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When naturalists tally the frogs in a farm pond or the orchids in a mountain meadow they always encounter the same rule of thumb: when you survey a larger range, the more species you find. The relationship seems simple, yet ecologists have puzzled over an odd signature hidden in species distribution data for nearly a century.



As one zooms out from local plots to regional landscapes. the tally of new species first soars. Then, it plateaus, taking off again at continental and global scales. That curious “S-shaped” curve is technically, the three-phase species–area relationship. 



It has appeared in everything from beetles to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-have-a-surprising-effect-on-island-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and from coral reefs to desert shrubs. Until now, no single mathematical framework explained why the curve changes its slope where it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-species-distributions">Predicting species distributions </h2>



A collaboration of researchers spanning Portugal, Germany, the United States and South Africa has now filled that theoretical gap. 



The experts combined basic geometry with giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> datasets to show that the three phases arise inevitably from the way individual species spread their geographic ranges across Earth’s surface.



The team's model not only reproduces the classic patterns, it also generates equations that predict how many species should occur at the precise break points between phases - a feat with direct relevance for conservation planners who must estimate extinctions as habitats are lost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-range-size-affects-species-distributions">Range size affects species distributions</h2>



Ecologists formalized the species-area relationship (SAR) in the early twentieth century, discovering that a log-log plot of cumulative species versus area usually forms a straight line. Yet when studies started to cover larger domains, investigators found the line was actually composed of three segments.



In the first segment, from local quadrants to perhaps a few hundred square kilometers, adding more land brings a flood of new species because each little patch contains slightly different microhabitats. In the middle segment, spanning thousands of square kilometers, the pace slackens; the same bird species, for instance, occupy most forests inside a biogeographic region. 



Beyond that, when continents are added, evolutionary history enters the picture and the slope shoots up again as entirely different faunas come into view. Empirically describing those bends was straightforward; explaining them from first principles proved harder. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-ranges-of-species">Individual ranges of species</h2>



“We demonstrated that the individual geographical ranges of all species within the studied areas shape the typical species distribution patterns we observe across the globe,” said lead author Luís Borda-de-Água of <a href="https://www.cibio.up.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIBIO</a> in Portugal.



By mathematically stacking these ranges like overlapping tiles on a floor plan, the team showed that the SAR’s inflection points fall where the average range size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-temperature-extremes-change-the-distribution-of-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resident species</a> equals the sampling area. At small scales most ranges eclipse the plot, so each extra hectare introduces new species.



At intermediate scales the plot begins to rival range size, so fewer novelties appear. At the largest scales even the widest-ranging species occupy only one continent, restoring the steep climb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-patterns-and-crunching-records">Testing patterns and crunching records</h2>



To test the idea the researchers turned to the <a href="https://www.gbif.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Biodiversity Information Facility</a>, a compendium of citizen-science sightings and museum records. They extracted roughly 700 million geo-referenced observations spanning birds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, mammals and vascular plants.



For each taxonomic group they generated empirical SARs and compared them with the theoretical predictions. The correspondence was striking: predicted transition points - where the slope of the SAR changes - matched the observed curves within confidence bounds for all groups.



Borda-de-Água noted that this is a major step forward in ecology because it links a macroecological pattern to a simple, measurable property - range size - without invoking mysterious external factors. 



Senior author Henrique Pereira is a research professor at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research <a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(iDiv</a>) and Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg. 



Pereira emphasized the significance of the research. “Discovering fundamental principles in ecology is just as thrilling as breakthroughs in physics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-stakes-for-a-shrinking-planet"><a></a>Practical stakes for a shrinking planet</h2>



Beyond intellectual satisfaction the model carries weighty consequences for biodiversity assessments. International panels such as IPBES rely on SARs to translate lost habitat into predicted extinctions. 



If analysts know where a landscape sits on the three-phase curve they can apply the correct slope and avoid over- or under-estimating risk. The new equations provide exactly that guidance. 



Suppose a logged forest fragment still covers more area than the average range of its endemic beetles; species losses may be modest. But once destruction pushes the fragment below the first transition threshold, disappearing hectares cause a much steeper decline in species count.



Because the theory is scale-free it can also help conservationists decide whether sampling has been adequate. If observed species richness does not yet reach the slowdown phase, additional survey work is warranted before managers proclaim an inventory complete.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-species-distributions">Shifting species distributions </h2>



The authors acknowledge that species’ ranges are not static. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a>, invasive species, and land-use shifts continually redraw distribution maps. 



Incorporating dynamic range models into the three-phase framework will be a priority, as will extending tests to marine organisms and microbes, whose ranges are harder to delineate.



Still, the study offers a rare optimism amid grim extinction headlines. By revealing the geometry behind one of ecology’s most robust laws, scientists gain a clearer lens through which to view and perhaps mitigate humanity’s impact on life’s diversity.



As Pereira puts it, advances like these “unveil hidden patterns that have been shaping life on Earth for millions of years,” providing the knowledge base needed to steer those patterns, responsibly, into the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59239-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Saving biodiversity: Scientists discover hidden pattern guiding species distributions

When naturalists tally the frogs in a farm pond or...

Nicotine pouches - small, flavored packets placed between the gum and lip - have become a fast-growing trend among teenagers. A new study shows that the use of these pouches by high school students in the U.S. nearly doubled between 2023 and 2024.



The research was conducted by scientists at the <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California</a>. The team surveyed more than 10,000 high school students across the country to understand their use of nicotine pouches and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teen-nicotine-pouch-use-soars">Teen nicotine pouch use soars</h2>



The data highlights a worrying trend. In 2023, just 3% of 10th and 12th graders reported using nicotine pouches. By 2024, that number had jumped to 5.4 percent. More teens said they had used the pouches in the past month and past year, and the number who used both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-nicotine-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-infant-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nicotine</a> pouches and e-cigarettes also increased during that period.



Interestingly, while pouch use went up, the number of teens who reported vaping declined slightly - from 20% in 2023 to 17.6% in 2024. 



But dual use rose, with 3.6% of teens saying they had used both products in the past year, up from 2.1% the previous year.



“This growing public health issue needs more attention," said Dae-Hee Han, PhD, the study's lead author. "Like flavored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/e-cigarettes-linked-to-increased-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e-cigarettes</a> when they first emerged, use of this new oral nicotine product is becoming more widespread, particularly among adolescents.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teens-most-at-risk">Teens most at risk</h2>



Some teens are more likely to use nicotine pouches than others. Boys, non-Hispanic white teens, and students in rural areas showed higher rates of use. These groups mirror the typical profile of smokeless tobacco users, like those who chew tobacco, according to the researchers.



“We’re finding that the risk profile differs quite a bit between nicotine pouches and e-cigarettes, which means we need prevention approaches that are targeted for each,” Han said.



The health risks of nicotine pouches are still unclear, but there are known concerns. Some users have reported mouth sores and gum irritation. And nicotine addiction itself is a real issue, especially for teens. 



Studies suggest that nicotine exposure during adolescence can hurt brain development and affect memory, attention, and learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influencers-and-fda-approval">Influencers and FDA approval</h2>



Part of the pouch popularity seems to be driven by social media. A wave of “Zynfluencers” - influencers promoting the Zyn brand - has helped tie pouch use to ideas of confidence, masculinity, and mental focus.



In January, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gave Zyn permission to market flavored pouches to adults aged 21 and older. The decision was based on the idea that these products might be less harmful than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-vaping-help-people-quit-smoking-cigarettes-new-study-breaks-it-down/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cigarettes</a> for adults trying to quit. But unlike nicotine gum or patches, pouches are not approved as tools to stop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-cigarettes-accelerates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a>.



The same university behind the teen survey also found in a separate study that fewer than 1% of adults were actually using nicotine pouches. That raises a big question: Who is really buying them? 



“Parents, teachers, and pediatricians should be aware that teen nicotine pouch use is increasing across the nation,” said senior author Adam Leventhal, PhD.



“To reverse this trend, we need to heighten public awareness about pouches and educate youth about them. Policymakers might also consider ramping up regulation of the booming pouch market - including cinnamon, fruit, and other attractive flavors - to protect youth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-nicotine-pouch-use-among-teens">Monitoring nicotine pouch use among teens</h2>



The FDA’s decision relied partly on results from a different national survey, the National Youth Tobacco Survey (NYTS). That survey did not find a statistically significant rise in monthly teen use of pouches. However, like the USC-led study, the NYTS did find a big increase in lifetime use among teens.



The FDA didn’t mention that rise in its decision, but researchers say it matters. Tracking lifetime and yearly use helps identify when teens are experimenting with substances, even if they aren’t using them often.



Monitoring pouch use again in 2025 will be key to understanding how the FDA’s authorization is affecting behavior. Future research should also track long-term use, when teens first start using pouches, how strong the nicotine is, and what health problems may follow.



Researchers say more attention is needed to see whether new policies and prevention programs are working - especially for groups at higher risk, like teens in rural areas or those using both pouches and e-cigarettes.



“Nicotine pouches are relatively new, so we need time to collect data on prevalence, policy, and prevention,” Han said.



The full study was published in the journal JAMA Network Open.



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Nicotine pouches are a dangerous new trend among teens

Nicotine pouches - small, flavored packets placed between the gum...

Researchers have identified a hidden defensive structure deep in the forests of Neamț County, Romania. They used drones equipped with <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-lidar-data-and-where-can-i-download-it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LiDAR</a> (light detection and ranging) technology to map the terrain through dense foliage, and revealed evidence of an elaborate feature from around 5,000 years ago.



This discovery might date back to the late <a href="https://www.history.com/articles/neolithic-revolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neolithic</a>, a stage of prehistory that stretched from about 8,000 B.C. to 3,000 B.C., and it shows how early societies managed to build strong barriers in tricky places. 



