significant morphological changes observed under scanning electron microscopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-remain-nbsp">Unanswered questions remain&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Joshi, a member of the Microbiology Society Council, emphasized the importance of understanding the interaction between these spores and disinfectants.&nbsp;



“Understanding how these spores and disinfectants interact is integral to practical management of C. diff infection and reducing the burden of infection in healthcare settings. However, there are still unanswered questions regarding the extent of biocide tolerance within C. diff and whether it is affected by antibiotic co-tolerance," said Dr. Joshi.



"With AMR increasing globally, the need to find those answers – both for C. diff and other superbugs – has never been more pressing.”



The research was published during World Antimicrobial Awareness Week in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/mic.0.001418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbiology</a>.



Video Credit: Microbiology Society



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Chlorine disinfectants used in hospitals are no more effective than water

A study from the University of Plymouth has revealed startling...

A nutrient found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/12-of-americans-are-responsible-for-over-half-of-all-u-s-beef-consumption/">beef</a> and dairy products enhances the immune system's response to cancer, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a>. The researchers identified trans-vaccenic acid (TVA), a long-chain fatty acid, as a key player in improving the effectiveness of CD8+ T cells in fighting cancer cells.



The study represents a major step forward in understanding the complex relationship between diet and health, particularly in the context of cancer treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-response-nbsp">Immune response&nbsp;</h2>



TVA is a long-chain fatty acid prevalent in meat and dairy from grazing animals like cows and sheep. The experts determined that TVA improves the infiltration and cancer cell-killing capabilities of CD8+ T cells, crucial players in the body's immune response.&nbsp;



The research revealed that patients with higher levels of TVA circulating in the blood responded better to immunotherapy, indicating this nutrient's potential as a dietary supplement to augment cancer treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-diet-and-health-nbsp">Link between diet and health&nbsp;</h2>



“There are many studies trying to decipher the link between diet and human health, and it’s very difficult to understand the underlying mechanisms because of the wide variety of foods people eat. But if we focus on just the nutrients and metabolites derived from food, we begin to see how they influence physiology and pathology,” said study senior author Dr. Jing Chen.



“By focusing on nutrients that can activate T cell responses, we found one that actually enhances anti-tumor immunity by activating an important immune pathway.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The study began with a comprehensive analysis of about 700 known metabolites derived from food. The researchers developed a “blood nutrient” compound library of 235 bioactive molecules from these metabolites.&nbsp;



This library was used to identify compounds that could activate anti-tumor immunity by stimulating CD8+ T cells, and TVA emerged as a top candidate.&nbsp;



While TVA is abundant in human milk, the body cannot produce it independently. Approximately 80% of ingested TVA remains in the blood, suggesting other significant roles for this nutrient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers discovered that TVA intake notably reduced tumor growth in mice and enhanced CD8+ T cells' tumor infiltration.&nbsp;



Advanced molecular and genetic analyses, including a novel technique called kethoxal-assisted single-stranded DNA sequencing (KAS-seq), revealed that TVA inactivates the GPR43 receptor, which is typically triggered by short-chain fatty acids from gut microbiota. This inactivation leads to the activation of the CREB pathway, vital for various cellular functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-treatment">Cancer treatment</h2>



The experts collaborated with other UChicago experts to examine TVA's effects on patients undergoing CAR-T cell immunotherapy for lymphoma and leukemia cell lines.&nbsp;



Patients with higher TVA levels responded more favorably to treatment, and TVA also enhanced the efficacy of an immunotherapy drug against leukemia cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



Despite the health risks associated with excessive red meat and dairy consumption, this study suggests that TVA supplements could promote T cell activity in cancer treatments.&nbsp;



Dr. Chen noted that it is important to determine the optimized amount of the nutrient itself, not the food source.



“There is early data showing that other fatty acids from plants signal through a similar receptor, so we believe there is a high possibility that nutrients from plants can do the same thing by activating the CREB pathway as well,” said Dr. Chen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metabolites-nbsp">Metabolites&nbsp;</h2>



The study underscores the potential of a metabolomic approach in understanding how dietary components affect health.&nbsp;



Dr. Chen said his team hopes to build a comprehensive library of nutrients circulating in the blood to understand their impact on immunity and other biological processes like aging.



“After millions of years of evolution, there are only a couple hundred metabolites derived from food that end up circulating in the blood, so that means they could have some importance in our biology,” said Dr. Chen.&nbsp;



“To see that a single nutrient like TVA has a very targeted mechanism on a targeted immune cell type, with a very profound physiological response at the whole organism level - I find that really amazing and intriguing.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06749-3">Nature</a>.



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Beef and dairy contain a powerful cancer-fighting nutrient

A nutrient found in beef and dairy products enhances the...

White,Summer,Daisies,Reaching,Towards,Blue,Sky

In a remarkable fusion of biology and engineering, the team led by Prof Christian Fankhauser at the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lausanne</a> (UNIL), in collaboration with <a href="https://www.epfl.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPFL</a>, has made a significant breakthrough in understanding how plants perceive light. 



This study reveals how plants, devoid of visual organs, determine the source of light using the unique optical properties at the air-water interface within their tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phototropism-in-plants">Phototropism in plants</h2>



Phototropism, the orientation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-talk-to-plants-using-light-based-messaging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> towards light, is a critical phenomenon for their survival. As Prof Fankhauser explains, "The majority of living organisms (micro-organisms, plants and animals) have the ability to determine the origin of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-why-plants-have-a-burst-of-activity-at-dawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light source</a>, even in the absence of a sight organ comparable to the eye." 



