Science lovers across Europe are buzzing about a new, record-breaking discovery. It’s a shrub, not a towering tree, that holds the title of the continent’s oldest woody plant.



This tiny juniper, found in Finnish Lapland, measures around four inches across its trunk. Researchers say it’s 1,647 years old, making it <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/">older than any known tree</a> in Europe.



An international research team led by <a href="https://intra.tesaf.unipd.it/carrer/Marco_Carrer_CV.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marco Carrer</a>, forest ecologist at the Department of Territory and Agroforestry Systems of the University of Padua, confirmed these findings. 



They also highlight that this shy-looking plant has surpassed existing records by more than four centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-significance-of-old-shrubs">The significance of old shrubs</h2>



Many people envision centuries-old giants when they think of ancient woody life. Yet shrubs, like the <a href="https://mortonarb.org/plant-and-protect/trees-and-plants/common-juniper/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">common juniper</a>, can endure through the extremes of climate, and illustrate how adaptation and survival can span more than a thousand years.



Shrubs in challenging environments often face harsh weather, limited nutrients, and slow growth. Their longevity may be a key to understanding how plants adapt to rapid global changes.



Several previous reports have noted exceptionally old shrub individuals from localities as diverse as the Tibetan Plateau and the Mediterranean. They are also sometimes found living in harsh conditions at high altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-juniper">A closer look at juniper</h2>



The common juniper tree is the most widely distributed conifer species in the world. It's trunks can reveal clues about past environmental shifts and weather events. 



“We study wood rings from which we extract precious information about climate change and vegetation development,” said <a href="https://www.unipd.it/en/yr-msca-prendin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Angela Luisa Prendin</a>, one of the authors of the study paper.



“However, when you go to the far north, trees give way to smaller plants,” she noted. Her team decided to focus on this particular, low-lying juniper species and to investigate its fascinating growth rings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-new-record-matters">Why the new record matters</h2>



“The <a href="https://brill.com/display/title/17009?language=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">common juniper</a> is known to everyone as a spice in the kitchen or an ingredient in the production of gin,” said Carrer. It might not look majestic, but its longevity is rewriting what we know about the upper limits of shrub life.



“From today, this record is also added to that of being the oldest shrub in the world,” said Carrer. The hardy nature of this plant helps it thrive in diverse habitats, from glacial regions to scorching dunes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-a-changing-climate">Navigating a changing climate</h2>



Scientists <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045509" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggest</a> that rising temperatures may lead to the northward dispersal of tree populations, which will put pressure on established shrubs. 



In some areas, though, harsher conditions could favor shrubs if trees struggle to survive with limited resources.



Shrubs have already expanded in certain high-latitude spots, reflecting a unique interplay between warming trends and local ecosystem limits. 



Still, older junipers stand firm against many environmental twists, establishing their place as strong survivors in these habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-past-climates">A window into past climates</h2>



Dendrochronology, the study of annual growth rings in woody plants, isn’t limited to towering trunks. Even a small juniper stem can show centuries of environmental records etched into its wood.



Such data can help researchers pinpoint past temperature fluctuations, precipitation patterns, and extreme events. 



By comparing <a href="https://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/~ellisqm/outgoing/dendroecology2014/readings/Grissino_mayer_COFECHA_2001.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ring widths</a>, they identify specific years that may have brought unusual cold snaps or droughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-small-giants">Protecting small giants</h2>



Unlike many iconic old-growth forests, these shrubs often go unnoticed and unprotected. With warming trends and shifting ecological boundaries, conservationists worry that ancient junipers could be squeezed out.



Once they disappear, centuries of subtle ecological memories vanish with them. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9303657/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> believe careful monitoring and protection strategies can ensure they remain part of the landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-worth-celebrating">A legacy worth celebrating</h2>



This record-breaking discovery speaks to the patience and persistence of nature. The shrub may be small, but it carries a long story of survival.



As scientists keep uncovering new details, these ancient individuals may rewrite our understanding of longevity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-uniquely-adapted-to-withstand-harsh-winter-climates/">harsh climates</a>. 



The study is published in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11751590/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Tiny shrub holds the record for Europe's oldest tree

Science lovers across Europe are buzzing about a new, record-breaking...

Pregnancy is a time when many expectant mothers seek ways to manage discomfort and stress. With growing interest in natural remedies, cannabidiol (CBD), a compound derived from cannabis, has gained popularity as a perceived safe option for nausea, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. 



Unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component of cannabis, CBD does not produce a high, leading many to assume it poses little to no risk during pregnancy.



Despite this perception, scientific research on the effects of CBD during pregnancy remains limited. Many previous studies have focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-impacts-working-memory-and-brain-function/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis smoke</a> or THC exposure, leaving CBD largely unexplored. 



A new study from <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMaster University</a> challenges these assumptions, revealing concerning links between CBD use and fetal development issues. These findings suggest that CBD, often considered harmless, may have unexpected consequences for both mother and child.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-risks-of-cbd-in-pregnancy">Potential risks of CBD in pregnancy</h2>



A team of researchers at McMaster University investigated the effects of cannabis use during pregnancy, specifically focusing on both CBD and THC. 



The findings, published in eBioMedicine, highlight the potential dangers of oral cannabis consumption from early to mid-pregnancy. 



The study revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-during-pregnancy-rewires-the-fetal-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis exposure</a> was associated with impaired fetal growth, changes in the placenta, and behavioral alterations in offspring.



Tyrah Ritchie led the study while completing her master’s degree in the Medical Sciences program at McMaster University.



“The use of cannabis during pregnancy is rising in Canada. Most previous studies focus on exposure to cannabis smoke or just the psychoactive component of cannabis (THC), leaving other cannabis ingredients and methods of consumption understudied," noted Ritchie.



"However, consuming cannabis orally or only using other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-potency-cannabis-use-linked-to-epigenetic-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> ingredients like CBD, is often perceived as safer despite this lack of evidence. Our study is shedding light that there's a possibility that CBD might also be harmful in the pregnancy.”



The study challenges the belief that CBD is a safe alternative to THC during pregnancy. While THC has long been linked to developmental concerns, this research suggests that CBD may also have unintended effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fetal-growth-and-placental-development">Fetal growth and placental development</h2>



The researchers examined how THC and CBD affect fetal development by administering cannabis oil to pregnant mice. 



Their observations revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-hallucinogen-use-are-at-historically-high-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis exposure</a> resulted in smaller fetuses compared to those in the control group. This suggests that cannabis compounds may interfere with normal growth, leading to intrauterine growth restriction.



In addition to reduced fetal size, the study found that cannabis impacted the development of blood vessels that supply nutrients to the placenta. 



The placenta plays a crucial role in providing oxygen and nutrients to the developing baby, and any disruption in this process could have serious consequences.



“We did see that both THC and CBD can disrupt a special type of immune cell called a Uterine NK Cell that is crucial in normal development of the placenta," said Ali Ashkar, professor in McMaster’s Department of Medicine and co-leader of the study.



"We also saw poor development of the arteries that help supply blood to the placenta. We're thinking this is what is possibly disrupting the nutrient and oxygen delivery to the baby and contributing to the intrauterine grow restriction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnancy-cbd-and-offspring">Pregnancy, CBD, and offspring</h2>



Beyond physical growth, the study also examined how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemical-found-in-cannabis-plants-can-actually-reduce-cannabis-induced-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis exposure</a> affects offspring behavior. Researchers monitored the behavior of the mice after birth and discovered changes in aggression, activity levels, and learning ability. 



These findings suggest that exposure to cannabis during pregnancy could have lasting neurological effects on the offspring.



“Oral use of THC and CBD during the pregnancy not only disrupts growth of the baby but seems to have long-term consequences as the babies were found to have changes in their behaviour later in life,” said Ritchie.



Behavioral changes in offspring highlight the possibility of cognitive and emotional challenges that may persist into adulthood. 



The exact mechanisms behind these effects remain unclear, but the findings raise concerns about how cannabis interacts with the developing brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-further-investigation">Need for further investigation</h2>



While this study provides critical insights, researchers emphasize the need for further investigation to fully understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-cannabis-use-protects-against-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risks</a> of CBD use during pregnancy. 



The study was conducted on mice, and while animal models offer valuable information, human studies are necessary to confirm these findings.



Ritchie stresses that the growing trend of cannabis use during pregnancy should be met with caution. Many expectant mothers turn to CBD with the belief that it is safe, but without clear scientific evidence, assumptions about its harmlessness may be misleading.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-cbd-use-during-pregnancy">Rethinking CBD use during pregnancy</h2>



The widespread perception of CBD as a natural and safe remedy has led to its increasing use among pregnant individuals. 



However, this study suggests that CBD may not be as risk-free as commonly thought. The findings indicate that both THC and CBD could interfere with crucial developmental processes, affecting both physical growth and long-term behavior.



Pregnant individuals considering cannabis products should consult healthcare professionals before use. While the study does not provide definitive answers on CBD’s safety for human pregnancies, it does highlight the need for greater awareness and caution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-funding-and-future-research">Funding and future research</h2>



This study was supported by The <a href="https://cannabisresearch.mcmaster.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michael G. DeGroote</a> Centre for Medicinal Cancer Research, the <a href="https://cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/193.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Institutes of Health Research</a>, and the <a href="https://www.innovation.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Foundation for Innovation</a>. 



As research in this field continues, scientists aim to explore the specific mechanisms by which cannabis compounds affect pregnancy outcomes.



With increasing cannabis use worldwide, understanding its full impact on pregnancy is more important than ever. Further studies will help clarify the risks, providing expectant mothers with the information they need to make informed choices.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/ebiom/article/PIIS2352-3964(25)00016-7/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EBioMedicine</a>.



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CBD use during pregnancy has unexpected consequences

Pregnancy is a time when many expectant mothers seek ways...

It sits at the tail end of our digestive system and measures around 5 feet long by 2.5 inches across. The colon is responsible for absorbing water, maintaining hydration levels, and managing waste before it leaves the body.



Recent research has highlighted certain fruits that can support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-diet-identified-as-major-cause-of-colon-cancer/">colon health</a>. The apple emerged as a standout because of its potential to promote a healthier gut and help maintain balanced gut flora.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-colon">Understanding the colon</h2>



The colon’s structure includes four segments that work together to finalize digestion. Issues like constipation or diarrhea can result when any part of this complex pathway is disturbed.



Colon-related illnesses can display symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, or visible blood in stool. Certain screenings like colonoscopy can detect cancers or irregularities at an early stage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-apples-draw-attention">Why apples draw attention</h2>



Apples pack a high dose of pectin, which has properties that might diminish gastrointestinal inflammation. These fibers also seem to encourage healthy bacterial growth in the intestines.



Research has shown that including apples in a regular diet may result in reduced cholesterol and better weight control. This benefit ties back to the apple’s soluble fiber, which is thought to slow fat absorption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-insights-on-fiber">Scientific insights on fiber</h2>



A study on fiber-enriched botanicals highlighted how these compounds contribute to digestive health by promoting gut motility and supporting beneficial bacteria. In apples, this type of fiber sweeps through the digestive system, pushing out unwanted substances along the way.



“The fiber is usually a nondigestible polysaccharide that is not digested in the human body,” explained Dr. Khalid, the study's lead author from Government College University in Faisalabad. 



Fiber’s role in colon function has been studied for its link to improved bowel regularity. It also appears to help in stabilizing blood sugar and supporting cardiovascular health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-juice-based-diet-and-gut-health">Juice-based diet and gut health</h2>



Another <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5438379/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> on the effects of a vegetable and fruit juice-based diet found notable changes in gut microbiota, metabolism, and overall health.&nbsp;



The researchers tracked participants consuming only vegetable and fruit juices. The results showed a significant decrease in weight and body mass index - demonstrating the potential impact of plant-based nutrients on digestion and weight regulation.



Although apples were not singled out in the juice-based experiment, the key takeaway remains that fruit-rich regimens can shift gut bacteria. These shifts often coincide with reductions in overall body mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-anti-inflammatory-angle">The anti-inflammatory angle</h2>



Inflammatory bowel disease can cause tremendous discomfort and disrupt daily life. A study on dietary interventions for IBD identified the anti-inflammatory diet as a promising strategy for managing symptoms and supporting gut health.



Apples, with their pectin and plant compounds, could complement such approaches. They may lessen the impact of irritants in the digestive tract and reduce flare-ups in some individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-dried-fruits">Potential of dried fruits</h2>



Fruits play a vital role in gut health, whether consumed fresh or dried. A <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10097306/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> on the health effects of dried fruits found limited evidence suggesting that dried fruits (raisins, cranberries, dates, prunes) may positively influence gut microbiota composition. 



Apples in their dried form carry nutrients that could still be valuable. People seeking a portable option could find dried apples handy if they stay mindful of portion sizes.



Each person’s digestive system has unique sensitivities, so it’s wise to start slow with fiber-rich fruits. Switching to a high-fiber diet too quickly may cause bloating or abdominal discomfort.



It’s also important to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-water-is-the-key-to-a-long-and-healthy-life/">drink enough water</a> to keep everything moving along. Staying hydrated can help the colon effectively manage any uptick in fiber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-include-apples">Simple ways to include apples</h2>



Having an apple as a midday snack or pairing it with a meal can be a small step toward better digestive health. Apple slices can be blended into a morning smoothie or eaten with peanut butter.



Baked apple slices are a sweeter treat that still contains much of the fruit’s natural fiber. These small additions can fit easily into a regular daily routine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-for-a-healthy-colon">Fruit for a healthy colon</h2>



Apples are not a cure-all, yet they align with research pointing to benefits of fruit-based diets. Combined with regular checkups, they can be part of a measured effort to keep things running smoothly.



Routine screenings remain essential for catching possible complications early. Listening to the body’s signals and consulting with professionals are key for anyone looking to fine-tune their digestive wellness.



A balanced diet that includes apples might be more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetables-prevent-colon-cancer/">helpful for colon</a> function than many realize. The fiber, water content, and protective compounds within this fruit may do more for the gut than just satisfying hunger.



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This fruit is ideal for cleansing the colon, according to experts

It sits at the tail end of our digestive system...

In a rapidly urbanizing world, grasslands and other green spaces are steadily disappearing. But what if there was a way to maintain these lush sanctuaries without the tiresome labor and cost? The solution may come from an unexpected source - fire.



Using fire to restore the land may seem paradoxical, yet it’s a practice that is deeply rooted in tradition. For generations, our ancestors relied on fire to sustain ecosystems.



Today, in our quest to balance progress and preservation, we've come full circle, rediscovering this ancient wisdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-can-save-grasslands">Fire can save grasslands</h2>



A group of researchers from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> in Japan has recently conducted a study that reveals the potential of controlled burning, a labor-saving technique, in preserving disappearing grasslands.



The findings suggest that this method could contribute not only to preserving biodiversity but also to the survival of endangered plant species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burning-has-helped-grasslands-for-centuries">Burning has helped grasslands for centuries</h2>



Grasslands require consistent maintenance. Over centuries, humans have been utilizing techniques such as grazing, mowing, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controlled-burns-reduce-carbon-emissions-from-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">controlled burning</a> to fend off overbearing forests from encroaching these pastures.



However, with a boom in urbanization and a subsequent decline in rural population, maintaining these green belts has become an increasing challenge.



This is where "prescribed" burning comes in - a technique that deliberately sets controlled fires. While fire may seem destructive, when managed carefully, it can be a vital tool in preserving these threatened ecosystems.



Led by master's student ASADA Airi and ecologist USHIMARU Atushi at Kobe University, the research sheds light on the significance of soil conditions in these fire management practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-s-impact-on-grasslands">Fire’s impact on grasslands </h2>



The study was conducted on a training site of the Japan Self-Defense Forces near Mount Fuji. Here, the team established 100 square-meter plots across the grasslands on four different types of soil.



Each plot's plant biodiversity and various physical and chemical factors were thoroughly studied and compared. 



The most intriguing part of the research revealed that some areas, particularly on young lava flows, were hotspots for endangered species.



The researchers observed that these young lava flows had greater overall species richness, native species richness, and prevalence of endangered species than grasslands on both young and old scoria bedrock.



The team concluded that acidity, soil depth, and rock and stone coverage played pivotal roles in supporting these unique ecosystems, thus enabling the survival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-plants-are-facing-extinction-in-the-scottish-mountains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare plants</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-helps-balance-ecosystems">Fire helps balance ecosystems</h2>



A key point illuminated by the research is the seemingly perfect balance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-ecosystems-constantly-share-energy-to-achieve-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> maintains. Acidic soils, which normally make nutrient absorption difficult for plants, help to counterbalance otherwise dominant species.



Controlled burning is a strategy to reset plant growth, allowing these often sidelined species a much-needed chance to thrive.



Ushimaru noted that the study pinpoints environments where managed burning can help support a significant variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a>.



The findings are a step forward in our understanding of how to best preserve and restore grassland environments and species diversity through properly managed fire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vital-role-of-grasslands">Vital role of grasslands</h2>



Grasslands are more than just open fields; they are essential ecosystems that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, store carbon, and regulate water cycles. 



Covering nearly 40% of Earth’s land surface, grasslands provide habitat for countless plant and animal species. Their deep-rooted vegetation helps prevent soil erosion, making them critical for maintaining healthy landscapes.



Beyond their ecological value, grasslands play a pivotal role in agriculture and food security. They support livestock grazing, which sustains rural economies, and their rich soils contribute to sustainable farming. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasslands-support-climate-stability">Grasslands support climate stability</h2>



Additionally, grasslands act as natural buffers against extreme weather, absorbing excess rainfall and reducing the risk of floods and droughts.



However, with increasing urbanization and agricultural expansion, these landscapes are disappearing at an alarming rate. Without proper management, they risk being overrun by forests, invasive species, or completely degraded.



This is where techniques like controlled burning become invaluable, helping to maintain the delicate balance that allows grasslands to flourish.



By recognizing their importance and investing in conservation efforts, we can ensure that grasslands continue to provide essential benefits for both nature and human society.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10629" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



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Controlled fires can help us save grasslands from disappearing

In a rapidly urbanizing world, grasslands and other green spaces...

In a world where reproductive health is becoming an increasingly important topic, scientists are constantly exploring new ways to address challenges related to fertility. One recent discovery is resveratrol, a natural compound found in common foods like grapes, blueberries, and raspberries.



This polyphenolic compound has long been celebrated for its anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. However, recent research suggests that its potential extends far beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-chronic-wounds-with-gold-and-red-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">general wellness</a>. 



A systematic review published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences sheds light on how resveratrol could play a pivotal role in improving female fertility. This discovery opens up exciting possibilities for women seeking natural solutions to enhance their reproductive health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-resveratol-on-female-fertility">Impact of resveratol on female fertility</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from 24 studies, which included a total of 9,563 human participants. Among these, four studies specifically examined the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-wine-consumption-reduces-cardiovascular-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact of resveratrol</a> on the number of matured oocytes. 