Experts believe the structure had protective functions during a time of social shifts that occurred before the start of the Bronze Age - which began around 3,000 B.C.



The project was supervised by archaeologist <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vasile-Diaconu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vasile Diaconu</a>, who is affiliated with the Neamț County Museum Complex. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-hidden-structures-with-lidar">Finding hidden structures with LIDAR</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complex-canopies-help-forests-recover-from-disturbances/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LiDAR</a> has proven valuable in many archaeological projects, from spotting hidden Mayan roads in Central America to mapping temple complexes in Southeast Asia. 



Researchers depend on these laser-based surveys to penetrate thick vegetation and capture precise ground elevations.



“LiDAR coverage provides the means to detect subtle anthropogenic features beneath a dense tropical forest canopy,” stated <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arlen-Chase" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arlen F. Chase</a>, from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (<a href="https://www.unlv.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNLV</a>). 



This method also limits the need for extensive on-site clearing, which saves time and preserves delicate ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-ancient-societies">Window into ancient societies</h2>



Many historians associate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-sheds-light-on-neolithic-rituals-involving-human-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">late Neolithic</a> with innovations in agriculture and early social organization. Creating a fortified area in rugged terrain reflects strategic thinking that goes beyond the needs of basic survival.



Differences in pottery styles, burial practices, and settlement layouts from this era shed light on gradual transitions that laid the groundwork for the Bronze Age. 



The structure in Neamț County might have served as a hub for trade or a refuge during regional tensions.



“LiDAR scans showed that most of the fortified sites were located in high areas, which had good visibility and were reinforced by ditches and even earthen mounds in order to increase their defensive capacity,” Diaconu said. 



“Field measurements indicated that some of these ditches had impressive dimensions with lengths of several hundred meters, which required considerable human effort in the construction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Modern archaeological ventures often rely on partnerships between traditional researchers and specialists in surveying or remote sensing. 



This project succeeded because a former student - Vlad Dulgheriu - brought drone expertise to an established excavation team. 



“Thanks to current technology and using LiDAR scans I was able to obtain a faithful image of an almost 5000-year-old fortification,” said Diaconu. He believes such measures reveal structures that have stayed hidden for centuries.



This fortification is evidence of the complexity of communities that existed long before metal tools became widespread. 



In some cases, even basic wooden defenses or earthworks required sophisticated planning and labor coordination.



Uncovering these features shows the value of integrating new approaches with classic archaeological methods. It also opens more ways to protect cultural heritage sites from vandalism or climate-related threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-lidar-and-hidden-sites">Challenges of LIDAR and hidden sites</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-space-age-satellites-can-track-canopies-and-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Surveying thick forests</a> comes with problems like poor visibility and limited access to remote areas. LiDAR cuts through these barriers, but analyzing data demands specialized skills and advanced software.



Drone-based work can also be sensitive in regions with protected wildlife or historical landmarks, requiring special permits. Once that is sorted out, researchers can process the data to outline potential structures more accurately.



By around 3,000 B.C., societies in various parts of the world were experimenting with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-ancient-cymbals-suggests-that-music-connected-arabian-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">copper alloy tools</a> and different forms of governance. 



This shift shows how groups often adjusted their lifestyles to local challenges, such as building enclosures or reorganizing their communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-regional-identity">Implications for regional identity</h2>



Neamț County has a reputation for cultural treasures that span from medieval monasteries to centuries-old rural settlements. 



This newly revealed fortification could add another layer to local identity, highlighting how human activity shaped these forests long ago.



Any site that merges natural features with strategic design hints at the resourcefulness of its builders. Over time, local communities may explore ways to protect it while promoting thoughtful tourism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-ancient-knowledge">Preserving ancient knowledge</h2>



Archaeological archives are full of examples where sites were lost because people lacked the tools to identify them. In today’s world, technology can salvage fragile remnants of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mayan-civilization-may-have-been-shaped-by-ingenious-fisheries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier civilizations</a> without major disruptions.



Experts also stress ethical responsibilities when revealing newly identified places with significant heritage value. Protective measures must be balanced with the public’s interest in learning about the past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continued-lidar-hidden-exploration">Continued LIDAR hidden exploration</h2>



Scholars anticipate more hidden sites will emerge as scanning tools improve and costs become more manageable. 



Each uncovered location can broaden our perspective on how people thrived in challenging climates or landscapes.



Research teams may also turn to other remote sensing methods, such as thermal imaging, to complement LiDAR. That way, various layers of data can combine to form a cohesive record of vanished structures.



As technology evolves, archaeology may make connections between previously unrelated findings. This can enrich discussions about the origins of social hierarchies, trade networks, and cultural practices. 



Local institutions might explore new avenues for research and tourism that rely on scanning technologies. This approach will highlight the resilience of ancient populations.



The findings were presented at the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385377876_Let's_make_the_invisible_visible_LiDAR_investigations_and_archaeological_data_from_fortified_sites_attributed_to_the_Bronze_Age_in_Eastern_Romania" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landscape Archaeology Conference</a> in Spain, 2024.



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5,000-year-old fort hidden in the jungle confirms sophistication of ancient societies

Researchers have identified a hidden defensive structure deep in the...

The tiny tardigrade is often praised for its unmatched durability. Scientists have tested these microscopic animals in punishing conditions, and some have lived to tell the tale.



Tardigrades measure just around 0.02 inches, yet appear to shrug off extreme cold, radiation, and weeks without moisture. 



Observers are now stunned to see new <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00378" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> that place micro designs on their bodies through a specialized electron beam approach.



Ding Zhao from <a href="https://www.zju.edu.cn/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zhejiang University</a>, along with fellow researchers, has introduced a way to etch micro tracings onto tardigrade exteriors without hindering their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-bear-tardigrade-fossils-reveal-how-they-survived-several-mass-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-tardigrades-the-basics">Understanding tardigrades - the basics</h2>



Tardigrades, also called water bears or moss piglets, are tiny creatures that punch way above their weight. These microscopic animals lumber around on stubby legs, often in damp environments like moss, soil, or lichen. 



Despite their cuddly nickname, they’re some of the toughest life forms on Earth. They can survive boiling heat, freezing cold, crushing pressure, radiation, and even the vacuum of space. 



When things get rough, they curl up into a dry, shriveled ball called a “tun,” hit pause on life, and wait it out - sometimes for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-microfabrication">What is microfabrication?</h2>



The term <a href="https://monroeengineering.com/blog/what-is-microfabrication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microfabrication</a> describes a set of processes for building incredibly small devices. Researchers have used these methods to create sensors, circuit boards, and other intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>.



Achieving compatibility with delicate organisms has remained a sticking point. Old methods risk harming living cells with toxic chemicals or destructive radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tattooing-tardigrades-without-harm">Tattooing tardigrades without harm</h2>



The experts used an electron beam to form patterns on a tardigrade’s outer layer. Some portions of the animals withstood the process and resumed normal movement soon after.



“Through this technology, we’re not just creating micro-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoo-ink-travels-through-the-body-and-may-cause-long-term-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tattoos</a> on tardigrades - we’re extending this capability to various living organisms, including bacteria,” explained Ding Zhao.



This statement highlights how advanced microfabrication might find uses across a wide range of living systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-tardigrades-survive-extreme-conditions">Why tardigrades survive extreme conditions</h2>



Scientists are still uncovering the factors behind these creatures’ legendary <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5492148/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toughness</a>. Research has shown that certain species can return to life after losing nearly all their water content, which is a remarkable example of endurance.



This survival strategy makes them ideal test subjects for new fabrication ideas that require harsh steps like exposure to vacuum or cold. Their bodies recover in ways that few other animals can match.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-implants-could-help-future-medicine">Tiny implants could help future medicine</h2>



Biomedicine may benefit from micro-scale implants or sensors that merge seamlessly with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tattoos-and-body-art-found-on-1200-year-old-peruvian-mummies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tissues</a>. Some experts foresee devices that collect data inside the human body without major surgical steps.



“It is challenging to pattern living matter, and this advance portends a new generation of biomaterial devices and biophysical sensors that were previously only present in science fiction,” noted Gavin King, who invented the underlying ice lithography technique but was not involved in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-using-micro-tattoos">Next steps for using micro-tattoos</h2>



The researchers hope to expand these methods to other resilient microorganisms. New forms of <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Anisole" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anisole</a> or related compounds might open doors to printed electronics that stick firmly on biological surfaces.



Specialized micro-sensors could someday track health markers in real time and transmit signals externally. This might transform disease monitoring and personalized care options.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-micro-tattoos-harm-tardigrades">Can micro-tattoos harm tardigrades?</h2>



There are still questions about long-term impacts on each test subject’s health and lifespan. Further studies will examine whether repeated procedures cause hidden issues inside their cells.



Refinements in cooling, beam intensity, and chemical agents are likely to minimize harm. Some scientists see this as a path to safer, more precise methods that respect an organism’s integrity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-tough-tardigrades">Discovery of tough tardigrades</h2>



Tardigrades belong to a distinct group called Phylum Tardigrada. They were first documented in the late 18th century by naturalists who studied water samples.



Early observations noted their curious shape and lumbering walk, prompting the nickname water bear. Centuries later, advanced labs continue to explore new features of their biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-micro-tattoos-could-help-robotics">How micro-tattoos could help robotics</h2>



Scientists speculate that flexible circuits could coat the surfaces of living microbes to monitor chemical changes in high-risk environments. This might lead to real-time alerts about contamination or hidden toxins.



Similar concepts might appear in robotics, where living cells combine with manufactured parts to form hybrid machines. Supporters envision a time when microbes and human-made systems work in unison without harming each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Teams worldwide exchange notes to refine micro-scale engineering on living hosts. This collaboration crosses disciplines, tying biology, physics, and chemistry into one puzzle.



Continual improvements in electron beam control allow for finer detail with fewer side effects. Leading laboratories consider tardigrades a stepping stone to more fragile organisms.