This ability is crucial for plants to optimally position their organs for maximum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-affects-seasonal-rhythms-of-plants-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunlight exposure</a>, facilitating efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, the process by which they convert light energy into chemical energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-detection-mechanism">Light detection mechanism</h2>



The key to this discovery was the observation of a mutant variety of Arabidopsis thaliana, a model plant species, with a uniquely transparent stem. Prof Fankhauser's team, in conjunction with DrSc. Andreas Schüler and the UNIL's Electron Microscopy Centre, found that the normal, milky appearance of plant stems is due to air-filled channels in their tissues. 



In contrast, the mutant plants had these channels filled with water, giving them a translucent appearance. These channels, it turns out, are crucial for establishing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-control-plants-using-nothing-but-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light gradient</a> within the plant, a mechanism previously unknown.



Martina Legris, a postdoctoral fellow in Prof Fankhauser's group, sheds light on the underlying science. She clarifies, “More specifically, air and water have different refractive indices. This leads to light scattering as it passes through the seedling." 



This scattering of light, akin to the formation of rainbows, enables the plant to 'read' the light gradient and determine the light source's direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-phototropism">Broader implications of phototropism</h2>



This fascinating research elucidates a novel mechanism for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-and-temperature-collaborate-to-boost-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light perception</a> in plants, and also provides insights into the formation and functions of air-filled intercellular channels. These channels are known to aid in gas exchange and offer resistance to hypoxia during flooding. 



Understanding their development from embryonic stages to adulthood remains an area ripe for exploration. The genetic resources utilized in this study promise to further our understanding of these intricate structures.



In summary, the collaborative efforts of UNIL and EPFL have unveiled a fascinating aspect of plant biology, opening new avenues in our understanding of plant physiology and their interaction with the environment. This study not only enriches our scientific knowledge but also underscores the importance of interdisciplinary research in unraveling the complexities of nature.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh9384" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How plants know where to find the light

In a remarkable fusion of biology and engineering, the team...

Sunspot,Explosions,Sending,Extreme,Uv,Radiation,To,Earth,3d,Animation

The latest images from NASA, revealing a large cluster of sunspots on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sun’s surface</a>, illustrate fascinating aspects of our nearest star. These sunspots, appearing as small, pepper-like dots, are actually cooler areas on the sun's surface, resulting from dramatic shifts in its magnetic field. 



Captured by NASA’s <a href="https://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/">Solar Dynamics Observatory</a>, which has been observing the sun for over a decade, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/sun_sunspots_archipelago_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots form an "archipelago’"</a> that spans more than 15 Earths in width, roughly 120,000 miles across.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-storms-and-sunspots">Solar storms and sunspots</h2>



These sunspots are significant not just for their size but also for their potential to unleash powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canyon-of-fire-solar-eruption-extended-more-than-60000-miles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar storms</a> towards Earth. Such storms can cause geomagnetic disturbances, posing risks to power grids, satellites, and other technologies reliant on Earth’s magnetic field. 



Sunspots are cooler and darker compared to the surrounding areas on the sun’s surface, with temperatures still reaching a scorching 6,500°F. They are closely associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar flares</a> and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), immense energy explosions that contribute to solar storms.



When these solar flares and CMEs occur, they eject enormous clouds of charged gas into space, sometimes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-ever-solar-storm-discovered-through-tree-rings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">directly toward Earth</a>, traveling at incredible speeds. These events can disrupt various technological systems on Earth, including power grids, communications, GPS navigation, and air travel. However, they are also responsible for the creation of beautiful auroras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vibrational-patterns-nbsp">Vibrational patterns&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.spaceweather.com/">Space Weather</a>, which monitors solar and Earth interactions, had anticipated the emergence of this sunspot group even before its capture by the Solar Dynamics Observatory. The size of the sunspot cluster is so immense that it influences the sun’s vibrational patterns.&nbsp;



Helioseismologists, using these vibrations, detected the sunspot group while it was still on the sun’s far side, with parts of the group yet to fully emerge into view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-sunspots-on-the-earth">Impact of sunspots on the Earth</h2>



According to earthsky.org, there is potential for Earth-directed M and X solar flares in the coming days. M flares can cause brief radio blackouts in the polar regions and minor radiation storms, while X flares are capable of triggering extensive radio blackouts and long-lasting radiation storms.&nbsp;



Chris Wicklund, a meteorologist, noted that these sunspots have been actively flaring, suggesting that the upcoming weeks could be significant as the solar particles reach Earth. According to him, this sunspot region is one of the largest observed in the current solar cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunspots-and-the-solar-cycle">Sunspots and the solar cycle</h2>



The solar cycle, approximately 11 years in duration, involves a complete reversal of the sun’s magnetic field, leading to a switch in its north and south poles. The ongoing solar cycle, numbered 25, started in 2019 and is expected to last until around 2030.&nbsp;



The sun’s activity, including the prevalence of sunspots, varies within this cycle, starting with the solar minimum, characterized by fewer sunspots, and gradually moving towards a solar maximum with increased solar activity.&nbsp;



Despite the relative tranquility of the solar minimum, this period can still produce solar storms due to solar flares, which occur when energy stored in the sun’s ‘twisted’ magnetic fields is suddenly released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-sunspots">More about sunspots</h2>



Sunspots are fascinating solar phenomena that have intrigued scientists and astronomers for centuries. Essentially, they are darker, cooler areas on the sun's surface, known as the photosphere. These spots, appearing as temporary blemishes, contrast sharply with the surrounding areas due to their reduced temperature.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-and-characteristics">Formation and characteristics</h3>



Cause of sunspots -- Sunspots form due to the sun's intense magnetic activity. The sun's magnetic field lines can become twisted and tangled, and when these lines become concentrated in a small area, they inhibit the flow of heat from the sun's interior to its surface. This results in cooler, darker regions that we see as sunspots.



