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Many people still believe that building muscle means living at the gym and constantly training. Fresh evidence shows that it's not quite that time-consuming.



The evidence comes from an eight‑week trial led by exercise scientist <a href="https://www.lehman.edu/academics/health-human-services-nursing/exercise-sciences-recreation/bradley-schoenfeld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brad Schoenfeld</a> of <a href="https://www.lehman.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lehman College</a>, whose team asked healthy lifters to finish one demanding set of nine classic moves twice a week.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-training-minutes">Muscle training minutes</h2>



A muscle grows when stress outweighs its usual workload, a chain that starts with mechanical tension and metabolic stress, then ends with more contractile proteins. Short sessions that reach high effort check all those boxes, even if the calendar space is small.



Public health agencies already <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-basics/guidelines/adults.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tell</a> adults to hit two days of resistance work, yet fewer than one in four Americans manage the target. Shaving sessions to thirty minutes lowers the barrier without watering down the stimulus.



A 2022 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30153194/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meta‑analysis</a> on trained men and women reported that just three weekly thirteen‑minute bouts raised strength almost as much as forty‑minute routines when total effort matched. In other words, quality can beat quantity if each rep counts.



Schoenfeld’s experiment now confirms the principle over a longer eight‑week window and in a mixed‑sex sample. That widens the practical appeal beyond seasoned bodybuilders.



Cells respond to energy shortages created by <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10801605/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense contractions</a> by releasing adenosine monophosphate–activated protein kinase, a switch that boosts glucose uptake and supports muscle repair. Hitting that threshold does not require marathon workouts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-study-measured">What the study measured</h2>



Forty‑two volunteers rotated through a lat pull‑down, seated row, shoulder press, chest press, triceps push‑down, supinated curl, Smith‑machine squat, leg press, and leg extension. Each visit lasted thirty minutes including brief warm‑ups and one‑minute rest periods.



Researchers used ultrasound to gauge thickness in the biceps, triceps, and quadriceps before and after the program. Strength, jump height, and endurance were also tested to see whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-fuels-neuron-growth-through-muscle-signals/">muscles</a> not only grew but performed better.



Half the group lifted until they could not complete another strict repetition, a strategy known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-training-shields-the-aging-brain-from-dementia/">training</a> to failure. The other half stopped two reps short, counting repetitions in reserve as a safety buffer for joints and nerves.



“In our study, the workouts were sufficiently hard to challenge the participants’ muscles beyond their present capacity,” said Schoenfeld. 



Both muscle training strategies enlarged muscle fibers to a similar degree, supporting earlier <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30558493/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> showing that frequency and intensity make only small differences once weekly volume matches. 



A follow‑up analysis found that participants improved their ability to guess how many reps they had left, a skill that lets lifters train hard while avoiding form breakdown. That insight could help gym‑goers monitor effort without fancy devices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-training-to-failure-vs-holding-back">Muscle training to failure vs holding back</h2>



Going to failure did provide a slight boost in vertical jump power, hinting that maximum effort might recruit more fast‑twitch fibers. 



A 2021 systematic <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33497853/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> echoed that idea but found little extra benefit for arm or leg size when sets finished one or two reps shy.



“By shortening the recovery time, it drives up metabolic stress,” noted <a href="https://publichealth.buffalo.edu/exercise-and-nutrition-sciences/faculty-and-staff/faculty-directory/lpryor.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Pryor</a>, clinical associate professor of exercise and nutrition sciences at the <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University at Buffalo</a>. 



Metabolic by‑products like lactate and hydrogen ions may act as growth signals when they accumulate quickly.



Another <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8884877/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> from 2023 concluded that training frequency between one and three times per week yields comparable hypertrophy if the total number of quality sets is constant. 



That means busy professionals can cluster their lifts into two focused sessions and still progress.



Athletes chasing power for sprinting or jumping might sprinkle a third day of explosive work. Recreational lifters, however, can choose the schedule that fits job and family demands without fearing slower results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-training-for-time-pressed-people">Muscle training for time‑pressed people</h2>



Select compound patterns such as squats, deadlifts, pushups, rows, and pullups, because they rally multiple joints and force the body to use more weight. Keep rests shorter than two minutes to maintain the thirty‑minute ceiling.