Enthusiasts believe new micro-designs on these creatures will spark ideas for advanced drug delivery and personalized treatments. Tiny adhesives may cling to tissues and guide medication where it is needed most.



Engineers and biologists see common ground in these experiments. The combination of precise patterns and natural resilience points to methods that could redefine how we use biological surfaces in tech.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5c00378" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nano Letters</a>.



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Scientists found a way to put tattoos on the smallest, toughest creatures on Earth

The tiny tardigrade is often praised for its unmatched durability....

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger than any signpost. From a low ridge, the landscape looks plain enough - just ocher earth and scattered stones. Yet from the air, pale etchings known as Nazca geoglyphs spread out across thirty-one miles of desert like pages in an ancient picture book.



Scholars have long marveled at these Nazca geoglyphs: animals, people, and patterns scraped into the soil roughly two thousand years ago. 



Their purpose has never been obvious, and for decades each new survey has offered more puzzles than answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nazca-geoglyphs-carved-on-desert-canvas">Nazca geoglyphs carved on desert canvas</h2>



Masato Sakai of Japan’s <a href="https://www.yamagata-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yamagata University</a> has spent two decades walking the Nazca Pampa, a dry plateau that sits about 1,640 feet above sea level. 



The lack of rain and the region’s remoteness have sheltered the drawings from erosion and farming. 



Two main styles dominate the site. Giant “line-type” designs - think the famous hummingbird - stretch for hundreds of feet. 



Smaller “surface-type” figures appear where workers once brushed away dark stones to expose lighter sand.



Early mapping relied on planes and satellite photos. Even then, the sharpest images missed many faint or partial motifs. 



Relief-type figures, often no larger than a city bus, hug age-old footpaths and easily hide in the dusty palette.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-scans-the-peruvian-sands">AI scans the Peruvian sands</h2>



Enter a collaboration with IBM Research. Between September 2022 and February 2023, Sakai’s team fed an artificial-intelligence model examples of known glyphs, then set it loose on high-resolution photos of the entire plateau. 



In six months, the system flagged 303 new surface-type drawings - almost doubling the catalog built up since the early twentieth century. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1s.webp" alt="Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Credit: Yamagata University" class="wp-image-1967878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yamagata University</figcaption></figure>



That fresh haul pushes the confirmed total to 430 pieces, 318 of which Yamagata University has logged since it began work in 2004.



Instead of boxing objects the usual way, the model treated the desert as a grid of tiny image tiles and scored each one for geoglyph likelihood. 



The researchers split every confirmed figure into smaller patches to give the algorithm extra training material, a trick that compensated for the limited dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-the-nazca-geoglyphs-telling-us">What are the Nazca geoglyphs telling us?</h2>



Many newly spotted icons cluster within 141 feet of ancient trails. They show human torsos, stylized livestock, and eerie isolated heads. 



“The human heads depict human sacrifices to the gods,” Sakai explained. The pathway setting hints that small groups used these pictures as teaching aids or spiritual prompts during routine travel.



Pottery shards nearby suggest such relief-type figures may predate the grander line drawings. Their subjects lean toward domestic life, a contrast to the wild creatures often celebrated in the larger images.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ritual-routes-and-roadside-lessons">Ritual routes and roadside lessons</h2>



Line-type glyphs anchor the start and finish of broader pilgrimage routes, typically lying about 112 feet from ceremonial lines scored into the ground. 



Archaeologists think processions moved along these corridors, stopping at the vast bird, monkey, or whale outlines for communal rites. 



“At that time, there was no written language. People learned about the roles of humans and animals by looking at pictures and used them as places for rituals,” he said.



That spoken insight, paired with the spatial data, supports the idea that the Nazca culture wove its belief system straight into the landscape. 



Travelers likely rehearsed myths, seasonal duties, or social roles by pacing past images tailored to each lesson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behind-the-numbers">Behind the numbers</h2>



The 303 fresh finds are all surface-type, yet they vary in design and age. Roughly half depict human or animal heads, many with eyes or mouths exaggerated for emphasis. 



The rest show full figures, including camelids and felines that were vital to everyday survival. Their average length is about 20 yards. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1s.webp" alt="Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Credit: University of Michigan" class="wp-image-1967876"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Michigan</figcaption></figure>



The AI’s accuracy jumped once researchers applied transfer learning - starting with a vision model trained on everyday photographs before fine-tuning it for desert imagery.



Such efficiency matters because the Nazca Pampa spans more than 190 square miles. Manual surveys would take years, but AI can flag probable sites in days, letting field crews focus on verification and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-archaeology">AI and the future of archaeology</h2>



The success in Peru demonstrates how machine learning can spotlight hidden heritage without disturbing the ground. 



Similar techniques already aid shipwreck hunts in the Mediterranean and temple searches in Cambodia’s jungles. As satellite coverage improves, smaller teams will parse vast regions for subtle traces of ancient life.



For the Nazca Lines, the next step is protection. Mining, unregulated tourism, and modern roads nibble at the fragile crust. 



Digital maps built from AI detections give local authorities a clearer picture of what needs fencing, signage, or rerouting. 



Sharing these maps online also invites global scholars to test fresh hypotheses about how the drawings fit with climate shifts, trade, and social change over fifteen centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-nazca-geoglyphs">What's next for the Nazca geoglyphs?</h2>



What began as a curiosity spotted by pilot Toribio Mejía Xesspe in 1927 now stands as proof - yes, proof - of cooperation between traditional fieldwork and cutting-edge tech. 



The Nazca people left no written chronicles, but they etched stories big enough to survive millennia of wind and sun. 



With new eyes in the sky and smarter algorithms on the ground, today’s researchers are finally starting to read those stories in full.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2407652121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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One of Earth's greatest mysteries is partially solved by Artificial Intelligence

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger...

African,Woman,,Portrait,And,Heart,Hands,On,Stomach,At,Gym,

The bacteria, fungi, and other gut microbes colonizing an animal’s intestines influence everything from digestion to immunity, yet scientists still know surprisingly little about how everyday foods reshape this inner ecosystem. 



A new investigation shows that switching the dominant source of dietary protein can upend both membership and metabolic duties of the gut microbiome in a single week.



This study, led by <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and published by Alfredo Blakeley-Ruiz and colleagues, may help unravel why modern diets are often linked to chronic gastrointestinal disorders and could point the way toward new therapeutic or preventive strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-gut-s-response-to-protein">The gut's response to protein </h2>



To isolate the effect of protein <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-too-much-protein-greatly-increases-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">source</a> alone, the researchers fed mice a series of highly defined diets that were identical in fat, carbohydrate, fiber and mineral content but differed in a single component: every seven days the sole protein came either from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eggs-may-slow-memory-decline-and-support-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">egg</a> white, brown rice, soy or yeast. 



After each dietary phase, the team harvested intestinal contents and applied an “integrated metagenomics-metaproteomics” pipeline.



This combination of DNA sequencing and high-resolution mass spectrometry simultaneously identifies which microbial species are present and which proteins those microbes are producing - offering a rare window into the community’s actual functions rather than its potential.



“There’s something wrong with what we’re eating today, and we are not close to knowing what that is,” Blakeley-Ruiz noted. “Our lab wanted to know how different diets impact what lives in the gut, and to learn something about what those microbes are doing, functionally, in response to that diet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reshuffling-of-microbial-communities">Reshuffling of microbial communities</h2>



The results revealed striking volatility. Each new protein source triggered a noticeable turnover in microbial membership, but three diets - egg white, brown rice, and yeast - drove the most dramatic transformations.



“The composition of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiome</a> significantly changed every time we changed the protein source,” Blakeley-Ruiz explained. 



Not only did some formerly minor species bloom to dominance, but entire metabolic pathways switched on or off, indicating that the microbes were quickly retooling their biochemical machinery to exploit the new nutrient landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amino-acids-and-complex-sugars">Amino acids and complex sugars</h2>



When the scientists compared microbial proteins across diets, two functional categories showed the largest swings. 



The first, amino-acid metabolism, was expected: because proteins are built from amino acids, microbes respond to a fresh influx by either manufacturing more amino-acid-processing enzymes or dialing production down if the amino acids arrive pre-made.



In mice fed egg white or brown rice, the team saw a pronounced increase in enzymes that break down amino acids, suggesting that gut microbes were scavenging these building blocks directly from the diet rather than synthesizing them on their own. 



Blakeley-Ruiz cautioned that such degradation makes intuitive sense but may have hidden consequences, because certain amino-acid by-products can become toxic or influence brain signaling through the gut–brain axis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-changes-in-the-gut-microbiome">Dramatic changes in the gut microbiome </h2>



The second major change surprised the team: large shifts in enzymes that degrade glycans, the branching chains of sugar molecules that decorate many proteins. Diets rich in soy, rice, yeast and especially egg white boosted the expression of glycan-cutting enzymes, sometimes dramatically.



“This could be really meaningful, health-wise,” Blakeley-Ruiz said. In the egg-white group, a single bacterial species surged and switched on a broad suite of glycan-degradation genes. 



Laboratory tests showed this bacterium expressed a similar enzyme profile when grown in the presence of mucin, the slippery protein-sugar mixture that coats and protects the intestinal lining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-erosion-of-the-gut-s-protective-barrier">Erosion of the gut’s protective barrier</h2>



Because mucin’s sugars resemble those on dietary proteins, microbes that learn to chew through egg-white glycans might also erode the host’s mucin layer, compromising the gut barrier and allowing inflammation or pathogens to take hold.



“I’m excited to explore this potential connection between the expression of glycan degrading enzymes in the egg white diet and the breakdown of mucin by the gut microbiome in future studies,” Blakeley-Ruiz said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Manuel Kleiner, associate professor of plant and microbial biology and co-corresponding author, emphasized that the purified diets used here are intentionally artificial. Real meals include multiple protein sources and additional nutrients that could buffer or blunt the effects seen in mice. 



