Made from reclaimed cedar wood, these coasters are designed with a bicycle motif that is hand burnished into each coaster. Read more These upcycled cedar wood coasters are truly unique because they are made from hand-selected cedar planks reclaimed from mid-century Chinese dwellings. The uniqueness of each coaster is derived from the grain, lines and knots of the salvaged cedar wood, making each coaster one-of-a-kind. Cedar wood is extraordinarily lightweight. Use coasters to protect your table surfaces from hot mugs and capture the condensation from cold beverages. These coasters make a great addition to any coffee table and are perfect for gifts! Features &amp; Benefits: Set of 4 coasters with bicycle motif Made from reclaimed cedar wood Hand finished with natural food safe oil Smooth base protects surfaces Size: 3 3/4 inches

Reclaimed Cedar Wood Coasters - Set of 4

price

Made from reclaimed cedar wood, these coasters are designed with...

Colorful,Spawning,Salmon,Swimming,In,A,Shallow,Creek.

The story of salmon migration is often told as a single, determined journey. Young salmon hatch in freshwater streams, then swim downriver to the ocean. After years at sea, they return to the very river where their lives began, to spawn and restart the cycle.



But new research is challenging this narrative. Many young salmon, it turns out, aren’t sticking to a straight path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-journey-than-expected">A broader journey than expected</h2>



New research from <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a>, Tribal scientists, and university scientists shows that up to 22 percent of juvenile salmon in California and Washington streams make unexpected detours. 



These young fish were tracked swimming down to the ocean and then back up into different rivers - some as many as nine times. In a few cases, they traveled as far as 40 miles (64 kilometers) up the coastline to entirely new rivers.



Rather than heading out to sea and staying there until adulthood, these juveniles wander. They criss-cross the coastal landscape, slipping between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> and saltwater as they explore their options.



“Stretches of coast and their rivers form enormous salmon nurseries for the exploring juveniles,” explained the researchers.



The team documented this pattern in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-killing-coho-salmon-in-urban-streams/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coho salmon</a> (Oncorhynchus kisutch), as well as steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarkii) trout, all of which are salmonids . And they believe other salmon species may do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-salmon-use-the-coast-for-migration">How salmon use the coast for migration</h2>



The salmonids didn’t just travel at random. Some popped into unfamiliar rivers for short visits. Others spent entire seasons in new places.



The fish were seen using streams on Washington’s Olympic Peninsula and Northern California - places separated by long stretches of saltwater.



“The landscapes are much more connected than we realized, and salmon take advantage of that,” said Stuart Munsch, lead author of the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/salmon_young-juveniles_break-migration-rules_illustration_credit-Su-Kim_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/salmon_young-juveniles_break-migration-rules_illustration_credit-Su-Kim_1s.webp" alt="This schematic highlights empirically observed paths of two juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch, orange and purple) and one juvenile Oncorhynchus mykiss (yellow) that made complex movements among drainages over periods of 203 days, 305 days, and 241 days, respectively. Numbers track individuals’ chronological detection sequences. Arrows indicate movement paths among drainages, with dashed line arrows showing additional details of individuals that moved back and forth between the East Twin and West Twin Rivers. Credit: Su Kim." class="wp-image-1968182"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This schematic highlights empirically observed paths of two juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch, orange and purple) and one juvenile Oncorhynchus mykiss (yellow) that made complex movements among drainages over periods of 203 days, 305 days, and 241 days, respectively. Numbers track individuals’ chronological detection sequences. Arrows indicate movement paths among drainages, with dashed line arrows showing additional details of individuals that moved back and forth between the East Twin and West Twin Rivers. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Su Kim.</figcaption></figure>



“This provides a more complete and accurate picture of the habitat they are using, which helps us make informed decisions as to how to promote their recovery.”



By testing out different rivers and streams, salmonids might find better shelter or more food. They might also be learning from each other - schooling with fish from different populations and picking up clues about where to find refuge or prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-habitats-with-new-risks">Stable habitats with new risks</h2>



Heavy rains in the Pacific Northwest can quickly turn peaceful streams into violent torrents. Water flow shifts rapidly, and vital stream features like wood and gravel can be swept away. 



In such unstable environments, the ability to search out new, more stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-will-create-large-habitats-for-pacific-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> might be a lifesaver. But this behavior comes with danger. Young salmonids moving between fresh and saltwater become easier targets for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-salmon-outsmart-predators-on-their-journey-to-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>.



“They’re perfect food for lots of other species, so they are taking a risk but also finding some benefits as they go,” said Todd Bennett, a salmon scientist at NOAA Fisheries’ Northwest Fisheries Science Center.



Still, the potential payoff may be worth it. Munsch noted that the young salmon and trout are searching for the best opportunities they can find.



“By moving around, they are also spreading the risk as some may find alternative habitats that better support them as conditions change," said Munsch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-salmon-behavior">New questions about salmon behavior</h2>



It’s already known that adult salmon sometimes stray into different rivers than the ones they were born in. But could that behavior be shaped by their earlier wanderings as juveniles?



The scientists are still looking into that. They say more monitoring is needed to determine whether the rivers explored by juveniles affect where they return to spawn later in life.



What’s clear is that juvenile salmon are more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-welcome-salmon-to-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mobile</a> than previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-salmonid-migration">A closer look at salmonid migration</h2>



On the Olympic Peninsula, the researchers documented nearly 900 juvenile coho salmon, steelhead, and cutthroat trout moving between different river systems. Depending on the location and year, up to 22 percent of tagged fish were later detected in other rivers.



Most fish moved between just two rivers. But around 8 percent of them moved between three different systems, making up to nine distinct migrations during their juvenile years.



In Northern California, 28 coho salmon were recorded moving between river drainages. One even swam from a tributary of Redwood Creek to another stream feeding Humboldt Bay - a journey of about 40 miles (64 kilometers).



This behavior might not be unique to the U.S. Pacific Coast. The team reviewed other studies and found similar movements on three continents. That suggests it could be widespread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-salmon-management">Rethinking salmon management</h2>



Some of the salmonids followed routes commonly traveled by other fish. Others used paths that were rarely monitored. 



Because the study could only track fish in rivers equipped with monitors, the researchers believe their findings may underestimate how many juveniles make these kinds of moves.



The takeaway? Scientists may need to revise how they think about salmon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-unpredictable-effects-on-salmon-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



“We wouldn’t know about this unless we happened to be looking,” said Bennett. “Even after so many scientists have studied salmon over many decades, they still figure out how to surprise us.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2848" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Many young salmon break the typical migration rules, boosting survival chances

The story of salmon migration is often told as a...

Walk through a Mediterranean mountain meadow, and you're likely to spot a patch of Sideritis - a hardy, aromatic plant that has long been used for making Greek mountain tea. For centuries, this herb has been prized by locals for its healing properties; it is believed to soothe everything from colds to stomach issues.



But in recent decades, something has been shifting quietly in these high-altitude ecosystems. The grassy slopes where Sideritis once thrived are being taken over slowly by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrubs-play-a-dual-role-in-forest-recovery-following-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrubs</a> and trees. This transformation is not just about aesthetics. It's a sign of how climate change and land use are altering the very makeup of mountain biodiversity.



Researchers from the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Center, the National Observatory of Athens, and the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> have been studying the genetic consequences of these changes, with a focus on Sideritis. Their findings are unsettling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-are-losing-genetic-diversity">Plants are losing genetic diversity</h2>



Mountain regions are known for their rich biodiversity - they support countless unique and specialized species. However, over the past 50 years, many of these habitats have seen changes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/single-degree-temperature-warming-boreal-forests-wreak-havoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer temperatures</a> and reduced grazing have triggered what's known as "mountain greening" - a steady spread of woody plants into areas that were formerly open grasslands.



Sideritis is among the species feeling the pressure. Once common across the Mediterranean's montane grasslands, it now faces a shrinking habitat. But it's not just the plant’s numbers that are declining. It’s losing genetic diversity as well, which may compromise its natural resilience to stress and change.



“We examined populations in 11 Greek mountain ranges and combined satellite data from several decades with genetic analyses of herbarium specimens from the 1970s and present-day plant samples,” explained study leader Spyros Theodoridis.



The team’s approach was unusual: they paired old herbarium specimens with modern genetic testing and decades of satellite imagery. This allowed them to see how Sideritis populations had changed genetically over time and how those changes tracked with the increase in denser vegetation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-toll-of-inbreeding-and-isolation">The toll of inbreeding and isolation</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote"></blockquote>



“The results show that in eight of the 11 mountain regions we studied, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> declined significantly during this period. In particularly affected regions, up to 20 percent of the genome of individual plants is now subject to inbreeding – an indication of declining population sizes,” explained Theodoridis.



The numbers point to a worrying trend. As woody plants crowd out the open spaces, Sideritis populations become smaller and more isolated. This leads to inbreeding, which weakens the species’ ability to handle diseases, droughts, and other stresses.



“The speed at which shrubs and trees are spreading in previously open grasslands can be directly linked to the decline in genetic diversity in Sideritis populations,” noted study co-author David Nogués-Bravo. 



“The genetic diversity of a species is crucial for its ability to adapt to environmental changes. If this diversity dwindles, resistance to disease, drought, or other stress factors decreases, which can lead to extinction in the long term.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-plant-changes-from-space">Watching plant changes from space</h2>



One of the most impressive parts of the study is how it links satellite technology with genetics. For years, scientists believed it was impossible to track genetic diversity using remote sensing. This study proves otherwise.



“This combination opens up new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-monitoring-method-may-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity monitoring</a>,” emphasized Theodoridis. “It allows us to use satellite images to identify indications of genetic changes in mountain ecosystems without having to genetically examine each individual population on site.”



This method could make it easier to monitor hard-to-reach mountain regions or areas where on-the-ground data is limited.



“However, our results show that the extent of genetic erosion can be predicted with surprisingly high accuracy, based solely on the increase in vegetation density,” said study co-author Thomas Hickler.



“This renders our method particularly attractive for use in mountainous regions that are difficult to access or in areas where genetic monitoring has hardly been possible to date.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-specimens-hold-the-genetic-key">Historical specimens hold the genetic key</h2>



This research was made possible, in part, by historical plant specimens that have been stored in herbaria - archives of pressed and preserved plants.



“Without the historical plant specimens in herbaria, the direct comparison over a period of 50 years would not have been possible,” explained co-author Marco Thines. “These archives of nature are invaluable for biodiversity research.”



These old samples provided a genetic snapshot of the past, which was essential for comparing with modern populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-the-genetic-diversity-of-plants">Threats to the genetic diversity of plants </h2>



This isn’t just a local problem. Mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2020-was-earths-greenest-year-in-two-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greening</a> is happening all over the world, as climate warms and traditional land-use practices decline. 



You can see the shift clearly in satellite images - meadows turn darker as shrubs and trees move in. That’s why the researchers believe that now is the time to act.



“There is an urgent need for comparable studies with other species and in other regions,” concluded Theodoridis. “This will allow us to gain a comprehensive picture of how environmental changes are affecting the genetic basis of biodiversity - and how we can effectively counter this development.”



Protecting plants like Sideritis means protecting more than just a tea ingredient. It means defending the integrity and resilience of entire ecosystems - before they vanish under a wave of greenery.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://ell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00436-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225004361%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mountain greening threatens genetic diversity of iconic plants

Walk through a Mediterranean mountain meadow, and you're likely to...

Parents,Lie,On,The,Couch,And,Father,Read,A,Book

Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth. For decades, global efforts focused on reducing fertility rates to curb overpopulation. Family planning, access to contraception, and changing social norms contributed to a steep decline in births. 