Appearance and size - Typically, sunspots appear darker than their surrounding areas because they are thousands of degrees cooler. They vary greatly in size, with some being as small as Earth, while others can grow to be many times larger.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sunspot-cycle">The sunspot cycle</h3>



Predictable pattern -- Sunspots follow an 11-year cycle, known as the solar cycle. During the solar maximum, sunspots are numerous, and during the solar minimum, they are rare. This cycle plays a crucial role in solar radiation and is a significant aspect of solar studies.



Impact on Earth -- Sunspots can influence Earth in various ways. During periods of high sunspot activity, solar flares and coronal mass ejections are more frequent, potentially impacting satellite operations, communication systems, and power grids on Earth.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-sunspots">Observing sunspots</h3>



Safe observation techniques -- Observing sunspots requires special techniques as looking directly at the sun can cause severe eye damage. Using a properly filtered telescope or a projection method is safe and effective for sunspot observation.



Historical observations -- Historical records of sunspot observations date back to ancient times, but the scientific study began in earnest with Galileo's telescopic observations in the early 17th century. These observations have contributed significantly to our understanding of the sun's behavior.



In summary, studying sunspots is crucial for understanding the sun's magnetic field and its effects on solar radiation. This knowledge is vital for predicting space weather and understanding the broader impact on Earth's environment and human technology. 



As our observation techniques improve, our comprehension of these mesmerizing solar features continues to grow, unveiling new insights into our closest star.



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Sunspots larger than 15 Earths may soon unleash powerful solar storms

The latest images from NASA, revealing a large cluster of...

In a groundbreaking discovery, <a href="https://onlinelearning.hms.harvard.edu/hmx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a> (HMS) scientists have revealed that Staphylococcus aureus, a common skin bacterium, can directly cause itch by acting on nerve cells. 



This new understanding, reported in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>, unravels a piece of the complex puzzle of itch and explains the persistent itching associated with skin conditions like eczema and atopic dermatitis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-chain-reaction">Molecular chain reaction</h2>



These conditions often disrupt the skin’s microbial balance, leading to an overgrowth of S. aureus. Previously, it was believed that the accompanying skin inflammation was the primary cause of itch in these cases. However, this new research demonstrates that S. aureus alone can trigger itch through a specific molecular chain reaction, culminating in the urge to scratch.



“We’ve identified an entirely novel mechanism behind itch - the bacterium Staph aureus, which is found on almost every patient with the chronic condition atopic dermatitis. We show that itch can be caused by the microbe itself,” said senior author Isaac Chiu, an associate professor of Immunology at the Blavatnik Institute at HMS.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-persistent-itch-nbsp">Managing persistent itch&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers found that S. aureus releases a chemical that activates a protein on nerve fibers that transmit signals from the skin to the brain. When mice were treated with an FDA-approved anti-clotting medicine that blocks the activation of this protein, there was a significant interruption in the itch-scratch cycle, providing symptom relief.



This discovery paves the way for the development of new oral and topical treatments to manage persistent itch in various conditions linked to skin microbiome imbalances, such as atopic dermatitis, prurigo nodularis, and psoriasis. The repetitive scratching characteristic of these conditions can lead to skin damage and heightened inflammation.



“Itch can be quite debilitating in patients who suffer from chronic skin conditions. Many of these patients carry on their skin the very microbe we’ve now shown for the first time can induce itch,” said study first author Liwen Deng, a postdoctoral research fellow in the Chiu Lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers’ experiments involved exposing mice to S. aureus, leading to increasing itch intensity and worsening skin damage due to repetitive scratching.&nbsp;



The mice also developed alloknesis, becoming hypersensitive to normally non-itch-inducing stimuli. This hyperactive response mirrors the condition in patients with chronic skin ailments characterized by persistent itching.



To identify the bacterial trigger, the team experimented with various modified strains of S. aureus, each lacking specific molecular components. They discovered that the bacterial enzyme protease V8 was solely responsible for initiating itch in the mice. Human skin samples from patients with atopic dermatitis also showed elevated levels of S. aureus and the V8 enzyme.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



The study demonstrates that V8 triggers itch by activating a protein called PAR1 on skin neurons, which are responsible for relaying various signals, including itch, from the skin to the brain. The experiments further revealed that, once activated, PAR1 initiates a signal that the brain perceives as itch. This response was also observed in human neurons in lab experiments.



Intriguingly, the researchers found that various immune cells and inflammatory chemicals, typically implicated in skin allergies and known to cause itch, did not drive it after bacterial exposure.



“When we started the study, it was unclear whether the itch was a result of inflammation or not,” Deng said. “We show that these things can be decoupled, that you don’t necessarily have to have inflammation for the microbe to cause itch, but that the itch exacerbates inflammation on the skin.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, the researchers explored the potential of using PAR1 blockers. Mice treated with these blockers experienced a rapid improvement, with a notable decrease in their urge to scratch and subsequent skin damage.



Overall, these findings highlight a novel mechanism for itch and offer potential pathways for the development of new treatments targeting the skin microbiome. 



The research underlines the importance of further exploring the molecular interactions between skin microbes and the nervous system to advance our understanding and management of itch in various skin conditions.



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Common microbe found to be the culprit behind skin itch

In a groundbreaking discovery, Harvard Medical School (HMS) scientists have...