Two reported an increase, while the other two found no significant changes. On the other hand, two studies focusing on the quality of matured oocytes showed improvements in women who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-polyphenols-promote-heart-health-youthful-skin-and-a-healthy-waistline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consumed resveratrol</a>. 



These findings point to the compound's potential to enhance reproductive health naturally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-resveratrol-support-fertility">How does resveratrol support fertility?</h2>



One possible explanation for resveratrol's positive effects lies in its ability to reduce oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is known to damage mitochondrial DNA and accelerate cellular aging. 



By protecting against this damage, resveratrol may help preserve the integrity of oocytes and extend ovarian lifespan. Additionally, the compound activates sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), a molecule that tends to decrease in aged oocytes. This activation could slow down cell aging and improve overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive function</a>.



Beyond its effects on oocyte quality, the review also explored resveratrol's potential in addressing specific fertility challenges. 



For instance, it may offer benefits for women dealing with infertility caused by endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), or obesity-related issues. 



By inhibiting pathways involved in androgen production and reducing inflammation, resveratrol could provide a natural approach to managing these conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-results-on-miscarriage-rates">Mixed results on miscarriage rates</h2>



While the findings are encouraging, the review also revealed inconsistencies in data related to pregnancy and miscarriage rates. 



Among five studies that examined pregnancy outcomes, two reported an increase in pregnancy rates among women taking resveratrol, two found no difference, and one noted a decrease. 



Interestingly, the same study that observed a decline in pregnancy rates also reported a rise in miscarriage rates. Another study, however, found no significant changes in miscarriage occurrences. 



These mixed results highlight the need for more comprehensive research to fully understand the compound's effects on reproductive outcomes.



Resveratrol is generally regarded as safe when consumed in moderate amounts through diet or supplements, with doses up to five grams per day considered acceptable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-red-wine-gives-some-people-a-headache/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">short-term use</a>. 



However, the long-term safety of high-dose supplementation remains uncertain, particularly concerning potential risks during pregnancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Lee Smith, professor of public health at Anglia Ruskin University (<a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARU</a>) and senior author of the paper, emphasized the importance of cautious optimism.



“Our systematic review on resveratrol and female fertility is a comprehensive overview of all current research, and it highlights the compound’s potential to improve reproductive outcomes and possibly pave the way for new, less invasive treatments, using natural substances,” he stated. 



However, Professor Smith also pointed out the limitations of the current evidence.



“Our findings are based on a number of limitations, including the limited number of human studies, the different parameters of each study and the lack of robust data on dosage and side effects, particularly related to birth defects or foetal abnormalities,” Smith explained. 



“There is a need for further clinical trials, involving human participants, in order to translate these promising results into practical recommendations for women looking to improve their fertility, including guidance on the safe and effective dosage of resveratrol.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resveratrol-and-female-fertility">Resveratrol and female fertility</h2>



The potential of resveratrol to support female fertility represents an exciting avenue for future exploration. 



If ongoing and future studies confirm its benefits, this natural compound could offer a less invasive and more accessible option for women seeking to enhance their reproductive health. 



For now, researchers urge patience and continued investigation to ensure that any recommendations are grounded in solid, reliable evidence. As science progresses, resveratrol may emerge as a valuable tool in the journey toward improved fertility.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/23/12792" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Molecular Sciences</a>. 



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Resveratrol in grapes and wine may naturally boost female fertility

In a world where reproductive health is becoming an increasingly...

Scientists have found that insect frass - a blend of excreta, feed, and molted skins - is far from a mere waste product. Instead, it could play a key role in advancing greener, more sustainable agriculture.



The study was focused on "mini-livestock," including the humble yellow mealworm, the bouncy banded cricket, and the robust black soldier fly.



Often underestimated, these insects are being cultivated as an alternative protein source for animals, playing a crucial role in the shift toward more sustainable agricultural practices. However, what they leave behind may be just as valuable - if not more - than the protein they provide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-frass-more-than-just-waste">Insect frass: More than just waste</h2>



Insect frass is a nutrient-rich byproduct of insect farming. In contrast to regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-byproducts-and-manure-used-to-increase-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manure</a>, frass is inherently pathogen-poor and rich in nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon.



The nutrients in insect frass make it a promising organic fertilizer that can augment soil health and plant growth without reliance on synthetic fertilizers. This finding sets the stage for a game-changing shift in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-adopt-regenerative-agriculture-better-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a>.



In previous studies, a team of researchers led by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">Agricultural Research Service</a>&nbsp;(ARS) set out to explore the potential benefits of insect frass. 



The results showed that frass can compete with fossil fuel-based fertilizers with its higher carbon and nitrogen content, while being less pathogenic than other animal manures.



Collaborating with partners from the <a href="https://uada.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas System Division of Agriculture</a>, the ARS team further studied the potential of frass as an organic fertilizer when used as a soil amendment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-proof-is-in-the-soil">The proof is in the soil</h2>



The researchers embarked on an intense two-year field study. The results were quite astounding.



Yellow mealworm frass demonstrated impressive capabilities. It managed to double the soil's carbon content while tripling its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-too-much-and-too-little-nitrogen-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a> content.



This was significantly higher compared to other sources such as poultry litter and ammonium nitrate. Most importantly, the frass-enriched soil produced similar crop yields and carbon dioxide emission rates.



"Insect frass substantially improved soil fertility which showed its ability to be used as an alternative to inorganic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a>," said Amanda Ashworth, a soil scientist at the ARS Poultry Production and Product Safety Research Unit in Fayetteville, Arkansas. 



"This is important since insect farming is on the rise and circular agricultural systems (agricultural by-products that are recycled back into production systems) can be sustainable avenues for growing foods in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-agriculture">The future of agriculture </h2>



The question is, are we ready to embrace this change? As the world witnesses an increased demand for sustainable protein sources, the insect farming industry is experiencing a surge in growth. 



According to the Global Edible Insects Market Forecast to 2030 report, the industry is set to grow at an annual pace of 28%, with an anticipated market value of $8 billion U.S. dollars by 2030.



Insect frass stands as a powerful catalyst for change, moving us towards a greener future. It promises a sustainable alternative in agriculture - one that makes use of waste to enhance our environment and feed our growing populations.



The research shows that insect frass is not just waste - it's a potential goldmine, waiting to be discovered and harnessed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-frass-and-regenerative-farming">Insect frass and regenerative farming</h2>



As the agricultural industry shifts toward more eco-friendly practices, insect frass is being recorgnized as an important player in regenerative farming. 



In contrast to traditional fertilizers, which can degrade the soil and contaminate water, insect frass promotes microbial activity and improves soil structure. 



This natural byproduct not only replenishes essential nutrients but also supports long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-soils-produce-a-symphony-of-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a> by promoting beneficial bacteria and fungi.



With fears of fertilizer shortages and environmental damage due to synthetic alternatives looming, insect frass presents a promising alternative.



So far, farmers who have embraced this organic amendment are reporting greater crop resilience, reduced chemical input dependence, and soil biodiversity improvements. 



As research continues, insect frass may ultimately transform the way food is grown, making agriculture not only more productive but truly sustainable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87075-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Future of farming: Insect waste reshapes soil health

Scientists have found that insect frass - a blend of...

Predicting and mitigating the effects of climate change while preserving biodiversity is a top priority for both scientists and policymakers. As climate change intensifies, leading to more frequent and severe droughts, understanding the impact on plant ecosystems has become increasingly important. 



One of the main challenges is forecasting changes in species richness due to shifts in precipitation patterns. 



While it’s established that regions with more water generally support greater plant diversity, results vary at smaller plot levels concerning how rainfall affects species richness.



To improve predictions, it’s essential to explore the underlying mechanisms - particularly how intense droughts and long-term rainfall changes impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-talks-on-the-drought-crisis-end-without-agreement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



A new study shows that increased aridity at the plot level is indeed linked to a decrease in plant species richness, and this connection is even more pronounced following extreme droughts. 



However, this phenomenon is not easy to detect because in the absence of drought, dominant plant species can obscure this effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-drought-and-plant-diversity">Rainfall, drought, and plant diversity</h2>



Experts at the <a href="https://ecolres.hun-ren.hu/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUN-REN Centre for Ecological Research</a> in Hungary examined the intricate connections between long-term changes in rainfall, extreme drought conditions, the biomass of dominant plant species, and plant species diversity in a dryland ecosystem.



The research reveals that increased dryness leads to a reduction in plant species diversity in drylands and uncovers the mechanisms through which rising aridity contributes to biodiversity loss in these fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



Using data from a seven-year climate change field experiment, the researchers conducted a path analysis to examine how precipitation influences species diversity, both directly and indirectly. 



The experiment simulated an extreme drought event followed by long-term variations in summer rainfall with the use of rainout shelters.



Initial analysis showed a strong positive relationship between rainfall and species diversity after extreme drought treatment, but this effect was absent without drought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dominant-plant-species-and-droughts">Dominant plant species and droughts</h2>



Interestingly, the path analysis uncovered another layer. In the absence of drought, increased rainfall boosted the biomass of dominant grass species, leading to a decrease in overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megadroughts-are-becoming-more-frequent-and-severe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a>.



Nevertheless, the direct effect of rainfall remained positive, enhancing species richness even when dominant species exerted a suppressive impact. Additionally, the study revealed that past extreme droughts strengthened the link between rainfall and species diversity. 



“Droughts weaken dominant species, creating opportunities for other plants to thrive, potentially altering the plant community,” explained study lead author Dr. Gábor Ónodi.



The findings highlight the complex interactions between rainfall, dominant species, and biodiversity. 



The research shows that while rainfall can boost plant diversity, its benefits are often mediated by the presence of dominant species that can suppress others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-ecosystems">Implications for future ecosystems</h2>



The findings have significant implications for predicting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-persistent-droughts-will-impact-wildlife-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural ecosystems</a> will respond to future climate change.



“As global temperatures rise and precipitation patterns become more extreme, ecosystems may become increasingly sensitive to changes in water availability,” noted Dr. György Kröel-Dulay, the lead researcher.



The study highlights the importance of considering both direct and indirect effects when evaluating the impact of climate change on biodiversity.



“By deepening our understanding of these dynamics, we can better anticipate upcoming challenges and develop more effective strategies for conserving biodiversity in a world facing growing environmental uncertainties,” said senior author Dr. Zoltán Botta-Dukát.



This research serves as a valuable step toward understanding how ecosystems might adapt to changing climates and what measures can be taken to protect their rich diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-forward-with-conservation-efforts">Moving forward with conservation efforts</h2>



The insights gained from this study provide a clearer picture of how climate change affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, particularly in dryland ecosystems. 



By examining the interplay between rainfall, drought, and dominant plant species, scientists can begin to identify patterns that may help predict future ecological shifts. Such knowledge is crucial for developing strategies to safeguard biodiversity as global climates continue to evolve.



The work of the HUN-REN Centre for Ecological Research highlights the need for continued investigation into the complex relationships within ecosystems. 



As the planet faces increasing environmental uncertainties, studies like this offer hope for finding ways to preserve the natural world for future generations.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.14483" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Ecology</a>. 



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Plant diversity threatened by reduced rainfall and drought

Predicting and mitigating the effects of climate change while preserving...

Hummingbird flower mites are tiny hitchhikers with an electrifying secret. These minuscule arachnids have developed a remarkable survival strategy.



A new study reveals that the mites use static electricity generated by their hummingbird chauffeurs to leap from one flower to another.



The remarkable relationship between the mites and hummingbirds has puzzled researchers for years. 



In particular, scientists have questioned what determines the moment that the mites choose to hop onto or off of a hummingbird. This is a crucial part of the mites' survival, as it enables them to transition from flower to flower for sustenance and reproduction.



After years of speculation and study, researchers may have finally found the answer.



It all started with Carlos Garcia-Robledo, an associate professor in the <a href="https://eeb.uconn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology</a>, who noted that the mites seemingly preferred the first flower that a hummingbird visited. This observation led him to question why the mites were not hopping onto second or third flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-static-electricity-helps-mites-jump">Static electricity helps mites jump</h2>



Initially, the scientific community speculated that some kind of smell signal influenced the mites. However, after conducting experiments, Garcia-Robledo felt there had to be another explanation.



“I knew that it was not maybe the smell that played a major role in this because if you bring the mites to a laboratory, they don’t care much about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flower-smells-like-dead-insects-to-attract-coffin-flies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smells of flowers</a> and so on. I knew it had to be something else,” he said.



The turning point came after Garcia-Robledo read a study about ticks and static electricity. An idea clicked. 



“Maybe something electrostatic was happening there. These mites are so tiny that they live at another level of perception, so of course, even little electric fields are important for them. This could help explain the mystery of how they can be fast enough to hitchhike on this family of birds,” he noted.



Armed with this new idea, Garcia-Robledo collaborated with Konstantine Manser, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, and Diego Dierick, a scientist at the <a href="https://tropicalstudies.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Organization for Tropical Studies</a>. The team quickly constructed simple devices to test their theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-mite-s-electric-path">Unveiling the mite's electric path</h2>



To their astonishment, the results were immediate and compelling. The researchers observed that the mites reacted to the static electricity.



“We turned on the device, and instantaneously, they started to respond. That’s how we figured out that they were using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-of-static-electricity-has-finally-been-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">static electricity</a>,” explained Garcia-Robledo.



Further testing revealed that the mites were not just responding to static electricity but to a specific frequency of the electric field. 



“The mites respond to the bouncing of a signal that is associated with the size, geometry, and vibration of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a>, which reach frequencies between 20 and 160 Hz,” noted Garcia-Robledo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-mites-sense-different-signals">Different mites sense different signals</h2>



These discoveries have opened a new chapter in our understanding of hummingbird flower mites.



Each of the 19 mite species at La Selva demonstrates a unique preference for specific flowers and has unique structures in their legs that potentially allow them to detect different electrical frequencies.



“We think that there may be some specificity in the electric signals or different charges for flowers,” noted Garcia-Robledo.



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of hummingbird flower mites, we are reminded of the complex and little-understood ways in which life adapts and thrives.



In these tiny hitchhikers, we find another reflection of the incredible diversity and adaptability of our natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-masters-of-electricity">Masters of electricity</h2>



The ability of hummingbird flower mites to detect and respond to static electricity is probably the result of millions of years of evolutionary fine-tuning.



These tiny arachnids don’t just react to any electric field; they are sensitive to specific frequencies generated by the movement and vibrations of hummingbirds. 



But how did this ability develop, and why is it so crucial to their survival?



Researchers suspect that mites with a heightened sensitivity to electrical fields had an evolutionary advantage. Being able to time their jumps with precision ensures that they reach the right <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowers</a>, and minimizes the risk of getting stranded in an unsuitable environment. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research</h2>



Over generations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> may have favored mites with specialized structures in their legs. As Garcia-Robledo's team observed, these structures seem to help the mites detect and interpret electric signals.



The discovery that mites use electric fields for travel raises broader ecological questions. Could other tiny organisms also exploit similar mechanisms? 



Insects, pollen, or even microbes might interact with electrostatic forces in ways we have yet to fully understand. 



This new perspective challenges researchers to rethink how small-scale biological systems interact with invisible physical forces, and opens the door to discoveries beyond mites and hummingbirds.



While the full extent of electrostatic sensing in nature remains a mystery, one thing is certain - these tiny mites are not just passive passengers. They are finely adapted travelers that use hidden forces to navigate their microscopic world with astonishing precision.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2419214122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Hummingbird flower mites use static electricity to travel

Hummingbird flower mites are tiny hitchhikers with an electrifying secret....

Forests along Brazil’s rivers have played a crucial role in connecting the Amazon and Atlantic rainforests for millions of years. These green corridors have allowed tree species to migrate between the two forests, even though they are separated by vast expanses of dry forest and savanna. 



Until now, researchers believed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> migration only occurred during wetter climatic periods when rainforests expanded across South America. However, a new study from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE) and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> reveals a different story.



The research challenges the long-held assumption that tree species only moved between the Amazon and Atlantic forests during rare climate shifts. Instead, the study suggests that species have been dispersing continuously over time, using riverside forests as natural highways. 



This discovery reshapes the understanding of how rainforest biodiversity has evolved and highlights the ongoing importance of these ecological corridors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-migration-through-generations">Tree migration through generations</h2>



Rather than short-term bursts of movement, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-tree-species-are-moving-to-colder-and-wetter-regions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> have migrated slowly over many generations. The researchers found that trees growing along rivers helped species move gradually across the dry landscapes of Brazil.



“Rather than tree species being exchanged during specific wetter periods in the past, we found that species have dispersed consistently over time,” said Dr. James Nicholls of <a href="https://www.rbge.org.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RBGE</a>.



The study was focused on 164 species of Inga trees, a genus found widely in Latin American rainforests. By analyzing the DNA of these trees, the researchers reconstructed their evolutionary history, determining when different species diverged from their ancestors.



Mapping the locations of various&nbsp;Inga&nbsp;species further revealed patterns of movement between the Amazon and Atlantic forests.



This detailed genetic analysis uncovered a consistent pattern of species migration that spanned millions of years. The findings suggest that rainforest connectivity has depended not just on large-scale climate changes but also on localized ecological networks along rivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-trees-migrate-more">Amazon trees migrate more</h2>



The study identified 16 to 20 instances where tree species from the Amazon successfully established themselves in the Atlantic forest. These events were spread across evolutionary history rather than being concentrated in specific periods when Brazil had a wetter climate. 



The findings indicate that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-moving-to-soils-that-lack-the-fungi-to-support-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> have been able to migrate across dry regions at a slow but steady pace, rather than relying on rare climate-driven rainforest expansions.



Interestingly, the researchers found only one or two cases where tree species moved in the opposite direction—from the Atlantic rainforest to the Amazon. This suggests an imbalance in species migration, likely due to the Amazon’s vast size and greater seed production. 



Because the Amazon is much larger, it likely sends out a greater number of seeds, increasing the chances of successful migration to the Atlantic forest.



This discovery reshapes the understanding of rainforest dynamics, showing that species movement is not just a relic of past climate changes but an ongoing process. It also suggests that even in modern times, forest corridors remain vital for biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-brazil-s-riverside-forests">Protecting Brazil’s riverside forests</h2>



The research highlights the importance of conserving forests along Brazil’s rivers. These green corridors allow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a> to continue moving between the two rainforests, maintaining biodiversity and ecological balance. 



Brazilian law already provides legal protection for riverside forests, recognizing their critical role in preserving the country’s natural ecosystems.



“This legal protection - and efforts to preserve these riverside forests - are highly valuable for long-term habitat connectivity,” said Professor Toby Pennington from Exeter’s Department of Geography and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/institutes/gsi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Systems Institute</a>.



Beyond their role in species migration, these forests are essential for sustaining the extraordinary biodiversity of the Atlantic rainforest trees.



The Atlantic rainforest is home to approximately 3,000 more plant species than the Amazon, yet only 20% of it remains intact. Habitat destruction has put many species at risk, making conservation efforts more urgent than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-rainforest-connections">Maintaining rainforest connections </h2>



“In the short term, we need to protect these precious rainforests. In the long term, our study shows that we must also conserve the connections between them,” said Pennington.