The global total fertility rate (TFR) dropped from 5.3 in the 1960s to 2.3 by 2023. Today, however, we face a paradox. Instead of a crowded future, scientists are now warning of potential collapse - not from too many people, but too few.



A recent study, published in the journal PLOS One, shifts the narrative again. Led by Takuya Okabe of <a href="https://www.shizuoka.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shizuoka University</a> and colleagues, the research argues that the widely accepted replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman is too low to guarantee long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



The analysis suggests a more realistic number is 2.7. This higher threshold takes into account the unpredictable forces that shape real-world populations - forces that statistics alone often overlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-2-1-isn-t-enough-anymore">Why 2.1 isn’t enough anymore</h2>



The replacement fertility rate of 2.1 assumes a stable world. It expects low child mortality, equal numbers of boys and girls, and large, steady <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. These assumptions work in clean models, but reality is messier. 



People don’t always have two children. Some have none. Some die before reproducing. And in small populations, such random variation - called demographic stochasticity - can wipe out entire family lines.



Okabe and his team developed mathematical models to test what happens over generations when these fluctuations are included. They simulated populations using a branching process, a tool commonly used in population ecology. 



Each woman could have any number of children, following a Poisson distribution, and not all offspring would survive. These models revealed that unless the average number of children reaches 2.7, the risk of extinction remains high over time.



In short, the study calls for a reevaluation of what sustainability truly means. The average isn’t enough if too many fall below it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-may-erase-family-lines">Low fertility rate may erase family lines</h2>



The consequences aren’t only theoretical. Even in large countries with millions of people, most family lineages will eventually disappear if the fertility rate remains below 2.7. 



This has profound implications for identity, heritage, and cultural memory. Your surname, your traditions, your family stories - without enough descendants, all of it vanishes with time.



“Considering stochasticity in fertility and mortality rates, and sex ratios,” said Diane Carmeliza N. Cuaresma. “A fertility rate higher than the standard replacement level is necessary to ensure sustainability of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-semen-quality-signifies-more-than-just-fertility-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.”



Extinction here doesn’t mean the end of humanity in one dramatic event. Rather, it means the quiet fading away of individual histories, surnames, and ancestral lines. 



It’s an erosion of human diversity, invisible until it's too late to reverse. This applies not only to families, but to the world’s languages and cultures.



At least 40% of the 6,700 spoken languages are predicted to vanish in the next century. Each lost language takes with it stories, songs, and spiritual beliefs that no data set can replace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertility-rate-is-dropping-across-the-world">Fertility rate is dropping across the world</h2>



While global population numbers still rise, the future looks different depending on where you live. Two-thirds of the world’s people now reside in countries with fertility rates below the 2.1 mark. 



In Japan, the rate is 1.3. In South Korea, it has dropped as low as 0.87. Even in the United States, it's only 1.66. These numbers suggest slow decline, but the reality may be steeper.



Japan’s population, for example, is projected to shrink by 31% every generation if current trends continue. This decline is compounded by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-and-traffic-noise-increase-risk-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, as fewer young people are born to support older ones. 



Policies in countries like France and Singapore attempt to raise birth rates through incentives, but they’ve seen only modest results.



Modern life comes with trade-offs. Education and careers delay parenthood. Housing and childcare costs are high. In some cultures, single-child families have become the norm. These social realities are harder to change than the numbers suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-biased-births">Female-biased births</h2>



The study offers a compelling insight: more girls can help prevent collapse. This isn’t about social engineering but about biology’s quiet adjustments. 



A female-biased sex ratio at birth increases the pool of future mothers. This gives populations a better chance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustaining</a> themselves.



Stressful environments often trigger such shifts. Wars, famines, and environmental disasters have led to more girls being born. 



In humans, psychological stress, poor nutrition, pollution, and even natural disasters have all been linked to a rise in female births. The same pattern appears in mammals like cattle, pigs, rats, and mice.



These adaptive shifts may be nature’s way of giving species a survival edge when facing extreme pressure. The presence of more females, even slightly, improves the odds that some lineages will persist through hard times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-leads-to-collapse">Low fertility rate leads to collapse</h2>



Okabe’s team simulated thousands of generations to see what happens when fertility remains below the 2.7 mark. Most populations collapsed within 20 generations. 



Even at a fertility rate of 2.1, extinction was all but certain. A handful of simulations survived longer - but those were exceptions, not the rule.



These findings show that survival, while not impossible, becomes highly improbable when fertility drops too far. As fertility approaches 2.7, survival chances improve. But anything lower becomes a gamble against mathematical odds.



In this model, randomness plays a central role. A few unlucky generations can eliminate an entire lineage, especially if there are no surviving males or females to continue it. That risk grows when fewer children are born on average. It's not enough to hit 2.1 once. Consistency across generations is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



Though the study focuses on human populations, its lessons apply broadly. Conservationists often aim to boost fertility among endangered species. But many plans fail to consider randomness, sex ratios, and mortality. 



As this study shows, achieving a simple average isn’t sufficient for long-term stability. Species with small populations, especially those isolated or fragmented, face similar extinction dynamics. 



A slightly skewed sex ratio or unexpected drop in births can push them toward collapse. Adjusting targets to reflect these deeper risks could strengthen conservation strategies.



For humans, the study urges policymakers to rethink population goals. It challenges the notion that economic or environmental concerns justify perpetual decline. 



Sustainability isn’t just about shrinking footprints. It’s also about keeping enough people - and diversity - to carry forward what makes humanity rich and resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-population-goals-is-key">Rethinking population goals is key</h2>



The debate over population often swings between panic over too many and fear of too few. 



This research brings nuance to that conversation. It shows that the path to survival isn’t just about numbers - it’s about understanding the complex web of chance, biology, and behavior.



As fertility rates fall and the world changes, we must ask what kind of future we want. 



Not just one where humans survive, but one where traditions, languages, and lineages live on. A fertility rate of 2.1 may no longer be enough to keep that future alive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Our current fertility rate isn't high enough for humanity to survive

Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth....

Earth’s ancient oceans once held marine predators that could rival the fiercest movie monsters. In the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, the seas were ruled by titanic predators. With jaws measuring up to two meters and teeth sharp enough to shred bone, pliosaurids were apex hunters.



Ichthyosaurs, with their streamlined bodies, resembled swordfish but grew far larger and swam faster. Crocodile-like thalattosuchians dominated the coasts and deeper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-life-became-strangely-uniform-after-earths-worst-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> alike.



For millions of years, these animals sat atop marine food webs. Their dominance seemed unshakable. Then, something changed. The fossil record tells a story of sudden disappearance. 



One by one, these giants vanished. In their place, a new lineup of marine predators took over - mosasaurs with eel-like tails, long-necked plesiosaurs, and rapidly diversifying sharks. What triggered this massive reshuffling of ocean life?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-extinction-of-marine-predators">Mass extinction of marine predators</h2>



Scientists believe the answer lies in a dramatic period during the middle Cretaceous, around 94 million years ago, when top marine predators were lost in a mass extinction event.



According to a new study led by Valentin Fischer of the <a href="https://www.uliege.be/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université de Liège</a> in Belgium, this shift was driven by severe environmental changes. The findings highlight a time of both ecological collapse and evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-extinction-may-hold-clues-about-our-oceans-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">opportunity</a>.



At the heart of the change is a period known as the Cenomanian/Turonian transition. It marked the peak of a greenhouse world, the hottest interval in the last 541 million years. 



Atmospheric carbon dioxide soared and ocean circulation faltered. Vast parts of the ocean floor became anoxic (deprived of oxygen) making life impossible for many marine species.



Nutrients like sulphur and iron were thrown out of balance. These shifts cascaded throughout the food web. As Fischer’s team suggests, this extreme climate moment destabilized the entire marine ecosystem, especially at the top where large predators thrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-top-predators-faced-a-deadly-filter">Top predators faced a deadly filter</h2>



Valentin Fischer and his colleagues aimed to understand how this transition shaped marine reptile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-marine-mass-extinctions-millions-of-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>. To do so, they built a comprehensive dataset. 



The researchers studied the evolutionary relationships of hundreds of marine reptile species, mapping which groups went extinct and when. Then, they compiled the largest collection to date of two-dimensional and three-dimensional anatomical data on marine reptiles.



The team combined data on the phylogenetic relationships of hundreds of marine reptile lineages to analyze how extinctions were distributed in the tree of life.



Then, they used the largest sample of 2D and 3D data on marine reptiles ever assembled to analyze the effect of these extinctions on the predatory capabilities of Cretaceous marine reptiles.



“Our analyses showed that the Cenomanian-Turonian transition is associated with elevated rates of extinction and that these extinctions disproportionally targeted some groups of large and fast predators, in a stepwise manner,” said Fischer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-marine-predators-hunted-differently">New marine predators hunted differently </h2>



What does it mean for a predator to disappear from an ecosystem? Not just an empty niche, but a major change in how animals hunt, compete, and survive. 



Fischer’s study found that predator skulls from before and after the transition had markedly different shapes. This affected feeding behavior in a fundamental way.



For example, skull shapes of predators were significantly different after the transition, notably resulting in distinct bite force, said Fischer.



This means that while new predators took over, they hunted differently. Some may have focused on smaller prey, while others developed crushing bites for armored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">victims</a>. The loss of long-distance fast swimmers, like ichthyosaurs, opened the door for other body plans and strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-end-of-one-era-sparked-another">The end of one era sparked another</h2>



The extinction of familiar marine predators didn’t signal the end of danger in the seas. It marked a rebirth. Mosasaurs surged in diversity and size, eventually becoming the new apex predators. 



Sharks too adapted, evolving faster and with more varied diets. The marine ecosystems of the Late Cretaceous looked different not just in species but in structure and dynamics.



This was not merely evolution marching on. It was evolution restructured by crisis. An environmental shock turned the oceans into both a graveyard and a cradle. Out of loss came transformation. Understanding these moments helps us grasp how life on Earth responds to extreme climate events.



The <a href="https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU25/EGU25-3100.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> was presented at the European Geosciences Union General Assembly (<a href="https://www.egu25.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EGU 2025</a>).



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Climate chaos caused a mass extinction of top marine predators

Earth’s ancient oceans once held marine predators that could rival...

Mammalian sperm are unusually picky. They prefer cooler environments, thriving below normal body temperature. Yet, they must navigate the female reproductive tract, which is warmer. So how do they survive and succeed?



New research from <a href="https://medicine.washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a> School of Medicine in St. Louis explains how. Sperm use the temperature difference as a signal.



 When they enter the warmer female reproductive tract, they switch behavior. They move from calm, forward swimming to a vigorous, whip-like thrash. This change helps them pierce the egg for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-current-fertility-rate-isnt-enough-for-human-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilization</a>.



This discovery sheds light on male fertility. It also opens new directions for contraception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-flips-a-sperm-switch">Heat flips a sperm switch</h2>



All mammals carry a sperm-surface protein called CatSper. It regulates ion entry, powering the tail’s strong motions. Scientists found that temperatures above 38°C (100.4°F) activate this protein.



“That hyperactive state in sperm is key for successful fertilization, and no one knew exactly how temperature triggers it,” said Polina Lishko, PhD, professor of cell biology and physiology at WashU Medicine. 



“Our work has identified a temperature-controlled switch in sperm that triggers these increased movements precisely when they are needed during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilization</a>.”



Before this study, CatSper was thought to respond only to pH and progesterone. But most mammalian sperm ignore progesterone. Temperature turns out to be the real switch.



This change explains why testicles hang outside the body. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a> keeps them cool so sperm remain inactive until they reach warmer territory - then, they activate at just the right moment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-evolved-to-keep-sperm-cool">Mammals evolved to keep sperm cool</h2>



Humans aren't the only species with clever cooling tricks. Dolphins pass blood through their dorsal fins to cool it before it reaches their testes. Elephants do the same through their ears. These adaptations protect the sperm’s sensitivity.