Nonetheless, the work spotlights egg white as an “extreme” modulator of microbial behavior and sets the stage for follow-up experiments that mix proteins in more realistic proportions.



“Our study shows not only which bacterial species are in the gut microbiome and their abundance, but also what they are actually doing,” Kleiner explained. 



By mapping the enzyme repertoires that microbes deploy for different proteins, the researchers have created a catalog of metabolic responses that future projects can mine to design precision diets or probiotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrition-that-supports-gut-health">Nutrition that supports gut health</h2>



The findings arrive amid a surge of interest in how diet shapes the gut microbiome and, by extension, human health. Gastrointestinal diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease afflict millions worldwide, and many patients report symptom flares linked to particular foods. 



However, mechanistic explanations have been elusive. By revealing that protein source alone can rewire microbial communities in days - altering amino-acid breakdown and potentially stripping protective mucus - the NC State team provides new clues to this puzzle.



Further studies in animals and humans could determine whether certain protein-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/contamination-crisis-microplastics-found-in-88-of-protein-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foods</a> contribute to disease by nudging the microbiome toward mucus-degrading, toxin-producing pathways, and whether alternative proteins or tailored fiber supplements can steer the gut back to a healthier state.



According to the scientists, there shouldn’t be a one-size-fits-all approach to dietary protein. Understanding how specific proteins influence microbial metabolism is a first step toward personalized nutrition that supports, rather than undermines, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-health-may-be-the-key-to-anxiety-relief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut health</a>.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf048/8089909">ISME Journal</a>.



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What protein-packed diets are really doing to your gut

The bacteria, fungi, and other gut microbes colonizing an animal’s...

Agricultural chemicals sprayed over vast plant fields rarely stay where growers intend. Researchers estimate that as much as half of each application drifts into soil, water, or the atmosphere - raising costs for farmers while burdening ecosystems.



A collaboration between <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> and the <a href="https://smart.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology</a> offers a radically different approach: hollow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inspired-by-sea-slugs-microneedles-could-transform-health-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microneedles</a> spun from natural silk protein that inject fertilizers, nutrients, or sensing probes directly into plant tissues. 



This technique pairs surgical precision with a fabrication process so simple it can be done outside a clean room, yet robust enough for large-scale production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silk-needles-for-smarter-farming">Silk needles for smarter farming</h2>



“Agrochemicals are important for supporting our food system, but they’re also expensive and bring environmental side effects, so there’s a big need to deliver them precisely,” explained Benedetto Marelli, the study’s senior author and an associate professor of civil and environmental engineering at MIT.



Traditional foliar spraying addresses entire canopies even when only specific plants - or particular tissues - need treatment.



The new silk microneedles bypass that waste, ferrying liquids directly into a plant’s vascular network, where they can be distributed internally with minimal losses to the surrounding environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-feed-plants">A new way to feed plants</h2>



The research builds on medical microneedle technology originally devised for painless human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-misconceptions-are-spreading-rapidly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaccinations</a>. Earlier work from Marelli’s group proved that solid silk needles could pierce plant epidermis, but those prototypes carried only minuscule doses. 



To deliver commercially relevant volumes, Yunteng Cao and Doyoon Kim created a hollow version without the clean-room lithography medical devices usually require. They mixed purified silk fibroin with a saline solution and cast the blend into tiny conical molds.



As the water evaporated, salt crystallized inside the cones. Washing away the salt left behind either a central lumen or microscopic pores, depending on salt concentration. Despite their lightweight structure, the needles still had enough strength to penetrate stems.



“It’s a pretty simple fabrication process. It can be done outside of a clean room - you could do it in your kitchen if you wanted,” Kim said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-silk-needles-to-heal-crops">Using silk needles to heal crops</h2>



Iron deficiency, or chlorosis, stunts growth in many crops and can significantly reduce tomato yields. Sprays often fail because iron oxidizes before it enters the roots or leaves.



The team demonstrated that their hollow needles could infuse iron chelate directly into chlorotic tomato stems, reversing yellowing while using far less material than conventional soil or foliar supplements. 



Because the silk matrix biodegrades over several days, the needles acted like slow-release capsules, sustaining iron delivery as the plant recovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enriching-crops-with-vitamins">Enriching crops with vitamins</h2>



Biofortification - boosting the nutritional content of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-resilient-crops-to-cope-with-the-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> - typically involves genetic engineering or post-harvest additives. 



The researchers tested whether the silk microneedles could embed vitamin B12, a nutrient scarce in plant foods, into developing tomatoes. Injections into green stems resulted in ripe fruit containing measurable B12, hinting at a field-based route for nutrient enrichment.



Co-author Daisuke Urano noted that detailed assessments showed “minimal adverse effects from microneedle injections in plants, with no observed short- or long-term negative impacts,” suggesting the method could scale without compromising crop health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crop-diagnostics-and-silk-needles">Crop diagnostics and silk needles </h2>



The team also used the needles as diagnostic probes. Hydroponic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-have-a-molecular-trick-to-survive-in-extreme-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomatoes</a> growing in cadmium-tainted nutrient solution can absorb the toxic metal long before visual symptoms appear.



By inserting microneedles and later analyzing the absorbed sap, the researchers detected cadmium within fifteen minutes and monitored its rise over eighteen hours. 



Current imaging methods only reveal stress after growth falters, and pulling sap manually is laborious. A microneedle array could act as an “IV line,” continually sampling fluid for on-farm analytics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robotic-treatment-for-plants">Robotic treatment for plants</h2>



At present, technicians place the needles by hand, but Marelli envisions mounting them on robotic arms or autonomous drones that already patrol high-tech farms. Such systems could target individual plants flagged by imaging or soil sensors, applying nutrients or pesticides only where needed.



“We want to maximize the growth of plants without negatively affecting the health of the farm or the biodiversity of surrounding ecosystems,” Marelli said. “There shouldn’t be a trade-off between the agriculture industry and the environment. They should work together.”



While agriculture is the immediate focus, the underlying manufacturing technique could benefit human medicine. 



Hollow polymeric microneedles loaded with drugs or vaccines can offer painless, self-administrable alternatives to hypodermic needles. Cao noted salt-templating can customize pore size and shape for controlled release in both skin and plant stems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precise-crop-injections-with-silk-needles">Precise crop injections with silk needles </h2>



Global demand for food is climbing even as arable land and freshwater resources strain under climate change and pollution. Precision tools that conserve inputs while protecting surrounding ecosystems are crucial, and silk microneedles offer a versatile platform.



The technology cuts waste and boosts crop care by infusing treatments, enriching nutrients, and enabling fast, in-plant diagnostics. 



If automated at scale, farmers could soon replace broad sprays with pinpoint injections, feeding a growing world more responsibly and efficiently.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-025-01923-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Nanotechnology</a>.



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Smarter farming: Silk needles heal crops with precision

Agricultural chemicals sprayed over vast plant fields rarely stay where...

An isolated corner of Ivory Coast has produced stone tools that suggest humans lived in dense jungle settings about 150,000 years ago. This <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08613-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> defies the common view that thick tropical forests were too unforgiving for early human survival.



Archaeologists used advanced dating methods to confirm the age of the site at Anyama, which more than doubles prior estimates of when humans first made homes in such lush environments. This find widens our view of how early populations adjusted to life across Africa.



That historical gap caught the attention of Professor Yodé Guédé of <a href="https://w.univ-fhb.edu.ci/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">l'Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny</a>, who was part of the original team that first examined the region decades ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jungles-added-to-list-of-early-human-habitats">Jungles added to list of early human habitats</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early humans</a> emerged around 300,000 years ago, but many details about their preferred ecosystems remain unclear.



Jungles were rarely considered prime spots for ancient communities, largely because of the challenges of limited farmland and tricky navigation.



“Several recent climate models suggested the area could have been a rainforest refuge in the past as well, even during dry periods of forest fragmentation,” noted <a href="http://www.eleanorscerri.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Eleanor Scerri</a>, from the <a href="https://www.gea.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology</a>. This perspective motivated researchers to revisit earlier discoveries and apply fresh laboratory analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-discoveries-in-the-trench">Hidden discoveries in the trench</h2>



The original trench investigation took place around the 1980s, but specific dating methods were unavailable at that time. Researchers relied on stone tools and sediment layering for clues, yet the exact timeline was not evaluated. 



One researcher explained that they relocated the older excavation and used advanced techniques just in time, since modern mining threatened to erase the entire site. 



The team uncovered proof that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-thrived-on-plant-based-diets-not-meat-alone-780000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> thrived in these rainforest conditions much earlier than scientists once believed.



Laboratory tests pinpointed the layers to approximately 150,000 years ago. Analysts checked sediments for pollen, phytoliths, and other markers to confirm that the region was heavily wooded rather than open savanna.



Low levels of grass pollen indicated denser tree cover, while certain leaf wax residues pointed to damp forest floors. Stone tools found in these layers showed humans shaped implements for hunting and gathering in thick canopy settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-history">Implications for human history</h2>



“This exciting discovery is the first of a long list,” exclaimed Prof. Guédé. Findings like these offer a glimpse into an ancient human past that included life in more varied environments than once thought.



“We now need to ask how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early human</a> niche expansions impacted the plants and animals that shared the same niche-space with humans. In other words, how far back does human alteration of pristine natural habitats go?” queried Prof. Scerri.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-resilience-in-jungle-environments">Human resilience in jungle environments</h2>



For a long time, researchers assumed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-species-face-structure-evolved-differently/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> stuck to coastlines, open plains, or rivers. These areas made hunting and movement easier, and survival more straightforward. 



But the Anyama discovery flips that idea, showing people were tough enough to settle deep in wet, closed-canopy forests long before modern tools or farming.