“I repeat this often: It doesn’t have to be the most to have a benefit,” said <a href="https://sohostrengthlab.com/bios/albert-matheny/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Albert Matheny, RD, CSCS</a>, co‑founder of <a href="https://sohostrengthlab.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SoHo Strength Lab</a>. Starting light lets newcomers learn form while still nudging muscles in the right direction.



<a href="https://frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2021.789403/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evidence</a> from 2022 shows that even two thirteen‑minute workouts can raise lean mass if they reach a hard effort, an encouraging benchmark for people who dread long sessions. Once technique improves, individuals can add a warm‑up set or increase load to keep progress steady.



Strength work does more than shape arms. It preserves bone density, raises insulin sensitivity, and helps older adults stay independent. 



The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-basics/adding-adults/what-counts.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a> lists reduced anxiety, better sleep, and a lower risk of chronic disease among the bonuses of regular resistance training. Those benefits kick in long before a mirror shows new definition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-that-remain">Questions that remain</h2>



The present study used mostly machine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resistance-exercise-may-be-the-secret-to-relieving-depression/">exercises</a>, which guide motion and reduce stabilizer demand. Future trials will need to confirm whether free‑weight circuits of equal length give the same payoff.



The sample averaged twenty‑seven years old and had at least a year of lifting experience. Researchers will test the protocol in beginners and older adults, groups who often struggle to meet activity guidelines.



Scientists also want to track hormones like testosterone and growth hormone during such brief workouts, along with markers of satellite cell activation. Those data could explain why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-grapes-every-day-can-transform-your-muscles/">muscles</a> adapt faster than others.



For now, the simplest plan stands: warm up, pick nine movements that cover the whole body, perform eight to ten deliberate reps, and close the gym bag after thirty minutes. Consistency beats elaborate programming when the clock is tight.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/abstract/9900/without_fail__muscular_adaptations_in_single_set.782.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</a>.



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Study learns the exact amount of time you should train to build muscle

Many people still believe that building muscle means living at...

From bright planets to a mythological bird soaring among the stars, July 2025 has an exciting show lined up in the night sky.&nbsp;



NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/skywatching/whats-up/">JPL</a>) has shared its skywatching highlights - revealing what to be on the lookout for this month, from sunset to sunrise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-in-motion">Planets in motion</h2>



Venus reigns in the morning sky all month, shining brightly in the east during the hours before sunrise. Look for it near the Pleiades star cluster and two brilliant stars - Aldebaran and Capella.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-lost-most-of-its-water-but-where-did-it-go/">Mars</a> is visible in the western sky shortly after sunset, glowing about 20 degrees above the horizon before it sets a couple of hours later. On July 28, it forms a striking pair with the crescent Moon.



Jupiter begins to climb into the morning sky after mid-month. Initially low on the eastern horizon, it rises higher each day, heading toward a dramatic August conjunction with Venus.



Mercury is visible only briefly - watch for it in the west during the first week of July, beginning about 30 to 45 minutes after sunset. It stays close to the horizon and sets quickly, so timing and a clear view are key.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-energy-imbalance-discovered-on-saturn/">Saturn</a> makes its entrance around midnight and climbs high in the southern sky by dawn - offering a glimpse of the planet for early risers.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/SQu8utmfOQk?si=IG-nb7ithbJF3vQD
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">What are some skywatching highlights in July 2025? Look for Mars in the evening, Venus and Jupiter in the morning, and find the eagle constellation, Aquila, soaring overhead.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-first-successful-mars-mission">The first successful Mars mission</h2>



July 2025 marks the 60th anniversary of NASA’s Mariner 4 mission, which performed the first successful Mars flyby in 1965. 



The spacecraft sent back the first close-up images of the Martian surface and revealed that the planet’s atmosphere was thin, cold, and not as Earth-like as once imagined.&nbsp;



Before Mariner 4, many scientists and the public still held out hope that Mars might resemble a second Earth - perhaps even supporting vegetation or signs of life.&nbsp;



However, the grainy black-and-white images, showing a cratered, barren landscape, were a sobering reality check that reshaped our understanding of the Red Planet.