Birds, which lack CatSper, don’t need this. Their sperm do not rely on the same activation signal. This protein, and its temperature-based switch, is unique to mammals.



Using advanced tools, the researchers watched electric charges shift inside individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-semen-quality-signifies-more-than-just-fertility-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a>. When exposed to higher temperatures, CatSper lit up. This marked the start of vigorous movement - just in time for fertilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-heat-to-make-sperm-hyperactive">Using heat to make sperm hyperactive </h2>



CatSper’s exclusive presence in sperm makes it an ideal drug target. Previous attempts to block it didn’t work well. But Lishko suggests a twist: instead of blocking it, activate it too early.



“Instead of creating inhibitors, it might be possible to activate CatSper with temperature thus, prematurely switching on this channel to drain the sperm of energy, so that by the time the sperm cell is ready to do its job and enter the egg cell, it is powerless,” said Lishko.



If successful, this method could prevent fertilization without affecting the rest of the body. It may also help men struggling with infertility by ensuring proper sperm activation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ovarian-changes-reduce-fertility">Ovarian changes reduce fertility </h2>



While sperm need temperature to activate, the female reproductive system faces a different aging problem. 



The researchers examined 62 human ovaries from donors aged 20 to 77. Using advanced gene-mapping tools, they found that different ovarian regions age at different rates.



The ovarian cortex, which houses immature eggs, showed signs of decline after age 40. The follicular niche - the support system for eggs - starts breaking down. In the medulla, immune activity ramps up by age 30. These changes reduce fertility well before menopause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egg-support-in-aging-ovaries">Egg support in aging ovaries</h2>



Granulosa and stromal cells showed the most dramatic aging. Fibroblasts, the builders of connective tissue, multiply in aging ovaries. They deposit fibrotic proteins that stiffen the ovarian tissue.



One key factor behind this fibrosis is reduced TGF-beta signaling. This pathway helps regulate repair and inflammation. Its loss leads to unchecked buildup of scar-like tissue in the ovarian cortex.



Over time, this damages the egg’s environment, even if some eggs remain. Fertility fades not just because of egg loss, but because the surrounding support system collapses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-fertility-treatments">Future fertility treatments </h2>



These studies together offer a broader view of fertility. In men, it’s about activation - timing sperm behavior using heat. In women, it’s about preservation - protecting the ovarian environment from early decline.



New therapies might target these weak points. In men, premature CatSper activation could offer safe birth control. In women, boosting TGF-beta or controlling fibrosis might preserve fertility longer.



Understanding both perspectives - activation and aging - could help design next-generation fertility treatments that support both partners in reproduction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58824-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sperm have a heat-activated switch that may be key to fertility

Mammalian sperm are unusually picky. They prefer cooler environments, thriving...

What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary people for centuries. Is happiness a gift we carry inside us, immune to outside conditions? Or is it built on the foundations of good jobs, strong relationships, financial comfort, and good health? 



Every year, projects like the <a href="https://worldhappiness.report" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Happiness Report</a> attempt to measure and explain well-being across societies. Yet, the more we explore, the clearer it becomes: happiness isn’t simple, and it certainly isn’t the same for everyone.



A new study published in the journal Nature Human Behaviour sheds powerful light on this puzzle. It challenges the idea that happiness follows one clear path. According to lead author Emorie Beck and her team, people find happiness in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-believe-they-deserve-good-karma-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different ways</a> - and what works for one person may not work at all for another.



“We have to understand the sources of happiness to build effective interventions,” said Beck, assistant professor of psychology at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-major-views-on-happiness">Two major views on happiness</h2>



For decades, researchers have debated whether happiness comes from our life circumstances or our inner world. The first model, known as the “bottom-up” approach, argues that happiness builds up from life’s specific parts. 



When people are satisfied with domains such as their job, relationships, income, health, and housing, their overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-chasing-happiness-makes-you-feel-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life satisfaction</a> improves. This model shapes many public policies and international surveys. These efforts aim to boost happiness by improving access to external goods and services that support well-being.



But life doesn't always support that framework. Some people remain joyful even while facing hardship or loss. They seem untouched by circumstances that might break others. This brings attention to the “top-down” view of happiness. 



This model suggests that personality traits, mindsets, and emotional habits shape how we experience life. It emphasizes mental health practices, therapy, or mindfulness as tools to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improve well-being</a> by adjusting internal attitudes.



“But we all know people in our lives who experience traumatic events yet seem to be happy,” noted Beck.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-happiness">A new perspective on happiness </h2>



The idea that both internal and external <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-increases-feelings-of-hope-happiness-and-gratitude/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forces</a> shape happiness isn’t new. What makes this study stand out is its attempt to measure this interaction across individuals and time. 



According to the third model Beck and her team explored, happiness may flow in both directions. Inner qualities and outer life domains affect each other in ways that are dynamic and complex. From this perspective, targeting either the environment or the mind can make a difference.



But this still leaves many questions unanswered. Do all people follow the same pattern? Do policies based on population averages truly help those they aim to support? To answer these questions, the researchers introduced a fourth idea - a “personalized happiness” perspective.



This new approach proposes that happiness is not universal. Instead, the causes and effects of happiness are idiographic, or specific to each person. What raises happiness for one individual may not move the needle at all for another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-on-happiness">Decades of data on happiness </h2>



To explore these ideas, Beck and her collaborators analyzed an enormous data set. They studied 40,074 people in five countries: Germany, Britain, Switzerland, The Netherlands, and Australia. 



These participants had taken part in repeated surveys over as many as 33 years. The surveys asked about their overall life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satisfaction</a> and satisfaction in five life areas: work, income, health, housing, and relationships.



“What comes out is that we see roughly equal groups that demonstrate each pattern,” Beck explained.



Some participants fit the bottom-up model. Their happiness closely tracked satisfaction in life’s domains. Others followed a top-down pattern. Their internal well-being remained stable despite changes in their life circumstances. 



Another group showed bidirectional influence, where changes in one area affected the other. Finally, some individuals did not fit any clear model at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-happiness-is-more-than-a-theory">Personalized happiness is more than a theory</h2>



These findings gave weight to the personalized happiness approach. The researchers discovered that the population-level models often failed to match the actual patterns seen in individual lives. 



Between 41.4% and 50.8% of participants showed mostly one-way influences between domain satisfaction and life satisfaction. Only 19.3% to 25.9% showed bidirectional effects.



This shows that population averages often hide personal truths. Happiness, the study reveals, is shaped by unique configurations of traits and experiences. Even two people with similar incomes or job satisfaction may report entirely different levels of happiness.



The data also revealed that some people’s overall satisfaction did not link clearly to any of the measured domains. These individuals may experience satisfaction influenced by broader structural forces or singular life events that were not captured in the surveys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-therapy">Implications for therapy</h2>



If the aim is to improve happiness for as many people as possible, this research sends a powerful message. One-size-fits-all strategies will not work. Improving healthcare, housing, or income may support some individuals, but not all. 



Likewise, mindfulness programs or therapy-based initiatives may not benefit people whose happiness depends more on external conditions. "Importantly, the most effective policies will be tailored to the individual themselves,” said Beck.



This perspective urges governments, organizations, and mental health practitioners to think differently. Instead of targeting a universal happiness recipe, they should aim to understand the diverse ingredients people draw from to feel fulfilled. 



Doing so might not just improve lives - it may also make public efforts more effective and meaningful.



“These things are treated separately, but they aren’t really. They feed into each other at a personal level,” Beck added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-needs-and-differences">Individual needs and differences </h2>



The idea of personalized happiness, while promising, also presents challenges. The study showed clear individual patterns, but distinguishing those from random variations is difficult. 



Beck and her colleagues suggest that future research needs more precise and innovative methods to capture these subtle trends.



Supported by the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute on Aging</a>, this study lays the groundwork for a more human-centered view of happiness. Rather than assuming happiness is something we all measure in the same way, it invites a deeper respect for individual stories, differences, and needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-path-doesn-t-fit-all">One path doesn’t fit all</h2>



This research invites us to rethink everything we thought we knew about happiness. It is not an endpoint with a single route. For some, it lies in community or stability. For others, it may come from within - through purpose, peace, or personal growth.



The science is clear: happiness is personal. To understand it, we must listen more closely, not just to the numbers, but to the people behind them.



Other contributors included Joshua Jackson of&nbsp;<a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a>, Felix Cheung of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, and Stuti Thapa of the&nbsp;<a href="https://utulsa.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tulsa</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02171-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Where does happiness come from? It depends on who you are

What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary...

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history, is officially 35 years old.



To mark the milestone, NASA has released a fresh gallery of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasa-celebrates-hubbles-35th-year-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> spanning our solar system and well beyond - from Mars’s ruddy surface to star-forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and a neighboring galaxy.



The new portraits serve not only as a birthday gift to the public, but also as a vivid reminder of how profoundly Hubble has transformed modern astronomy and popular culture alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-hubble-s-blurry-beginnings">Fixing Hubble’s blurry beginnings</h2>



On April 24, 1990, the space shuttle Discovery roared into the sky with Hubble folded inside its cargo bay. A <a href="http://NASA.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> commentator called the telescope "a new window on the universe," raising expectations sky-high.



Yet jubilation faded fast when engineers found a tiny mirror flaw that made early images frustratingly blurry.



The rescue came in December 1993, when astronauts performed the first of five intricate servicing missions. They installed corrective optics - an optical “contact lens” - and upgraded Hubble’s cameras and electronics. The successful fix restored the telescope’s vision and set the stage for three decades of breakthrough science.



“Hubble opened a new window to the universe when it launched 35 years ago,” said Shawn Domagal-Goldman, acting director of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysics Division</a> at NASA Headquarters. 



“Its stunning imagery inspired people across the globe, and the data behind those images revealed surprises about everything from early galaxies to planets in our own solar system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-observatory-that-keeps-giving">An observatory that keeps giving</h2>



Since that turning point, Hubble has recorded nearly 1.7 million observations of roughly 55,000 celestial targets. 



Those data have generated more than 22,000 peer-reviewed papers, amassing over 1.3 million citations - figures that make Hubble the most scientifically productive telescope ever built. 



All its raw images and spectra, totaling more than 400 terabytes, are publicly archived, fueling new discoveries every year.



The mission’s longevity lets astronomers revisit cosmic scenes and track their evolution in near-real time. 



Hubble has tracked the seasonal shifts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> and Saturn, watched supernova remnants balloon outward, chronicled bright knots in active galactic nuclei, and even captured the afterglow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/">asteroid collisions</a>. 



Each long-baseline study illuminates processes that once seemed too slow to witness within a single human career.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hubble-redefined-the-cosmos">How Hubble redefined the cosmos</h2>



Before Hubble, ground-based observatories peering through Earth’s turbulent atmosphere could see only halfway across the visible universe. 



Estimates of cosmic age oscillated wildly, and astronomers could only speculate about whether every galaxy harbored a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>. The existence of planets around other stars was still unconfirmed.



Hubble rewrote those narratives. Its legendary Deep Field images unveiled a staggering population of faint, ancient galaxies stretching back more than 13 billion years. 



By tracking Cepheid variable stars and Type Ia supernovae, the telescope pinned down the rate of cosmic expansion. It helped expose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, a discovery that later earned the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.



Hubble also furnished the first measurements of exoplanet atmospheres and demonstrated that supermassive black holes lurk in the cores of most large galaxies. 



The telescope’s wide-ranging achievements inspired a wave of next-generation observatories, including the infrared-optimized James Webb Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-made-hubble-unstoppable">Engineering made Hubble unstoppable</h2>



Part of Hubble’s success stems from its design as a serviceable spacecraft. 