A forest modeling study has revealed important insights into how harvest rotations can be optimized for maximum carbon sequestration, a critical factor in the fight against climate change.&nbsp;



The study was led by Catherine Carlisle as a graduate student, alongside Temesgen Hailemariam and Stephen Fitzgerald from the <a href="https://www.forestry.oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSU College of Forestry</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



The researchers determined that a site's productivity, reflecting the rate of tree growth and biomass accumulation, is a key determinant in establishing the ideal time period between timber harvests for maximizing above-ground carbon storage.&nbsp;



This finding is particularly relevant for forest managers in the Pacific Northwest, who are looking to balance timber harvesting with carbon sequestration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northwest-forests-nbsp">Northwest forests&nbsp;</h2>



Trees play a vital role in climate change mitigation by absorbing carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. The researchers noted that the carbon stored in the woody biomass of U.S. forests offsets about 13% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;



The forests in the Northwest, covering nearly 25 million acres, are among the most productive globally. Specifically, the Oregon Coast Range forests stand out due to their high biomass and carbon densities, fostered by the region's favorable growing conditions.



“Whether short or long harvest rotations are better for maximizing carbon sequestration has been the subject of considerable debate,” said Carlisle. “Future management decisions will need to strive to meet harvest requirements while also striving to maintain high rates of carbon sequestration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The team used the McDonald-Dunn Research Forest, an 11,000-acre woodland managed by the College of Forestry, as the area for modeling. This forest, home to the Douglas-fir, Oregon's state tree, was chosen due to its varied productivity levels. The study was focused on over 300 stands.



The researchers utilized the Forest Vegetation Simulator, a software suite, to predict vegetation changes in response to different management activities or natural disturbances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-settling-the-debate">Settling the debate</h2>



“Some forest scientists have argued that multiple but shorter rotations lead to greater sequestration rates because of the accelerated growth rates of younger trees compared to mature or old-growth trees,” said Carlisle, who is now a forest carbon analyst at Finite Carbon.&nbsp;



“Others say frequent harvesting won’t allow forest carbon to rebound after each subsequent rotation, and thus longer periods between clearcutting are a better choice. And depending on who you ask, thinning will either enhance forest carbon uptake by facilitating growth in residual trees, or hurt it by removing above-ground biomass.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned-nbsp">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that for highly productive stands, 60-year rotations with a low-intensity thinning at 40 years maximized carbon storage.&nbsp;



By contrast, less productive sites showed optimal carbon storage with longer rotations of 80 or 120 years, requiring multiple thinning entries to manage understory vegetation and promote Douglas-fir growth.



“On these longer rotations, multiple entries for thinning were required to prevent buildup of understory vegetation that would have suppressed the growth of overstory Douglas-fir,” Carlisle said.



Moderately productive stands were found to perform the best with 80-year rotations and two low-intensity thinning treatments between harvests, she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



“Forest management decisions in the Northwest in the future will aim to meet harvest requirements while maintaining high sequestration potential of the region’s forests,” said Carlisle.&nbsp;



“Management techniques like determining the optimal rotation length and implementing silvicultural treatments can be powerful tools that can allow managers to meet both objectives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-modeling-nbsp">Forest modeling&nbsp;</h2>



Forest modeling is a sophisticated scientific method used to understand and predict the growth, structure, and behavior of forest ecosystems.&nbsp;



It involves creating computer-based representations or simulations of forests, which help in assessing various aspects such as tree growth, biomass accumulation, carbon sequestration, and the impact of environmental factors and human activities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data">Data</h3>



In forest modeling, data from real forests is used to create models that simulate the processes occurring within a forest. These models can be quite complex, incorporating various elements like tree species, soil type, climate conditions, and management practices.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictions-nbsp">Predictions&nbsp;</h3>



By adjusting the parameters within the models, scientists can predict how forests will respond to different scenarios, such as climate change, natural disturbances like wildfires or pests, and different forest management strategies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



One of the key uses of forest modeling is in the field of forest management and conservation. By simulating different management scenarios, such as varying the timing and intensity of timber harvests or the implementation of conservation practices, forest managers can predict the outcomes and make informed decisions that balance economic needs with ecological sustainability.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dynamics-nbsp">Carbon dynamics&nbsp;</h3>



Forest models are also crucial in studying carbon dynamics in forests. With growing concerns over climate change, understanding how forests sequester carbon and how different management practices or disturbances can affect this process is vital.&nbsp;



Models can predict how much carbon a forest can store under various conditions, helping in the development of strategies to maximize carbon sequestration and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-dynamics-nbsp">Ecological dynamics&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, forest modeling is used in research to understand the ecological dynamics of forests. It helps in studying the interactions between different species, the impact of invasive species, and the effects of environmental changes on forest health and biodiversity.



Overall, forest modeling is a powerful tool that provides insights into the functioning of forest ecosystems, supporting efforts in sustainable forest management, conservation, and climate change mitigation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f14102090" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forests</a>.



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Forest modeling study reveals new insights into carbon sequestration

A forest modeling study has revealed important insights into how...

On November 17, 2023, Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/">global temperature</a> exceeded 2 degrees Celsius (2°C) above pre-industrial levels for the first time.&nbsp;



This critical environmental milestone was reported in ERA5, the fifth reanalysis of the global climate by <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ECMWF</a>, implemented as part of the Copernicus Climate Change Service.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shocking-temperature-records">Shocking temperature records</h2>



The ERA5 data, which covers the period from 1940 to the present, indicated that on November 17, the global surface air temperature was 2.07°C higher than the pre-industrial average, a benchmark period from 1850-1900 before the widespread use of fossil fuels.&nbsp;



Additionally, provisional data for November 18 showed a temperature anomaly of 2.06°C above the pre-industrial level.