Protecting the Amazon and Atlantic rainforests requires more than just safeguarding individual patches of forest. It also depends on maintaining the ecological links that have allowed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-an-amazing-ability-to-adapt-to-new-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> species to migrate and adapt over millions of years.



Ensuring the survival of riverside forests will not only help preserve the unique biodiversity of both rainforests but also support the broader health of Brazil’s ecosystems.



The study was funded by the United States <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, emphasizing the global importance of understanding and protecting these critical rainforest connections.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1559" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Rainforest trees use rivers as highways for migration

Forests along Brazil’s rivers have played a crucial role in...

The Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) is a vital part of the Amazon's rich biodiversity, but its genetic diversity has faced centuries of disruption. 



Factors such as European colonization, extensive deforestation, and the extinction of large seed-dispersing animals like the giant sloth have all played a role in its decline.



The Brazil nut tree is also a symbol of ecological resilience, economic sustenance, and the intricate web of life within the rainforest. But now, its future is at stake as human activities are constantly shifting the ecology of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-are-critically-endangered-even-in-protected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon</a> Basin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genomic-data-from-brazil-nut-trees">Genomic data from Brazil nut trees</h2>



A team of researchers recently embarked on a mission to investigate the genetic diversity and population dynamics of Brazil nut trees.



“This research provides an amazing opportunity to study how human actions, even in the distant past, have affected genetic makeup in a wild species over short time scales,” noted Detlef Weigel, an expert at the the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/151769/biology-tuebingen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> for Biology Tübingen. 



The scientists used up-to-date genomic techniques to analyze a total of 270 Brazil nut tree samples. These samples, each with known archaeological evidence, were collected from various locations.



The result of this analysis was a detailed genomic data sheet that identified over 126,000 genetic variants in the Brazil nut tree's genome. The data is a treasure trove of insights into the genetic health and adaptability of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-diversity-of-brazil-nut-trees">Genetic diversity of Brazil nut trees</h2>



The study suggests that, when compared to the diversity of other species, there has been a steep decline in the genetic diversity of Brazil nut trees over the past 20,000 years. But, it's not all gloom and doom.



Areas that have been managed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indigenous-communities-provide-clues-to-healthy-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indigenous communities</a> show more complex genetic backgrounds, revealing a deep connection between plant life and Indigenous land stewardship.



For example, younger trees (less than 200 years old) in the Tefé National Forest (TEF) show a greater diversity of genes. This is thanks to their adaptation to previous natural disturbances and to the management approaches of local communities that have led to genetic resilience. 



This exemplifies how traditional ecological practices can uphold the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/echoes-of-the-past-whalings-long-term-impact-on-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> and health of a species while providing a model for sustainable management.



Victor Caetano-Andrade, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Coevolution of Land Use and Urbanisation at the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, shared his insight.



“We aimed to bridge gaps in our understanding of the long-term anthropogenic influences on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivore-extinctions-drastically-affect-forest-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest ecosystems</a>. Our findings demonstrate how Indigenous land management practices play a significant role in maintaining the genetic diversity of Brazil nut populations,” said Caetano-Andrade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengthening-collaboration-and-conservation">Strengthening collaboration and conservation</h2>



This innovative study highlights the crucial partnership between scientists and Indigenous land stewards. By leveraging their historical ecological knowledge, we can create more inclusive and effective conservation policies.



Looking ahead, the scientists plan to broaden their investigation to more regions and additional species within the Amazon rainforest.



The ultimate goal is to develop comprehensive conservation frameworks that protect Brazil nut trees and bolster the ecosystem's resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-economic-impacts">Ecological and economic impacts </h2>



The loss of genetic diversity in Brazil nut trees affects more than just the species itself. The impacts extend to other aspects of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-animals-will-suffer-as-the-rainforest-turns-into-savanna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> ecosystem, as well as to local economies.



The Brazil nut tree is a keystone species that plays a crucial role in supporting biodiversity. These trees provide food and shelter for countless organisms - ranging from pollinators like orchid bees to large, fruit-eating mammals.



Reduced genetic diversity weakens the tree’s resilience to climate change, pests, and diseases, and increases the risk of population decline.



Moreover, this genetic bottleneck has economic consequences for communities that rely on Brazil nut harvesting as a primary source of income.



Declining tree health and lower yields could threaten a sustainable industry that has supported Amazonian livelihoods for centuries. 



Maintaining genetic variation through conservation efforts and Indigenous land stewardship will be essential for safeguarding not only the species but also the ecological and economic stability of the region.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982224016919" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Genetic legacy of the Brazil nut tree has been altered by human activity

The Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) is a vital part...

The city of Sydney in Australia has gained new attention for something unexpected. Instead of sunbathers by the shore or bustling restaurant queues, curious groups have appeared at the Royal Botanic Garden to experience a "corpse flower." 



This flower is famous for being the largest bloom in the world, and for its overpowering odor. Some call it revolting; others call it mesmerizing. Either way, there’s no denying its draw.



The plant’s official name is <a href="https://gustavus.edu/academics/departments/biology/titanarum/faq.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amorphophallus titanum</a>, but its fans know it by a more colorful nickname: the corpse flower. Either way, its flowers have an odor that’s powerful enough to attract thousands.



<a href="https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/profile/713188-emily-white" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Emily White</a>, a horticultural scientist at the <a href="https://www.botanicgardens.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Botanic Garden</a>, has studied rare tropical species for over a decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-irresistible-stench">An irresistible stench</h2>



This short-lived spectacle <a href="https://www.usbg.gov/gardens-plants/corpse-flowers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">only blooms</a> for about 24 hours every few years, when it releases a scent that many liken to the stench of rotting meat. 



Visitors report everything from hints of rancid socks to the smell of forgotten leftovers.



Staff members say nearly 20,000 people have navigated the winding pathways and stood patiently in line for a chance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-the-corpse-flower-smell-like-rotting-flesh/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">see (and smell) the flower</a> up close.



Native to the rainforests of western Indonesia, the corpse flower was discovered in 1878 by Italian botanist <a href="https://www.kew.org/plants/titan-arum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Odoardo Beccari</a>. 



It has intrigued plant enthusiasts ever since, partly because it grows from an underground corm that can weigh hundreds of pounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corpse-flower-blooms-for-just-one-day">Corpse flower blooms for just one day</h2>



To see the plant in bloom is a rare event. The flower only lasts about a day, meaning that people who wish to see and smell it need to rush to the garden before the bloom collapses. 



If you miss it, there’s no knowing when it might come around again.



The wait might be four or five years, or even longer. The staff extended visiting hours and accepted donations from fascinated guests, hoping to give everyone a chance to witness the ephemeral wonder before it faded.



By the next afternoon, the flower would be spent, and the pungent smell would vanish, leaving just a tall, withered structure behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-the-corpse-flower-stink">Why does the corpse flower stink?</h2>



The smell may be disagreeable to humans, but it’s essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-orchids-have-fingers-to-pollinate-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a>.



While most flowers use pleasant fragrances to lure bees or butterflies, the corpse flower’s stench entices flies and beetles that specialize in feeding on carrion.



These insects mistake the odor for that of a rotting carcass, crawl deep into the bloom, and help transfer pollen in the process. 



This trick is vital to the corpse flower’s reproduction, though it can seem downright repugnant to most people brave enough to get close.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-don-t-eat-the-fruit">Don't eat the fruit</h2>



Once pollination occurs, the flower produces bright red, round fruits that appear over the course of a few months. 



In the wild, they would be eaten by certain birds, like rhinoceros hornbills, which help disperse the seeds across the rainforest floor.



The fruits are poisonous to humans and not intended as a snack. Even if they form successfully, the plant requires substantial energy to generate them, so it usually remains dormant for years before attempting another bloom.



“We expect multiple corpse flower blooms per year,” states the <a href="https://www.usbg.gov/gardens-plants/corpse-flowers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Botanic Garden</a> on their official website, although they note that the timing is unpredictable.&nbsp;



Curious onlookers everywhere have tuned in to live feeds hosted by botanical institutions. Many gardens around the world keep at least one corpse flower in a specialized greenhouse, hoping for the day it sets off a flurry of excitement.



<a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/66511-largest-single-flower" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Guinness World Records</a> shows that the tallest known specimen reached 10 feet 2 inches (just over 3 meters) when it bloomed in New Hampshire in 2010. 



The combination of size, smell, and rarity makes the corpse flower a consistent headliner whenever it decides to bloom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corpse-flower-conservation">Corpse flower conservation</h2>



Despite its fame in public displays, the corpse flower faces major challenges in nature. 



Environmental pressure has reduced the number of wild plants, and it is officially classified as Endangered by the <a href="https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/amazing-species/amorphophallus-titanum/pdfs/original/amorphophallus-titanum.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a>.



Intensive logging and conversion of the plant’s Sumatran habitat into palm oil plantations have taken a toll. 



Several botanic gardens cooperate on cross-pollination and seed-sharing programs to broaden the gene pool, including the Royal Botanic Garden in Sydney, Kew in London, and various U.S. institutions.



These programs aim to safeguard the species through <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810104854504" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ex situ</a> conservation efforts, an important lifeline for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants threatened</a> by habitat loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascination-for-all-ages">Fascination for all ages</h2>



The corpse flower isn’t just an oddity for expert gardeners. Families with kids on school breaks have dropped by the glasshouse to see - and sniff - something unlike any rose or lily.



Its short-lived bloom offers an unforgettable lesson in biodiversity. Even the worst smell can be a good teacher.



If the lines of visitors are any clue, plenty of people want to learn more about this plant’s unusual approach to survival. 



The spectacle reminds us that nature is full of surprises, and sometimes the most memorable experiences are the ones that leave your nose crinkled and your eyes wide.



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Corpse flowers smell like death, but thousands rush to see them bloom

The city of Sydney in Australia has gained new attention...

Colorectal cancer, one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide, may have just found an unlikely foe in a common weed.



Artemisia herba-alba, a plant also commonly known as white wormwood or herba alba, has been used for medical purposes for thousands of years. It was originally used in the Middle East and North Africa.



This aromatic herb, which has been used to treat ailments such as bronchitis and digestive issues, is now capturing the attention of scientists for an even more meaningful purpose.



A recent study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.sharjah.ac.ae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sharjah</a> sheds light on the potential for white wormwood to fight colorectal cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-battle-against-colorectal-cancer">The battle against colorectal cancer</h2>



Colorectal cancer, or CRC, is a worldwide health concern. Ranked as the third most common type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-thrives-on-human-stress-as-it-spreads-throughout-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> globally, it is responsible for nearly 10% of all cancer cases.



Colorectal cancer mainly affects patients over the age of 50 and is the second leading cause of death from cancer. With one million mortalities and two million new cases recorded in 2020 alone, there is an urgent need for more effective CRC treatments.



Study lead author Dr. Lara Bou Malhab is a research associate at the Sharjah University Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences.



“Artemisia herba-alba&nbsp;could be a promising natural ingredient for new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/better-cancer-tests-produce-better-cancer-treatments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer treatments</a> based on (our study’s) findings," noted Dr. Bou Malhab. "Colorectal cancer is a common and serious illness, making it essential to find new and better treatments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-plant-works">How the plant works </h2>



Extracts isolated from Artemisia herba-alba were found to contain compounds with the ability to combat colorectal cancer. These compounds arrest the growth of the malignant cells and trigger self-destruction irrespective of the genetic makeup of these cells.



The compounds also interfere with the cell division in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unique-fingerprint-of-cancer-cells-revealed-in-hydrogen-atoms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a> through proteins like Cyclin B1 and CDK1.



Furthermore, the herb extracts inhibit a pathway that significantly contributes to tumorigenesis, the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.



“Our findings highlight the immense potential of Artemisia herba-alba as a natural source for developing innovative therapies against colorectal cancer, addressing the urgent need for treatments with fewer side effects and greater efficacy," said Dr. Malhab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-substances-as-effective-drugs">Natural substances as effective drugs</h2>



Despite the call of modern medicine, the use of natural substances in synthesizing effective drugs with fewer side effects is an area that cannot be ignored, particularly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-anti-aging-drug-interleukin-11-boosts-lifespan-prevents-cancer-gray-hair/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer medications</a>.



Current chemotherapy drugs are plagued by the issues of cancer cells developing resistance and collateral damage in the form of side effects. This study, therefore, could have significant implications if noted and implemented by pharmaceutical giants.



While further research is necessary to unravel the specific molecular mechanisms and the clinical efficacy of Artemisia herba-alba in cancer treatment, there's no denying the potential that this unassuming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbs-and-spices-linked-to-lower-blood-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herb</a> carries within its leaves. 



This study has contributed an important piece to the larger puzzle of creating more effective cancer treatments that are less harmful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colorectal-cancer-a-growing-global-concern">Colorectal cancer: A growing global concern</h2>



Colorectal cancer remains one of the major health challenges facing the world. The incidence rates of this cancer have been on the rise, mainly due to lifestyle factors, an aging population, and genetic predispositions.



Though early detection through screening programs has improved survival rates, treatment options remain limited and often involve surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation - all of which carry significant drawbacks.



Traditional chemotherapy causes severe side effects, such as immune suppression, fatigue, and gastrointestinal distress.



This is why natural compounds such as Artemisia herba-alba are gaining attention. Experts are looking at plant-based solutions that could offer targeted cancer-fighting properties with fewer side effects.



If further research confirms the herb’s effectiveness, it will open doors to more accessible, well-tolerated therapies that could revolutionize colorectal cancer treatment.



With colorectal cancer cases estimated to reach 3.2 million annually by 2040, the need for better treatments has never been greater.



In light of this discovery on Artemisia herba-alba, researchers are bound to look towards nature for their future pharmacological discovery in cancer treatment.



The full study was published in the journal Food Science &amp; Nutrition.



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Medicinal plant has great potential to fight colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer, one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths...

Imagine a world where the vibrant colors and splendor of Earth's wild plants and flowers dotting landscapes around the globe fall victim to extinction and vanish, one species at a time.



While this disturbing notion might seem far-fetched, the reality is that it's already beginning to happen.



Plant conservation is at a critical crossroads as botanic gardens around the world struggle to protect Earth’s most endangered plants. 



A recent review of the processes behind this global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biobanking-historic-initiative-aims-to-genetically-rescue-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species preservation</a> challenge provides scientists with details about exactly what these institutions face in their fight to save endangered and threatened plant species from extinction.



The critical question that emerges is - how can the guardian angels of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-plants-genus-spread-farther-grow-faster-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant kingdom</a>, botanic gardens, rise to meet this challenge?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-100-years-of-plant-conservation">100-years of plant conservation</h2>



The study examined records of fifty botanic gardens and arboreta around the world over the past 100 years, from 1921 to 2021. 



Encompassing over 500,000 plants between them, the goal was to uncover trends and shifts in living plant collections housed at these facilities.



The study's findings suggest that the collections at these gardens have reached their maximum capacity. 



In addition, due to various limitations and rules placed on collecting wild plants in different parts of the world, acquiring and protecting diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a> for conservation and study has become challenging.



The research also revealed that, on a global scale, the retention of threatened plants within these collections has not been successful despite the escalating extinction risk.



It raises serious questions about the priority given to combatting biodiversity loss across these gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurdles-in-saving-plants-from-extinction">Hurdles in saving plants from extinction</h2>



The study was spearheaded by Professor Samuel Brockington from <a href="https://www.museums.cam.ac.uk/museums/cambridge-university-botanic-garden" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambridge University Botanic Garden</a>.



“A concerted, collaborative effort across the world’s botanic gardens is now needed to conserve a genetically diverse range of plants, and to make them available for research and future reintroduction into the wild,” Brockington implored.



The study, published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, stated that the Convention on Biological Diversity (<a href="https://www.cbd.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CBD</a>) has considerably diminished the rate of plant collection from the wild.



This has greatly hampered the international exchange of plants.



“The impact of the Convention on Biological Diversity is a remarkable demonstration of the power and value of international agreements," stated Professor Brockington, who is also a Professor of Evolution at the University of Cambridge's <a href="https://www.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Plant Sciences</a>.



"But it seems to be preventing individual botanic gardens from working with many globally threatened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-invasive-plant-species-are-in-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a> that we could help save from extinction.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-botanic-garden-meta-collections">Botanic garden meta-collections</h2>



Given that nearly 40% of the world’s plant diversity is at an increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">risk of extinction</a>, botanic gardens cannot single-handedly prevent species extinction. 



Therefore, a collective approach is proposed to store and safeguard diversity in living collections. 



Botanic gardens need to function as a 'meta-collection,’ pooling their resources, sharing data, and expertise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-be-done">What can be done?</h2>



While individual institutions like the <a href="https://www.rbge.org.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh </a>have achieved remarkable success in plant conservation, their efforts highlight both the potential and the limitations of working in isolation.



Global organizations such as Botanic Gardens Conservation International (<a href="https://www.bgci.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BGCI</a>) have made strides in promoting collaboration through conservation consortia, yet these initiatives remain exceptions rather than the standard practice.



Smaller or regionally focused botanic gardens often face resource constraints that limit their capacity for impactful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. 



Without sufficient funding, expertise, or infrastructure, their ability to participate in large-scale projects is significantly hindered. 



Furthermore, the lack of robust data-sharing systems and collaboration across institutions exacerbates the challenge, preventing the formation of a cohesive global strategy.



The successes of these individual institutions and organizations serve as a foundation, but a more unified and coordinated effort is essential to effectively combat biodiversity loss on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-plant-extinction">Climate change and plant extinction</h2>



As climate change transforms growing conditions across different regions globally, it will be more challenging for individual botanic gardens to grow a diverse range of species. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-climate-changes-have-drastic-effects-on-tropical-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> affects our work directly by altering local weather conditions - we’ve already seen record-breaking temperatures in Cambridge in recent years," Brockington lamented.



"That’s going to affect how well our plants survive, so we need to think rationally and collectively about the best locations to hold different species across the global network of living collections."



Genetic diversity plays a critical role in protecting plants at risk of extinction. The more individual plants of a species are in a collection, the greater the genetic diversity is likely to be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



Last year, Cambridge University Botanic Garden advertised for a new "Expedition Botanist" to lead global plant-collection expeditions and contribute to vital conservation efforts.



Brockington believes in the importance of these expeditions and proposes a collaborative collection approach that creates equitable international partnerships.



The CBD, signed by 150 government leaders in 1992, commits each country to protect its biodiversity and promote sustainable development. 



Today, there are about 3,500 botanic gardens and arboreta worldwide, committed to studying, conserving and providing access to the world’s plants.



Organizations like the BGCI, a charity, work to mobilize botanic gardens and establish partnerships to secure plant diversity, benefiting people and the planet.



To sum it all up, we're in a race against time for these botanic gardens to adapt, innovate and collaborate in their fight against plant extinction. The future of our plant kingdom hinges on these collective efforts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02633-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Saving Earth's most endangered plants from extinction is proving to be very difficult

Imagine a world where the vibrant colors and splendor of...