Between 1993 and 2009, five shuttle crews rendezvoused with the 24,000-pound telescope to swap out gyroscopes, batteries, and scientific instruments. These cosmic pit stops transformed Hubble into a nimble, ever-improving workhorse.



“The fact that it is still operating today is a testament to the value of our flagship observatories, and provides critical lessons for the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, which we plan to be serviceable in the spirit of Hubble,” Domagal-Goldman noted.



While the final shuttle mission in 2009 left Hubble in excellent health, engineers have spent the past decade developing innovative software patches. They also created remote troubleshooting techniques to counter aging hardware.



As a result, the Hubble telescope remains fully operational. It partners with Webb to study exoplanet atmospheres and map the formation of distant galaxy clusters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cultural-icon">A cultural icon</h2>



Beyond its scientific cachet, Hubble has captured the public imagination. Its images - Pillars of Creation, the Eagle Nebula, the Horsehead, the Sombrero Galaxy - decorate classrooms, inspire artists, and headline documentaries.



Hubble’s visual output demystifies astrophysics, turning arcane data into vibrant landscapes that convey both beauty and scale. 



The telescope’s success has shown that deep-space exploration is not just for scientists, but for everyone who gazes upward in wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-telescope-built-on-hubble-s-lessons">New telescope built on Hubble’s lessons</h2>



Hubble’s torch will eventually pass to the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO), NASA’s proposed successor for the 2040s. 



With a mirror much larger than Hubble’s and capabilities in the ultraviolet and visible bands, HWO aims to be up to 100 times more sensitive to starlight.



A key mission goal is finding Earth-size planets in habitable zones and detecting possible signs of life in their atmospheres. Engineers plan to make HWO serviceable, drawing directly on the lessons learned from three decades of keeping Hubble alive and thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-s-still-growing">A legacy that's still growing</h2>



For now, Hubble continues its pioneering journey, orbiting Earth every 97 minutes at an altitude of about 330 miles. 



Each day it scans the space, adding new data to its towering archive and offering humanity fresh vistas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star birth</a>, galaxy collisions, and planetary weather.



From its rocky start to its current stardom, Hubble’s 35-year run epitomizes ingenuity, perseverance, and curiosity - the very traits that fuel all great explorations. 



NASA’s newest image release is both a birthday card and a reminder: somewhere high above, an aging yet agile Hubble telescope still opens that “new window on the universe,” inviting us to peer through and dream.



Image Credit: NASA/ Hubble Heritage Team



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

35 years of Hubble: The telescope that changed our view of the universe

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history,...

The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the unusual heat affecting the region, which is warming about five times faster than the global average. 



The extreme heat shocked many observers when a temperature of 18.8°C (65.8°F) was recorded at Seymour Island in February 2020.



Scientists are concerned about how this temperature surge could impact ice melt and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-antarctic-waters-are-cooling-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea</a> levels. These concerns prompted a new investigation into how conditions far away in the Tasman Sea might contribute to warming at the southern tip of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-sea-heat-reaches-antarctica">Tasman Sea heat reaches Antarctica</h2>



The research was led by Dr. Fei Zheng from <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun Yat-sen University</a>, whose team traced a path of influence from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> between Australia and New Zealand to the icy peninsula.



The experts discovered that winter sea surface temperatures in the Tasman Sea can influence atmospheric patterns that steer heat toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-lies-beneath-16000-feet-of-antarctic-ice-a-world-never-before-seen-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. These findings highlight the surprising power of mid-latitude ocean changes.



“Our research shows that warmer or cooler temperatures in the Tasman Sea can send a climatic ‘ripple effect’ across the Pacific, ultimately warming the Antarctic Peninsula,” said Dr. Zheng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-winds-drive-antarctic-warming">Shifting winds drive Antarctic warming</h2>



One key feature is the <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/29/17/jcli-d-15-0843.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific–South American pattern</a>, which emerges when the Tasman Sea shifts from cooler to warmer waters. This pattern forms a chain of shifting pressure and wind belts that can bring unusual warmth to certain parts of Antarctica.



The researchers noticed that high-resolution climate models capture this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern</a> better than those with fewer grid points.



“However, not all climate models capture this link accurately - higher-resolution models do a much better job,” said Dr. Zheng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-antarctica-link-confuses-models">Tasman-Antarctica link confuses models</h2>



Some models overestimate how much the Antarctic Peninsula temperature changes from year to year. They also underestimate how the Tasman Sea fluctuates during the same seasons.



Researchers caution that this mismatch could exaggerate how the atmosphere reacts to ocean shifts in some simulations. They aim to refine these models so that future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> estimates become more dependable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-heat-affects-sea-levels">Antarctic heat affects sea levels</h2>



A warming Antarctic <a href="https://www.climate.gov/tags/antarctica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peninsula</a> can affect ice sheet stability and global sea-level changes. Insights from studies like this provide a clearer view of how distant oceans might tip the balance in vulnerable polar regions.



Shifts in temperature can also influence how local sea ice behaves and how wildlife copes with changing conditions. Tracking these influences supports better decisions about conservation and planning for future environmental shifts.



These findings may change how scientists and policymakers approach climate modeling on a global scale. If warming in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-greening-at-an-unprecedented-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a> is linked to changes thousands of miles away, forecasts must look beyond local conditions.



This could shift funding and research priorities toward better monitoring of mid-latitude oceans. Long-term planning for coastal cities and global sea-level projections may now need to factor in the Tasman Sea as a major player.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-ocean-feedback-loops">The role of ocean feedback loops</h2>



The Tasman-Antarctica connection may also help explain recent feedback loops seen in climate records. Warmer waters in the Tasman Sea could alter wind patterns that trap heat in the Southern Hemisphere, reinforcing further warming in Antarctica.



This process, while still under study, suggests the ocean isn’t just responding to climate change - it may also be shaping it. Feedbacks like these are essential to understand if we want to predict how fast changes may unfold.



One major hurdle is the lack of high-resolution data for some ocean regions, including the Tasman Sea. Without better observations, even the most advanced models will struggle to predict future shifts accurately.



Researchers also warn that natural variability could mask long-term trends. Sorting short-term changes from deeper patterns will be key to improving projections for Antarctica’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-link-to-global-weather">Antarctic link to global weather</h2>



The atmospheric patterns linked to the Tasman Sea might not just affect Antarctica. Some researchers suggest that parts of South America and even the western United States could experience shifts in weather due to these ocean changes.



While the focus is still on Antarctica for now, future studies could reveal broader connections. Understanding these ripple effects might help explain unusual weather in regions far from the Southern Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-coastal-communities">Protecting coastal communities </h2>



Researchers plan to refine climate models by adding better data for smaller-scale ocean processes. They believe a closer look at ocean-atmosphere interactions will strengthen predictions for Antarctica and beyond.



Experts also hope that improving model accuracy could help communities plan for coastal threats. Robust forecasts may guide strategies that protect future generations from rising seas and shifting weather patterns.



Bringing together data from multiple sources helps researchers see the bigger picture of Antarctica’s challenges.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Antarctic warming is influenced by ocean changes thousands of miles away

The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the...

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger than any signpost. From a low ridge, the landscape looks plain enough - just ocher earth and scattered stones. Yet from the air, pale etchings known as Nazca geoglyphs spread out across thirty-one miles of desert like pages in an ancient picture book.



Scholars have long marveled at these Nazca geoglyphs: animals, people, and patterns scraped into the soil roughly two thousand years ago. 



Their purpose has never been obvious, and for decades each new survey has offered more puzzles than answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nazca-geoglyphs-carved-on-desert-canvas">Nazca geoglyphs carved on desert canvas</h2>



Masato Sakai of Japan’s <a href="https://www.yamagata-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yamagata University</a> has spent two decades walking the Nazca Pampa, a dry plateau that sits about 1,640 feet above sea level. 



The lack of rain and the region’s remoteness have sheltered the drawings from erosion and farming. 



Two main styles dominate the site. Giant “line-type” designs - think the famous hummingbird - stretch for hundreds of feet. 



Smaller “surface-type” figures appear where workers once brushed away dark stones to expose lighter sand.



Early mapping relied on planes and satellite photos. Even then, the sharpest images missed many faint or partial motifs. 



Relief-type figures, often no larger than a city bus, hug age-old footpaths and easily hide in the dusty palette.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-scans-the-peruvian-sands">AI scans the Peruvian sands</h2>



Enter a collaboration with IBM Research. Between September 2022 and February 2023, Sakai’s team fed an artificial-intelligence model examples of known glyphs, then set it loose on high-resolution photos of the entire plateau. 



In six months, the system flagged 303 new surface-type drawings - almost doubling the catalog built up since the early twentieth century. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1s.webp" alt="Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Credit: Yamagata University" class="wp-image-1967878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yamagata University</figcaption></figure>



That fresh haul pushes the confirmed total to 430 pieces, 318 of which Yamagata University has logged since it began work in 2004.



Instead of boxing objects the usual way, the model treated the desert as a grid of tiny image tiles and scored each one for geoglyph likelihood. 



The researchers split every confirmed figure into smaller patches to give the algorithm extra training material, a trick that compensated for the limited dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-the-nazca-geoglyphs-telling-us">What are the Nazca geoglyphs telling us?</h2>



Many newly spotted icons cluster within 141 feet of ancient trails. They show human torsos, stylized livestock, and eerie isolated heads. 



“The human heads depict human sacrifices to the gods,” Sakai explained. The pathway setting hints that small groups used these pictures as teaching aids or spiritual prompts during routine travel.



Pottery shards nearby suggest such relief-type figures may predate the grander line drawings. Their subjects lean toward domestic life, a contrast to the wild creatures often celebrated in the larger images.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ritual-routes-and-roadside-lessons">Ritual routes and roadside lessons</h2>



Line-type glyphs anchor the start and finish of broader pilgrimage routes, typically lying about 112 feet from ceremonial lines scored into the ground. 



Archaeologists think processions moved along these corridors, stopping at the vast bird, monkey, or whale outlines for communal rites. 



“At that time, there was no written language. People learned about the roles of humans and animals by looking at pictures and used them as places for rituals,” he said.



That spoken insight, paired with the spatial data, supports the idea that the Nazca culture wove its belief system straight into the landscape. 



Travelers likely rehearsed myths, seasonal duties, or social roles by pacing past images tailored to each lesson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behind-the-numbers">Behind the numbers</h2>



The 303 fresh finds are all surface-type, yet they vary in design and age. Roughly half depict human or animal heads, many with eyes or mouths exaggerated for emphasis. 



The rest show full figures, including camelids and felines that were vital to everyday survival. Their average length is about 20 yards. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1s.webp" alt="Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Credit: University of Michigan" class="wp-image-1967876"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Michigan</figcaption></figure>



The AI’s accuracy jumped once researchers applied transfer learning - starting with a vision model trained on everyday photographs before fine-tuning it for desert imagery.



Such efficiency matters because the Nazca Pampa spans more than 190 square miles. Manual surveys would take years, but AI can flag probable sites in days, letting field crews focus on verification and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-archaeology">AI and the future of archaeology</h2>



The success in Peru demonstrates how machine learning can spotlight hidden heritage without disturbing the ground. 



Similar techniques already aid shipwreck hunts in the Mediterranean and temple searches in Cambodia’s jungles. As satellite coverage improves, smaller teams will parse vast regions for subtle traces of ancient life.



For the Nazca Lines, the next step is protection. Mining, unregulated tourism, and modern roads nibble at the fragile crust. 



Digital maps built from AI detections give local authorities a clearer picture of what needs fencing, signage, or rerouting. 