This alarming development, released just before the commencement of the 28th Conference of the Parties (COP28) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Dubai, brings the issue of climate change into sharp focus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-time-for-action-is-now">The time for action is now</h2>



“The ERA5 record now contains two days where global temperatures exceed the pre-industrial level by more than 2°C," said <a href="https://climate.copernicus.eu/">Copernicus Climate Change Service</a> (C3S) Director Carlo Buontempo.



"That this should happen in the same month that world leaders will gather to take stock of progress towards meeting Paris Agreement commitments at COP28 sends a very clear message - the time for definitive action to tackle climate change is now."



“While exceeding the 2°C threshold for a number of days does not mean that we have breached the Paris Agreement targets, the more often that we exceed this threshold, the more serious the cumulative effects of these breaches will become."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hottest-november-ever">Hottest November ever</h2>



The ERA5 data also revealed that the global surface air temperature on November 17 was 1.17°C above the average for the 1991-2020 reference period, suggesting that November 2023 is on track to be the warmest November recorded.



The ERA5 data are part of the ERA5T dataset, which provides preliminary climate data with a delay of up to five days. These data will undergo verification and will be included in the final ERA5 dataset after the standard 2-3 month quality control period.



The report underscores the urgent need for comprehensive and decisive action to address climate change, a critical topic for discussion at the upcoming COP28.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-the-2-c-limit-so-important-nbsp">Why is the 2°C limit so important?&nbsp;</h2>



The 2 degrees Celsius temperature limit is a crucial benchmark in climate change discussions for several reasons:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-basis-nbsp">Scientific basis&nbsp;</h3>



This limit is based on extensive scientific research suggesting that keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius significantly reduces the risks and impacts of climate change.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact">Environmental impact</h3>



Beyond the 2°C threshold, the likelihood of severe, pervasive, and irreversible impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity increases dramatically.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-rise">Sea level rise</h3>



A temperature rise above 2 degrees could lead to more significant sea level rise, affecting low-lying areas and island nations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-weather-events-nbsp">Extreme weather events&nbsp;</h2>



Higher temperatures are associated with more extreme weather events like heatwaves, droughts, floods, and hurricanes, which have devastating effects on human life, agriculture, and infrastructure.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-water-security">Food and water security</h3>



Exceeding the 2 degrees limit could jeopardize food and water security for millions of people, as it affects crop yields and water availability.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-and-economic-impacts">Social and economic impacts</h3>



These environmental changes could lead to significant social and economic disruptions, including increased poverty, migration, and conflict.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tipping-points">Tipping points</h3>



There is a risk of crossing critical thresholds or "tipping points" in the Earth's system, like the melting of polar ice caps and permafrost, which could lead to a cascade of further changes and make it more difficult to control future warming.



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Earth's global temperature exceeded 2°C for the first time

On November 17, 2023, Earth's global temperature exceeded 2 degrees...

Recent advancements and investments from tech giants like Jeff Bezos and Sam Altman have brought the possibility of significantly extending human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anti-aging-molecule-extends-lifespan-by-improving-cellular-health/">lifespans </a>closer than ever. However, this age-old pursuit of immortality is not without its detractors and ethical considerations.&nbsp;



For instance, Dr. Stephen Cave, a philosopher at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, has recently raised concerns about the impact of significantly prolonging human lifespans on the planet’s resources and societal structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-the-aging-process-nbsp">Reversing the aging process&nbsp;</h2>



For centuries, the aspiration for eternal life has captivated humanity, leading to significant investment in anti-aging research.&nbsp;



Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon, has invested in <a href="https://altoslabs.com/">Altos Labs</a>, a company focused on cell reprogramming technology to reverse the aging process. This endeavor, alongside other investments in similar fields, points to a potential new era of extended human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catastrophic-outcomes-nbsp">Catastrophic outcomes&nbsp;</h2>



However, Dr. Stephen Cave, who co-authored a book titled <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Should-You-Choose-to-Live-Forever-A-Debate/Cave-Fischer/p/book/9780367615406">Should You Choose to Live Forever? </a>with John Martin Fischer, expresses skepticism about the wisdom of such pursuits.&nbsp;



Dr. Cave suggests that attempts to radically lengthen lifespans could overburden Earth’s resources and potentially lead to catastrophic outcomes. His concerns highlight the complex ethical and environmental implications of life-extension technologies.



“If you think the planet is already at its carrying capacity for humans, or has maybe exceeded it – if you look at the destruction of biodiversity and habitat loss and climate change and so on – then obviously this could be absolutely catastrophic,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extending-the-human-lifespan-nbsp">Extending the human lifespan&nbsp;</h2>



Similarly, advancements in anti-aging therapies are also being explored in the scientific community. For example, Harvard scientists have developed an experimental therapy that rejuvenated cells in mice, potentially paving the way for anti-aging treatments in humans.&nbsp;



The therapy could help humans become biologically younger and more resilient against diseases. However, the practical and ethical implications of such research are still a matter of debate too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



Thus, while the pursuit of anti-aging and extended lifespans opens up new possibilities for human health and longevity, it also raises significant ethical, environmental, and societal questions. As we advance in this field, it becomes crucial to consider the broader implications of such technologies on our planet and future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anti-aging-research">Anti-aging research</h2>



Anti-aging research encompasses a diverse range of scientific studies aimed at understanding and potentially reversing or slowing the aging process.&nbsp;



This field delves into the biological mechanisms of aging, exploring factors like cellular senescence, where cells lose their ability to divide, and telomere shortening, which is linked to cellular aging.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics">Genetics</h3>



One significant area of study is the role of genetics in aging. Researchers are examining how certain genes influence longevity and how genetic modifications could potentially extend the human lifespan.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-factors">Lifestyle factors</h3>