Despite dashing earlier hopes, Mariner 4 paved the way for decades of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-collapse-why-did-mars-become-a-desert/">Mars</a> exploration. It was the first time humans had seen another planet up close. The mission proved that long-distance robotic exploration was not only possible, but essential.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotting-aquila-in-the-july-sky">Spotting Aquila in the July sky</h2>



July is also the ideal time to view Aquila, the Eagle constellation, in the eastern sky during the first half of the night. Its brightest star, Altair, is easy to spot and forms part of the Summer Triangle, along with Vega and Deneb.



Aquila represents the eagle of Zeus in Greek mythology - a powerful messenger and symbol of divine strength. 



Altair marks the eagle’s heart, with its wings stretching wide across the night sky. To find it, look for the triangle-shaped pattern and note that Altair sits at the southern point.



While Aquila’s other stars aren’t as bright, they’re easier to trace under dark skies. The second half of July is especially good for observing this constellation, as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/">Moon</a> rises later and leaves the early night sky darker.



For those in the Northern Hemisphere, Aquila is a summer favorite. Once you’ve located Altair, try to follow the eagle’s full wingspan across the sky. It appears to fly northward with its wings outstretched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-dates-for-july-skywatching-nbsp">Key dates for July skywatching&nbsp;</h2>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>July 1–7: Mercury is bright and easy to spot in the west after sunset - if you catch it in time. It vanishes within an hour of sundown.</li>



<li>July 21–22: Look east before sunrise to see Venus and Jupiter joined by a crescent Moon, along with several bright stars.</li>



<li>July 28: In the evening sky, the Moon passes close to Mars, offering a beautiful pairing.</li>
</ul>



Whether you’re watching Mars fade into the west or spotting Venus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-past-how-the-young-gas-giant-shaped-our-solar-system/">Jupiter</a> at dawn, July will be a rewarding month to keep an eye on the sky.&nbsp;



NASA’s monthly “What’s Up” guide helps us stay connected to the ever-changing night sky. To explore more about NASA’s space missions and skywatching tools, visit <a href="https://science.nasa.gov">science.nasa.gov</a>.



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July 2025 skywatching: Bright planets and a summer constellation 

From bright planets to a mythological bird soaring among the...

Farming in ways that support nature can pay off - not just for the environment, but for crops too. That’s the takeaway from a new study that tested how different methods of agroecological farming perform on real working farms in England. 



The study showed that adding simple nature-friendly features like wildflower margins and organic matter improved biodiversity and led to stronger crop performance.



But there’s a catch: to make these methods financially viable on a large scale, many farmers may need more government support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-farms-real-results">Real farms, real results</h2>



The research team, based at the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> and Rothamsted Research, ran a four-year study across 17 commercial farms in southern England. This was the first time anyone tested both the ecological and financial impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-is-good-for-farmers-well-being/">agroecological</a> practices at this scale in the UK.



The researchers didn’t just run lab trials. The researchers partnered directly with farmers to design and carry out real-world experiments, testing three types of farming systems side by side.



The first was a business-as-usual approach, using standard intensive methods without any nature-friendly additions. 



The second, called the enhanced ecological system, introduced wildflower field margins to support pollinators and other beneficial insects, along with overwinter cover crops to protect and enrich the soil. 



The third was the maximized ecological system, which built on the enhanced version by adding wildflower strips within the fields - essentially creating insect “runways” - and using farmyard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-byproducts-and-manure-used-to-increase-crop-yields/">manure</a> to improve soil health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-bugs-better-soil-higher-yields">More bugs, better soil, higher yields</h2>



The results were clear. The farms that adopted enhanced or maximized ecological methods saw an increase in beneficial species. 



Earthworms, bees, hoverflies, ladybirds, spiders, and lacewings were all more abundant. These helped reduce crop pests like aphids and snails.



That’s not all. The flowering crops - like oilseed rape - produced more seeds thanks to better pollination. The soils held more carbon. And overall, the yields went up.



Even with a little land taken out of production to make room for habitats, the gains in crop health and pollination made a difference. The enhanced ecological system was just as profitable as conventional farming - but only because of current government subsidies.



The maximized system delivered even stronger environmental and yield benefits. But it was more expensive to implement. 



Without more support, most farms would not find it financially competitive. Some farms, especially mixed ones that already have manure on hand, might fare better. But others would struggle without extra help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profit-meets-sustainability">Profit meets sustainability</h2>



Dr. Ben Woodcock, one of the study’s lead scientists from the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology, elaborated on the research.