Surviving in this setting would have meant adjusting to dense tree cover, unpredictable rainfall, and dangerous wildlife. It wasn’t an easy life. That humans pulled it off over 100,000 years ago speaks volumes about their creativity, adaptability, and endurance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Experts are eager to hunt for additional relics in neighboring areas. They speculate that similar discoveries could reshape the timeline of human occupation across tropical regions.



Fresh data may also reveal how resource use and local animal interactions played out in wetter environments. Investigating more sites could shed light on the full scope of ancient adaptability in Africa’s green corridors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-west-africa-still-holds-secrets">Why west Africa still holds secrets</h2>



West Africa remains one of the least explored regions when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-south-america-much-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early human history</a>. Political instability, limited funding, and decades of underrepresentation in research have left many sites untouched and stories untold.



Archaeologists believe this is just the beginning. If one forgotten trench in Ivory Coast can reshape our human timeline, there’s no telling what lies beneath the soil in neighboring countries. The deeper we dig, the more complex the story of our origin becomes.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08613-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Primitive tools reveal early humans lived in a harsh, forgotten jungle 150,000 years ago

An isolated corner of Ivory Coast has produced stone tools...

Aging is not just about counting candles on a cake. While chronological age marks time, biological age reveals how your body is truly holding up. The two don’t always align. You might be 60 on paper but have the organs and cells of someone far younger - or older.



This difference can carry real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consequences</a>, especially for brain health. According to a major new study, people with higher biological ages than their chronological ones may face a greater risk of developing dementia.



The findings shed light on how our internal aging patterns could shape long-term cognitive outcomes.



This research gains urgency in the face of global dementia rates, which continue to climb. With longer life expectancies, understanding how to age <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthily</a> becomes more important than ever. And this study offers a new lens through which to view prevention and early detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-age-may-signal-dementia-risk">Biological age may signal dementia risk</h2>



Chronological age is simple - your age based on birthdate. Biological age is more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protein-changes-discovered-protect-humans-mammals-from-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex</a>. It reflects how your body's systems perform relative to typical aging. It draws on health indicators like lung function, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and even blood cell activity.



While this study does not prove causation, it reveals a compelling association between advanced biological age and dementia. 



That’s important, because it suggests biological age may be a useful warning sign for cognitive decline. It also raises hope - because biological age is more responsive to change than the passage of time.



“With the rising impact of dementia around the world, identifying risk factors and implementing preventive measures is essential,” said study author Dr. Yacong Bo of <a href="https://english.zzu.edu.cn/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zhengzhou University</a> in China.



“While none of us can change our chronological age, we can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence</a> our biological age through lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-aging-and-higher-dementia-risk">Faster aging and higher dementia risk</h2>



The researchers examined 280,918 individuals from a large UK database. At the start of the study, the average participant was 57 years old. 



Importantly, none had dementia when they joined the research. These individuals were then tracked for 14 years on average, allowing the team to observe who developed dementia and how biological age might relate to that outcome.



During the study period, 4,770 participants were diagnosed with dementia. Among those who developed the disease, their average chronological age was 65. 



But their average biological age stood at 55, suggesting their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bodies</a> had aged beyond their actual years. In contrast, people who did not develop dementia had an average chronological age of 57 and a biological age closer to 45.



These differences reflect more than numbers - they may signal stress on vital systems like the brain, heart, and immune system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-biological-age-was-measured">How biological age was measured</h2>



To calculate biological age, the researchers used two distinct methods. Both factored in key aging biomarkers like lung efficiency, cholesterol, and blood pressure. But they also looked at deeper blood indicators, such as average red cell size and white blood cell count.



These tests offer insight into how the body’s internal systems - like metabolism, immunity, kidney and liver function, and cardiovascular health - are aging. When these systems wear out faster than normal, they may place the brain under greater stress.



When grouped by biological age, the participants with the oldest biological profiles were about 30% more likely to develop dementia compared to those with the youngest profiles. 



These results accounted for other variables like smoking, education, and baseline age, suggesting that biological age remained a strong predictor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-aging-linked-to-brain-shrinkage">Faster aging linked to brain shrinkage</h2>



The researchers didn’t stop at statistical risk. They also looked at brain imaging to find structural evidence of damage. People with advanced biological age showed signs of reduced gray matter volume - a known marker in many forms of dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease.



“These brain structure changes explain some, but not all, of the association between advanced biological age and dementia,” Bo said. 



“These results support the hypothesis that advanced biological age may contribute to the development of dementia by causing a widespread change in brain structures.”



The structural thinning of the brain may help explain why faster-aging bodies tend to suffer cognitive problems earlier. However, it also points to other unknown factors that may link the two.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthy-living-may-reduce-dementia-risk">Healthy living may reduce dementia risk</h2>



While we cannot pause time, this study hints that we might influence how our bodies age. Biological age appears more flexible than chronological age. That means good habits - like regular movement, plant-forward eating, low stress, and avoiding tobacco - could lower our biological age over time.



The authors emphasize this point. "While none of us can change our chronological age, we can influence our biological age," Bo said. This opens a promising window for public health efforts that target modifiable risk factors.



The study also raises new questions: Could slowing biological aging delay or prevent cognitive diseases? Would earlier screening based on biological age allow for better treatment or care? These are paths future research may explore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-the-study">Limitations of the study</h2>



The researchers acknowledged some limitations of their study. Participants in the UK database were generally more health-conscious than the wider population.



This could skew the findings toward lower dementia risk overall, meaning the real-world numbers might differ. Still, the consistent patterns between biological age and cognitive decline remain relevant.



Importantly, this work was supported by both the Henan Province and Zhengzhou city governments in China, highlighting the growing international interest in brain aging research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learn-more-about-brain-health">Learn more about brain health</h2>



To better understand brain conditions and healthy aging, resources like <a href="https://www.brainandlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BrainandLife.org</a> offer science-backed information. 



Managed by the American Academy of Neurology, this platform connects patients, caregivers, and medical professionals with expert advice. The site includes articles, podcasts, and books covering topics from migraine to Alzheimer’s.



In summary, how fast your body ages may shape how well your mind holds up. And as this new research shows, staying biologically younger might offer powerful protection.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000213616" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Our biological age may predict dementia risk better than birth date

Aging is not just about counting candles on a cake....

Plastic pollution in the ocean is an urgent crisis. While most people recognize its physical dangers, new research reveals deeper biological threats. 



A new study shows that ingested plastic can release hormone-altering chemicals in northern fulmars, a species of seabird that inhabits the North Atlantic and North Pacific.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a> and the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance conducted this study. Their findings suggest that plastics can chemically interfere with birds’ hormonal systems. This is more than a surface-level threat - this interference may affect survival, reproduction, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-seabirds-have-ingested-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-after-seabirds-ingest-plastic">What happens after seabirds ingest plastic? </h2>



The researchers analyzed estrogen receptor (ER) activity in northern fulmars. ERs are vital for reproduction and development. Many plastic-associated chemicals mimic or block estrogen, acting as xenoestrogens.



To investigate this, scientists compared human and fulmar ER responses using a luciferase-reporter assay. 



Both species’ ERs were activated by common plastic additives like bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), 4-octylphenol (4-OP), and benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP). They were inhibited by known toxicants such as tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).



This similarity in response raises concerns about ecosystem-wide effects. The chemicals leached from plastics don’t just pass through animals - they bind to key receptors that control biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-breathing-in-plastic-what-does-that-mean-for-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-chemicals-harm-birds-for-days">Plastic chemicals harm birds for days</h2>



Lead author Liesbeth Van Hassel emphasized that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-seabirds-have-ingested-microplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> ingestion may have deeper effects. 



“We’ve long known that plastic ingestion can cause physical harm to seabirds, but this study shows it may also have hidden biological effects,” she said. 



“What’s especially concerning is that these chemicals don’t just pass through - they interact with key hormone receptors in the body.”



In the study, plastic recovered from 27 fulmars’ stomachs was soaked in solvent. The leachates were tested on cloned fulmar hormone receptors. Thirteen of the birds had plastics that activated or blocked hormone receptors on day one. 



Nine of those still showed disruption after five and fourteen days, revealing a prolonged threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-damage-caused-by-plastic-chemicals">Damage caused by plastic chemicals </h2>



The study also analyzed the polymers in the ingested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastics</a>. Using infrared spectroscopy, they identified polyethylene (60%), polypropylene (35%), polyethylene terephthalate (3%), and 2% unidentifiable materials. 



However, the type of plastic didn’t predict hormonal response. This suggests the additives - not the base materials - cause the damage.



“Some of these plastics kept leaching active chemicals for two weeks,” said Christopher Tubbs, co-author and Associate Director of Reproductive Sciences at <a href="https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance</a>. 



“This suggests seabirds are not only swallowing harmful materials — they may be getting a continuous dose of hormone-altering chemicals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-humans-and-plastic-chemicals">Seabirds, humans, and plastic chemicals</h2>



While fulmars and humans showed similar reactions to certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-normal-plastic-turns-into-dangerous-micro-and-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a>, sensitivity varied by substance and concentration. 



For instance, human ERs responded more strongly to BPA and BPS, while fulmar ERs were more sensitive to 4-OP. These differences highlight the importance of testing species-specific hormone systems rather than relying only on human models.



Previous research has shown that different bird species experience unique endocrine effects. Quail, for example, showed reproductive issues and lowered estrogen after ingesting plastic. Fulmars, with long retention times and a tendency to consume floating plastics, are especially vulnerable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-warning-from-seabirds">A global warning from seabirds</h2>



Northern fulmars are often used as indicators of ocean plastic pollution. Their surface-feeding habits expose them to microplastics, and their stomachs can retain these for weeks or months. This extended retention increases the chance of chemical absorption.