In the worldwide push to reduce carbon emissions, land-based mitigation strategies (LBMS) - such as planting forests and growing biofuels - are an increasingly popular solution.&nbsp;



However, a new study cautions that while these efforts can help tackle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, they may also threaten wildlife if not implemented with care. Overall, the study finds that restoring forests has the most positive effect on biodiversity, but warns of unintended consequences from other approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aligning-climate-goals-with-biodiversity">Aligning climate goals with biodiversity</h2>



A team of researchers,&nbsp; including Dr. Evelyn Beaury of the <a href="https://www.nybg.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York Botanical Garden</a> (NYBG), argues that policymakers must weigh the ecological impacts of land-based mitigation strategies as they strive to meet climate targets.



“As efforts to address climate change accelerate, it is urgent to ensure that in deploying LBMS we do not inadvertently imperil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>,” the researchers wrote.



Beaury is an assistant curator at NYBG’s Center for Conservation and Restoration Ecology. This initiative is dedicated to advancing collaborations with global conservation programs, training future biodiversity leaders, and promoting the sustainable use of plant resources at both local and international levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-based-mitigation-strategies">Land-based mitigation strategies</h2>



Countries worldwide, from Austria to Zimbabwe, have committed to adopting LBMS over millions of acres to curb carbon outputs and achieve climate objectives. The principal strategies include:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reforestation</a>: Reintroducing forests in areas where they once existed.</li>



<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Afforestation</a>: Establishing forests on lands such as savannahs and grasslands that have historically been treeless.</li>



<li>Bioenergy Cropping: Cultivating fast-growing plants like switchgrass to generate renewable energy.</li>
</ul>



Although these measures have gained momentum, comprehensively predicting their effects on biodiversity has been challenging, since different ecosystems and species respond in complex ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-mitigation-strategies-and-biodiversity">Climate mitigation strategies and biodiversity </h2>



The study is the first to systematically evaluate how reforestation, afforestation, and bioenergy cropping might affect biodiversity on a global scale.&nbsp;



Led by Dr. Jeffrey Smith, an associate research scholar at <a href="https://environment.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University’s High Meadows Environmental Institute</a>, the research team modeled how over 14,000 animal species could be impacted by these climate mitigation methods - encompassing creatures from tiny mice to large moose.



“Plant-based mitigation strategies do not have the same effect on the climate or on biodiversity everywhere they are deployed. Our research suggests that we cannot assume plant-based solutions always indirectly reduce the biodiversity crisis,” said Dr. Beaury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reforestation-a-win-win-for-wildlife">Reforestation: A “win-win” for wildlife</h2>



The study highlights reforestation as the approach most likely to deliver mutual advantages for both climate and biodiversity. By bringing back forests to places where they naturally existed, habitats improve for many species, and carbon sequestration rises, helping mitigate global warming.&nbsp;



Animals such as spotted salamanders, red-bellied woodpeckers, and even jaguars can benefit from the added forest cover.



“Reforestation is an obvious ‘win-win’ for biodiversity,” said Dr. Beaury. “Restoring lost forest provides habitat as well as reduces the impacts of climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-from-afforestation-and-bioenergy">Risks from afforestation and bioenergy</h2>



Although afforestation and bioenergy cropping can curb climate threats, they pose direct hazards for wildlife. Afforestation usually means planting trees in savannahs and grasslands, fundamentally altering habitats that support unique species.&nbsp;



Ostriches, lions, elk, and grouse are among the animals at risk if these natural ecosystems become uniform forests or bioenergy plantations.



While such transformations may counteract warming and climate pressures, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> they cause can overshadow any biodiversity gains.&nbsp;



The study concludes that immediate declines in habitat overshadow the positive climate effects, making these tactics less favorable for preserving wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observed-declines-in-resilient-species">Observed declines in “resilient” species</h2>



Even species known to tolerate a range of environmental stresses have suffered under afforestation or intense bioenergy cropping.&nbsp;



The study is one of the first to provide quantitative, global evidence of this impact, confirming ecologists’ long-standing concern that large-scale modifications to ecosystems might do more harm than good in certain contexts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-way-forward-careful-deployment">The way forward: Careful deployment</h2>



As national climate strategies intensify, these findings emphasize the importance of carefully matching LBMS to local conditions to avoid harming biodiversity. 



Where ecosystems naturally support forests, reforestation stands out as a solution that harmonizes climate gains with ecological health. 



Conversely, converting grasslands and savannahs to forest or monoculture plantations demands careful evaluation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-necessary-balancing-act">A necessary balancing act</h2>



As climate change progresses, governments worldwide are deploying LBMS on an unprecedented scale. The researchers argue that these strategies must address both carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation to be truly sustainable.&nbsp;



Rather than assuming plant-based solutions will inherently benefit wildlife, policymakers should base decisions on detailed ecological assessments, ensuring that the drive to mitigate climate change does not inadvertently intensify the biodiversity crisis.



By integrating local ecological knowledge with climate targets, decision-makers can adopt balanced solutions that foster both a stable climate and thriving ecosystems - a critical step toward a healthier planet for both people and wildlife.



The research team included Dr. Jonathan Levine, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at Princeton, and Dr. Susan C. Cook-Patton, senior forest restoration scientist at <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Nature Conservancy</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adm9485" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Climate action and biodiversity: Striking the right balance

In the worldwide push to reduce carbon emissions, land-based mitigation...

Seagrass meadows are among the most vital yet often overlooked components of our marine landscapes, playing a crucial role in maintaining the health of our planet. 



These underwater meadows are cherished for their ability to promote biodiversity, boost coastal protection, and improve water quality. 



Beyond these benefits, seagrass meadows are also remarkably adept at capturing and storing carbon dioxide (CO₂), making them a powerful ally in the fight against climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-seagrass-meadows">Threats to seagrass meadows </h2>



Climate change poses significant threats to seagrass ecosystems. Rising sea temperatures can stress seagrass plants, making them more susceptible to disease and reducing their growth rates. 



Ocean acidification, another result of increased CO2 in the atmosphere, affects the delicate balance of the marine environment, altering the chemistry that seagrasses depend on. 



Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and storms intensified by climate change, can physically damage seagrass beds. Meanwhile, rising sea levels may reduce the amount of sunlight these plants receive, hindering photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-zobluc-project">Unveiling the ZOBLUC project</h2>



A new research initiative is focused on investigating and enhancing the potential of seagrass meadows as carbon sinks. The project - Zostera marina as a Blue Carbon Sink in the Baltic Sea (ZOBLC) - is a result of the combined efforts of several institutions.



With funding from the German Federal Environment Ministry's Nature-based Climate Action Programme (ANK) and state funds, the project has a budget of around €6 million to unravel the secrets of seagrass meadows.



To break it down, Zostera marina is the scientific term for seagrass, and blue carbon refers to the carbon stored by coastal and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>.



The term 'sink' points to the role these meadows play in capturing and storing CO₂ - much like a sink that drains water away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-mission">Focus of the mission</h2>



ZOBLUC's strategy rests on three fundamental pillars - the study of seagrass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-alkalinity-may-safely-boost-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-seawater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage capacity</a>, the restoration of meadows, and active community participation in the restoration process.



“Seagrass meadows are like underwater peatlands,” noted Dr. Thorsten Reusch, a professor of Marine Ecology at <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEOMAR</a> who is steering the scientific aspect of the project. “They store carbon, which is preserved in oxygen-poor sediments for centuries.”



ZOBLUC aims to locate blue carbon hotspots that can serve as primary zones for protection.



The second pillar of the project focuses on ensuring that restored meadows can withstand future climatic challenges. 



“There’s little point in replanting seagrass that won’t survive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising water temperatures</a> in a few years’ time,” said Dr. Reusch. To prevent this, the team will expose seagrass to various stressors in an effort to breed resistant and resilient populations.



The third pillar seeks to involve local communities in the restoration process. The plan is to train volunteers to plant seagrass shoots - the most effective restoration method so far. 



“It’s important to complete the training course and only use areas that we have checked for suitability for restoration," noted Dr. Reusch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-the-future">A peek into the future</h2>



The road ahead involves comprehensive mapping of the present <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-can-recover-after-major-die-offs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seagrass meadows</a> in the Baltic Sea. 



This task will be accomplished using advanced optical and acoustic surveying technologies. Additionally, drones will be used to monitor newly planted areas.



The findings from the ZOBLUC project will be disseminated through workshops and integrated into policy recommendations to bolster the protection and restoration of seagrass meadows in the Baltic Sea. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seagrass-and-climate-resilience">Seagrass and climate resilience</h2>



As the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> intensify, seagrass meadows are emerging as a natural defense against environmental challenges. 



Their dense root systems help stabilize coastal sediments, reducing shoreline erosion and mitigating the impact of rising sea levels. 



Moreover, seagrass meadows act as nurseries for a variety of marine species, ensuring the resilience of coastal ecosystems against changing ocean conditions. 



By understanding and enhancing these natural defenses, the ZOBLUC project aims to provide a blueprint for other regions facing similar climate threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-value-of-seagrass-meadows">The value of seagrass meadows</h2>



Beyond their environmental benefits, seagrass meadows offer significant economic value. Healthy seagrass beds support local fisheries by providing critical habitats for commercially important species, such as fish and shellfish.



Additionally, they contribute to the tourism industry by maintaining clear waters and vibrant marine life that attract snorkelers and divers. 



Protecting and restoring these meadows not only safeguards biodiversity but also enhances coastal economies, making their conservation a win-win for both nature and local communities.



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Natural climate solutions: Enhancing the role of seagrass meadows

Seagrass meadows are among the most vital yet often overlooked...

Have you ever wondered what farmers in ancient times ate thousands of years ago? Their diets, shaped by the landscapes that the farmers inhabited and the resources available to them, offer a window into the past.



It's fascinating to see how their meals evolved from humble grain-based recipes - rooted in necessity and tradition - to the complex, rich, and intricate flavors we enjoy today.



While historians and archaeologists have been unraveling the secrets of ancient civilizations for decades, one fascinating piece remained undisclosed - the exact menu of the earliest farmers.



What ingredients did they rely on to sustain their communities? How did they supplement their cultivated crops with nature’s bounty?



But recently, a compelling study, drawing on cutting-edge archaeological techniques, has shed new light on this captivating subject, revealing surprising insights into the diverse and resourceful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets of our ancestors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-ancient-farmers-eat">What did ancient farmers eat?</h2>



Unfolding the story requires a journey to Southern Scandinavia and Northern Germany, specifically Oldenburg LA 77, a region once known for its Middle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-neolithic-mountain-settlers-used-complex-farming-methods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neolithic</a> settlements. 



Oldenburg LA 77 is located in a former wetland area known as the Oldenburger Graben, resting on the southwestern coast of the Baltic Sea. 



This area was home to a number of settlements, and this once-secluded village stands as a reflection of the evolution of society, gradually shifting from isolated farmsteads to more concentrated, populated villages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-farming-diets">Ancient farming diets</h2>



During the excavations, scientists discovered plenty of artifacts including houses, wells, and an array of daily life materials such as pottery fragments and grinding stones. 



"Grinding stones are truly archives for preserving information about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-foods-linked-to-drastically-lower-risk-of-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant foods</a>. Even a small fragment of them can carry plenty of plant microfossils, including starch grains and phytoliths," noted Dr. Jingping An, a research assistant in the study.



And so, it is these grinding stones from Oldenburg LA 77 that provided the breakthrough in this gastronomical mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-grinding-stones">Examining grinding stones</h2>



The study, led by experts from the Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 1266 in Kiel, analyzed ancient plant microfossils preserved on these grinding stones. The findings were impressive, to say the least.



Various food ingredients were discovered, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wheat</a>, barley, fruits of wild grasses, knotweeds, and acorns. Starch-rich tubers, and possibly a small number of wild legume seeds, were also detected. 



These wild ingredients shed light on our ancestors' use of nature's bounty.



"Charred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-plants-may-result-in-more-resilient-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild plants</a> have been documented by archaeobotanical analyses of soil samples from this Neolithic village, but this study further confirms their consumption by looking directly into food processing," noted Professor Wiebke Kirleis, who led the research.



"People in the past knew how to enrich their diet," added Dr. An. 



Undoubtedly, our ancestors were culinary explorers, well-versed in supplementing their meals with the best of what their environment had to offer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-diets-among-ancient-farmers">Similar diets among ancient farmers</h2>



Interestingly, a similar dietary pattern was observed in a different site - the Frydenlund site in Denmark - which was part of the same Funnel Beaker Culture. 



Plant microfossils from wild plants were also found on the grinding stones at this site.



Ultimately, the study offers a fascinating insight into the culinary lifestyle of our earliest farmers. They were not just farmers but also skilled food processors, adept at harnessing the variety of ingredients around them to enrich their meals and lead a wholesome life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-neolithic-farmers">Legacy of Neolithic farmers</h2>



The dietary choices of Neolithic farmers were not only shaped by necessity but also by an intuitive understanding of their environment. 



Their ability to blend cultivated grains with wild plants provided a balanced and diverse diet that sustained growing communities. 



Today, this ancient knowledge continues to influence modern dietary trends, with a renewed focus on whole grains, plant-based nutrition, and sustainable food sources. 



Studies of early farming practices offer valuable insights into how our ancestors adapted to their surroundings, utilizing locally available ingredients to create nourishing meals. 



The enduring legacy of ancient farmers highlights the importance of biodiversity and traditional knowledge in shaping the way we eat today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352409X24005418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Archaeological Science</a>.



Image Credit: Susanne Beyer, Kiel University



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Surprising diet of early farmers from 5,000 years ago revealed by new technology

Have you ever wondered what farmers in ancient times ate...

Nature has long been a treasure trove of medicinal compounds, with plants and animals providing the foundation for many important drugs. 



Morphine, aspirin, and paclitaxel all originate from natural sources, offering immense therapeutic benefits. However, despite their rich chemical diversity and centuries of use in medicine, mushrooms remain largely underexplored in medical research.



Their potential for drug discovery has yet to be fully realized. A recent breakthrough by researchers from Shinshu University, Japan, is changing this landscape. 



The team has successfully achieved the first total synthesis of inaoside A, a natural compound found in the edible mushroom&nbsp;Laetiporus cremeiporus. 



This advancement, published in the&nbsp;Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry, is a significant step toward understanding the bioactive properties of inaoside A and other mushroom-derived compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-compound-in-organic-chemistry">New compound in organic chemistry</h2>



The research from <a href="https://www.shinshu-u.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shinshu University</a> was led by Professor Atsushi Kawamura from the Department of Biomolecular Innovation, along with Mr. Tomoya Takao from the Department of Agriculture and Dr. Hidefumi Makabe from the Department of Biomolecular Innovation.



Their work focuses on the synthesis of inaoside A, a compound classified as an α-D-ribofuranoside. While the α-D-ribofuranoside structure is commonly found in nature, it remains far less studied than its β-anomer counterparts.



"Although the α-D-ribofuranoside structure is frequently found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-brittle-star-tissue-could-transform-regenerative-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural products</a>, there have been fewer reports of the synthesis of α-D-ribofuranosides than of the β-anomers. Thus, the synthesis of α-D-ribofuranosides has attracted much attention from organic chemists," explained Dr. Kawamura.



This structural class is of particular interest because of its potential biological activities. Scientists suspect that inaoside A may have important medicinal properties, but without an efficient synthesis method, further exploration was difficult.&nbsp;



"The total synthesis of inaoside A is an important objective because its varied bioactivities need to be investigated," said Dr. Kawamura.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthesizing-mushroom-compounds-for-medicines">Synthesizing mushroom compounds for medicines</h2>



Developing a synthetic route for inaoside A posed several challenges. To create the compound, the research team needed to use a key reaction known as α-selective Schmidt glycosylation. 



This reaction attaches a glycoside to another molecule in a highly specific manner, ensuring that the final product maintains the correct structural orientation.



Using retrosynthetic chemistry, the team worked backward from the desired final product to determine the ideal starting materials. They identified two essential precursors: an aglycone derived from vanillin and a ribofuranosyl trichloroacetimidate. 



However, an obstacle remained - Schmidt glycosylation typically favors the formation of β-ribofuranosides rather than the desired α-ribofuranosides.



To overcome this issue, the researchers modified their approach by selecting a different substrate. They employed a 2,3,5-tri-O-(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)-protected ribofuranoside, which facilitated α-selective glycosylation with remarkable precision. 



This strategic modification allowed them to achieve an α/β ratio of 4:1 to 5:1, ensuring the successful synthesis of inaoside A with high selectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-inaoside">Significance of inaoside</h2>



The ability to synthesize inaoside A in the laboratory is a major milestone in natural product research. By creating a reliable synthetic method, scientists can now study this compound in greater detail, examining its potential medicinal applications and biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">functions</a>.



"By elucidating the chemical structures and biological activities of natural products derived from mushrooms, we aim to discover the potential of edible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-is-given-a-robot-body-and-runs-wild-in-fascinating-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mushrooms</a> as functional foods. These natural products could contribute to advancing pharmaceutical science by serving as pharmaceutical leads," noted Dr. Kawamura.



With a stable supply of inaoside A now possible, researchers can conduct further studies on its bioactivity. Understanding its interactions within biological systems could lead to the development of new pharmaceuticals or functional food ingredients. 



The study of mushroom-derived compounds is still in its early stages, but this success demonstrates that fungi hold significant promise for future drug discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mushroom-derived-medicines">Future of mushroom-derived medicines</h2>



Now that inaoside A can be synthesized efficiently, the research team is eager to explore its full potential. Further investigations are already underway, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-leather-mycelium-latest-eco-friendly-fashion-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structural modifications</a> and biological testing to determine its therapeutic properties.



"Further studies on inaoside A, including more detailed investigation of its bioactivities, the synthesis of derivatives, and structure-activity relationship studies, are in progress. We would like to develop this chemical into a socially meaningful compound," said Dr. Kawamura.



This research marks an important step toward unlocking the vast chemical diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mushrooms</a>. As scientists continue to explore these natural compounds, they may uncover new leads for drug development, functional foods, and other biotechnological applications. 



The successful synthesis of inaoside A serves as a reminder that nature still holds many secrets waiting to be discovered.



The study is published in the <a href="https://aces.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajoc.202400547" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Asian Journal of Organic Chemistry</a>.



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First total synthesis of mushroom compound could transform medicine

Nature has long been a treasure trove of medicinal compounds,...

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus sikokianus puzzled scientists and botanists alike.



Named in 1889 by renowned Japanese botanist MAKINO Tomitaro, the fungus-consuming plant features a distinct appendage reminiscent of a tiny finger on its stigma - the part of the flower that accepts pollen.



But why is this appendage there, and what purpose does it serve? Despite its popularity among Japan's iconic orchids, the function of this unique feature remained a mystery - until now.



<a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> botanist SUETSUGU Kenji specializes in orchids that feed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-fungi-determine-the-gradient-of-forest-diversity-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil fungi</a> rather than sunlight. Stigmatodactylus, he realized, fit this bill perfectly.