Another focus is on the impact of lifestyle factors, such as diet and exercise, on aging. Caloric restriction, for instance, has been shown in some studies to extend the lifespan of certain organisms.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drugs">Drugs</h3>



There's also considerable interest in the development of drugs that can mimic the effects of caloric restriction without requiring changes to diet. Metformin, a drug used in diabetes treatment, is one example currently being studied for its potential anti-aging effects.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regenerative-medicine-nbsp">Regenerative medicine&nbsp;</h3>



Moreover, the field is exploring regenerative medicine, including the use of stem cells, to repair or replace aged tissues. Advances in biotechnology have opened new possibilities in this area, aiming to rejuvenate the body at a cellular level.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiome-nbsp">Microbiome&nbsp;</h3>



The microbiome, the collection of microorganisms living in and on our bodies, is another area of interest. There's increasing evidence that the microbiome changes with age and may influence aging-related processes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-lifespan">Healthier lifespan</h3>



Research in this field is not just about extending lifespan but also about extending healthspan – the period of life spent in good health. The ultimate goal is to reduce the period of morbidity and frailty that often comes with old age, thus improving the quality of life for older individuals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges">Challenges</h3>



While anti-aging research holds promise, it's important to note that it's a complex field with many challenges. Much of the research is still in the early stages, and what works in model organisms like mice or yeast doesn't always translate to humans.&nbsp;



Ethical considerations also play a significant role in this research area, particularly when it comes to potential treatments and interventions.



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Extended human lifespans could be 'catastrophic' for our planet

Recent advancements and investments from tech giants like Jeff Bezos...

Striped,Skunk,(mephitis,Mephitis),Turns,Left,Tail,Up,Autumn,-

New research has shed light on the coloration of striped skunks. The study reveals that the iconic black and white stripe markings of skunks are less prevalent in areas with fewer mammalian predators.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-skunk-dna-helps-identify-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Skunks</a> are widely recognized for their distinct black and white coloration, which acts as a warning signal for their toxic anal spray. Interestingly, there is considerable variation in their fur color across the North American continent, ranging from all-black to various patterns of black and white stripes and even all-white individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iconic-skunk-stripes">Iconic skunk stripes</h2>



The study's findings point towards "relaxed selection" as a key factor in this variation. Relaxed selection occurs when environmental changes reduce the need for a certain trait, in this case, the skunks' black and white pelage.



<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Tim-Caro-d795dfe6-b3f7-4d2f-9d6c-506da26408f2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Tim Caro</a> from the University of Bristol's <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a> explains, “Warning coloration is an antipredator defense... Yet some warningly colored prey show rather different advertisements even within the same species.”



Researcher Hannah Walker from the <a href="https://www.umt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montana</a> documented the distribution of skunk pelage colors across North America using museum specimens and analyzed various environmental variables. 



The study found that in areas with fewer mammalian predators, there was greater variation in fur color. This occurred even within the same litter. Conversely, in regions with a higher predator presence, skunks displayed less color variation.



Interestingly, the study also examined the role of birds of prey, such as owls and raptors. While these predators influenced skunk coloration, the effect was less pronounced, possibly due to their inferior sense of smell and lower deterrence by the skunks' smell-based defenses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skunk-stripes-and-future-implications">Skunk stripes and future implications</h2>



“Our results indicate that relaxed predation pressure is key to warning signal variation in this species, whereas stronger pressure leads to signal conformity and stronger signals,” Professor Caro stated. This study not only explains the color variation in skunks but also opens doors to understanding coloration evolution in other species.



The research team plans to extend their study to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/the-science-behind-the-smell-of-a-skunk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skunk</a> species in North America to see if similar patterns of relaxed selection and color variation are evident. Prof Caro adds, “If relaxed selection operates within species, it should do so across prey species too. More broadly, this study provides another brick in the wall of explaining the evolution of coloration in nature.”



In summary, this study is a significant step in understanding how environmental factors influence the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-warning-coloration-evolve-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warning signals in animals</a>. It highlights the complex interplay between predation pressure and physical traits like coloration, offering valuable insights into the adaptive strategies of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-skunks">More about skunks</h2>



Skunks, members of the Mephitidae family, stand out in the animal kingdom for their distinctive appearance and notorious defense mechanism. These small to medium-sized mammals are native to the Americas and are most famous for their ability to spray a foul-smelling liquid as a form of self-defense.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skunks-stripes-and-features">Skunks' stripes and features</h3>



As mentioned previously, skunks typically feature a striking black and white coat, which varies greatly in pattern among species. Their fur serves as a warning to potential predators of their defensive capabilities. They have relatively short, stocky legs and elongated bodies, with a prominent, fluffy tail that they often use to communicate through specific postures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



Skunks inhabit a diverse range of environments, from urban areas to remote woodlands. They are adaptable creatures, thriving in habitats that provide adequate food sources and shelter. 



The most common species, the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), is widespread across North America, while other species have more limited ranges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skunk-diet-and-foraging">Skunk diet and foraging</h3>



Skunks are omnivorous, feeding on a varied diet that includes insects, small mammals, fruits, and plants. They are particularly beneficial for controlling insect and rodent populations. Skunks are known for their excellent digging ability, which aids in their search for grubs and larvae.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifecycle">Reproduction and lifecycle</h3>



Skunks typically mate in early spring, with females giving birth to a litter of four to seven kits after a gestation period of about two months. The young are born blind and defenseless, relying entirely on their mother for care. They develop the ability to spray at a very young age, usually within several weeks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skunk-defense-mechanism">Skunk defense mechanism</h3>



The skunk's most notable feature is its powerful defense mechanism. Skunks possess specialized anal scent glands that can spray a potent and pungent liquid up to several feet. This spray is an effective deterrent against predators, causing irritation and temporary blindness.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-interaction-and-conservation">Human interaction and conservation</h3>



Skunks often interact with humans, particularly in urban and suburban areas. While generally non-aggressive, they can become nuisances when they forage in gardens or become trapped in human structures. Conservation efforts for skunks mainly focus on habitat preservation and managing human-skunk conflicts.