“Without the introduction of new financial incentives, many farmers will be deterred from adopting agroecological farming practices and systems. This could leave them locked into high input, intensive farming systems and more exposed to the impacts of pesticide resistance, declining soil health and climate change."



According to Dr. Woodcock, while farmers run businesses that need to be profitable, there is an increasing awareness that more sustainable systems can help "future-proof" their farms in terms of soil health, less reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticides</a> and climate change.



“Agroecological methods are good for biodiversity, food security, and, in the long-term, provide more secure farm incomes but habitats can take several years to establish, so agri-environment subsidies are essential to helping farmers transition to these more sustainable systems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-support-for-greener-farming">Support for greener farming</h2>



The researchers believe that showcasing these successful results could help convince more farmers to make the switch. It’s about breaking the cycle of intensive practices that keep farms dependent on chemical inputs and vulnerable to environmental changes.



Professor Jonathan Storkey, an ecologist at Rothamsted Research, said the study confirmed that managing land on farms for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-for-wildlife-how-traditional-practices-can-protect-nature/">wildlife</a> is not in direct conflict with food security but can support sustainable production by increasing yields and reducing pest pressure. 



"These ‘ecosystem services’ could potentially substitute for chemical fertilizers and pesticides which negatively impact the environment," said Professor Storkey. 



“However, our analysis has shown that realizing these benefits will require additional support for farm businesses that currently operate on very narrow profit margins. As input costs increase, however, these agroecological approaches may become more attractive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-makes-a-difference">Training makes a difference</h2>



The quality of nature-friendly measures also depends on how well they’re implemented, and training helps.



Earlier research from the UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology showed that when farmers receive proper guidance on creating and managing wildlife habitats, those habitats do a much better job of supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pollinators-boost-the-nutritional-value-of-crops/">pollinators</a> and pest-controlling insects.



Field margins and wildflower strips may seem like simple changes, but getting them right requires different thinking than managing crops. The better these habitats are planned and maintained, the more they deliver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-green-nationwide">Growing green, nationwide</h2>



Nature-friendly farming isn’t just about doing good for the environment - it can also help farms thrive. But making the switch isn’t free, and for many farmers, the numbers have to work. 



That’s where targeted subsidies and support come in. The research shows what’s possible. Now, the question is how to make it doable for more farms across the country.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70079">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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Eco-friendly farms can succeed - but they need support

Farming in ways that support nature can pay off -...

Music can make a sleepy train ride feel romantic or turn a routine workout into an emotional burst of energy. 



Scientists have long wondered how a string of notes pushes the brain from one emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/">feeling</a> to the next, and why the experience changes when the previous feeling was different. <a href="https://psychology.columbia.edu/content/matthew-sachs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matthew Sachs</a> of Columbia University and colleagues set out to <a href="https://www.eneuro.org/content/early/2025/06/19/ENEURO.0184-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">answer</a> that puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wordless-path-to-emotion">A wordless path to emotion</h2>



Music reliably raises specific <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32898679/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions</a> across cultures, making it a useful tool for lab work. Because melodies lack words, researchers can study pure feeling without the baggage of stories or language.



In recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1910704117" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surveys</a>, listeners reported at least thirteen distinct emotional colors from songs, ranging from awe to tenderness. Those varied reactions let scientists choreograph controlled “emotional journeys” by arranging passages that lean happy, tense, calm, or sad.



The brain also treats music as a social signal, recruiting regions tied to empathy and perspective‑taking. That overlap makes findings with music relevant to understanding everyday interactions. 



Music’s precise timing helps investigators lock brain activity to exact seconds in a tune. Such temporal precision is important when studying transitions, which can unfold in a blink.



Finally, unlike pictures or movies, songs can be replayed in multiple orders without breaking logic. That flexibility allowed the team to test how a given passage feels when it follows joy versus when it follows anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-changes-emotion-fast">Music changes emotion fast</h2>



Sachs’s group asked professional composers to craft two fifteen‑minute pieces split into thirty‑two “emotion events,” each one lasting about 30‑70 seconds. The passages covered calm, joy, sadness, anxiety, and a mixed nostalgic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-connects-people-emotionally-and-physically/">feeling</a>.



Two versions of each piece shuffled the same events so that a joyful segment might follow calm in one version but chase sadness in the other. 