“I’m particularly interested in their pollination mechanisms, employing an interdisciplinary approach that integrates taxonomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology," said Kenji.



His fascination with these unique orchids propelled him to investigate further, questioning the purpose and ecological role of the finger-like appendage that had attracted so much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-orchid-that-self-pollinates">The orchid that self-pollinates </h2>



Kenji's research sheds light on a unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> method. He found that Stigmatodactylus sikokianus predominantly self-pollinates, which means it doesn’t require insects to transport pollen from one plant to another.



Interestingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-faced-with-competition-some-plants-learn-to-self-pollinate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-pollination</a> occurs roughly three days after the flower opens. This delay bears significant ecological implications.



Given the plant's natural habitat in dark forest understories, it is rarely visited by potential pollinators.



“While self-pollination likely guarantees reproductive success, relying solely on this method risks inbreeding. This may drive the evolution of mechanisms that combine the benefits of self-pollination and outcrossing," said Kenji.



"Delayed self-pollination, postponed until opportunities for outcrossing are exhausted, is likely one such adaptation - a failsafe mechanism.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-self-pollination-mechanism">Novel self-pollination mechanism </h2>



While meticulously observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, Kenji noticed that the finger-like appendage plays a crucial role in self-pollination.



On the third day after the flower opens, the stigma collapses and makes contact with the pollen-carrying anther, aided by the finger-like appendage, thereby fertilizing the plant. 



“The movement of the stigma appendage represents, to the best of our knowledge, a novel self-pollination mechanism in orchids,” said Kenji.



He noted that since there are 28 species in the Stigmatodactylus family, many of which share this unique appendage, this self-pollination mechanism could be common in other species too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-traditional-research-with-modern-science">Bridging traditional research with modern science</h2>



Kenji hopes his work will help bridge the gap between historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiries. 



“The significance of this discovery lies in its ability to bridge historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiry. It underscores the value of integrating meticulous taxonomic analysis with ecological and evolutionary studies to gain novel insights," said Kenji.



"This study demonstrates that traditional natural history research, unifying taxonomy, evolution and ecology, still has the power to uncover new phenomena today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchids-self-pollinate-to-survive">Orchids self-pollinate to survive</h2>



Understanding the unique pollination mechanism of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus offers significant implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-their-incredible-adaptability-orchids-are-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchid conservation</a> efforts.



Many orchid species are highly specialized and depend on specific ecological conditions to thrive. 



The newfound knowledge about the self-pollination strategy of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus sheds light on how other orchid species may have evolved to adapt to low-pollinator environments.



This insight can guide conservationists in designing better habitat protection strategies and cultivation techniques to ensure the survival of orchids facing similar ecological challenges. 



Furthermore, it highlights the need to preserve the dark forest understories where these delicate plants flourish, as habitat destruction poses a major threat to their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-evolutionary-significance">Broader evolutionary significance</h2>



The discovery of the delayed self-pollination mechanism in Stigmatodactylus sikokianus raises intriguing questions about the broader evolutionary adaptations of orchids and other flowering plants.



In ecosystems with scarce pollinators, plants must develop creative reproductive strategies to ensure their survival. 



This ability to self-pollinate suggests that evolution has equipped some orchids with a dual approach - allowing time for potential cross-pollination before resorting to self-fertilization as a last resort.



The findings contribute to our understanding of plant reproductive biology and may inspire further research into similar mechanisms in related plant families.



By studying these adaptations, scientists can better comprehend how plants respond to environmental pressures and how they might adapt to future changes, such as climate shifts and habitat fragmentation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



Image Credit: IKEDA Tetsuro



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Some orchids have 'fingers' to pollinate themselves

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus...

A recent study led by the University of Oxford challenges the widely held notion that plants actively communicate with each other to warn of impending threats.



Instead, the findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> are more likely to passively “eavesdrop” on their neighbors through shared fungal networks rather than engage in altruistic signaling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underground-communication-network">Underground communication network</h2>



Beneath the soil, plants are connected by an intricate fungal network popularly referred to as the “wood wide web.” This network emerges from the symbiotic relationships between plant roots and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a>.&nbsp;



In this partnership, plants supply fungi with carbon while the fungi provide essential nutrients to the plants. These networks also enable the transmission of resources and information among plants.



Previous studies have demonstrated that when one plant is attacked by herbivores or pathogens, neighboring plants connected to the same fungal network often strengthen their defenses.&nbsp;



However, it has remained unclear whether these responses result from active warnings sent by the attacked plant or passive cues interpreted by its neighbors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questioning-altruism-in-plant-behavior">Questioning altruism in plant behavior</h2>



The idea that plants actively warn their neighbors poses a puzzle for evolutionary biologists. Altruistic behavior is generally rare in nature and typically occurs when it offers mutual benefits. For plants competing for resources like sunlight and nutrients, warning their neighbors would seem counterintuitive.



To address this paradox, an international research team from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and <a href="https://vu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam</a> developed mathematical models to explore whether plants would evolve to signal threats to one another.&nbsp;



The results suggest that it is highly unlikely for plants to develop active warning mechanisms, as such behavior would not confer significant evolutionary advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-communicate-in-deceptive-ways">Plants communicate in deceptive ways</h2>



The study revealed that plants might even engage in deceptive signaling to gain an advantage over their competitors.&nbsp;



“Our results indicate that it is more likely that plants will behave deceptively toward their neighbors, rather than altruistically,” said lead author Thomas Scott from the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford.&nbsp;



“For instance, plants may signal that a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivore-extinctions-drastically-affect-forest-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivore</a> attack is occurring, even when no herbivore is present. Plants can gain a benefit from dishonest signaling because it harms their local competitors, by tricking them into investing in costly herbivore defense mechanisms.”



The findings challenge the idea of plants as cooperative entities and instead suggest that what appears to be altruistic behavior may often serve competitive or self-interested purposes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-neighboring-plants-still-respond">Why do neighboring plants still respond?</h2>



If plants are not actively warning their neighbors, why do connected plants upregulate their defenses when one is attacked? The researchers proposed two alternative explanations.



First, plants might unintentionally emit cues when under stress, similar to humans blushing when embarrassed. These involuntary emissions could be picked up by neighboring plants as signals of a threat, even though the emitting plant gains no direct benefit from sharing this information.



Second, the fungal networks themselves could play an active role in transmitting warnings. Mycorrhizal fungi rely on healthy plants for their survival, as plants provide them with carbohydrates. By relaying signals about potential threats, the fungi may protect their host plants and ensure the stability of the network.&nbsp;



“Maybe it is the fungal networks themselves that are sending the warning signals,” Scott said. “Mycorrhizal fungi rely on the plants on their network for carbohydrates, so it’s important to keep these plants in good condition. Perhaps the fungi are listening in on their plant partners, detecting when one has been attacked, and warning the others to prepare themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nosy-plants-that-eavesdrop">Nosy plants that eavesdrop</h2>



Co-author Toby Kiers from Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam offered another perspective, likening plants to neighbors gossiping about a shared environment:



“There is no dispute that information is transferred. Organisms are constantly detecting and processing information about their environment. The question is whether plants are actively sending signals to warn each other. Maybe just like gossiping neighbors, one plant is simply <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eavesdropping-viruses-the-unseen-war-within-our-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eavesdropping</a> on the another.”



This reinterpretation highlights the possibility that plants are more passive participants in these networks, interpreting cues rather than engaging in intentional communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plant-ecology-and-conservation">Implications for plant ecology and conservation</h2>



The study’s findings have significant implications for our understanding of plant behavior and ecosystem dynamics. Recognizing that plants may rely more on passive information gathering than active signaling shifts the focus of research to the role of fungal networks in mediating plant interactions.&nbsp;



This knowledge could be valuable in predicting how plant communities will respond to environmental changes such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> or climate change.



Understanding these dynamics also has potential applications in agriculture and conservation. For instance, manipulating fungal networks might enhance crop resilience or help restore ecosystems by improving communication between plants in stressed environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the study provides compelling theoretical support for the eavesdropping hypothesis, further empirical research is needed to validate these models.&nbsp;



Experiments could focus on isolating the role of fungi in transmitting signals and exploring whether different plant species vary in their ability to interpret these cues.



Additionally, studying how plants and fungi interact in diverse ecosystems could reveal whether certain environments favor passive communication over active signaling.&nbsp;



Expanding the research to include underrepresented plant species and regions would also provide a more comprehensive understanding of these interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-plants-communicate">Rethinking how plants communicate </h2>



This study fundamentally challenges the idea of plants as altruistic communicators, suggesting instead that their behavior may be driven by competition, self-interest, and passive eavesdropping.&nbsp;



By highlighting the role of fungal networks, the research opens new avenues for exploring the intricate relationships that sustain plant communities.



As Scott and his team continue to refine their models and expand their investigations, the hidden dynamics of plant communication promise to reveal even more about the complex strategies plants use to survive and thrive in their environments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2420701122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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Plants use underground networks to ‘eavesdrop’ on their neighbors 

A recent study led by the University of Oxford challenges...

Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of our environment, the production of ammonia, is no longer a headache. Instead, the Earth itself could become a productive partner in generating this chemical. All it takes is the use of Earth's natural forces and heat.



In an unexpected twist of events, a scientific breakthrough at the globally renowned Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), points in this very direction.



The ground-breaking study was motivated by a mysterious natural phenomenon observed in Mali, West Africa, in the 1980s.



Locals came across a well that was gushing with hydrogen gas, an oddity that scientists attributed to a water-rock chemical reaction beneath Earth's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-shift-in-the-fertilizer-industry">Green shift in the fertilizer industry</h2>



“It was an ‘aha’ moment,” shared senior author Iwnetim Abate of MIT. "We may be able to use Earth as a factory, harnessing its heat and pressure to produce valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> like ammonia in a cleaner manner."



Ammonia's importance cannot be overstated. It is a key ingredient in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> and potentially a clean fuel source. However, its current production methods are far from energy-efficient or green. 



Today's industrial ammonia production is a significant consumer of global energy and a major emitter of CO2. In fact, for every ton of ammonia produced, there's a release of around 2.4 tons of CO2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-ammonia-production">Traditional ammonia production</h2>



For over a century, the production of ammonia has been dominated by the Haber-Bosch process, an energy-intensive method that relies heavily on the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>.



This conventional approach operates at high temperatures and pressures, consumes vast amounts of natural gas and contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.



Despite its efficiency in meeting global fertilizer demands, the process is far from sustainable. 



As industries face mounting pressure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-changes-in-diet-can-greatly-reduce-your-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduce their carbon footprints</a>, the search for greener alternatives has intensified. 



Scientists and engineers are now exploring innovative methods that utilize Earth's natural processes to revolutionize ammonia production, offering a path toward cleaner, more efficient solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-solution-under-our-feet">Finding the solution under our feet</h2>



With sustainability in their sights, the research team at MIT set out to test this idea of an "Earth factory." They constructed an environment that replicated the conditions beneath Earth's surface.



Iron-rich minerals were exposed to nitrogen-laced water, which ignited a chemical reaction that transformed the rock and gave rise to what they termed "geological ammonia."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1s.webp" alt="Researchers cooked up a new recipe—without any energy input or CO2 emission—for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate" class="wp-image-1957605"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers cooked up a new recipe - without any energy input or CO2 emission - for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate</figcaption></figure>



Remarkably, the process didn't require any additional energy input, and there were no CO2 emissions. To top it all, the entire process even took place under ambient conditions!



To replicate real-world conditions, the team replaced synthetic mineral with olivine, a naturally iron-laden rock. They optimized the process further by introducing a copper catalyst and elevating the heat to 300°C.



In just 21 hours, they managed to produce about 1.8 kg of ammonia per ton of olivine, demonstrating the method's feasibility and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-green-ammonia-production-matter">Why does green ammonia production matter?</h2>



"These rocks are all over the world, so the method could be adapted very widely across the globe," enthused Abate.



However, he acknowledged that implementation would come with its own set of challenges, including drilling into iron-rich rocks deep within the Earth and dealing with the complexities of the rocks' interactions with gases and liquids.



On the economic front, geological ammonia production is encouraging. The cost is around $0.55 per kilogram, roughly equivalent to the price of conventional methods. 



But the game-changer is the potential to address environmental crises like CO2 production and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/staggering-amount-of-wastewater-impacts-coastal-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater pollution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-life-and-ammonia">Nature, life, and ammonia</h2>



Yifan Gao of MIT, the first author of the study, postulated a win-win strategy. 



"Nitrogen sources are considered as pollution in wastewater, and removing them costs money and energy," he explained.



The team suggested turning this problem on its head by using wastewater to produce ammonia. This perspective could potentially add an additional profit of $3.82 per kilogram of ammonia formed.



"Ammonia is pretty important for life. The only other natural way that ammonia is produced on Earth is when lightning strikes nitrogen gas," commented senior author Ju Li.



"That’s why the geological production of ammonia is quite interesting when you think about where life came from,” Li concluded.



This initiative by the scientists at MIT highlights the innovative solutions that can arise when we look towards nature for inspiration.



With every small step, we move closer to a future where sustainable chemical production is not just a dream but a reality.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2542435124005415" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joule</a>.



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New green tech produces ammonia fertilizer using Earth's natural forces

Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of...

They start their journey on sandy shores, scuttling toward the waves at barely a few inches long. Some people assume these little sea turtles vanish after that, drifting in the open water for years without actively swimming or controlling where they go.



In a recent <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2013.3039" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> led by Kate Mansfield from the University of Central Florida, researchers have pieced together what happens during the early, lesser-known part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-show-signs-of-recovery-but-conservation-issues-remain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles’ lives</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-baby-turtles-is-difficult">Tracking baby turtles is difficult</h2>



Researchers recently uncovered the whereabouts of young sea turtles by using carefully designed satellite trackers. They found that tiny turtles show more control over their movement than once believed.



“We’ve had massive data gaps about the early baby to toddler life stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-celebrating-100-million-years-of-majesty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea</a> turtles,” said Mansfield. She explained that this phase was rarely observed in detail.



"Known as the sea turtle ‘lost years,' few data exist on the in-water behavior of young, oceanic-stage sea turtles," wrote the researchers.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-impacts-the-size-of-sea-turtle-hatchlings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Young</a> turtles shed their outer shell layers quickly. This makes it tough to secure tracking devices long enough to gather good data.



Engineers refined lightweight solar-powered tags for weeks or months of location data without hindering the turtles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-sea-turtles-don-t-just-drift">Young sea turtles don’t just drift</h2>



Scientists once believed baby turtles went with the flow of ocean currents. Field data are now challenging that long-standing notion.



“What we’ve uncovered is that the turtles are actually swimming,” said Nathan Putman, an ecologist at LGL Ecological Research Associates in Texas.



The analysis compared drifting buoys with small turtles and showed that many turtles moved on their own instead of washing ashore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-turtles-choose-where-to-swim">Baby turtles choose where to swim</h2>



The difference between turtles and free-floating buoys grew clearer over the course of each tracking period. Drifting objects often ended up stuck on beaches, yet many turtles did not.



“This tiny little hatchling is actually making its own decisions about where it wants to go in the ocean and what it wants to avoid,” said Bryan Wallace, a wildlife ecologist at <a href="https://ecolibriumsolar.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecolibrium in Colorado</a>.



The new findings suggest that turtles choose routes that match their needs for food and safe temperatures.



"The paths of our tracked neonate loggerheads were environmentally constrained. No turtles moved into lethally cold waters," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-habitats-of-sea-turtles-revealed">Hidden habitats of sea turtles revealed</h2>



Tag data also showed young sea turtles in areas once assumed too close to shore for this stage. Though many do wander across open waters, some appear comfortable dipping into shallower spots.



The researchers noted that such varied paths challenge the old definition of an exclusively oceanic childhood. This highlights the importance of regions near the continental shelf for four types of endangered sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leatherback-sea-turtles-where-the-worlds-largest-turtles-go-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtles</a>.



It took years to refine solar-powered tags that could function on small, rapidly growing shells. Early versions fell off too fast or failed to recharge in ocean conditions.



“For years, the technology couldn’t match the dream,” said Jeffrey Seminoff, a marine biologist at NOAA who was not involved in the study. 



Continued collaboration between ecologists and engineers is bringing once-hidden animal behavior to light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-for-sea-turtles">Conservation efforts for sea turtles </h2>



The findings spotlight part of a creature’s life that was overshadowed for decades by hatchling races to the sea and nesting adults on familiar beaches. 



Young turtles do more than just drift - they swim toward the open ocean, while others linger over the continental shelf.



“It’s not that the sea turtles were ever lost, but that we had lost track of them,” said Jeanette Wyneken at Florida Atlantic University. This deeper understanding may guide conservation efforts in areas where turtles feed or rest before reaching adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-baby-turtles-swim">Rethinking how baby turtles swim</h2>



The research suggests that the early life stage of sea turtles is not just a dispersal period. The study captures the reality that little turtles roam widely and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-sea-turtle-day-a-tribute-to-resilience-and-conservation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapt</a> their routes to changing conditions.



They might spot floating algae to seek shelter, or they might veer away from predator hotspots. Even in vast waters, these hatchlings can find ways to survive on their own terms.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2013.3039" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Where young sea turtles spend their early lives has always been a mystery - until now

They start their journey on sandy shores, scuttling toward the...

A new study has unveiled the far-reaching ecological impact of wolves and other large carnivores in Yellowstone National Park, demonstrating how the reintroduction of predators can trigger dramatic changes in ecosystem dynamics.&nbsp;



By examining 20 years of data (from 2001 to 2020) collected at 25 riparian sites, the research team discovered a staggering 1,500% increase in willow crown volume along streamside areas in northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-return-of-wolves-in-yellowstone-nbsp">The return of wolves in Yellowstone&nbsp;</h2>



This remarkable recovery is attributed to the cascading effects initiated by the restored large carnivore guild, following the return of wolves in 1995–96, and the subsequent reduction in elk populations that had previously overbrowsed the vegetation.



The study, led by William J. Ripple of <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a> and the <a href="https://consbio.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology Institute</a> provides one of the most compelling examples yet of a trophic cascade - a process where predators indirectly influence vegetation by regulating herbivore behavior and abundance.&nbsp;



In this case, the dramatic growth of willows, used as a proxy for aboveground biomass, offers a clear metric of the ecological recovery underway in Yellowstone.



“Our findings emphasize the power of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apex-predators-can-help-restore-ecosystems-but-not-immediately/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> as ecosystem architects,” said Ripple. 



“The restoration of wolves and other large predators has transformed parts of Yellowstone, benefiting not only willows but other woody species such as aspen, alder, and berry-producing shrubs. It’s a compelling reminder of how predators, prey, and plants are interconnected in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unleashing-the-trophic-cascade">Unleashing the trophic cascade</h2>



The ecological phenomenon documented in Yellowstone is a textbook example of a trophic cascade. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-return-of-the-gray-wolf-triumph-or-tragedy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> were extirpated from the park by the 1920s, elk populations surged, leading to overbrowsing and severe degradation of riparian vegetation.&nbsp;



This suppression not only diminished willow growth but also adversely affected other woody plants and the overall habitat quality in these crucial areas.&nbsp;



With the reintroduction of wolves and other large carnivores in the mid-1990s, elk numbers and behaviors were altered, allowing vegetation - especially willows - to rebound dramatically.