In summary, skunks are fascinating creatures, playing an important role in their ecosystems. Their unique defense mechanism, distinctive appearance, and adaptable nature make them a notable subject in the study of wildlife behavior and conservation. Understanding skunks better helps us appreciate the diversity and complexity of the animal kingdom.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/evolut/article/77/11/2492/7268823" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a>.



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Skunks' stripes have different patterns depending on where they live

New research has shed light on the coloration of striped...

Coastal river deltas are under an enormous amount of strain and the dangers they face extend beyond climate change, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> and Utrecht University.&nbsp;



The researchers have identified the pressures that pose the biggest threats by analyzing possible future development across 49 coastal river deltas worldwide.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ineffective-governance-nbsp">Ineffective governance&nbsp;</h2>



The results suggest that poor environmental governance is the biggest threat to the sustainability of deltas. This is particularly the case in Africa and Asia.



Study lead author Murray Scown is an associate senior lecturer at the Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies.



“We can clearly show that many risks are not linked to climate," said Scown. "While climate change is a global problem, other important risk factors like land subsidence, population density and ineffective governance are local problems."&nbsp;



"Risks to deltas will only increase over time, so now is the time for governments to take action."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-sustainable-development">Global sustainable development</h2>



Home to more than half a billion people, coastal river deltas support agriculture, fisheries, cities, and unique ecosystems.&nbsp;



"Deltas play a critical role in the ambition to achieve global sustainable development given their relatively large shares in population and productive croplands, as well as their precarious low-lying position between upstream river basin development and rising seas," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-rise-nbsp">Sea-level rise&nbsp;</h2>



The experts noted that the low elevation of deltas means that they are highly exposed to risks from relative sea-level rise, flooding, and salinization.&nbsp;



"As a result of these risks and further urbanization, ecosystems in deltas are increasingly degraded or lost," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-future">Uncertain future</h2>



The loss of delta environments could have major consequences. Despite the importance of deltas for sustainable development, the future of deltas around the globe remain highly uncertain and unexplored, the researchers noted.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The team analyzed five different IPCC scenarios for global development in deltas all over the world to predict possible risks throughout the rest of the century. The study was focused on 13 primary risk factors.&nbsp;



The experts studied famous deltas such as the Nile and the Mississippi, but also included deltas that are less well-known such as the Volta and Zambezi deltas.&nbsp;



"The 49 deltas analyzed for this research include the most populated and largest coastal deltas in the world, as well as a range of smaller and less populated deltas to provide a representative sample of the world’s deltas across climates, biomes, and socio-economic development states," wrote the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights">Critical insights</h2>



The analysis revealed that, under all five scenarios, the biggest threats to coastal river deltas are population density, land subsidence, sea-level rise, crop land use, and ineffective governance.



Land subsidence was found to be the greatest risk factor for the Mekong delta in Vietnam, while extreme sea levels are among the most concerning risk factors for deltas in China and several other parts of the world.&nbsp;



Under certain scenarios, population density was the biggest future threat for the Nile, Niger, and the Ganges deltas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potentially-devastating-consequences-nbsp">Potentially devastating consequences&nbsp;</h2>



“Analyzed all together, we can see that the Asian mega-deltas are at greatest risk, with potentially devastating consequences for millions of people, and for the environment," said Scown.&nbsp;



"They are under pressure from population growth, intense agricultural land use, relative sea-level rise, and lagging adaptation readiness."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-is-needed">Urgent action is needed</h2>



Study co-author Philip Minderhoud, assistant professor at Wageningen University and Research, said that instead of sitting back, governments need to think long-term, and put plans in place to reduce or mitigate risks.&nbsp;



"In the Mekong delta, for example, the Vietnamese government are making strong efforts to restrict future groundwater extraction in the delta to reduce land subsidence and salinization," said Minderhoud.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102736" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Environmental Change</a>.



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Coastal river deltas face major threats beyond climate change 

Coastal river deltas are under an enormous amount of strain...

A very intriguing study has unveiled a new aspect of bacterial behavior, revealing that bacteria possess the ability to create "memories" that influence their strategies, including resistance to antibiotics and the formation of bacterial swarms. 



This discovery opens new pathways for combating dangerous infections and addressing the growing concern of antibiotic-resistant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-have-been-found-in-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-of-bacteria-memories">Nature of bacteria memories</h2>



Contrary to what one might expect, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-can-break-down-pet-pollution-in-ocean-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> memories are not akin to human experiences, such as recalling a childhood birthday party. Instead, they are more comparable to information storage in computers. 



Researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas at Austin</a> have found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-can-jump-between-healthy-pets-and-owners/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E. coli bacteria</a> use iron levels as a mechanism to store information about their environment and behaviors. This information can then be activated in response to specific stimuli and passed down to subsequent generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iron-the-key-element">Iron: The key element</h2>



"Iron, one of the most abundant elements on Earth, plays a crucial role in this process," explained Souvik Bhattacharyya, the lead author and a provost early career fellow in the <a href="https://molecularbiosci.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Molecular Biosciences</a> at UT. He noted that variations in iron levels within bacterial cells correlate with different bacterial behaviors. 