Sharing these maps online also invites global scholars to test fresh hypotheses about how the drawings fit with climate shifts, trade, and social change over fifteen centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-nazca-geoglyphs">What's next for the Nazca geoglyphs?</h2>



What began as a curiosity spotted by pilot Toribio Mejía Xesspe in 1927 now stands as proof - yes, proof - of cooperation between traditional fieldwork and cutting-edge tech. 



The Nazca people left no written chronicles, but they etched stories big enough to survive millennia of wind and sun. 



With new eyes in the sky and smarter algorithms on the ground, today’s researchers are finally starting to read those stories in full.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2407652121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

One of Earth's oldest and biggest mysteries is partially solved by Artificial Intelligence

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger...

Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest on the surface, but they’re closely tied to what’s living just beneath. Bacteria on our faces aren’t just passive passengers. They interact, compete, and sometimes even fuel disease.



Two major bacterial species - Cutibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis - dominate most people’s facial microbiome. Yet, figuring out how they behave and change over time has long been a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-skin-s-future-health">Shaping the skin's future health</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have now mapped out the behavior of skin bacteria in more detail than ever before.



Their work offers a clearer picture of when new strains appear, how long they stick around, and how this timing could shape future acne treatments. 



The research also points to a crucial discovery: the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-teen-girls-struggle-more-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teen</a> years may be a key time in which to shape the skin’s future health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teenage-skin-and-the-rise-of-acne-bacteria">Teenage skin and the rise of acne bacteria</h2>



The team found that most new C. acnes strains - the ones commonly linked to outbreaks of acne - appear during the early teenage years.



But after that, the bacterial community on the face becomes incredibly stable. Even when people come into contact with new strains, they rarely take hold.



That insight has major implications. “We found that there are some surprising dynamics, and these dynamics provide insights for how to design probiotic therapy,” said Tami Lieberman, senior author of the study.



“If we had a strain that we knew could prevent acne, these results would suggest we should make sure we apply them early during the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeling-loved-as-a-teen-linked-to-healthier-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adulthood</a>, to really get them to engraft.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-skin-bacteria-and-acne">Tracking skin bacteria and acne</h2>



To understand these microbial patterns, the researchers studied the skin of 30 children and 27 of their parents, all from the same Boston-area school community. 



Sampling family members helped the team to see how strains pass between people and how stable - or unstable - those strains really are.



Some participants were sampled more than once, allowing the scientists to track bacterial changes over time. 



From each skin swab, they grew bacterial colonies and sequenced the DNA of individual cells. This helped them measure the number of different lineages in each person, how long each had been around, and how they changed over time.



They found 89 lineages of C. acnes and 78 of S. epidermidis. Up to 11 of each could be found on a single person. The findings surprised the team, as earlier studies had suggested these communities remained mostly unchanged over time.



“We wanted to know if these communities were truly stable, and if there could be times where they weren’t stable,” Lieberman explained. “In particular, if the transition to an adult skin-like microbiome would have a higher rate of acquisition of new lineages.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ideal-environment-for-skin-bacteria">An ideal environment for skin bacteria </h2>



Teenage years come with a spike in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-refined-carbs-can-make-you-less-attractive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil production</a> on the face, which provides an ideal environment for bacteria. 



Previous studies have shown a 10,000-fold increase in bacterial density during this period. The current study confirmed that while adult facial microbiomes are largely stable, the early teen years offer an opportunity for new strains of skin bacteria - particularly of C. acnes - to establish themselves.



“For C. acnes, what we were able to show was that people do get strains throughout life, but very rarely,” said Lieberman. “We see the highest rate of influx when teenagers are transitioning to a more adult-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-have-been-found-in-the-skin-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin microbiome</a>.”



This supports the idea that acne-related probiotics might be most effective when used early, during the teenage transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-bacteria-different-timelines">Different bacteria, different timelines</h2>



The team also found that S. epidermidis is far more volatile than C. acnes. On average, each strain of S. epidermidis sticks around for less than two years. 



However, even family members living together often didn’t share the same lineages. This implies that bacteria aren’t constantly passed back and forth, and that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> might be more selective than expected.



“That suggests that something is preventing homogenization between people,” said Lieberman. “It could be host genetics or host behavior, or people using different topicals or different moisturizers, or it could be active restriction of new migrants from the bacteria that are already there at that moment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The researchers now want to know whether the immune system reacts differently depending on when a person first acquires a new strain of C. acnes. They also hope to understand why individual microbiomes remain so distinct, even when people are exposed to each other’s bacteria daily.



“We want to understand why we each have unique strain communities despite the fact that there is this constant accessibility and high turnover, specifically for S. epidermidis,” said Lieberman. “What’s driving this constant turnover in S. epidermidis, and what are the implications of these new colonizations for acne during adolescence?”



While there’s still a lot to learn, one thing is clear: the story of skin bacteria starts early. And the choices we make - or don’t make - during our teenage years might leave a lasting mark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S193131282500143X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Host &amp; Microbe</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Teen skin bacteria could hold the secret to acne prevention

Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest...

Bearded,Father,Playing,Guitar,To,His,Little,Child.,Baby,Looking

Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are often seen as cornerstones of humanity. From bustling cities to remote villages, we expect every culture to dance in joy and sing to its children. 



But the Northern Aché of Paraguay challenge that belief. These acts seem deeply human - automatic, perhaps even biological. But what if they aren’t?



A study published in the journal Current Biology by anthropologists Manvir Singh and Kim Hill asks us to reconsider this belief.



Drawing on over four decades of immersive research among the Northern Aché of Paraguay, the authors report a striking absence. This Indigenous group sings, yes - but they do not dance. And they do not sing to their babies.



This revelation disrupts long-standing theories about music as an evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universal</a>. Instead, it points to a more fragile reality: these traditions may be cultural inventions, and may be vulnerable to loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-ache-don-t-dance-or-sing-lullabies">Northern Aché don’t dance or sing lullabies</h2>



The Northern Aché, a once-isolated hunter-gatherer society in eastern Paraguay, have lived outside the influence of global norms for much of modern history. 



Hill, a professor at <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, first began working with them in 1977. He would go on to spend 122 months - more than ten years - living alongside Aché families in forest camps and settlements.



During these years, Hill documented their daily life in extraordinary detail. He observed songs sung around campfires, flutes played in solitude, and expressions of grief and celebration. But never once did he witness coordinated dance. Nor did he hear an infant-directed song.



“Aside from church singing introduced by missionaries, Northern Aché adults sing alone and in a limited number of contexts,” Singh explained. “As far as we can tell, anthropologists have never observed dancing or infant-directed song among the Northern Aché.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-culture-sings-but-not-to-infants">Every culture sings, but not to infants?</h2>



The Northern Aché’s musical life is real, but restrained. Men sing short bursts of melody about hunting and communal affairs. 



Women sing more rarely, almost always about lost relatives. Children may imitate these songs, but there is no singing aimed at babies - none of the structured soothing sounds that we associate with lullabies.



This lack isn’t due to neglect. Parents calm fussy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-kids-about-puberty-why-sooner-may-be-better-than-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> with smiles, tickles, and playful talk. Yet even during long forest treks - where infants remain close to their mothers nearly all day - Hill and fellow researchers never encountered lullabies.



“It’s not that the Northern Aché don’t have any need for lullabies,” Singh said. “Aché parents still calm fussy infants. They use playful speech, funny faces, smiling and giggling.”



This distinction matters. It shows that caregiving persists even in the absence of what many view as essential, universal tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-loss-not-natural-absence">Cultural loss, not natural absence</h2>



Why are dance and infant-directed song missing from this society? The answer lies not in biology but in history.



The Northern Aché endured significant upheaval in the twentieth century. Their population plummeted due to disease and forced migration. 



By 1970, only 338 individuals remained. With that decline came a shrinking of cultural practices. Alongside dance and lullabies, they lost other cultural practices, such as fire-making, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puberty</a> ceremonies, hunting magic, and more.



“It does mean, however, that cultural transmission matters much more for maintaining those behaviors than many researchers, including myself, have suspected,” Singh said.



Unlike smiling, which appears across cultures without instruction, these behaviors vanish without teaching and memory. They are not spontaneous instincts. They are carefully maintained traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-singing-and-dancing-are-cultural-creations">Singing and dancing are cultural creations </h2>



The Northern Aché belong to a wider language family - Tupi - which includes other groups with robust musical and ritual traditions.



Southern Aché communities, for example, have been seen dancing and singing in synchrony after contact. Tupi-speaking Araweté and Guarani peoples also have lullabies and dance music. This suggests that the ancestors of the Northern Aché once shared these practices.



But over generations, population bottlenecks and isolation stripped away many layers of cultural complexity. 



They no longer make fire. They do not play stringed instruments. Their musical styles have narrowed. What remains is deeply individual, and hauntingly sparse.



Genetic studies support this story. The Northern Aché have less genetic diversity than their linguistic relatives, pointing to one or more historic population collapses. Such bottlenecks reduce not just biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variation</a> but cultural content as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-behavior-shaped-by-culture">Human behavior shaped by culture</h2>



Theories about music’s origin often assume a biological basis. Dance and lullabies are believed to build bonds - between groups, and between mothers and babies. Many researchers have treated them as evolutionary adaptations.



“Dance and infant-related song are widely considered universal, a view that has been supported by cross-cultural research, including my own,” Singh noted.



But this study suggests a different picture. It argues that these behaviors are more like fire-making than smiling. They are useful but not inevitable. They must be invented, preserved, and passed on. When communities shrink or break, those transmissions can fail.



This idea doesn’t disprove genetic readiness. Instead, it highlights that readiness alone isn’t enough. Cultural continuity sustains human behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-northern-ache">Significance of the Northern Aché</h2>



The absence of dance and lullabies in the Northern Aché people doesn't mean these behaviors are unimportant. It means we must reconsider what makes them possible. We need to look beyond cross-cultural surveys and explore histories of loss, isolation, and transformation.



Singh and Hill’s work shows the value of deep, long-term ethnography. Their observations emerged not from brief visits but from living as neighbors, sharing fires, and listening over decades.



“I found his observations totally fascinating and hugely important and urged him to publish them,” Singh said of Hill's work. “He wasn’t sure how to report them, so we ended up writing the manuscript together.”



In an increasingly globalized world, such quiet exceptions are rare. But they carry powerful messages. They remind us that humanity’s most cherished expressions - music, dance, the lullaby - are not just natural responses. 



Singing and dancing are cultural creations that are fragile and resilient, shaped by memory and community. And when they fall silent, they speak volumes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00447-6">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social dancing and singing lullabies to babies are not innate human behaviors

Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are...

Sunlight gives life to oceans. Yet in the icy polar seas, light barely enters. It reaches the water through a thick shield of snow and ice, scattered and dimmed but still biologically vital. 



For countless generations, algae and phytoplankton have adapted to these low-light, multi-colored conditions. But that delicate balance is now vanishing.



Driven by climate change, sea ice is disappearing at alarming rates. This isn’t only opening new shipping routes or endangering polar bears. It’s rewriting the rules of underwater life. 



New research led by Monika Soja-Woźniak and Jef Huisman at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a>, in collaboration with Danish and Dutch scientists, has uncovered a major consequence of this change. Melting ice shifts the ocean’s color and light spectrum, which can have cascading effects across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-can-speed-up-continental-drift-and-fuel-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shifting-color-of-ocean-light">The shifting color of ocean light</h2>



Ice and water do not transmit light in the same way. Sea ice reflects most incoming sunlight and scatters the rest. Still, the small fraction that makes it through contains nearly the entire visible spectrum. That means red, green, and blue wavelengths all reach the life below the surface.



Seawater, however, tells a different story. It quickly absorbs red and green light. Blue light alone travels deep. This selective filtering of color is what gives the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> its rich blue appearance. 