Using willow crown volume as a three-dimensional indicator of vegetation recovery, the study quantitatively measured the significant resurgence of riparian habitats.&nbsp;



Notably, the strength of this trophic cascade in Yellowstone is reported to surpass 82% of the strengths observed in a global synthesis of similar studies, highlighting the exceptional nature of the recovery process in this iconic landscape.&nbsp;



Yet, the researchers also noted that recovery varied considerably among sites, reflecting the complexity and spatial heterogeneity of natural systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-riparian-zones-crucial-biodiversity-hotspots">Riparian zones: Crucial biodiversity hotspots</h2>



Although riparian areas comprise only a small fraction of the western United States’ landscape, they are vital for biodiversity. 



These zones offer critical resources and habitat for a wide array of wildlife, linking upland and aquatic ecosystems and supporting a diversity of species that may not thrive elsewhere. 



The resurgence of willow growth is not merely an isolated botanical event; it plays a key role in restoring the integrity of entire riparian ecosystems, thereby benefiting birds, mammals, and other organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wolves-and-yellowstone-ecosystem-recovery">Wolves and Yellowstone ecosystem recovery</h2>



The study’s robust findings are based on an extensive, multi-decade dataset that captured the gradual but profound changes in riparian vegetation over time.&nbsp;



By employing willow crown volume as a measurable indicator, the researchers were able to directly link the restoration of large carnivores to ecosystem recovery. This method offers a powerful tool for evaluating trophic cascade strength and can potentially be applied to similar ecological studies elsewhere.



“Our analysis of a long-term data set simply confirmed that ecosystem recovery takes time. In the early years of this trophic cascade, plants were only beginning to grow taller after decades of suppression by elk. But the strength of this recovery, as shown by the dramatic increases in willow crown volume, became increasingly apparent in subsequent years,” said Robert Beschta, an emeritus professor at Oregon State University.&nbsp;



“These improving conditions have created vital habitats for birds and other species, while also enhancing other stream-side conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-and-future-research">Implications for conservation and future research</h2>



This research not only highlights the importance of predator restoration for revitalizing degraded ecosystems but also provides critical insights for conservation strategies worldwide. 



The dramatic improvement in riparian vegetation in Yellowstone serves as a powerful reminder that restoring natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> can have cascading benefits that extend to every level of the ecosystem.&nbsp;



As the study demonstrates, such processes are integral to maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and the overall health of our natural landscapes.



By quantifying the recovery of willows, the study paves the way for further exploration into how the reintroduction of large carnivores can be harnessed to promote ecosystem restoration in other parts of the world.&nbsp;



As conservationists and policymakers seek effective strategies to mitigate the impacts of human activities and climate change, Yellowstone’s example offers both hope and a proven roadmap for the transformative power of nature’s own regulatory mechanisms.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2025.e03428" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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Wolves are rebuilding forests and restoring ecosystem balance in Yellowstone

A new study has unveiled the far-reaching ecological impact of...

The ocean is a world of sound. Beneath the surface, marine life relies on calls, clicks, and songs to navigate, communicate, and survive. For baleen whales, singing songs is essential, but it also comes with risks. 



Killer whales, their primary natural predators, are intelligent and highly skilled hunters. Yet, despite their sharp senses, some baleen whales manage to avoid their attacks.



New research from the University of Washington sheds light on a fascinating survival strategy. Some baleen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> call at frequencies so deep that killer whales cannot hear them. 



This unique adaptation influences everything from migration to mating, revealing how fear shapes the behavior of these giants of the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fight-or-flight-dilemma-of-whales">Fight or flight dilemma of whales</h2>



Baleen whales, known for their filter-feeding systems, differ from their toothed relatives in behavior and survival strategies. 



Unlike dolphins or sperm whales, which often live in large, social pods, many baleen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale species</a> lead more solitary lives. When faced with an attack, they must decide whether to fight or flee.



Some species, like humpbacks and gray whales, choose to stand their ground. They rely on their maneuverability and group defense to deter predators. Others, like blue and fin whales, opt for speed, escaping into the vastness of the open ocean. 



This divide between fight and flight species plays a crucial role in shaping their lifestyles, habitats, and even the way they sing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-whale-songs">Mystery of whale songs</h2>



Whale songs are among the most haunting and complex sounds in nature. Scientists have long studied these vocalizations to understand their purpose. 



While it is well known that whales use songs to attract mates and communicate across great distances, one question remained: why don’t killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a> track these calls to hunt them down?



The answer lies in frequency. Killer whales have a hearing range that starts at 100 hertz, meaning they cannot detect sounds below this threshold. 



Some baleen whales, particularly those in the flight category, have adapted by producing ultra-low-frequency calls that remain completely undetectable to their predators. These deep-voiced species include blue, fin, sei, Bryde’s, and minke whales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-songs-help-whales-hide">How songs help whales hide</h2>



Trevor Branch, professor of aquatic and fishery sciences at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, led a study analyzing the relationship between whale songs and predation risk. 



The research combined existing knowledge of killer whale hearing with studies on baleen whale vocalizations. By modeling how sound moves through the ocean, Professor Branch was able to determine which species remain acoustically hidden.



It turns out that the calls of flight species rarely travel more than a kilometer before fading. This means that even if killer whales could hear them, they would still be difficult to track. 



Meanwhile, the fight species - right, bowhead, gray, and humpback whales - produce higher-frequency calls that can be detected from much greater distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-survival-strategy-hidden-in-songs">Whales survival strategy hidden in songs</h2>



The idea that baleen whales rely on fight or flight responses is not new, but the role of sound in their survival adds a new layer of understanding. Could these deep songs serve as a defense mechanism? 



This concept, known as "acoustic crypsis," suggests that some whales evolved to sing in a way that keeps them hidden from predators.



“But these super-loud songs could expose them and their mates to killer whale attack. And this is where acoustic crypsis comes in: singing at low frequencies that are impossible, or very difficult, for killer whales to hear,” Branch said.



This survival strategy highlights how even the most massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> on Earth must adapt to threats. By calling at deep frequencies, flight species can continue their essential communication while reducing the risk of drawing unwanted attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-habitat-influences-defense">How habitat influences defense</h2>



The fight-or-flight divide among baleen whales also affects where they live. Fight species tend to migrate and give birth in coastal areas. 



These shallow waters provide some protection, as they allow group defense strategies to work more effectively. Their slow-swimming bodies may make them vulnerable, but their ability to maneuver quickly gives them an edge when fending off an attack.



In contrast, flight species thrive in the open ocean. Their sleek, powerful bodies allow them to escape quickly when danger approaches. 



These whales spread out over vast distances, making it harder for killer whales to find them. Their survival depends on speed and silence rather than confrontation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-offs-in-feeding-and-mating">Trade-offs in feeding and mating</h2>



Choosing where to live comes with trade-offs. Coastal waters offer some protection from predators, but they also provide less food. Fight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ship-routes-overlap-with-92-of-whale-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> must compete for limited resources, while flight species, living in more isolated open waters, have access to greater food supplies.



However, mating presents the opposite challenge. It is much easier for fight species to find partners when gathered in the same location. 



Flight species, scattered across thousands of miles, must rely on their songs to attract mates. This explains why their calls are long and repetitive, increasing the chances of being heard over vast distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-fear-in-whale-behavior">Role of fear in whale behavior</h2>



The findings of this research suggest that fear plays a significant role in shaping whale behavior. Every aspect of their lives, from where they breed to how they communicate, is influenced by the threat of predation.



“It just never occurred to me that some whales sing low to avoid killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-use-offshore-oil-rigs-as-food-stops-during-migration-harming-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, but the more I looked at this, the more I realized that every aspect of their behavior is influenced by the fear of predation,” said Professor Branch.



This hidden war of sound beneath the waves highlights how even the ocean’s largest creatures must navigate the dangers of their world. By understanding songs of whales, scientists continue to uncover the secrets of survival in the deep.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mms.13228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Science</a>.



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Whales have developed an impressive strategy to evade predators

The ocean is a world of sound. Beneath the surface,...

Monarch butterflies have long symbolized transformation and resilience. Their fragile yet determined migration across North America has captivated scientists and nature enthusiasts.



Each year, these vibrant orange-and-black-winged insects embark on a remarkable journey, covering thousands of miles to reach their wintering grounds. However, recent findings paint a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-new-forests-to-assist-monarch-butterfly-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">troubling picture</a>.



The number of western monarch butterflies has fallen to its second-lowest count in nearly 30 years. A combination of habitat destruction, pesticide exposure, and climate change threatens the survival of this iconic species.



Conservationists and researchers are scrambling to understand the reasons behind this sharp decline and what can be done to protect these beloved pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-butterfly-surveys">Monarch butterfly surveys </h2>



For decades, scientists have monitored monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-may-be-added-to-the-endangered-species-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> to track changes in their numbers. Monarchs found in the eastern United States migrate south to Mexico, where they are counted each year by researchers from the World Wildlife Fund.



However, monarchs west of the Rocky Mountains follow a different path and overwinter along the California coast.



Since 1997, the <a href="https://www.xerces.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation</a> has conducted annual counts of western monarchs. These surveys cover multiple locations, including coastal California, northern Baja California, and inland regions of California and Arizona. 



In 1997, researchers recorded the highest-ever population numbers - a total of 1.2 million butterflies. That number has plummeted over the subsequent years, reaching a devastating low of just 1,901 monarchs in 2020.



Despite a brief resurgence in recent years, the latest survey results are alarming. In 2024, only 9,119 monarchs were counted - a staggering 96 percent drop from the 233,394 recorded in 2023. This marks the second-lowest population count since the survey began.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-key-wintering-sites">Decline in key wintering sites</h2>



One of the most dramatic declines was observed at a key wintering site owned by <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Nature Conservancy</a> in Santa Barbara. 



This location hosted 33,200 monarchs last winter. In 2024, the number fell to just 198. Such steep declines raise concerns about the future stability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarch populations</a> in the region.



While the reasons for this sudden decrease are not entirely clear, experts point to several contributing factors. Loss of milkweed, the primary host plant for monarch caterpillars, remains one of the biggest challenges.



The plant’s habitat has been shrinking due to agricultural expansion, urban development, and prolonged droughts. Pesticides also play a major role, contaminating milkweed and poisoning caterpillars before they can mature into butterflies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-and-monarch-butterflies">Extreme heat and monarch butterflies </h2>



Weather conditions also significantly impact monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-monarch-butterflies-vanishing-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. While habitat destruction and pesticide exposure remain persistent threats, extreme heat waves may have played a crucial role in this year’s decline.



According to Emma Pelton, an endangered species biologist with the Xerces Society, monarchs struggle when temperatures reach 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.7 Celsius). Prolonged exposure to temperatures above 108 degrees Fahrenheit (42.2 degrees Celsius) can be fatal.



“The monarch population is already small,” Pelton said. “Triple-digit heat in the western states last year may have slowed breeding.”



The summer of 2023 saw multiple heat waves across the western United States. In July, Palm Springs set a record high of 124 degrees Fahrenheit (51.1 degrees Celsius). 



A second wave of extreme heat hit northern California in early October, with multiple cities breaking temperature records. These conditions may have reduced breeding success and weakened the already vulnerable monarch population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-dramatic-population-swings">History of dramatic population swings</h2>



Although the 2024 population decline is severe, western monarchs have demonstrated an ability to recover in the past. In 2020, when the population hit its all-time low of 1,901 individuals, many feared the species was on the brink of collapse.



Yet, the following year their numbers soared to 247,246 - an increase of nearly 13,000 percent. The upward trend continued in 2022, with the survey recording 335,479 monarchs.



“This is bad news,” Pelton said. “But we have seen incredible recovery. This doesn’t mean we’re not going to have western monarchs. It’s hopefully a wake-up call that a bad year can set them back pretty significantly.”



The rapid rise and fall of monarch populations suggest that they have the potential for quick recovery, provided conditions improve. However, conservationists warn that without sustained efforts to protect their habitat and food sources, monarchs may struggle to bounce back in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-federal-efforts-to-protect-monarch-butterflies">Federal efforts to protect monarch butterflies</h2>



In response to the ongoing decline, the <a href="https://www.fws.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> announced in December 2024 that it is taking steps to list monarchs as a threatened species. 



If granted, this status would provide crucial legal protections. Killing or transporting monarchs, or destroying monarch habitats would be prohibited under federal law.



The proposal also includes protections for 4,395 acres of land across seven coastal California counties. These areas serve as essential overwintering sites for western monarchs. 



If the listing is approved, conservationists hope it will slow habitat destruction and create safer breeding grounds for monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eastern-monarch-butterfly-populations-have-plummeted-by-59-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> to recover.



A public comment period on the proposal remains open until March, allowing experts and the public to weigh in on the decision. Officials have until December 2025 to finalize the listing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calls-for-stronger-pesticide-regulations">Calls for stronger pesticide regulations</h2>



Beyond habitat loss, pesticides pose a major threat to monarchs and other pollinators. In December 2024, the environmental law firm Earthjustice petitioned the Environmental Protection Agency to strengthen pesticide regulations. 



Their request focused on requiring companies to assess how their products affect insects such as bees, moths, and butterflies.



While some pesticides have been linked to monarch declines, many remain widely used in agriculture. Conservation groups argue that without stricter oversight, pesticide exposure will continue to harm pollinators and reduce their chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fate-of-monarch-butterflies">The fate of monarch butterflies</h2>



The future of western monarchs remains uncertain. Conservationists stress that efforts to restore milkweed habitats, protect overwintering sites, and regulate harmful pesticides must continue. 



While federal protections may provide some relief, long-term recovery will require a collective effort from governments, researchers, and the public.



For now, the sight of monarch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milkweed-gardens-are-needed-to-save-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> filling the skies each year remains in jeopardy. The next few years will determine whether these iconic pollinators can withstand the mounting pressures against them or if they will fade into memory as another casualty of a changing world.



Information in this article was obtained from an online <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/feb/04/monarch-butterfly-population-decline">press release</a>.



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Monarch butterflies face steep decline in the Western U.S.

Monarch butterflies have long symbolized transformation and resilience. Their fragile...

Fungi are often overlooked in the grand tapestry of life, yet they play an essential role in ecosystems around the world. From decomposing organic matter to forming symbiotic relationships with plants and animals, fungi are nature’s silent architects. 



Recently, a discovery involving a fungus growing on a spider has added a new layer of understanding to the story of these remarkable organisms.



During this research, scientists identified a previously unknown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of fungus</a> that has been named in honor of a legendary figure in natural history. 



This discovery adds to our knowledge of fungal diversity and is a reminder of how much there is still to learn about the intricate connections between fungi and their hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-species-gibellula-attenboroughii">New species Gibellula attenboroughii</h2>



Dr. Harry Evans, an Emeritus Fellow at CAB International, led a team of researchers from institutions such as the <a href="https://snm.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum of Denmark</a> and the <a href="https://www.kew.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Botanical Gardens Kew</a>. 



The investigation began during the filming of the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p012msk2/episodes/guide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BBC Winterwatch series</a> in Northern Ireland, where a peculiar fungus was found growing on a spider.



Using both morphological and molecular evidence, the scientists confirmed that this fungus represented a novel species. 



In recognition of his profound impact on natural history programming, the team decided to name it after Sir David Attenborough.



"[The species is] named after the broadcaster and natural historian Sir David Attenborough, a pioneer of BBC natural history programs, who - in his role as controller of BBC 2 - helped to develop the Natural History Unit," noted Dr. Evans.



This led, indirectly, to the filming of the present nature series, during which the new species was first discovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gibellula-attenboroughii-and-spiders">Gibellula attenboroughii and spiders</h2>



The spider that hosted the fungus was later identified as Metellina merianae, an orb-weaving cave spider belonging to the family Tetragnathidae.



With the help of a local speleologist, the researchers extended their search and discovered more specimens of the newly named species, Gibellula attenboroughii, in cave systems across Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. 



Interestingly, the fungus was also found to infect another spider species, Meta menardi, which occupies different ecological niches within the caves. 



Like the original specimen, which was located on the ceiling of a gunpowder store, all of the infected spiders were found on the roof or walls of the caves.



These typically reclusive creatures had abandoned their usual hiding spots or webs, and migrated to exposed areas before dying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-to-zombie-ant-fungi">Connection to zombie-ant fungi</h2>



This behavior mirrors what has been observed in ants that are similarly infected by fungi of the genus Ophiocordyceps in Brazil's Atlantic rainforest. 



In those cases, the fungi manipulated their ant hosts to position themselves in locations ideal for spore dispersal, which led to the use of the term "zombie-ant fungi."



This phenomenon has captured the public's imagination, inspiring books, video games, and even the popular television series The Last of Us. 



Scientists have since identified behavioral-changing metabolites, such as dopamine, in cultures of zombie-ant fungi.



The discovery of similar behaviors in spiders infected by Gibellula attenboroughii suggests that these fungi may employ comparable mechanisms to control their hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus-and-spiders-in-the-british-isles">Fungus and spiders in the British Isles</h2>



Published in the journal Fungal Systematics and Evolution, the study went beyond identifying the new species. 



The researchers conducted extensive historical herbarium records and literature searches, and revealed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hidden diversity</a> within the genus Gibellula in the British Isles.



The experts also uncovered evidence of widespread disease epidemics among spiders in Norfolk and Wales. 



The findings suggest that fungi like Gibellula attenboroughii may play a significant role in regulating spider populations.



"Their role in spider-population dynamics warrants further study, as do the metabolites they produce which enable them to exploit such a highly specific ecological niche," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-zombie-fungus-controls-spiders">How zombie fungus controls spiders</h2>



The discovery of Gibellula attenboroughii highlights the importance of studying fungi not only for their ecological roles but also for their potential applications. 



Understanding how these fungi influence spiders could provide insights into broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tipping-point-discovered-in-fungi-evolution-that-impacts-their-shape-and-growth-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological dynamics</a>.



For instance, if certain fungi regulate spider numbers, they might indirectly affect other species within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-frost-beard-ice-formation-exidiopsis-effusa-fungi-discovered-by-hiker/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. 



Additionally, investigating the metabolites produced by these fungi could lead to discoveries with implications beyond ecology. 



Such compounds might have pharmaceutical or industrial uses, which makes this area of research particularly promising.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tribute-to-sir-david-attenborough">Tribute to Sir David Attenborough</h2>



Naming the fungus after <a href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0041003/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sir David Attenborough</a> serves as a fitting tribute to his lifelong dedication to exploring and sharing the wonders of the natural world. 



His work has inspired countless individuals, including the scientists involved in this study, to examine the mysteries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-fungus-found-in-garden-soils-across-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. 