The team’s study offers the first data showing that a seabird’s estrogen receptors can be disrupted by chemicals released from actual ocean-recovered plastic. 



It provides a cautionary example of how plastics are harming wildlife not just physically, but chemically and hormonally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-plastic-s-deeper-risks">Uncovering plastic’s deeper risks</h2>



This research is part of a broader collaboration between the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance and UC Santa Cruz. 



The goal is to uncover hidden risks to species and apply this knowledge in conservation science. The team's findings highlight the need to reduce plastic waste and limit the use of harmful additives.



Plastics may look inert, but inside a bird’s stomach, they become chemical hazards. This study reveals how ocean pollution is silently rewiring the biology of marine species - one swallowed fragment at a time.



The work was supported by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.oikonos.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oikonos Ecosystem Knowledge</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/alaska/fisheries-observers/north-pacific-observer-program" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA North Pacific Observer Program</a>, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://wildlife.ca.gov/OSPR/Science/MWVCRC" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDFW-OSPR Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center</a>.&nbsp;These partnerships enabled collection, lab work, and analysis vital to this study.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749125005184" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Pollution</a>.



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Plastic is harming seabirds even more than we realized

Plastic pollution in the ocean is an urgent crisis. While...

A team of scientists has recently uncovered a unique genetic adaptation in horses that may explain their remarkable athleticism. The adaptation, previously seen only in viruses, provides horses with a way to override a premature genetic stop signal. 



The discovery, led by <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins Medicine</a>, in collaboration with <a href="https://castiglionelab.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vanderbilt University’s Castiglione Lab</a>, focuses on a key genetic pathway known as NRF2/KEAP1 and a rare evolutionary mechanism that gives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-domestic-horses-have-ancestors-in-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a> an athletic advantage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-horse-genetics">Secrets of horse genetics</h2>



The NRF2/KEAP1 pathway is found in all vertebrates and plays a critical role in protecting cells from oxidative stress. It also helps regulate metabolism and energy production. 



NRF2 is a protein that shields cells from reactive oxygen species - unstable molecules that damage DNA and accumulate during activities like exercise. KEAP1 acts as a sensor that regulates how much NRF2 is available to help cells respond to stress.



“We’ve studied NRF2 and KEAP1 for a long time, because this duo is very relevant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retinal</a> diseases such as macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy,” said senior author Elia Duh, a professor of ophthalmology at Johns Hopkins Medicine’s <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/wilmer" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wilmer Eye Institute</a>. 



“NRF2 is important for coping with oxidative stress, as well as for mitochondrial metabolism, respiration, and energy production.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extremely-rare-adaptation-in-horses">Extremely rare adaptation in horses</h2>



Using genetic sequencing, the researchers found a peculiar mutation in the KEAP1 gene in horses, donkeys, and zebras. The mutation introduced a premature stop codon - a segment of DNA that acts like a "stop" sign, usually ending protein production too early. 



When such a stop codon appears early in a gene, the resulting protein is often too short to function properly. In humans, these premature stop codons are linked to around 11% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-could-safely-treat-hundreds-of-genetic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inherited diseases</a>, including conditions like cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy.



Surprisingly, horses have evolved a workaround. Instead of halting KEAP1 protein production, their cells recode the stop signal, allowing the gene to continue translating into a full-length, functional protein. This process, known as stop codon read through, is extremely rare in animals and has only been documented in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-that-love-to-kill-bacteria-could-help-fight-deadly-infections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> before this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-energy-better-performance">Better energy, better performance</h2>



Further molecular analysis of horse cells showed that this genetic recoding results in a more efficient KEAP1 protein, one that is highly responsive to reactive oxygen species. 



This in turn boosts the activity of NRF2, the protective protein that helps cells generate energy and fend off oxidative damage. The end result: a cellular system optimized for the extreme demands of equine endurance.



The enhanced NRF2/KEAP1 pathway in horses appears to help them meet their intense energy requirements during exercise while also minimizing the cellular damage typically caused by such exertion. 



According to the research team, this could explain how horses have evolved such exceptional speed and stamina.



“Not only does our work confirm this genetic evolutionary adaptation, it brings into focus how important this pathway is for chronic disease, age-related diseases, and exercise physiology,” Duh said. “This might give insight into the particular NRF2/KEAP1 interactions we can take advantage of therapeutically.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-human-health">Improving human health </h2>



The findings on horse genetics do more than offer insight into equine biology - they may open doors to new medical treatments. The same genetic mechanism that allows horses to bypass a premature stop codon could potentially be applied in humans to treat a variety of inherited diseases caused by similar mutations.



By understanding how horses naturally override a genetic stop signal, researchers may be able to design drugs or gene therapies that mimic the process.



“The strategy used by horses to bypass a stop codon could guide ongoing efforts to treat the many inherited diseases resulting from premature stop codons,” Duh explained.



Beyond rare genetic disorders, the study also highlights the broader relevance of the NRF2/KEAP1 pathway in age-related and chronic diseases. 



Because NRF2 plays a central role in cellular stress response and energy metabolism, targeting this pathway might offer new avenues for treating conditions like macular degeneration, cardiovascular disease, or even the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protein-changes-discovered-protect-humans-mammals-from-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-horse-genetics-and-human-medicine">Horse genetics and human medicine </h2>



This discovery of stop codon read through in horses is a striking example of how evolution can find ingenious solutions to biological challenges. Until now, such a mechanism was thought to be confined to viruses, which use it to produce multiple proteins from the same genetic sequence. 



The fact that horses have developed a similar ability suggests this strategy may be more broadly applicable - and more medically significant - than previously imagined.



As the researchers continue to explore the full implications of this evolutionary adaptation, their work is helping bridge the gap between animal biology and human medicine, offering new insights into both performance and pathology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr8589" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Horse genetics could unlock breakthroughs in human medicine

A team of scientists has recently uncovered a unique genetic...

Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth. For decades, global efforts focused on reducing fertility rates to curb overpopulation. Family planning, access to contraception, and changing social norms contributed to a steep decline in births. 



The global total fertility rate (TFR) dropped from 5.3 in the 1960s to 2.3 by 2023. Today, however, we face a paradox. Instead of a crowded future, scientists are now warning of potential collapse - not from too many people, but too few.



A recent study, published in the journal PLOS One, shifts the narrative again. Led by Takuya Okabe of <a href="https://www.shizuoka.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shizuoka University</a> and colleagues, the research argues that the widely accepted replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman is too low to guarantee long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



The analysis suggests a more realistic number is 2.7. This higher threshold takes into account the unpredictable forces that shape real-world populations - forces that statistics alone often overlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-2-1-isn-t-enough-anymore">Why 2.1 isn’t enough anymore</h2>



The replacement fertility rate of 2.1 assumes a stable world. It expects low child mortality, equal numbers of boys and girls, and large, steady <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. These assumptions work in clean models, but reality is messier. 



People don’t always have two children. Some have none. Some die before reproducing. And in small populations, such random variation - called demographic stochasticity - can wipe out entire family lines.



Okabe and his team developed mathematical models to test what happens over generations when these fluctuations are included. They simulated populations using a branching process, a tool commonly used in population ecology. 



Each woman could have any number of children, following a Poisson distribution, and not all offspring would survive. These models revealed that unless the average number of children reaches 2.7, the risk of extinction remains high over time.



In short, the study calls for a reevaluation of what sustainability truly means. The average isn’t enough if too many fall below it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-may-erase-family-lines">Low fertility rate may erase family lines</h2>



The consequences aren’t only theoretical. Even in large countries with millions of people, most family lineages will eventually disappear if the fertility rate remains below 2.7. 



This has profound implications for identity, heritage, and cultural memory. Your surname, your traditions, your family stories - without enough descendants, all of it vanishes with time.



“Considering stochasticity in fertility and mortality rates, and sex ratios,” said Diane Carmeliza N. Cuaresma. “A fertility rate higher than the standard replacement level is necessary to ensure sustainability of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-semen-quality-signifies-more-than-just-fertility-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.”



Extinction here doesn’t mean the end of humanity in one dramatic event. Rather, it means the quiet fading away of individual histories, surnames, and ancestral lines. It’s an erosion of human diversity, invisible until it's too late to reverse. This applies not only to families, but to the world’s languages and cultures. 



At least 40% of the 6,700 spoken languages are predicted to vanish in the next century. Each lost language takes with it stories, songs, and spiritual beliefs that no data set can replace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertility-rate-is-dropping-across-the-world">Fertility rate is dropping across the world</h2>



While global population numbers still rise, the future looks different depending on where you live. Two-thirds of the world’s people now reside in countries with fertility rates below the 2.1 mark. 



In Japan, the rate is 1.3. In South Korea, it has dropped as low as 0.87. Even in the United States, it's only 1.66. These numbers suggest slow decline, but the reality may be steeper.



Japan’s population, for example, is projected to shrink by 31% every generation if current trends continue. This decline is compounded by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-and-traffic-noise-increase-risk-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, as fewer young people are born to support older ones. 



Policies in countries like France and Singapore attempt to raise birth rates through incentives, but they’ve seen only modest results.



Modern life comes with trade-offs. Education and careers delay parenthood. Housing and childcare costs are high. In some cultures, single-child families have become the norm. These social realities are harder to change than the numbers suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-biased-births-reduce-extinction-risk">Female-biased births reduce extinction risk</h2>



The study offers a compelling insight: more girls can help prevent collapse. This isn’t about social engineering but about biology’s quiet adjustments. A female-biased sex ratio at birth increases the pool of future mothers. This gives populations a better chance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustaining</a> themselves.



Stressful environments often trigger such shifts. Wars, famines, and environmental disasters have led to more girls being born. 



In humans, psychological stress, poor nutrition, pollution, and even natural disasters have all been linked to a rise in female births. The same pattern appears in mammals like cattle, pigs, rats, and mice.