As ice melts and gives way to liquid water, organisms beneath the surface receive light with less color variety. They are exposed to a narrower, blue-dominated spectrum.



This subtle shift matters greatly for photosynthetic organisms. Algae and phytoplankton harvest light using pigments that are finely tuned to specific wavelengths of the spectrum. A change in available colors alters which species thrive - and which decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ice-and-ocean-water-absorb-light">How ice and ocean water absorb light </h2>



Light absorption depends on more than just the medium - it also depends on molecular movement. In liquid water, H₂O molecules vibrate freely.



These vibrations absorb light at specific wavelengths, creating gaps in the light spectrum. The gaps shape the available “spectral niches,” small bands of light that different algal species have evolved to use.



“Ice has a much smoother absorption spectrum,” noted the researchers. In solid form, water molecules lock into a crystalline structure. Their ability to vibrate disappears. Without these vibrations, fewer wavelengths are absorbed. More colors remain in the light that penetrates.



This key difference means that under sea ice, life enjoys a fuller spectrum of light. Phytoplankton adapted to these conditions use a diverse range of pigments to capture energy. As the ice disappears, the richness of their light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> vanishes with it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-ice-loss-narrows-light-range">Sea ice loss narrows light range</h2>



To measure the exact changes, the team developed optical models using radiative transfer simulations. They analyzed different polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>, from the pristine Arctic Ocean to murky coastal zones. Their models showed that open water absorbs nearly all longer wavelengths, leaving available light that is shifted toward blue.



In clear Arctic waters, the dominant wavelength dropped from about 550 nanometers (green) under ice to 472 nanometers (blue) in ice-free water. This shift also compresses the range of usable light, making the environment less diverse in spectral terms.



This spectral narrowing carries significant biological consequences. Organisms adapted to broad-spectrum light will likely lose out to those specialized for blue wavelengths. 



“The photosynthetic pigments of algae living under sea ice are adapted to make optimal use of the wide range of colors present in the little amount of light passing through ice and snow,” said Soja-Woźniak, lead author of the study.



“When the ice melts, these organisms suddenly find themselves in a blue-dominated environment, which provides a lesser fit for their pigments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-species-will-decline">Key species will decline</h2>



The researchers examined how these spectral changes affect key photosynthetic species. 



Ice algae, like many Arctic diatoms and the genus Phaeocystis, use a wide array of pigments, including fucoxanthin, which absorbs green and red light. These pigments allow them to photosynthesize efficiently in the colorful but dim light beneath sea ice.



In contrast, blue specialists like Micromonas - a genus of pico-phytoplankton - possess simpler pigment systems that are tuned to absorb blue and violet light. These species can thrive in the narrow-spectrum environment of open water.



The modeling results showed that as the underwater spectrum shifts, blue specialists may gain a competitive edge. Algal diversity could shrink. Coastal Antarctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> have already seen signs of this: cryptophytes that are better suited to blue light, are increasing in number as pigment-rich species decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-algae-loss">Consequences of algae loss </h2>



At first glance, this may seem like a technical shift of color bands in light. But it holds deeper implications for marine life. Photosynthetic algae sit at the base of the Arctic food web. Changes in their abundance, productivity, or species mix may have consequences further up the chain. 



“Photosynthetic algae form the foundation of the Arctic food web. Changes in their productivity or species composition can ripple upward to affect fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. Moreover, photosynthesis plays an important role in natural CO₂ uptake by the ocean,” explained Professor Huisman.



If fewer algae can thrive, or if they photosynthesize less efficiently, the polar ocean’s ability to sequester carbon will suffer. Climate change, in this way, not only warms the planet but weakens its natural buffers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-models-must-capture-new-details">Future models must capture new details </h2>



Current climate models largely ignore the fine details of light spectra underwater. Yet this research shows how crucial those details are. 



A change in color can reshape entire ecosystems. Understanding the interactions between light transmission, pigment adaptation, and photosynthesis is essential for accurate ocean forecasts.



The team suggests incorporating these spectral dynamics into future models. Doing so could improve predictions of ecological change, carbon cycling, and biodiversity in polar regions. As sea ice continues to shrink, these predictions grow more urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-ocean-light">The power of ocean light</h2>



Some organisms may adapt. Species like Phaeocystis show signs of pigment flexibility - shifting pigment use depending on conditions. Whether that adaptability can keep pace with melting remains to be seen. Evolution is slow, but climate change is not.



As polar waters grow bluer, the underwater world is not just getting brighter. It is changing in quality. The transformation in light affects what grows, what survives, and what disappears. 



This is the quiet power of light - a force that shapes life from the microscopic to the megafaunal. And as this study reveals, that power is now being rewritten by melting ice.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59386-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Lars Chresten Lund-Hansen



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea ice loss alters the color of ocean light, and life struggles to adapt

Sunlight gives life to oceans. Yet in the icy polar...

Jupiter is a planet of extremes - intense winds, towering cyclones, and magnetic forces that make Earth's weather look tame. Add to that its volcanic moon, Io, and there’s no shortage of cosmic drama in this distant part of the solar system.



The Juno spacecraft has just sent back new findings that give scientists an even clearer look at what’s happening both deep inside Jupiter and under the crust of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brilliant-new-images-of-jupiters-moon-io-captured-by-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Io</a>.



Using a mix of radio signals, microwave sensors, and infrared imaging, the mission has uncovered how Jupiter’s cyclones behave and how Io manages to keep erupting with heat from within.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-juno-team">Insights from the Juno team</h2>



The research was presented by scientists from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute</a> at a recent science conference in Vienna.



The team shared two important updates: a new map of temperatures beneath the surface of Io, and a better understanding of how storms move across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-causing-the-mysterious-haze-at-jupiters-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter’s poles</a>.



“Everything about Jupiter is extreme. The planet is home to gigantic polar cyclones bigger than Australia, fierce jet streams, the most volcanic body in our solar system, the most powerful aurora, and the harshest radiation belts,” said Scott Bolton, principal investigator of Juno at the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio. 



“As Juno’s orbit takes us to new regions of Jupiter’s complex system, we’re getting a closer look at the immensity of energy this gas giant wields.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-magma-found-below-io-s-crust">Warm magma found below Io’s crust</h2>



Juno’s microwave radiometer was originally designed to study Jupiter’s thick cloud cover. But scientists decided to turn it toward Io. They combined this data with infrared images from another instrument called JIRAM.



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-radiation-revealed-by-juno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juno</a> science team loves to combine very different datasets from very different instruments and see what we can learn,” said Shannon Brown, a Juno scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. 



“When we incorporated the MWR data with JIRAM’s infrared imagery, we were surprised by what we saw: evidence of still-warm magma that hasn’t yet solidified below Io’s cooled crust. At every latitude and longitude, there were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-glass-smooth-lake-of-cooling-lava-on-jupiters-moon-io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling lava</a> flows.”



The data shows that about 10% of Io’s surface has pockets of lava just beneath the outer layer. That lava is slowly cooling - kind of like how a car radiator works, moving heat out from the core and shedding it into space.



“Io’s volcanos, lava fields, and subterranean lava flows act like a car radiator, efficiently moving heat from the interior to the surface, cooling itself down in the vacuum of space," said Brown.



The scientists confirmed that a massive eruption, spotted during Juno’s December 27 flyby, was still active as of March 2. They expect to get a better view on May 6, when Juno passes within 55,300 miles (89,000 kilometers) of the moon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-jupiter-s-temperature-extremes">Exploring Jupiter’s temperature extremes</h2>



Juno is also collecting data using a method called radio occultation. In simple terms, scientists send a radio signal from Earth to Juno, which then travels back through Jupiter’s atmosphere. 



On the way, the radio signal bends slightly, depending on the temperature and density of the atmospheric layers through which it passes.



So far, 26 signals have been sent. One key result: Jupiter’s north polar stratospheric cap is 11 degrees Celsius cooler than nearby regions. And it’s encircled by howling winds that top 100 miles per hour (160 kilometers per hour).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-s-dancing-cyclones">Jupiter’s dancing cyclones</h2>



Jupiter’s north pole is surrounded by nine giant cyclones - one in the center, and eight circling it like petals. Unlike hurricanes on Earth that pop up and fade, Jupiter’s cyclones are long-lived and stay near the poles.



Scientists tracked the movement of these storms using images from JunoCam and infrared scans from JIRAM. They noticed that each storm drifts slowly toward the pole due to a process called “beta drift.” This drift happens when circular wind patterns interact with the planet’s spin.



On Earth, storms lose power as they near the poles. But on Jupiter, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/io-jupiter-moon-juno-mission-discovers-fire-mountains-polar-cyclones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar cyclones</a> bunch together and interact. Their speed slows as they start bouncing off each other.



“These competing forces result in the cyclones ‘bouncing’ off one another in a manner reminiscent of springs in a mechanical system,” said Yohai Kaspi, a Juno co-investigator from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. 



“This interaction not only stabilizes the entire configuration, but also causes the cyclones to oscillate around their central positions, as they slowly drift westward, clockwise, around the pole.”



This new model could help scientists better understand storm movement, not just on Jupiter but possibly on Earth and other planets as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead-for-juno">The road ahead for Juno</h2>



Each orbit of Jupiter gives Juno a fresh view. As the spacecraft continues to adjust its path, it flies through some of the most intense radiation zones in the solar system.



“One of the great things about Juno is its orbit is ever-changing, which means we get a new vantage point each time as we perform a science flyby,” said Bolton. 



“In the extended mission, that means we’re continuing to go where no spacecraft has gone before, including spending more time in the strongest planetary radiation belts in the solar system. It’s a little scary, but we’ve built Juno like a tank and are learning more about this intense environment each time we go through it.”



Juno’s mission keeps expanding our view of the solar system’s most powerful planet and its wildest moon. And with more flybys planned, the discoveries aren’t likely to stop anytime soon.



Image Credit: NASA / SwRI / MSSS / Jackie Branc (CC BY).



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Juno reveals dancing cyclones on Jupiter and magma on its fiery moon

Jupiter is a planet of extremes - intense winds, towering...

In western Canada’s wetlands, a quiet revolution is taking shape. Scientists are bringing mossy peatlands and damaged well pads back to life after decades of oil and gas activity left them altered.



A research team from the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Waterloo</a>, supported by several Canadian institutions, has tested a new restoration method to revive peatland vegetation on oil well pads.



These pads, once used for drilling, have disrupted the delicate water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-microbes-in-amazon-peatlands-help-balance-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systems</a> and plant life of boreal fens. Now, the team’s breakthrough shows that true mosses - the core builders of peatlands - can grow again, even on degraded, mineral-rich soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pads-disrupted-peatland-ecosystems">How pads disrupted peatland ecosystems</h2>



Canada’s boreal peatlands are not just rich in moss - they store massive amounts of carbon and regulate freshwater systems across the country. 



However, many of these ecosystems have been disrupted by the construction of over 36,000 hectares of well pads and 100,000 km of access roads.



These pads bury native vegetation under layers of clay and sand, severing their connection to natural hydrology and altering nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peatland-canals-are-hidden-hotspots-for-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. 



Traditional restoration techniques often focused on replanting trees or grasses to convert damaged land into forest or grassland.



But such solutions overlook the unique role of peatlands in storing carbon and supporting biodiversity. The new method shifts the focus: it seeks to restore the land to its original, moss-dominated state.



“These results are the first to suggest that the re-establishment of peatland vegetation on full-scale lowered well pads is possible,” said Murdoch McKinnon, PhD candidate in the Faculty of Environment. 



“Well pads bury all of the native peatland vegetation under clay or sand, negatively impacting the ability of the peatland to sequester carbon and also reducing the availability of habitat for wildlife.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moss-based-method-on-well-pads">Moss-based method on well pads</h2>



In 2020, researchers implemented this large-scale trial on a decommissioned well pad near Slave Lake, Alberta. The strategy involved partially removing the upper layers of the pad and transplanting native mosses collected from a nearby donor site. 