By honoring Sir Attenborough in this way, the researchers not only celebrate his contributions but also emphasize the interconnectedness of scientific discovery and public engagement. It is a reminder that science thrives when curiosity is shared and nurtured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-gibellula-attenboroughii-important">Why is Gibellula attenboroughii important?</h2>



The identification of Gibellula attenboroughii opens up numerous avenues for future research. Scientists are eager to explore how these fungi manipulate their hosts and what chemical compounds they produce to achieve such precise control. 



Furthermore, understanding the role of fungi in regulating spider populations could provide valuable insights into ecosystem stability.



In a time when biodiversity is under threat, studies like this remind us of the importance of preserving ecosystems and the species within them. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/wfbi/fuse/pre-prints/content-f1_fuse_vol15_art7;jsessionid=dd632sclfekn9.x-ic-live-03" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fungal Systematics and Evolution</a>.



Image Credit: CABI



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Newfound fungus infects and controls spiders, turning them into 'zombies'

Fungi are often overlooked in the grand tapestry of life,...

Each year, painted lady butterflies embark on one of the most remarkable migrations in the animal kingdom, traveling up to 10,000 km between Africa and Europe in search of optimal breeding conditions.&nbsp;



But what determines how far an individual butterfly will travel? Is migration encoded in their DNA, or is it shaped by external factors?



A recent study, led by scientists at the <a href="https://ist.ac.at/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Science and Technology Austria</a> (ISTA) in collaboration with international research teams, reveals that environmental conditions - not genetics - dictate whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-incredible-transatlantic-journey-of-the-painted-lady/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">painted lady</a> will travel long or short distances. 



The findings challenge previous assumptions about butterfly migration and highlight the role of phenotypic plasticity - the ability of organisms to alter their behavior in response to their surroundings.



Study co-author Daria Shipilina is an evolutionary biologist and postdoctoral researcher at ISTA. 



“The painted lady is a strikingly beautiful and colorful butterfly species,” said Shipilina. "Watching them form large aggregations is a true spectacle. But what makes them particularly special is their incredible long-distance migrations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-nature-s-most-impressive-migrations">One of nature’s most impressive migrations</h2>



Painted ladies begin their journey in Northwest Africa in the spring. They fly across the Mediterranean into Europe, where subsequent generations continue northward, reaching as far as Sweden and the Arctic tundra. 



For a long time, scientists believed that once these butterflies arrived in northern Europe, they perished in the colder months.&nbsp;



However, recent studies confirmed that painted ladies complete a circular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>, returning south in autumn - some staying in the Mediterranean region while others venture all the way back to Africa, even crossing the Sahara.



This discovery raised a crucial question: why do some painted ladies migrate farther than others? Do they have an internal navigation system that dictates their path?



To investigate, Shipilina and her team collected painted lady butterflies from various locations, including Benin, Senegal, Morocco, Spain, Portugal, and Malta, and employed advanced isotope geolocation techniques to track their movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-butterflies-origins-and-destinations">Tracing the butterflies' origins and destinations</h2>



By analyzing the stable isotopes in butterfly wings, the researchers could determine where each butterfly originated as a caterpillar.



“The key principle of this method is that the isotopic makeup - or the stable isotopes - of the adult butterfly’s wings mirrors the isotopic signature of the plants they ate as a caterpillar,” Shipilina explained.



Co-first authors Megan Reich and Clément Bataille from the <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ottawa</a> spent several years refining this geolocation technique, integrating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-machine-learning-can-help-us-protect-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine-learning</a> algorithms to improve accuracy.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed two distinct migration patterns: while some butterflies took a long trip south, migrating from Scandinavia across the Sahara, others traveled shorter distances, staying in the Mediterranean region.



This raised another question - was this difference encoded in the butterflies’ genes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-butterfly-migration-nbsp">Genetic basis of butterfly migration&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate the genetic basis of migration, the scientists conducted whole <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> sequencing on the butterflies. Surprisingly, their analysis showed no significant genetic differences between those that migrated long distances and those that stayed closer to Europe.



“This finding fundamentally differs from what is observed in some birds, another well-studied migratory group,” Shipilina noted. “For example, in willow warblers, a large chromosomal region has been associated with variable migratory direction, illustrating how different phenotypes arise from distinct genomic compositions.”



Additionally, factors like sex, wing size, and wing shape had no clear influence on migration distances, further ruling out genetic or physiological predisposition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-cues-and-butterfly-migration">Environmental cues and butterfly migration</h2>



If genes don’t dictate migration behavior, then what does? According to the study, environmental conditions play the dominant role.&nbsp;



The scientists propose that phenotypic plasticity - the ability of an organism to adapt its behavior based on external cues - explains why some butterflies migrate farther than others.



For instance, a butterfly in Sweden might receive strong environmental cues to migrate long distances, such as shortening day length and temperature drops, prompting it to cross the Sahara.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, a butterfly in Southern France, where seasonal changes are less extreme, may not experience the same triggers, leading it to migrate only as far as the Mediterranean region.



“Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to adjust their migratory behavior without changing their genetic makeup,” Shipilina said. “This flexibility could be key to how painted ladies adapt to different climatic conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-butterfly-migration-nbsp">Complexities of butterfly migration&nbsp;</h2>



Compared to species like monarch butterflies, painted lady migration remains relatively understudied.&nbsp;



This latest research raises new questions: Does this migration pattern apply to painted ladies worldwide? Are other butterfly species also influenced by environmental cues rather than genetics? How will climate change impact the migration patterns of painted ladies in the future?



The researchers aim to build on these findings to further unravel the complexities of butterfly migration.



“There is still so much to learn about the migration of painted ladies,” Shipilina said. “We are determined to close this knowledge gap - one paper at a time.”



By demonstrating that migration strategies are shaped by the environment rather than hardwired in DNA, this study provides a new perspective on how insects navigate the world.&nbsp;



As climate patterns shift, understanding these flexible behaviors may be critical for predicting and protecting the future of migratory butterflies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae586" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Butterfly migration habits are not determined by their DNA

Each year, painted lady butterflies embark on one of the...

Octopuses have long fascinated scientists with their intelligence, camouflage abilities, and unique biology. 



These remarkable creatures continue to surprise researchers, revealing new secrets about their evolutionary past. One of the most intriguing mysteries has been the question of how octopuses determine their sex.



Scientists at the University of Oregon recently identified a sex chromosome in the California two-spot octopus. This discovery confirms that cephalopods, a group that includes squid and nautiluses, rely on chromosomes for sex determination. 



The research also suggests that this chromosome has existed for at least 480 million years, making it one of the oldest known sex chromosomes in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turquets-octopus-dna-tells-scientists-that-west-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse-is-close/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-chromosome-in-octopuses">Sex chromosome in octopuses</h2>



“Cephalopods are already such interesting creatures, and there are so many things we’re still learning about them, especially in neuroscience,” said Gabby Coffing, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.uoregon.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oregon</a>. 



“This is just showing one more interesting thing about them: They have really ancient sex chromosomes.”



The findings, published in the journal Current Biology, provide new insights into the genetic history of octopuses and their relatives. Understanding this ancient sex determination system could help scientists uncover more about how these intelligent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-determination-varies-across-species">Sex determination varies across species</h2>



Sex determination is not the same for all animals. While humans and most mammals rely on the X/Y chromosome system, other species follow different methods. 



In turtles, sex depends on the temperature at which the eggs incubate. Some fish determine sex using a single gene rather than a whole chromosome. 



Even in humans, sex chromosomes are not always straightforward. Gene mutations or extra sex chromosomes can lead to biological variations that do not fit into a simple male or female category.



Cephalopods have long posed a challenge for genetic research. They are not standard laboratory animals like mice or fruit flies, making it difficult for scientists to study their genetics in depth. 



Although researchers have sequenced the genomes of some octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-suckers-the-future-of-underwater-adhesives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, they still struggle to link specific genes to particular traits. The discovery of an octopus sex chromosome marks a major breakthrough in understanding how these animals develop and reproduce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-sex-chromosome-in-female-octopuses">Unique sex chromosome in female octopuses</h2>



The research team at the University of Oregon made an unexpected discovery when sequencing the DNA of a female California two-spot octopus. 



Among its 30 chromosomes, one stood out because it contained only half the usual amount of genetic material. This anomaly had not appeared in previous studies of male octopus DNA.



“This particular chromosome had half the amount of sequencing data, which indicated there was only one copy,” Coffing explained. “Then as we explored that more, we reached the conclusion that we must have stumbled upon a sex chromosome.”



This finding suggested that female octopuses carry a unique chromosome that males do not. The scientists needed to confirm their discovery by comparing it with data from other cephalopods. 



If this chromosome appeared in multiple species, it would indicate an ancient and consistent pattern of sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-chromosome-exists-in-other-cephalopods">Sex chromosome exists in other cephalopods</h2>



The team analyzed genomic data from other octopus species and found similar evidence of this unique chromosome. 



The experts also detected the sex chromosome in squid, a species that diverged from octopuses between 248 and 455 million years ago. More surprisingly, they identified traces of it in the nautilus, a mollusk that split from the octopus lineage approximately 480 million years ago.



“This indicates that their common ancestor had this similar sex determination system,” Coffing said.



Most sex chromosomes change rapidly over time because they play a crucial role in reproduction. However, this cephalopod sex chromosome appears to have remained stable for hundreds of millions of years. 



This suggests that octopuses and their relatives have relied on this system without significant evolutionary changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-ancient-sex-chromosomes">Comparing ancient sex chromosomes</h2>



While the octopus sex chromosome is one of the oldest known, other ancient sex chromosomes exist in nature. 



Some plants, like mosses and liverworts, evolved their sex chromosomes early in Earth’s history. Insects also have sex chromosomes that date back about 450 million years, though these have changed considerably over time.



The discovery in octopuses challenges the idea that sex chromosomes always evolve quickly. It suggests that some systems remain stable if they continue to work effectively over long periods. Cephalopods seem to have found a genetic formula for sex determination that has stood the test of time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-the-missing-w-chromosome">Mystery of the missing W chromosome</h2>



One question remains unanswered: how exactly does the sex determination system work in octopuses? Scientists initially suspected that octopuses might have a system similar to birds and butterflies, where males have two identical chromosomes (ZZ) and females have one of each (ZW).



Kern and his team searched for a W chromosome in female octopuses but didn't find one. This leaves open the possibility that octopuses follow a different system in which males have two copies of a single chromosome (ZZ), while females have only one (Z).



Researchers still need more evidence to confirm how octopus sex chromosomes function. While this study has solved one piece of the puzzle, many questions remain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-the-octopus">Secrets of the octopus </h2>



Octopuses continue to be one of the most enigmatic creatures in the ocean. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>, problem-solving skills, and unique genetics set them apart from most other animals. 



The discovery of an ancient sex chromosome adds another layer to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary story</a>. For now, researchers know that this octopus sex chromosome has been around for nearly half a billion years. However, the exact mechanics of how it works remain uncertain.



As scientists continue to explore cephalopod genetics, they will uncover more about how these fascinating animals developed their extraordinary traits.



The octopus has revealed one of its secrets, but it still holds on to many more.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00005-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Sex chromosome discovered in octopuses is 480 million years old

Octopuses have long fascinated scientists with their intelligence, camouflage abilities,...

For a long time, researchers believed that only humans could recognize when someone else lacked information. This ability, known as "theory of mind," allows people to communicate, teach, and cooperate in complex ways. Many thought that animals, including apes, did not share this skill.



However, new research from Johns Hopkins University challenges that idea. The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> actively pointed out hidden treats to humans who did not know where they were.



This seemingly simple action suggests that apes understand when others lack information and take steps to help them.



The findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, provide the clearest evidence yet that apes can track ignorance in others. This discovery offers insight into the shared cognitive abilities of humans and great apes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-share-cognitive-abilities-with-humans">Apes share cognitive abilities with humans</h2>



Study co-author Chris Krupenye is an assistant professor of psychological and brain sciences at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins</a>.



“The ability to sense gaps in one another’s knowledge is at the heart of our most sophisticated social behaviors, central to the ways we cooperate, communicate, and work together strategically,” said Professor Krupenye. 



He explained that this cognitive ability forms the basis for skills like language and teaching, both of which are considered uniquely human. The study suggests that these abilities may have evolved millions of years ago, long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a> emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-ape-intelligence">Testing ape intelligence </h2>



In collaboration with Luke Townrow, a Johns Hopkins PhD student, Professor Krupenye worked with three male bonobos to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-use-gestures-similar-to-human-body-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a>’ understanding of others’ knowledge.



The apes - Nyota, 25; Kanzi, 43; and Teco, 13 - live at Ape Initiative, a research and education nonprofit.



The experiment was designed to test whether the apes could recognize when a human lacked information. One bonobo sat across a table from Townrow. Another person placed a treat (a grape or a Cheerio) under one of three cups.



Sometimes, Townrow could see where the treat was placed. Other times, he could not. The bonobo could only get the treat if Townrow found it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-anticipate-what-humans-know">Apes anticipate what humans know</h2>



Townrow always asked the same question: “Where’s the grape?” and then waited for ten seconds. If he had seen where the treat was hidden, the bonobo usually remained still, waiting for him to retrieve it.



But when Townrow did not see the treat being hidden, the bonobo reacted differently. Instead of waiting, it quickly pointed to the correct cup. Some bonobos even pointed multiple times, making sure their message was clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-and-repeated-gestures">Clear and repeated gestures</h2>



“Their fingers would point right through the mesh - it was clear what they were trying to communicate,” said Professor Krupenye.



One of the apes, Kanzi, reacted especially strongly. He was highly food-motivated and would tap repeatedly to ensure Townrow noticed his pointing. His eagerness highlighted the urgency with which the apes tried to share information.



This reaction supports previous observations from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild</a>. Researchers have seen chimpanzees vocalize to warn others of danger when a group member appears unaware of a threat, such as a nearby snake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-gaps-in-knowledge">Recognizing gaps in knowledge</h2>



“We predicted that if apes are really tracking ignorance, when their partners lacked knowledge, they would be pointing more often and more quickly, and that’s exactly what they did,” Krupenye said.



The ability to recognize when someone lacks knowledge suggests that apes can hold two different perspectives at the same time. They know where the treat is, but apes also recognize that their human partner does not.



This cognitive skill is fundamental in human social interactions. People adjust their communication based on what they believe others know or do not know. The findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/playful-teasing-among-apes-suggests-that-humor-has-ancient-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a> share this ability at a basic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-have-advanced-mental-abilities">Apes have advanced mental abilities</h2>



“There are debates in the field about the capabilities of primates, and for us, it was exciting to confirm that they really do have these rich capacities that some people have denied them,” Krupenye said.



By demonstrating that apes can track others' ignorance, the study provides new evidence that great apes possess more advanced mental abilities than previously believed. This research could reshape how scientists view the evolution of human intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-apes-change-human-beliefs">Can apes change human beliefs?</h2>



The next step is to investigate why apes behave this way. Are they simply trying to influence their partner’s behavior, or do they understand that they are changing someone else’s thoughts?



“What we’ve shown here is that apes will communicate with a partner to change their behavior, but a key open question for further research is whether apes are also pointing to change their partner’s mental state or their beliefs," said Townrow.



Future studies will explore whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-learned-to-walk-from-an-ancestor-called-lufengpithecus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> communicate to correct others’ misunderstandings or simply to achieve a goal. Either way, the findings suggest that the roots of human social intelligence stretch back millions of years.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2412450122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Apes can tell when humans don’t know something

For a long time, researchers believed that only humans could...

Scientists reveal that killer whales and dolphins have lost the ability to return to life on land. The <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.96.18.10261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestors</a> of these sea creatures once walked along the shores, but those days will not return.



Evolution molded these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-river-dolphins-communication/">marine mammals</a> into highly efficient swimmers. Their limbs transformed into flippers, and their bodies became highly adapted to life in a watery world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transition-of-land-dwelling-mammals">Transition of land-dwelling mammals</h2>



About <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2020.0523" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">375 million years ago</a>, the first vertebrates left water behind. This shift gave rise to animals that breathed air and strolled across the land.



However, a wave of land-dwelling mammals later took the plunge back into the sea. That second transition happened around 250 million years ago and led to the evolution of whales, dolphins, and other fully aquatic groups.



“Once cetaceans pass the critical point of aquatic adaptation, their evolution follows a path of no return,” said study lead author Bruna Farina from the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/">University</a><a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> </a><a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/">of Freiburg</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-creatures-that-will-never-walk">Sea creatures that will never walk</h2>



Dollo’s Law states that complex evolutionary transformations cannot be reversed once they are fully established. 



This idea mirrors what researchers see in dolphin and killer whale lineages, where the changes run too deep to roll back.



These adaptations include streamlined bodies, the presence of a blow hole, powerful tails, the transition to flippers, and specialized organs for underwater living. Each feature is so fine-tuned for marine life that the possibility of ever walking on dry land again is miniscule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unbreakable-aquatic-ties">Unbreakable aquatic ties</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orcas-have-hunting-and-eating-habits-that-we-never-imagined/">Killer whales</a> and dolphins stand out for their intelligence and tight social bonds. Their communication skills and group strategies have helped them conquer seas around the world and become top predators in marine ecosystems.



Yet their advanced aquatic traits also impose serious limits. Living in the ocean demands specialized breathing, insulation, and saltwater tolerance.



“Extreme specialization in an environment can become an evolutionary trap, reducing the chances of survival in the face of environmental changes,” noted Virag Sharma from the <a href="https://www.ul.ie/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Limerick</a>.



Body size also plays a part in this story. In cooler waters, larger mass helps retain heat, further nudging these animals to remain in deep seas.



Once bodies are scaled up and limbs shift into flippers, returning to land becomes far more complicated. Muscles that once stabilized weight on solid ground are no longer adapted to bearing loads outside the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerability-in-changing-seas">Vulnerability in changing seas</h2>



Shifting ocean <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2018.0186" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> strain marine ecosystems and challenge species that are adapted to specific thermal ranges. Warmer waters can disrupt prey availability and fuel harmful algal blooms.



Killer whales and dolphins face added dangers from pollution, overfishing, and noise. Their reliance on echolocation and coordinated hunting can be hampered by excessive boat traffic or contaminated habitats.



Unlike <a href="https://animalia.bio/semiaquatic-animals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semiaquatic mammals</a>, these <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/cetacean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cetaceans</a> have no land-based alternatives. They cannot flee to shallower waters or take shelter on beaches to avoid hazards. The ocean remains their only refuge.



This single-environment dependence increases their vulnerability. Large storms, sudden temperature shifts, or habitat degradation could hit them harder than species with more flexible living arrangements.



Experts warn that these animals sit at the mercy of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/">rapid ocean changes</a>. Without protective measures, killer whales and dolphins face more barriers to coping with disruptions than do their land-capable relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Scientists continue studying how extreme physical changes reinforce cetaceans’ permanent reliance on the sea. Bone density, muscular configuration, and specialized blowholes highlight how far they have diverged from their land-roaming forebears.



Such features are beneficial for these sea creatures in the water but pose insurmountable challenges which prevent them from walking on land. Gravity becomes an obstacle, and their bodies lack the support systems found in most terrestrial mammals.