These adaptive shifts may be nature’s way of giving species a survival edge when facing extreme pressure. The presence of more females, even slightly, improves the odds that some lineages will persist through hard times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-often-leads-to-collapse">Low fertility rate often leads to collapse</h2>



Okabe’s team simulated thousands of generations to see what happens when fertility remains below the 2.7 mark. Most populations collapsed within 20 generations. 



Even at a fertility rate of 2.1, extinction was all but certain. A handful of simulations survived longer - but those were exceptions, not the rule.



These findings show that survival, while not impossible, becomes highly improbable when fertility drops too far. As fertility approaches 2.7, survival chances improve. But anything lower becomes a gamble against mathematical odds.



In this model, randomness plays a central role. A few unlucky generations can eliminate an entire lineage, especially if there are no surviving males or females to continue it. That risk grows when fewer children are born on average. It's not enough to hit 2.1 once. Consistency across generations is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-future-planning">What this means for future planning</h2>



Though the study focuses on human populations, its lessons apply broadly. Conservationists often aim to boost fertility among endangered species. But many plans fail to consider randomness, sex ratios, and mortality. 



As this study shows, achieving a simple average isn’t sufficient for long-term stability. Species with small populations, especially those isolated or fragmented, face similar extinction dynamics. 



A slightly skewed sex ratio or unexpected drop in births can push them toward collapse. Adjusting targets to reflect these deeper risks could strengthen conservation strategies.



For humans, the study urges policymakers to rethink population goals. It challenges the notion that economic or environmental concerns justify perpetual decline. 



Sustainability isn’t just about shrinking footprints. It’s also about keeping enough people - and diversity - to carry forward what makes humanity rich and resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-must-rethink-population-goals">We must rethink population goals</h2>



The debate over population often swings between panic over too many and fear of too few. 



This research brings nuance to that conversation. It shows that the path to survival isn’t just about numbers - it’s about understanding the complex web of chance, biology, and behavior.



As fertility rates fall and the world changes, we must ask what kind of future we want. Not just one where humans survive, but one where traditions, languages, and lineages live on. A fertility rate of 2.1 may no longer be enough to keep that future alive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Our current fertility rate isn't enough for human survival

Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth....

Extreme rainfall events can lead to flash floods that threaten both people and property. Research on how rising temperatures may influence extreme rainfall has sparked lively debate.



Recent findings explore whether the intensity of short, heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">downpours</a> grows faster than earlier theories suggested. The study was led by Nicolas Da Silva and Jan O. Härter at the <a href="https://www.uni-potsdam.de/en/university-of-potsdam" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Potsdam</a>.



"In the past two decades, several studies reported that extreme rainfall intensity can increase with temperature at rates exceeding the thermodynamic Clausius–Clapeyron rate," noted the researchers.



The Clausius-Clapeyron relationship predicts the increase in the water-holding capacity of air - which leads to heavier rainfall - based on the rate of temperature rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-claims-of-extra-rain-gains">Early claims of extra rain gains</h2>



Back in 2008, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo262" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> in the Netherlands analyzed rainfall data and proposed that intense downpours might increase at about 14 percent per 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit of warming. The experts believed the classic formula linking temperature to moisture content in the air was too low.



Their findings stirred questions about whether standard expectations were incomplete. The Clausius-Clapeyron rate predicts a 7 percent rise in water vapor capacity per 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit. In that light, the Dutch claim of roughly 14 percent set off alarm bells.



Many wondered if storms were actually intensifying faster than the established rules predicted. Scientists have attempted to confirm or dispute that jump.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-rainfall-and-rising-temperatures">Extreme rainfall and rising temperatures</h2>



“We make use of a large and high-frequency dataset from Germany which is combined with a novel lightning detection dataset,” said Da Silva. The new analysis splits thunderstorms from more uniform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-summer-rainfall-events-have-increased-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.&nbsp;



“The result is rather striking: when carefully selecting only clear thunderstorm rainfall and studying the extremes at each temperature, the increase is almost perfectly along the <a href="https://taylorandfrancis.com/knowledge/Engineering_and_technology/Mechanical_engineering/Clausius-Clapeyron_relation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clausius-Clapeyron theory</a>,” said Jan O. Härter. 



Next, the team looked at temperature data matched to each burst. Many scientists have tried to confirm or reject that jump over the years. Over time, the conversation revolved around whether certain data choices skewed the results.



Short bursts, often accompanied by lightning, can spike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forecasting-the-floods-new-clues-about-extreme-rainfall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> totals in a small region. Meanwhile, gentler rain events spread water more evenly and typically show milder extremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-rain-inflated-extreme-rainfall">Mixed rain inflated extreme rainfall</h2>



By isolating different forms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-thousand-years-extreme-storms-are-becoming-much-more-frequent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain</a>, the study reveals that each pattern aligns closely with earlier expectations. Convective storms follow the usual thermodynamic scaling without exceeding it.



Only a combined approach, which mixes short and steady systems, produces the outlier numbers. This explains why earlier attempts implied a rate far beyond the basic 7 percent metric.



Instead of proving that thunderstorms become dramatically stronger, the findings point to a statistical overlap of different rain events. Only when both types are pooled together do the numbers suggest higher rates of change.



This aligns with earlier <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1731" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarks</a> that combining thunderstorm and uniform rain may artificially inflate projections. In other words, each category alone shows a near match with the thermodynamic rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-for-flooding">Why it matters for flooding</h2>



Flash floods often stem from cloud clusters that include intense cells and milder drizzles. Such mixtures appear to be behind the seemingly extra-strong escalation in extreme rainfall.



The study notes that future warming could create more of these combined events. This raises concerns for urban areas with sensitive drainage systems.



Urban infrastructure can be vulnerable to sudden deluges. If storms grow in frequency or overlap, stormwater systems may be overwhelmed.



Researchers stress that human safety and city planning could face new challenges. More clusters of strong cells within the same storm heighten the flash flood threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-storm-overlap">Future research on storm overlap</h2>



The research emphasizes the need to focus on how storms organize rather than assuming a hidden super-boost in rainfall intensity. They plan to explore interactions that cluster individual storms within larger systems.



Efforts are also underway to examine whether high-resolution climate simulations can replicate changes in thunderstorm clustering. Such work could improve risk assessments for flash floods.



More refined climate models could pinpoint where thunderstorms overlap. This detail may guide urban planning and early-warning strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-patterns-and-seasonal-shifts">Global patterns and seasonal shifts</h2>



Experts also want to check if winter storms share similar traits. They suspect seasonal shifts in weather patterns could reshape the mix of intense and steady rainfall.



Determining whether these findings hold in other continents will be a next step. Collaboration among meteorologists worldwide could clarify how temperature shifts affect rainfall in various climates.



Stakeholders in flood-prone regions keep an eye on how storms evolve. More thorough knowledge of rainfall patterns could influence building codes and insurance practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-cities-for-extreme-rainfall-events">Preparing cities for extreme rainfall events</h2>



Public awareness campaigns might also help communities respond faster when warnings appear. Local authorities could partner with schools, community centers, and businesses to distribute guidelines.



Scientists emphasize that ongoing data collection is essential. Continuous station upgrades and satellite monitoring can shed light on storm shifts over the coming decades.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01686-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.&nbsp;



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Rising temperatures and extreme rainfall: Study reveals a missing link

Extreme rainfall events can lead to flash floods that threaten...

Scientists have long questioned if evolution repeats or if chance drives every turn. A new study shows that in some birds, evolution may repeat itself - especially in how they fight for limited nesting spots.



Experts noticed that particular species of cavity-nesting birds share striking behavioral similarities. These species also display matching genetic changes, implying that repeated aggression could be tied to repeated patterns in the brain.



This new work is led by Kimberly Rosvall, an associate professor in the Indiana University College of Arts and Sciences’ Department of Biology, who teamed up with Sara Lipshutz, an assistant professor of biology at <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>. Their collective effort hints at a consistent blueprint for how certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-fight-hard-for-nest-spots">Birds fight hard for nest spots</h2>



Securing a hole in a tree can decide which birds get to breed. When those holes are in short supply, some species show a strong push to ward off intruders.



“I have been studying <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.0021-8790.2001.00555.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cavity-nesters</a>, like tree swallows and bluebirds, for over 20 years. We knew they fiercely defend their nesting territories, including those human-made bird boxes you might see in your local park,” said Rosvall.&nbsp;



That protective streak appears consistent across several unrelated birds. Each time a lineage became reliant on enclosed nests, aggression rose in parallel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-clashes-show-repeated-patterns">Bird clashes show repeated patterns</h2>



The researchers introduced a stuffed decoy and broadcast recorded bird calls to see how real birds responded. Flares of hostility revealed how serious a species is about defending its site.



They noticed that a handful of these birds engaged quickly and confronted the decoy. Others, less tied to cavities, didn’t show the same intensity.



In each case, bold defenders shared a special signature in their brains. The team combed through more than 10,000 genes, spotting a small subset that kept popping up when aggression levels were high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-few-genes-drive-repeated-aggression">Few genes drive repeated aggression</h2>



“It’s a small number of genes, but it’s exciting because evolution did repeat itself,” Rosvall said.&nbsp;



These genes might be key switches that help a bird ramp up hostility to secure a limited commodity. A bigger group of genes also turned up in certain lineages, pointing to multiple routes to the same end.



Those separate routes show that even with similar results, each bird family might get there in unique ways. Yet the shared core suggests a common guidebook exists whenever <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> spikes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-changes-repeat-in-bird-evolution">Brain changes repeat in bird evolution</h2>



“Instead, we saw convergent increases in aggression linked to genes with connections to neurodegenerative disorders,” Rosvall said. 