The moss <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/immune-power-of-mosses-can-be-transferred-to-other-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> included true mosses like Aulacomnium palustre, Tomentypnum nitens, and Helodium blandowii - all typical of rich fens. The surface of the pad was reshaped to include low and high microtopographies. 



This mimics natural peatland surfaces and helps retain water in dips, which is essential for moss survival. A straw mulch layer was applied to half the plots to slow evaporation and protect the mosses from drying winds.



The approach draws inspiration from a natural process called paludification, where peatlands expand over mineral soils due to consistent water saturation. 



By partially removing the well pad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-profits-could-save-the-planet-if-governments-tax-them-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>, the method aimed to replicate conditions that allow early successional peatland vegetation to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moss-needs-steady-water-to-survive">Moss needs steady water to survive</h2>



Peatland mosses, unlike vascular plants, lack roots and internal water transport systems. Their health depends entirely on the moisture around them. 



In this study, researchers found that mosses thrived when the water table stayed within six centimeters of the surface. These optimal conditions were found mostly along the pad’s edges, which were still hydrologically connected to the surrounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peatland-canals-are-hidden-hotspots-for-carbon-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural peatland</a>.



In contrast, interior zones of the pad experienced rapid drying during the late season. This dryness occurred because those sections lacked direct groundwater input and had poor water retention due to the coarse sandy substrate. 



Mosses in these interior zones faced significant risks of desiccation, particularly during the second study year, which was drier than normal. 



The team concluded that the restoration method works best when a steady flow of water can reach the transplanted mosses. Otherwise, even with added mulch, the mosses struggled to maintain the hydration needed for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> and growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-years-limit-moss-growth">Dry years limit moss growth</h2>



The study ran over two growing seasons. The first season had near-average rainfall, while the second was drier, reflecting potential future climate scenarios. 



In the wet year, seven plots on the pad maintained near-surface water tables and showed high potential for moss establishment. In the drier year, only one plot - located at the hydrologically favorable northeast corner - retained adequate moisture.



Drying trends in interior plots suggested that the partial removal technique alone may not suffice under climate stress. Mosses planted in these areas often encountered moisture conditions below their survival threshold. 



This highlights the need to improve subsurface hydrological connectivity across the pad, perhaps by altering slope design or installing water flow conduits.



“Preserving peatlands is critical because of the role they play storing and supplying water in the landscape,” said Dr. Richard Petrone, a professor in the Department of Geography and Environmental Management at Waterloo. 



“They are also our best choice for nature-based climate change <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/abandoned-oil-wells-could-revolutionize-energy-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solutions</a> because of the vast amounts of carbon that they store.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-moss-dries-out">What happens when moss dries out</h2>



The risk of moss desiccation became particularly clear in the pad’s interior zones. Researchers measured soil moisture and water potential across different microtopographic levels. 



They found that when the water table dropped below 54 cm, mosses - especially those on high ground - entered the desiccation danger zone. Mulching helped slightly in low areas but had limited effect overall. 



The straw was often blown off high points by wind, reducing its ability to shield mosses from evaporation. These findings suggest that water table depth has a stronger impact than surface treatments in controlling moss health.



Some moss species can tolerate drying, but growth slows or halts altogether. Rewetting takes time, and extended dry periods can stunt long-term recovery. This makes mosses in interior pad zones especially vulnerable during drought years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-mosses-thrive-on-well-pads">Some mosses thrive on well pads</h2>



Not all mosses need the same conditions. Species like Tomentypnum nitens and Aulacomnium palustre can survive across a wide range of moisture levels. 



These species may establish even in dry interior areas. However, the long-term success of a diverse peatland community depends on retaining wet microsites and providing favorable conditions across the landscape.



Interestingly, plots near the pad edges also saw some short-term saturation. This may allow submergence-tolerant mosses to dominate. 



Researchers noted that while prolonged flooding can reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/details-photosynthesis-water-viewed-atomic-level-cryo-microscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, it is less damaging than complete desiccation.



These microtopographic differences might ultimately support greater moss diversity by allowing multiple species to thrive in different niches. But the initial phase is critical. Without stable moisture early on, even hardy mosses can fail to establish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-moss-other-restoration-pathways">Beyond moss: Other restoration pathways</h2>



In some parts of the pad, especially where water tables dropped sharply, true mosses may not be the best candidates. 



These zones could instead support sedges like Carex and Scirpus species, which tolerate fluctuating moisture better. Introducing these plants might kickstart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-carbon-buried-deep-beneath-the-forest-is-disrupted-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic matter</a> buildup and improve soil water retention over time.



The idea is not to force every plot to become a moss-dominated peatland. Instead, researchers are exploring mixed strategies tailored to local conditions. 



Over decades, sedges could help transform dry mineral soils into suitable environments for future moss colonization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatland-restoration-requires-better-tools">Peatland restoration requires better tools</h2>



The study marks a turning point in how scientists approach restoration on former drilling sites. While the partial removal method shows promise, it works best when combined with other interventions. 



Adding organic matter, adjusting terrain slopes, or installing water flow conduits may improve moss survival rates in drier regions. Long-term monitoring remains essential. 



The researchers will continue studying how moss communities develop over time and whether introduced species can become self-sustaining. There’s also a need to refine water availability thresholds for different moss types to better guide future efforts.



This work reflects a growing understanding that restoration is not just about replanting vegetation. It’s about re-establishing the physical and hydrological foundations that ecosystems need to thrive.



-----



The full findings of this study are detailed in Hydrologic assessment of mineral substrate suitability for true moss initiation in a boreal peatland undergoing restoration, published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092585742500103X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Engineering</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Planting moss helps restore land damaged by oil and gas exploration

In western Canada’s wetlands, a quiet revolution is taking shape....

For decades, pterosaurs were cast as soaring shadows above the dinosaur-dominated world. These flying reptiles, icons of the Mesozoic skies, seemed distant from the muddy, grounded lives of their land-based cousins. 



But a new study from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> is challenging that image. Drawing on more than 160-million-year-old fossilized footprints, the researchers have made a significant breakthrough. These prints reveal a hidden side of pterosaur life - one where they walked, hunted, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrived</a> on solid ground.



Published in Current Biology, the study identifies the makers of ancient tracks once thought enigmatic. With 3D modeling, statistical analysis, and close anatomical comparisons, the team linked three distinct track types to specific pterosaur groups.



The findings open up a deeper understanding of how these animals moved and evolved, showing a major ecological shift during the mid-Mesozoic period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaurs-were-not-just-fliers">Pterosaurs were not just fliers</h2>



The popular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">view</a> of pterosaurs has long focused on their aerial prowess. 



They were seen as ocean-faring gliders or cliff-dwelling fliers, rarely imagined among swampy flats or dusty inland habitats. Preservation bias reinforced this picture - bones were often found in marine rocks, while trackways were rarer and harder to interpret.



But the new research confronts that bias. It shows that by the Middle Jurassic, some pterosaur groups had firmly established themselves on land. Quadrupedal walking was not just possible - it was a widespread and successful mode of movement.



“Footprints offer a unique opportunity to study pterosaurs in their natural environment. They reveal not only where these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> lived and how they moved, but also offer clues about their behavior and daily activities in ecosystems that have long since vanished,” noted lead author Robert Smyth, a doctoral researcher at the Centre for Palaeobiology and Biosphere Evolution, University of Leicester.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracks-tied-to-three-pterosaur-groups">Tracks tied to three pterosaur groups</h2>



The team identified three distinct footprint types, each linked to a major pterosaur clade: ctenochasmatoids, dsungaripterids, and neoazhdarchians. 



These prints vary in shape, size, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-bones-biomimicry-could-inspire-better-aircraft-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distribution</a>. Yet together, they illustrate a dramatic expansion of pterosaur diversity into land-based ecosystems during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.



Using both multivariate analysis and anatomical synapomorphies (shared traits), the team matched the fossil tracks with body fossils. Many of the prints retained fine details, such as joint pads, heel structures, and even traces of webbing between toes.



"Finally, 88 years after first discovering pterosaur tracks, we now know exactly who made them and how," said co-author Dr. David Unwin from the School of Museum Studies, University of Leicester.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-footprints-in-coastal-wetlands">Pterosaur footprints in coastal wetlands</h2>



Ctenochasmatoids, known for their elongated jaws and filter-feeding teeth, left the most abundant tracks. Their footprints are broad, triangular, and often display splayed metatarsals and impressions of webbing. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">features</a> suggest they walked with plantigrade feet and likely moved through shallow water environments, such as tidal flats and lagoons.



Their tracks are found in formations across Europe and North America and often occur in large numbers. This suggests these pterosaurs were not just visitors but key players in coastal ecosystems. 



The track features align with known skeletal remains of species like Ctenochasma elegans, which had long metatarsals and short toes ideal for walking in wet sediment.



Interestingly, these footprints show that metatarsal I was longer than the others - a rare trait among reptiles but common in ctenochasmatoids. This makes their tracks relatively easy to distinguish from those of crocodiles or other reptiles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-others-walked-along-lakes">Others walked along lakes</h2>



Found only in China’s Tugulu Group, dsungaripterid tracks are rarer but highly distinctive. These pterosaurs had powerful jaws with beak-like tips and large crushing teeth in the rear. 



Their tracks feature a short digit I and longer outer digits, forming a unique footprint shape that reflects their specialized foot anatomy.



These prints appear alongside skeletal remains of Dsungaripterus weii and Noripterus complicidens, supporting their identification. The sediment they walked on - fine-grained mudstones and sandstones - suggests they roamed deltaic and lakeshore environments.



The matching between tracks and bones in this case is unusually strong. It provides one of the clearest examples of a direct connection between movement traces and the animals that made them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neoazhdarchians-walked-the-land">Neoazhdarchians walked the land</h2>



Neoazhdarchians, which include giants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quetzalcoatlus</a>, left narrow, elongated tracks often showing deep, round heel impressions.



Their footprints appear across Asia, Africa, and the Americas. These animals had long legs and necks, suggesting they hunted like modern ground-foraging birds, perhaps stalking prey in open environments.



Unlike the aquatic habitats favored by other pterosaurs, neoazhdarchian tracks are found mostly in continental settings. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pterosaur_Balaeonognathus_steps_tracks_credit_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pterosaur_Balaeonognathus_steps_tracks_credit_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Pterosaur tracks meet their match. Where ancient footprints meet their maker. A side-by-side comparison of a pterosaur’s hand and foot with 155-million-year-old tracks from Wyoming, USA. The false-color depth map reveals the shape and pressure of each step, showing that these creatures bore more weight on their hands while walking. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1968081"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Pterosaur tracks meet their match. Where ancient footprints meet their maker. A side-by-side comparison of a pterosaur’s hand and foot with 155-million-year-old tracks from Wyoming, USA. The false-color depth map reveals the shape and pressure of each step, showing that these creatures bore more weight on their hands while walking. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



This includes plains, deserts, and dry riverbeds. Their stride patterns often match those of large dinosaurs, hinting at shared migration routes or similar responses to terrain.



These trackways typically lack deep impressions from the toes, suggesting that the feet had minimal soft padding and were adapted for efficient walking over firm ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaurs-footprints-tell-a-story">Pterosaurs footprints tell a story</h2>



Tracks are not just impressions in stone - they are records of action. They show how animals lived in their habitats, what surfaces they preferred, and sometimes even how they interacted with others. Unlike bones, which can be moved and broken, tracks stay where they were made.



This study confirms that the fossil track record can complement and even extend the fossil bone record. It fills gaps, clarifies behaviors, and adds context to the static images offered by skeletons.