Conservation <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1101525108" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a> aim to safeguard these ocean dwellers from growing pressures. Marine protected areas and stricter pollution controls may help maintain stable conditions.



Large-scale collaboration among nations, researchers, and communities could help shield dolphins and killer whales from further decline. Reducing noise pollution and regulating fisheries are among the steps that might keep them thriving.



Future work will explore genetic and ecological factors that shape their fate. Meanwhile, the public can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-and-climate-change-an-uncertain-future/">support conservation</a> efforts by staying informed and encouraging sustainable practices.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2023.1099" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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These marine mammals have lost their ability to ever walk on land again

Scientists reveal that killer whales and dolphins have lost the...

In 2020, as human activity came to a standstill, something remarkable happened. Cities fell silent, roads emptied, and industries slowed. While people stayed indoors, Earth’s vegetation took center stage. 



A recent study revealed that 2020 was the greenest year recorded by modern satellite observations from 2001 to 2020. This surge in greenery was particularly evident in northern and temperate regions, while tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> experienced a brief but noticeable growth period.



The findings raise an intriguing question: Did the pandemic, with its lockdowns and reduced pollution, allow nature to reclaim lost ground? Or were other forces at play?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-vegetation-matters">Why vegetation matters</h2>



Plants do far more than cover the land with greenery. They are central to life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-fear-climate-change-will-end-the-world-during-their-lifetime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, regulating carbon and water cycles, producing oxygen, and sustaining countless organisms. Vegetation also plays a key role in reducing the impact of fossil fuel emissions by absorbing carbon dioxide.



Monitoring global greening trends helps scientists understand how ecosystems respond to environmental changes. This knowledge can shape conservation strategies and inform efforts to combat climate warming. 



The 2020 green surge provided a unique opportunity to analyze the forces driving Earth's vegetation growth on a global scale.



The study was led by Yulong Zhang, a research scientist in the Division of Earth and Climate Science at Duke University’s <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicholas School of the Environment</a>. 



“Terrestrial vegetation, like trees and shrubs, take up carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, so they can offer a natural climate-warming solution,” said Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-causes-of-2020-s-unusual-earth-s-greening">Causes of 2020’s unusual Earth's greening</h2>



To investigate the phenomenon, researchers analyzed two decades of satellite data, focusing on vegetation density, plant health, and overall structural changes. While the data showed fluctuations in global greening over the years, 2020 stood out as an anomaly.



The researchers considered whether pandemic-related reductions in human activity were responsible. Lockdowns significantly lowered pollution levels, leading to clearer skies and increased sunlight. With fewer industrial emissions and less human disturbance, plants may have received a temporary boost.



However, further analysis showed that lockdowns had only a limited impact on the surge in greenery.



“Although short-term air quality improvements and reduced disturbances slightly boosted greenness in lockdown regions, these effects faded quickly and were further counteracted by natural climate variability as the year progressed,” Zhang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drivers-of-earth-s-greening">Drivers of Earth's greening</h2>



Instead of lockdowns, the study pointed to broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-environments-and-sidewalks-improve-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental factors</a> driving the record-breaking greening. Rising carbon dioxide levels, increasing global temperatures, and reforestation efforts played the most significant roles in the 2020 green surge.



The effect of climate warming was particularly noticeable in temperate and colder regions. In boreal forests, rising temperatures extended the growing season, allowing vegetation to flourish for longer periods. Warmer conditions in these cooler areas provided plants with the opportunity to expand.



Another key factor was large-scale tree planting and land restoration projects. These efforts were especially impactful in China and India, where aggressive afforestation programs contributed to significant greening.



“China and India were massive green hotspots, thanks to tree planting, land restoration and agricultural management efforts,” noted co-author Tong Qiu of the Nicholas School. 



“High rainfall in 2019-2020 also boosted vegetation growth in the tropics, likely linked with climate oscillations, or patterns, such as La Niña and the Indian Ocean Dipole.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-resilience-and-greening-trend">Earth’s resilience and greening trend</h2>



The study highlights Earth’s ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Despite human activity and climate challenges, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> continues to find ways to thrive. However, this greening trend is not a guarantee of long-term environmental health.



While increased vegetation can help slow climate warming, scientists warn that extreme climate events, water shortages, wildfires, and human pressures could reverse these gains. Greener landscapes today do not necessarily mean a more stable future.



“Climate extremes, water scarcity, wildfire risk and increased human pressures could potentially slow down or even reverse these gains under a warming climate,” said co-author Wenhong Li of the Nicholas School. 



“If that happens, we may see an acceleration of the ongoing climate warming.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-continued-monitoring">Need for continued monitoring</h2>



As climate change accelerates, scientists stress the importance of continuous monitoring. Understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-must-live-in-harmony-with-nature-to-create-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> responds to shifting conditions will be crucial in predicting future environmental changes. 



Advanced models and enhanced satellite data collection will be essential in tracking trends and developing strategies to protect global ecosystems.



The 2020 green surge was a striking reminder of Earth's complexity. While it may have been influenced by multiple factors, the findings reinforce the need for sustainable land management and conservation efforts. 



The future of the planet depends not just on how much greenery we gain, but on how well we maintain the delicate balance between nature and human activity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0034425724005200?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Remote Sensing of Environment</a>.



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2020 was Earth’s greenest year in two decades - here's why

In 2020, as human activity came to a standstill, something...

Many people have never heard of lutein, yet it has a notable presence in vegetables, fruits, and even egg yolks. This pigmented compound offers multiple health advantages, particularly for vision, though it can play a role in other areas of the body too.



Dr. Karen Robinson from the Institute for the Advancement of Food and Nutrition Sciences led a detailed analysis on the health benefits of lutein. 



“Our review was the first to evaluate the effects of both dietary and supplemental sources of lutein on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-pistachios-daily-proven-to-boost-eyes-vision-and-overall-health/">healthy eyes</a>,” explained Dr. Robinson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lutein-may-safeguard-eye-health">Lutein may safeguard eye health</h2>



Lutein is classified as a <a href="https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/carotenoids" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carotenoid</a> with antioxidant properties. It cannot be made by the human body, so it must come from food sources like spinach, kale, and corn.



Experts note that it is found in certain dietary supplements for those who struggle to get enough from meals. Evidence suggests that regular intake might help safeguard eyesight over the long haul.



"Two tissues of the eye that play a key role in the vision process are the macula and the lens. Of all the carotenoids present in the human diet and serum, only two, lutein and zeaxanthin, are present in these two important tissues," researchers noted in the current <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8874683/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-lutein-supports-eye-health">How lutein supports eye health</h2>



Some research indicates that lutein can help people who have difficulty seeing in low light. This guidance aligns with observations of improved night vision once the nutrient becomes a staple in the diet.



Evidence has also <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/6/1721" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shown</a> possible benefits in reducing the likelihood of cataracts by shielding delicate eye tissues from ultraviolet light. It appears to act as a protective layer in the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23185-macula" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">macula</a>, which is key for healthy sight.



“Daily lutein supplements of 10 mg or more increased macular pigment after 3 months,” said Dr. Robinson. 



Daily amounts of 10 mg or more may support macular pigment in adults who have normal eyes, according to some meta-analyses. 



Researchers have also associated lutein intake with a lower risk of glaucoma, which often arises from increased eye pressure. 



The nutrient’s antioxidant role is potentially very important in lowering the stress that harms the optic nerve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-and-cognitive-function">Skin and cognitive function</h2>



Lutein’s antioxidant action has been observed in the upper layers of the skin. It may ease harmful changes caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/main-cause-of-sunburn-finally-identified-is-rna-damage-not-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet exposure</a> and preserve the skin’s appearance over time.



There have been intriguing discussions of lutein’s <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6164534/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effect</a> on memory in both younger and older adults. Although research is ongoing, some studies suggest that lutein intake is associated with improved cognitive function. 



The idea of a single compound benefiting both vision and brain health has sparked interest among researchers



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recommended-intake-and-usage">Recommended intake and usage</h2>



Nutrition specialists generally suggest taking between 10 mg and 20 mg of lutein per day, if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/">supplements</a> are used. 



Most recommend pairing it with a meal that includes some healthy fat, like olive oil or nuts, since fats help the body absorb carotenoids.



Exact doses can vary, based on individual health goals, so a professional opinion is wise before starting a supplement routine. 



Some individuals prefer getting lutein from spinach, squash, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colorful produce</a>, but it can also be found in capsules for convenience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-beyond-eye-health">Benefits beyond eye health</h2>



A growing number of researchers see potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-dietary-changes-are-best-for-cancer-prevention/">cancer-preventive</a> links for lutein. Its antioxidant activity helps manage free radicals in cells, which can otherwise damage DNA over time.



Though it is not a cure-all, it often appears in broader discussions about immune function. Experts believe that a balanced diet featuring lutein gives the body a valuable tool in overall wellness.



Including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/">leafy greens</a>, corn, and egg yolks in meals can boost lutein intake without too much effort. Many of these options also offer protein, fiber, and other nutrients that support holistic health.



Some people wonder about the best time to take a lutein supplement. Professionals often say it’s ideal alongside the biggest meal of the day, especially when that meal contains unsaturated fats.



Lutein is important for supporting normal vision, but it seems to have extra perks for the skin and perhaps the brain. Anyone eager to include it in a daily routine should think about combining dietary and supplemental sources for the best effect.



The study is published in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8874683/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Nutrition</a>.



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Vitamin helps prevent cataracts and maintain eye health

Many people have never heard of lutein, yet it has...

Life on Earth is complex and ever-changing. Scientists have long relied on ground-based methods to study biodiversity, but these approaches have limits. Observing ecosystems from space provides a new way to monitor biodiversity across vast landscapes and oceans.



Thanks to advances in satellite technology and aerial imaging, researchers can track changes in biodiversity with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greater precision</a>.



A multinational team of scientists, led by <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Merced</a> civil and environmental engineering Professor Erin Hestir, has taken a major step forward in this field. With funding from NASA, the team launched <a href="https://www.bioscape.io/team" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioSCape</a>, an ambitious research project designed to measure biodiversity from the sky.



The goal is to test new techniques for tracking life on land and in water, using data collected from aircraft and satellites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-technology-to-study-biodiversity">Space technology to study biodiversity</h2>



The BioSCape project brought together experts from different disciplines and countries. 



Hestir led the effort alongside <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Buffalo</a> geography Professor Adam Wilson and Professor Jasper Slingsby from the <a href="https://www.uct.ac.za" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cape Town</a>. 



Over six weeks in late 2024, the team gathered critical data in South Africa’s Greater Cape Floristic Region, one of the most ecologically diverse places on Earth.



“Over just six weeks, more than 160 scientists from around the world came together to collect and analyze data across terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems in one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world’s biodiversity hotspots</a>,” said Wilson.



The team’s work was not limited to a single approach. They combined data from multiple sources, using both aircraft and on-the-ground research to create a detailed picture of the region’s ecosystems. 



Their efforts have provided new insights into how different species interact, how landscapes change over time, and how environmental factors influence biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-life-from-the-air">Capturing life from the air</h2>



Three aircraft played a crucial role in the BioSCape project. Two NASA planes and one South African aircraft flew over the Greater Cape Floristic Region, capturing a variety of images. 



These included ultraviolet, visual, and thermal data, which allowed researchers to detect patterns that would be impossible to see from the ground.



“This was NASA’s first ever biodiversity-focused campaign,” Hestir said. “We successfully hit all our measurement targets, and the data collected are contributing to novel techniques and methods to be able to monitor biodiversity from space across the globe. It’s a lot of exciting science.”



By using advanced imaging techniques, the experts gained a new perspective on ecosystems. They could see how plant communities were arranged, how species moved across different environments, and how climate changes affected biodiversity.



This method of data collection provided a powerful tool for studying ecosystems on a large scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-airborne-studies">Importance of airborne studies</h2>



Before investing in a new satellite, scientists must be certain that their instruments will work as expected. Airborne studies allow researchers to test their methods before committing to expensive space missions. 



The BioSCape team used this approach to ensure that their biodiversity monitoring techniques could eventually be adapted for satellite use in space.



“It’s very expensive to launch a satellite into space,” Slingsby said. “You have to be certain it will achieve its mission before taking that step." 



"That’s why we begin with airborne studies - they serve as a critical proving ground. If we can successfully gather data from a plane, it brings us one step closer to understanding how to achieve the same from space.”



The data collected during BioSCape showed that these techniques could work. Scientists now have a roadmap for expanding their research beyond South Africa. If these methods prove successful on a larger scale, future satellites could monitor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-mitigation-strategies-may-be-endangering-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> across the entire planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-strategies-to-protect-biodiversity">Developing strategies to protect biodiversity </h2>



The team chose the Greater Cape Floristic Region as it is known for its extraordinary levels of biodiversity, but it also faces significant conservation challenges. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a>, habitat destruction, and human activity have put many species at risk.



In addition to its ecological importance, the region has a well-developed research community focused on biodiversity conservation. 



By working in this area, the BioSCape team could collaborate with local scientists and build on existing knowledge. The project also contributed valuable data that will support future conservation efforts.



Their findings helped researchers examine changes in species distribution, ecosystem resilience, and the ways in which nature supports human communities. This information is essential for developing effective strategies to protect biodiversity in a rapidly changing world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-access-to-scientific-data">Expanding access to scientific data</h2>



One of the most important aspects of BioSCape is its commitment to sharing information. The team made their data freely available to scientists and the public, ensuring that their findings can be used to support biodiversity research using space-based technology <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worldwide</a>.



Addressing biodiversity loss requires accurate, up-to-date information. By making their data open-access, the researchers hope to advance conservation efforts and inspire new scientific discoveries. 



The team's methods could lead to better tools for tracking biodiversity, which would help governments, conservation organizations, and communities make informed decisions about protecting the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-missions-to-improve-biodiversity-tracking">Space missions to improve biodiversity tracking</h2>



BioSCape has already led to new insights, but the team believes this is only the beginning. Their work is building scientific capacity in South Africa and beyond, equipping researchers with the tools needed to monitor biodiversity more effectively.



“BioSCape is building technical capacity in South Africa and we hope to prepare the community to take advantage of NASA’s advanced and freely available satellite imagery to improve conservation,” noted Anabelle Cardoso, the science team manager.



“In a year from now we will have new findings and better insights, advancing cutting-edge technology so we can measure life on Earth from space," said Hestir.



The ability to track biodiversity from space could transform the way scientists study ecosystems. By refining these techniques, researchers can improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> efforts, detect environmental changes more quickly, and gain a deeper understanding of how life on Earth functions.



With the success of BioSCape, the next steps are clear. Expanding these efforts globally could lead to a new era of biodiversity research - one where space-based observations provide crucial data for protecting life on our planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44185-024-00071-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Biodiversity</a>.



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Changes in Earth’s biodiversity can be tracked from space

Life on Earth is complex and ever-changing. Scientists have long...

Emissions from coal combustion are casting a shadow over India's agricultural sector, and threatening the nation’s role as a major hub for global food security.



As the world’s second-most populous country, India relies heavily on rice and wheat production to sustain its population and export markets. However, pollutants from coal-fired power stations are having a negative impact on crop yields.



According to a recent study, coal emissions may be responsible for a significant decrease (of 10% or more) in the annual yield of these two staple grains. This means that the nutritional security of a quarter of the world’s undernourished population could be threatened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-trade-offs-of-coal-emissions">The trade-offs of coal emissions</h2>



The goal of the study was not merely to highlight a problem, but to navigate the complexities of India's energy demands in connection with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/locust-swarms-threaten-food-security-for-millions-of-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a>.



Study lead author Kirat Singh, a Ph.D. student in environment and resources in the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doerr School of Sustainability</a>, described the motivation for this study.



"We wanted to understand the impact of India's coal electricity emissions on its agriculture because there might be real trade-offs between meeting growing electricity demand with coal generation and maintaining food security," said Singh. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-coal-emissions-for-better-harvests">Reducing coal emissions for better harvests</h2>



Considerable effort has been devoted in the past to quantify the health-related repercussions of burning coal for electricity. 



However, prior to this study, the specific implications for crop production - especially in relation to India's dependence on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coal-fired-power-generation-weakened-by-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal-fired</a> power stations for more than 70% of its electricity - were left unexplored.



"Crop productivity is incredibly important to India's food security and economic prospects," noted study senior author David Lobell. 



"We've known that improved air quality could help agriculture, but this study is the first to drill down to a specific sector and measure the potential benefits of reducing emissions." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-insight-into-crop-damage">Deeper insight into crop damage</h2>



The study was focused on nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-breakthrough-g7-commits-to-close-coal-plants-by-2035/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coal-powered</a> stations, and evaluated their impact on rice and wheat production.



By compiling data from electricity generation at 144 power stations across India, wind direction records, and satellite-measured nitrogen dioxide levels over croplands, the researchers provided a detailed picture of the situation.



According to their findings, eliminating pollution from burning coal during vital growing seasons could potentially increase the value of the rice output by approximately $420 million and the wheat output by $400 million annually.



“Any policy focused on reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-co2-emissions-reached-unprecedented-highs-in-2021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a> from coal power plants in India will be ignoring a crucial part of the problem if it does not consider the damages from air pollution to agriculture," said Inês Azevedo, a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unseen-benefits-of-cutting-coal-emissions">Unseen benefits of cutting coal emissions</h2>



The findings indicate that reducing coal emissions may yield more substantial and widely distributed benefits than previously recognized.



While past studies have primarily focused on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-increases-the-risk-of-cardiopulmonary-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health hazards of air pollution</a>, this study highlights the importance of considering agricultural damage as well.



The analysis showed that, while the monetary value of lost crop output is generally lower than the mortality damage caused by coal emissions, the intensity of crop damage per unit of electricity generated can be even higher.



At 58 of the 144 power stations studied, rice yield losses per gigawatt-hour exceeded mortality damages, and at 35 stations, wheat damage followed the same pattern. 



This suggests that, in many regions, targeted reductions in coal emissions could provide more immediate relief to agricultural productivity than previously assumed.



“It’s rare to find a single thing - in this case, reducing coal emissions - that would help agriculture so quickly and so much,” said Lobell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-production-and-public-health">Food production and public health</h2>



Moreover, the findings indicate little overlap between the power stations causing the most severe crop losses and those linked to the highest mortality rates. 



This means that well-placed policy interventions could optimize benefits, and deliver significant increases in food production along with improvements in public health and climate change mitigation.



By considering crop losses alongside health impacts when regulating coal electricity emissions, policymakers could unlock a powerful opportunity for economic and environmental gains. 



“Well-targeted policies to cut emissions could deliver thousands of dollars of increased crop output for each clean gigawatt-hour, in addition to all the climate and human health benefits,” said Singh.



Ultimately, the study reinforces the need for a more integrated approach to energy and environmental policy - one that fully accounts for the multifaceted benefits of reducing coal pollution.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2421679122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Coal emissions threaten India's food security

Emissions from coal combustion are casting a shadow over India's...

species in Trimeniaceae