One unexpected twist linked strong aggression to certain molecules commonly tied to <a href="https://utswmed.org/conditions-treatments/neurodegenerative-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurodegenerative disorders</a> in humans.&nbsp;



Researchers stress that the birds themselves are not at high risk for human diseases. However, seeing how evolution shapes these genes might inform future studies that look at how the brain changes across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-repetition-and-behavior-studies">Evolution repetition and behavior studies</h2>



Findings that compare natural selection to an artist have cropped up in past <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/285134" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a>. As environments shift, a repeated call for certain strategies may draw on the same genetic toolkit.



Scientists hope this knowledge can broaden our understanding of how traits emerge. That might eventually shape how we address behavior-related conditions in other animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-adjust-aggression-under-pressure">Genes adjust aggression under pressure</h2>



Some species rely on a high-alert stance for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>. Others benefit from more flexible approaches.



Rosvall and Lipshutz’s team shows that aggression can be fine-tuned by genes activated under competitive pressure. They also confirm that convergent evolution can affect the complex interplay between behavior and the brain.



Every time these birds faced tough nesting conditions, evolution seemed to repeat the same blueprint. This happened even across different branches of the avian family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nest-fights-stress-and-behavior">Nest fights, stress, and behavior</h2>



People who watch birds in neighborhood parks may notice them skirmishing over nest boxes. Although we often think of birds as gentle creatures, competition can push them into surprising battles.



This could serve as a powerful example of how ecological stress influences social interactions. It also challenges the notion that complicated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-isnt-just-ancient-history-its-happening-right-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a> are always shaped by separate genetic routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-genes-may-shape-many-traits">Shared genes may shape many traits</h2>



Recognizing that aggression might recruit the same genes over and over helps us predict patterns in nature. Observers might wonder if other traits, from feeding habits to migration, follow a similar code.



Researchers suspect that future work could reveal shared pathways in many animals. Such comparisons may illuminate how small genetic changes reverberate through entire behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-tends-to-repeat-itself">Evolution tends to repeat itself</h2>



Rivalries for prime real estate can spark bold reactions in the bird world. There’s a chance that wherever competition erupts, evolution leans on similar strategies.



In this study, repeated patterns in aggression and gene expression show that evolution tends to repeat. This consistency spans millions of years, suggesting some evolutionary solutions keep working again and again.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02675-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Nature might repeat evolution under pressure

Scientists have long questioned if evolution repeats or if chance...

It’s not just the next major earthquake that the Pacific Northwest needs to worry about. A powerful earthquake coupled with rising sea levels could spell disaster for thousands of people in northern California, Oregon, and Washington. And this threat may be much closer than most realize.



Recent research from scientists at <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> paints a concerning picture. Their study reveals how a large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquake</a> along the Cascadia subduction zone could cause the ground to sink by as much as 6.5 feet (2 meters).



This land drop would dramatically expand coastal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-flood-risks-increase-worldwide-who-is-prepared/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flood</a> zones, adding up to 116 square miles (300 square kilometers) to areas already at risk of annual flooding. These zones, known as the 1-percent coastal floodplain, represent regions with a one-in-one-hundred chance of flooding each year.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The expansion of the coastal floodplain following a Cascadia subduction zone earthquake has not been previously quantified, and the impacts to land use could significantly increase the timeline to recovery,” said Tina Dura, lead author of the study and assistant professor of geosciences in the College of Science.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flood-risks-grow-with-sinking-land">Flood risks grow with sinking land</h2>



The researchers focused on southern Washington, northern Oregon, and northern California - areas where both population density and infrastructure vulnerability are high.



To understand what might happen, Dura’s team created thousands of earthquake models to simulate how much the land could sink during the next big quake. 



The researchers used geospatial tools to estimate how this subsidence would expand the floodplain across 24 estuaries and communities along the Cascadia zone.



Because no one knows when the next major earthquake will strike, they modeled two scenarios: one in which the earthquake hits today, and another where it occurs in the year 2100, by which time sea levels may be up to 3 feet (0.9 meters) higher due to the impact of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-people-and-infrastructure-at-risk">More people and infrastructure at risk</h2>



If an earthquake struck today, an estimated 14,350 more people would find themselves living in a floodplain. Over 22,000 additional buildings and nearly 800 miles (1,290 kilometers) of roads would also be at risk.



The expanded flood zone from an earthquake could reach five airports and 18 essential public facilities, including hospitals, schools, and fire stations.



In addition, eight wastewater treatment plants, one electric substation, and 57 contaminant-prone facilities - like gas stations and waste centers - would fall within the danger zone.



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-will-spend-over-3-trillion-dollars-damages-from-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea levels continue to rise</a>, these risks become even more severe. By 2100, the number of people, buildings, and roadways exposed to flooding could more than triple.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Today, and more so in 2100, as background sea levels rise, the immediate effect of earthquake-driven subsidence will be a delay in response and recovery from the earthquake due to compromised assets. Long-term effects could render many coastal communities uninhabitable,” said Dura, who is an affiliate with the Global Change Center.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthquakes-and-shifting-flood-zones">Earthquakes and shifting flood zones</h2>



Low-lying land along the coast, much of it currently used for farming and grazing, could be lost to tidal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/financial-toll-caused-by-flooding-will-soar-by-mid-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a>. When seawater floods inland, it leaves behind salt. This salt ruins soil, making it impossible to farm.



Natural ecosystems will also be hit hard. Estuaries, wetlands, dunes, and beaches that protect inland areas from storm surges could be eroded or lost. These natural buffers also help slow down waves and protect property against damage.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The loss of intertidal wetlands directly impacts ecosystem services such as water filtration, habitat for fisheries and shorebirds, and carbon storage capacity,” said Dura.



“Intertidal wetlands function as natural carbon sinks, and their erosion or conversion to tidal flats significantly reduces their ability to sequester carbon.”
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seismic-history-of-the-pacific-northwest">Seismic history of the Pacific Northwest </h2>



The Cascadia subduction zone lies within the “Ring of Fire,” the volatile boundary where the Pacific Plate collides with other tectonic plates. It’s one of the most seismically active areas on the planet. But it’s been eerily quiet for centuries. The last great earthquake - defined as magnitude 8.0 or higher - struck the region in January 1700.



Dura and her team are piecing together the seismic history of this area. As part of the Paleoseismology Working Group within the Cascadia Region Earthquake Science Center (CRESCENT), they are studying soil and sediment records that span the last 6,000 to 7,000 years. 



Their findings show that the region has experienced at least 11 great earthquakes over that time, occurring roughly every 200 to 800 years. The last one caused widespread land subsidence, with coastal areas sinking by up to 6.5 feet.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Cascadia is a unique place. It’s not super heavily populated, but most estuaries have a community in them, and they’re all right in the zone of subsidence,” said Dura. 



“This is honestly where I think the subsidence could have bigger impacts than it has during other recent large earthquakes around the world.”
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flood-zones-and-earthquake-risks">Flood zones and earthquake risks</h2>



What’s happening in Cascadia could happen anywhere that a subduction zone exists. Similar geological settings are found off the shores of Alaska, Japan, Chile, Indonesia, and other places.



When two tectonic plates get stuck and pressure builds, a huge quake eventually releases that energy. Offshore, the land may rise, triggering a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-disasters-like-tsunamis-cause-lasting-health-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tsunami</a>. 



On land, the ground drops, causing flooding even before the tsunami hits. In just 30 minutes, coastal communities can go from earthquake shaking to underwater chaos.



The devastation isn’t limited to the day of the quake. Some effects, like sinking land and increased flooding, can last for decades or even centuries.



Examples from around the world offer a grim preview: the 1960 earthquake in Chile drowned forests and farmland, turning them into salt marshes. The 1964 quake in Alaska forced entire communities to relocate to higher ground.



The 2004 Sumatra earthquake devastated waterfront aquaculture and reshaped coastal areas. Japan’s 2011 earthquake disrupted ports, caused extensive coastal erosion, and contributed to a nuclear crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-the-pacific-northwest">Implications beyond the Pacific Northwest </h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Given the global prevalence of subduction zones, these insights hold relevance beyond Cascadia, informing hazard assessments and mitigation strategies for tectonically active regions worldwide,” Dura stressed.
</blockquote>



The next great Cascadia earthquake is not just about the shaking. It’s about what comes after - the rising waters, the sinking land, and the long road to recovery.



With sea levels creeping up and the seismic clock ticking, understanding and preparing for these layered risks could mean the difference between recovery and retreat.



The full study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.



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Earthquakes and flood zones: Hidden risks in the Pacific Northwest

It’s not just the next major earthquake that the Pacific...

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All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 10.5 quart

The "All-American" is the best among home pressure canners. With...

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive, precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is, first and foremost, a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. "Pressure cookers" are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning rack and instructions Available in 6 sizes Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 915: Capacity - 15 1/2 Quarts (Liquid), 7 Quart Jars, 10 Pint Jars* Inside diameter - 12 5/8 inches Inside Height - 7 3/4 inches Overall Height - 12.5 inches Weight - 15 pounds Includes 1 rack *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes. All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com

All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 15.5 quart

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure...

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime, which is why we recommend getting the best. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive, precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is, first and foremost, a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. "Pressure cookers" are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning racks and instructions Available in 6 sizes Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 921: Capacity - 21 1/2 Quarts (Liquid), 7 Quart Jars, 19 Pint Jars Inside diameter - 12 5/8 inches Inside Height - 10 1/2 inches Overall Height - 16 inches Weight - 17.75 pounds Includes 2 racks *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes. All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com

All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 21.5 quart

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive, precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is, first and foremost, a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. "Pressure cookers" are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning racks and instructions Available in 6 sizes Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 925: Capacity - 25 Quarts (Liquid), 7 Quart Jars, 19 Pint Jars Inside diameter - 12 5/8 inches Inside Height - 12 1/4 inches Overall Height - 16 3/4 inches Weight - 18.25 pounds Includes 2 racks *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes. All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com