For instance, bacteria with lower iron levels exhibited enhanced swarming abilities, while those forming biofilms -- dense, sticky mats on surfaces -- showed higher iron levels. Interestingly, these "iron memories" persist for up to four generations and fade by the seventh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-for-bacteria-memories">Applications for bacteria memories</h2>



This discovery is not just a mere scientific curiosity but has significant implications for medical and environmental applications. 



"Iron levels are definitely a target for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intestinal-bacteria-could-help-you-live-a-very-long-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapeutics</a> because iron is an important factor in virulence," said Bhattacharyya. 



Understanding and manipulating these iron-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/how-do-bacteria-reproduce/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> memories could lead to innovative strategies to prevent and combat bacterial infections, especially those involving antibiotic-resistant strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iron-in-bacterial-behavior">Iron in bacterial behavior</h2>



Reflecting on the evolutionary context, Bhattacharyya remarked, "Before there was oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere, early cellular life was utilizing iron for a lot of cellular processes. Iron is not only critical in the origin of life on Earth, but also in the evolution of life." 



This deep connection between iron and life forms highlights the fundamental nature of this discovery in understanding both bacterial behavior and the broader context of life on Earth.



In summary, the University of Texas at Austin's research marks a significant advancement in our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-plastics-may-harbor-antimicrobial-resistance-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial behavior</a> and opens up new avenues for addressing some of the most pressing health challenges of our time. 



By unraveling the mysteries of bacteria memories and their relationship with iron, scientists pave the way for novel approaches in the fight against bacterial infections and antibiotic resistance.



The findings are published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2309082120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Bacteria form ‘memories’ and pass them on to future generations

A very intriguing study has unveiled a new aspect of...

Babies as young as four months old exhibit signs of self-awareness, according to an innovative study from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>.&nbsp;



The research reveals new details about how infants interact with the space around them and develop self-awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The study was carried out in the Birmingham BabyLab, where experts presented babies with a visual stimulus: a ball on a screen moving towards or away from them.&nbsp;



When the ball appeared closest on the screen, a small vibration was given to the babies' hands, simulating a "touch," while their brain activity was closely monitored. This critical data collection took place at Goldsmiths, University of London.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peripersonal-space">Peripersonal space</h2>



“Our findings indicate that even in the first few months of life, before babies have even learned to reach for objects, the multisensory brain is wired up to make links between what babies see and what they feel. This means they can sense the space around them and understand how their bodies interact with that space. This is sometimes referred to as peripersonal space," explained lead researcher Dr. Giulia Orioli.



“Of course, humans do this all the time as adults, using our combined senses to perceive where we are in space and making predictions about when we will touch an object or not. But now that we know that babies in the early stages of their development begin to show signs of this, it opens up questions about how much of these abilities are learnt, or innate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-development-of-self-awareness-nbsp">Development of self-awareness&nbsp;</h2>



From just four months old, infants demonstrated enhanced somatosensory (tactile) brain activity when they experienced a touch following an object moving towards them.&nbsp;



This discovery is pivotal in understanding how self-awareness develops from an early age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-touch">Unexpected touch</h2>



The researchers also explored how an unexpected touch influenced older infants in the study. They observed that eight-month-old babies showed signs of surprise in their brain activity when the touch on their hand was preceded by the ball moving away from them on the screen.&nbsp;



“Seeing the older babies show surprise responses suggests that they had not expected the touch due to the visual direction the object was moving in," said study co-author Professor Andrew Bremner.&nbsp;



"This indicates that as babies proceed through their first year of life, their brains construct a more sophisticated awareness of how their body exists in the space around them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-nbsp">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



The team plans to expand their research to include both younger and older participants. This may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the developmental trajectory of multisensory abilities.



The researchers are particularly interested in examining the brain activity of adults in similar scenarios. By doing so, they hope to gain insights into the mature forms of brain activity that infants are gradually developing towards.&nbsp;



The team also plans to explore the presence of these multisensory abilities in newborn babies.&nbsp;



“It is a challenge working with newborns, as they spend such a large portion of their time sleeping and eating, but we are starting to have some success working with this age group, and it is going to be fascinating to see if babies only a few days old have the foundations of a sense of their bodies in space. If so, it could be that we are looking at the origins of human consciousness," said Dr. Orioli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-self-awareness-nbsp">More about self-awareness&nbsp;</h2>



Self-awareness is a key aspect of human consciousness that is complex and multifaceted. It is typically understood as the conscious recognition of oneself as an individual, separate and distinct from the environment and others.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-identity-nbsp">Physical identity&nbsp;</h3>



At its core, self-awareness is about understanding one's own existence and identity. It's what allows individuals to recognize themselves in a mirror or in photographs, which is a milestone often observed in human development during the toddler years.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internal-states">Internal states</h3>



Beyond physical recognition, self-awareness encompasses an understanding of one's internal states, such as emotions and thoughts, and how these can differ from those of others.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adulthood">Adulthood</h3>



As people grow and develop, self-awareness becomes more complicated. It evolves from basic recognition of the self to include deeper understanding of one's own mental and emotional states.&nbsp;



For instance, adults not only recognize that they are feeling sad, but they can also ponder why they feel that way and how it affects their behavior and decisions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins">Origins</h3>



In the context of psychology and neuroscience, self-awareness is often studied to understand its origins, how it develops, and its role in social and cognitive functions. There's a particular interest in understanding at what stage of development self-awareness begins to emerge and how it progresses.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals">Animals</h3>



Self-awareness is not just limited to the human species. Some animals, particularly certain primates and some birds, have shown signs of self-recognition, suggesting that this ability might be more widespread in the animal kingdom than previously thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-45897-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Four-month-old babies show signs of self-awareness

Babies as young as four months old exhibit signs of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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