"Tracks are often overlooked when studying pterosaurs, but they provide a wealth of information about how these creatures moved, behaved, and interacted with their environments," Smyth concludes. 



"By closely examining footprints, we can now discover things about their biology and ecology that we can't learn anywhere else."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-tracks-from-fliers">No tracks from fliers</h2>



One of the most striking findings is what isn’t there. Tracks from early pterosaurs - those before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/footprints-reveal-ancient-playground-for-giant-jurassic-dinosaurs-scottish-lagoon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middle Jurassic</a> - are entirely absent.



This supports the idea that these species were arboreal or scansorial, rarely walking on flat land. Their limbs and feet were poorly suited to ground movement, and they likely spent most of their lives in trees or cliffs.



Also missing are footprints from groups like tapejarids and pteranodontians. These pterosaurs, though well known from bones, appear poorly adapted to life on the ground. 



Their feet lacked the features seen in trackmakers, which may explain why their prints are absent from fossil surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-walking-changed-evolution">Land walking changed evolution</h2>



This track-based approach has revealed a major shift in pterosaur evolution. 



By the Middle Jurassic, the evolution of longer limbs and more stable feet allowed some pterosaurs to take advantage of ground-based habitats. They diversified and spread, becoming important members of land-based ecosystems.



The study shows that pterosaur terrestrial invasion was not a random occurrence. It was a structured expansion, involving specific clades with shared foot traits. These groups walked with purpose and left behind tracks that tell the story of their hidden lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-tracks-still-reveal">What tracks still reveal</h2>



As more footprints are discovered and linked to their makers, the image of pterosaurs continues to evolve. Far from being limited to flight, many were capable terrestrial animals that played vital roles in their environments.



This study not only repositions pterosaurs in the Mesozoic world - it also highlights the power of trace fossils to reveal secrets that bones alone can’t show. 



And perhaps most exciting of all, it suggests there’s much more to find - not just in the skies of prehistory, but in the ground beneath their feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00446-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pterosaur footprints discovery leads to surprising conclusion

For decades, pterosaurs were cast as soaring shadows above the...

Create a bird friendly oasis right in your backyard! Pagoda Bird Feeders feature multiple feeding levels to attract a variety of backyard birds. Read more Overview Natural Cedar Pagoda Bird Feeders feature a large capacity and multiple feeding levels to attract a wide variety of backyard birds, from native bird species to lively flocks of migratory songbirds. Makes a wonderful gift, especially for a couple or an entire family. Features & Benefits: Multi-level design - Attract and feed many birds at once with multiple tiers of seed trays. Bird friendly backyard - Perfect for chickadees, finches, nuthatches, grosbeaks, woodpeckers, jays, cardinals, juncos and more! Keeps seed dry - Hopper design and large roof keep seeds dry in wet weather. Easy to clean - With removable glass panels and slide-apart trays. Durable cedar - Naturally rot-resistant Oregon Cedar protected by a non-toxic waterproof sealant lasts season after season. No assembly required - Fully assembled and ready to hang from included steel cable. Free express shipping Made in the USA Size Options: 1-Story: 3.5 cups ($34.95) 1-Story Tall: 6 cups ($39.95) 2-Story: 7 cups ($48.95) 2-Story Tall: 9.5 cups ($55.95) 3-Story: 10.5 cups ($62.95) 3-Story Tall: 13 cups ($69.95) 4-Story: 14 cups ($76.95) 4-Story Tall: 16.5 cups ($83.95) 5-Story: 17.5 cups ($89.95) 5-Story Tall: 20 cups ($97.95) Larger bird feeders, with 3-5 levels, attract the most birds and provide the greatest seed capacity with less time refilling. Popular with social birds such as finches who like to sit and eat together. More solitary birds can find a spot of their own with so many seed levels. Smaller feeders, with 1-2 levels, are an easy way to start feeding wild birds. If the feeder becomes popular and overcrowded, you can add another feeder to allow space for more birds. In addition to the choice of levels, Pagoda Bird Feeders are available in regular and "tall" sizes. Tall bird feeders hold extra seed so the top tray stays full for longer. They are a good choice for feeders that get a lot of activity. How To Use: Pagoda bird feeders ship fully assembled and ready to hang from a tree branch, deck, fence, or the side of your house, so you can enjoy bird watching right outside your window. To fill the feeder, simply lift the roof and pour in birdseed to fill all levels. The bird feeder has removable glass panels and slide-apart trays, making it very easy to clean. The large curved roof and well-drained seed trays keep birdseed dry.

Natural Cedar Pagoda Bird Feeder

Create a bird friendly oasis right in your backyard! Pagoda...

These wool filled bed pillows are handmade with Premium Eco-Wool batting, and covered with organic cotton Sateen fabric. Available in a variety of sizes and three different thicknesses. Read more Overview These all-natural handmade pillows are soft and comfortable. The standard-size pillows are available in three thicknesses to suit your comfort level: Light Fill, Regular Fill, and Extra Thick. The Queen and King sizes come in Regular Fill only. Please note that your wool pillow will be very fluffy upon arrival, but will settle over time with the weight and heat of your head. This will not change the support and comfort the pillow provides. Expect about 30% compression. Features & Benefits: Premium Eco-Wool batting Organic cotton fabric cover Comes in a variety of sizes and thicknesses Machine washable (gentle with special instructions) Handmade in the USA Size Options: Standard (20" x 25") Light Fill 25 oz. wool Standard (20" x 25") Regular Fill 29 oz. wool Standard (20" x 25") Extra Thick 33 oz. wool Queen (20" x 30") Regular Fill 35 oz. wool King (20" x 36") Regular Fill 40 oz. wool How to choose the right pillow Light Fill: Recommended for children, and for people who sleep on their stomach Regular Fill: Recommended for people who sleep on their sides or their back. This is the most popular size. Extra Thick: Recommended for people who sleep on their sides or back.

Natural Wool Pillows

These wool filled bed pillows are handmade with Premium Eco-Wool...

Prized in Italian cooking, Oregano is one of the most flavorful culinary herbs. Our heirloom bamboo grow pot is durable, stronger than maple and completely handmade from all-natural materials. Read more Overview The components of our bamboo grow pots unite contemporary design with good stewardship of the earth's resources. Modular in purpose, the lacquered lid elegantly becomes the drainage saucer for the leak-proof grow pot. Bamboo is not a wood, but a species of grass. As the fastest growing plant on earth, it needs no replanting, grows without fertilizers or pesticides and can be harvested in 3-5 years. Each pot is hand-crafted and finished by skilled artisans. Modular by design, the lacquered lid elegantly inverts to become a saucer. The lid's lacquer finish is hand-applied and made entirely from all-natural materials. Pot measures 4" high x 3.5" diam. Includes soil wafers, seeds, and drainage material.

Oregano Grow Pot

Prized in Italian cooking, Oregano is one of the most...

This set of 3 reusable organic bags is perfect for the bulk foods section in the grocery store, or to bring to your local farmers market! Read more Overview Bring these reusable cotton bags to the bulk aisle at the grocery store. Perfect for holding all your favorite bulk foods: rice, grains, beans, nuts, pasta, dried fruit, coffee and more! When you get home you can transfer bulk food to containers and store the bags with your reusable shopping bags for the next trip. Features & Benefits: Set of three reusable bulk food bags Perfect for bulk items like nuts, beans and grains Eco-friendly alternative to plastic bulk bags Drawstring closure holds in vegetables and bulk foods Made from Oeko-tex + GOTS certified organic cotton hemp fabric Machine washable; hang dry Handmade in Canada Set Includes: 1 Small Bulk Bag: 5.5" x 9" (12g) 1 Medium Bulk Bag: 10" x 12" (23.5g) 1 Large Bulk Bag: 12" x 15" (37g) You will find many uses for these bags outside the grocery store as well. They are perfect for storing toiletries, travel goods, and other accessories. Care instructions: Machine wash or hand-wash in cold water with gentle soap, hang or dry on low temp, medium iron. Not pre-washed, please expect 1/8" inch shrinkage after washing.

Organic Bulk Bags Set of 3

This set of 3 reusable organic bags is perfect for...

With delicate white flowers and a sweet Narcissus fragrance, Paperwhites are easy to grow and bloom in 3-4 weeks. Enjoy an early spring with these fast and easy to grow blooms. Read more Few other flowers can match the graceful beauty of Narcissus. Their tall green leaves and stalks give way to beautiful white blooms that top each stem. These elegant flowering bulbs looks perfect in their white steel box. Makes for a simple and lasting gift to brighten up any home this winter. Features & Benefits: Complete kit to grow your own paperwhites (Narcissus tazetta) Includes 5 paperwhites bulbs, soil-less growing medium, recycled US steel box (lid inverts for saucer), directions Bulb box measures 5.25 high x 10 diameter Made in the USA How To Use: Paperwhites are easy to grow indoors and can be planted throughout fall and winter. Simply add the soil-less growing medium and bulbs to the steel bulb box, add water, and place in a bright spot in your home.

Paperwhites Bulb Box

With delicate white flowers and a sweet Narcissus fragrance, Paperwhites...

With delicate white flowers and a sweet Narcissus fragrance, Paperwhites are easy to grow and bloom in 3 to 4 weeks. Read more Overview Few other flowers can match the graceful beauty of Narcissus. Their tall stems give way to fragrant white blooms. This beautiful flowering bulb looks perfect in its upcycled wine bottle. Makes for a simple and lasting gift to brighten up any home this winter. Features & Benefits: Complete kit to grow your own paperwhite flowers (Narcissus tazetta) Includes bulb, organic growing medium, bottle, cork coaster, directions Made from recycled restaurant wine bottles Bottle measures 5.5" high x 3" wide Made in the USA How To Use: Paperwhites are easy to grow indoors and can be planted throughout fall and winter. Simply add the organic growing medium and bulb to the grow bottle, add water, and place in a bright spot, such as a windowsill. Growing paperwhites in this repurposed wine bottle looks beautiful and provides support as the plant grows taller.

Paperwhites Grow Bottle

Flexible, non-stick drying sheet for dehydrating fruit leathers, rollups, taffies, granola bars, dried sauces, and more. Specially designed for 5 tray and 9 tray Excalibur dehydrators. Read more Overview With ParaFlexx drying sheets you can turn liquids and purees into fruit leathers, rollups, dried sauces, and taffies. ParaFlexx sheets make excellent non-stick cookie sheet liners. Safe up to 500Adeg F for baking. Features & Benefits: Non-stick drying sheets ideal for dehydrating sticky or liquid foods Also use for baking as a non-stick cookie sheet liner Use with 5-tray and 9-tray Excalibur dehydrators Reusable for years Easy to clean

ParaFlexx Premium Non-Stick Drying Sheet

Flexible, non-stick drying sheet for dehydrating fruit leathers, rollups, taffies,...

A complete kit to grow your own beautiful holiday amaryllis in a handcrafted bamboo grow box. Read more Overview This grow-at-home Peppermint Amaryllis has large trumpet-shaped flowers bearing red and white stripes with beautiful deep green leaves. This amaryllis is easy to grow and it will hold its blooms well through the holidays. It grows in a handcrafted bamboo pot. Complete kit includes everything you need to grow your own holiday amaryllis. Kit Includes: Amaryllis bulb (Amaryllis hippeastrum) Handcrafted bamboo grow box Lid with all-natural finish inverts to become a drainage saucer Decorative ribbon made from recycled plastic bottles Organic growing medium Coconut husks for drainage Growing instructions Bamboo pot is 10 inches in diameter and 5.25 inches high. Made in the USA.

Peppermint Amaryllis Bamboo Grow Box

A complete kit to grow your own beautiful holiday amaryllis...