This context swap let the researchers isolate the effect of prior mood. Thirty‑nine volunteers lay in an <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diagnostics/25034-functional-mri-fmri" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fMRI scanner</a>, a technique that tracks blood flow as a stand‑in for neural activity. The scanner’s pulses were timed to the beat so listeners heard smooth audio through special headphones.



After scanning, the volunteers replayed short clips of music online and rated how strongly each clip made them feel the target emotion. Those ratings confirmed that the music hit its emotional marks at the intended moments.



To align brains that never look identical, the team used a <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/A.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hidden Markov model</a>, a statistical tool that spots stable patterns and the moments they shift. The model does not assume equal event lengths, matching how real feelings vary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-mapped-onto-brain-activity">Music mapped onto brain activity</h2>



Activity patterns in auditory cortex and the adjoining superior temporal gyrus stayed steady within an event but flipped sharply at composer‑defined boundaries. Those flips still appeared after factoring out pitch, volume, and harmony, meaning the brain was tracking emotion rather than mere <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-and-repeated-sounds-reorganize-your-brain-networks-in-real-time/">acoustics</a>.



The same temporal‑parietal strip has been linked to social meaning in speech and laughter. Current <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627317305937" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> add music‑evoked emotion dynamics to its résumé. 



Elsewhere, frontal regions associated with self‑reflection lit up when feelings changed. That response supports prior work showing prefrontal roles in labeling and regulating emotion.



Importantly, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2768874/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subcortical reward hubs</a> showed general arousal but did not map fine‑grained transitions. Those areas may mark intensity rather than shifts in category. 



Together the data sketch a layered system: auditory regions sense change, temporal‑parietal regions label the new state, and frontal areas integrate the experience. That hierarchy resembles proposed models for narrative comprehension.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-emotions-change-how-you-hear-music">Past emotions change how you hear music</h2>



When a happy passage followed another positive passage, listeners’ brains switched to the new state about six seconds sooner than when the same passage followed a tense one. The volunteers also pressed the “happy” button nine seconds earlier in the same‑valence condition.



Context even changed the spatial pattern of activity during an event. Pairs of participants who heard a clip in the same order showed more similar neural signatures than pairs who heard it in opposite orders.



Such carry‑over echoes psychological <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31628982/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> that earlier feelings bias how we perceive later stimuli. The study quantifies that bias down to single‑second resolution. 



Researchers call the stickiness of mood <a href="https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/0269-8803.23.1.7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">valence</a> persistence, and extreme persistence can tip into emotional rigidity. Depression is often marked by this rigidity, trapping individuals in negative states.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treating-emotion-with-playlists">Treating emotion with playlists</h2>



“We know that people who suffer from mood disorders or depression often demonstrate emotional rigidity, where they basically get stuck in an emotional state" said Sachs. 



"Maybe we could take someone with depression, for instance, and use the approach we developed to identify neural markers for the emotional rigidity that keeps them in a very negative state.”



His comment matches growing interest in music‑based interventions. Unlike medications, playlists can be tailored rapidly and have few side effects. 



If clinicians can spot delayed transition signatures in vulnerable patients, they might train quicker shifts through neurofeedback. Past <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19646532/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> shows that people can learn to nudge targeted brain regions with real‑time feedback.



Therapists already use mood‑tracking apps; adding objective brain markers could improve accuracy. Personalized “emotion workouts” might teach flexible switching, similar to cognitive training for attention.



 Beyond clinics, the findings could improve soundtracks in virtual reality or adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-games-can-rewind-the-clock-on-cognitive-performance/">games</a>. Systems might adjust musical cues to help users linger in, or exit from, certain feelings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-science-hasn-t-tested-yet">What science hasn’t tested yet</h2>



The study focused on adults in a scanner; children, musicians, or people with disorders may show different timelines. Future projects could compare those groups directly.&nbsp;



Only five emotion labels were used. Real life holds many blended states such as awe or envy that might map differently. Subcortical areas did not show clear transition patterns here, but that may reflect scanner noise or event length.&nbsp;



Higher‑resolution recordings could reveal subtler dynamics. Music is just one trigger; spoken stories, movement, or smell might drive other networks. 



Combining modalities could pinpoint common versus unique pathways. Finally, the team manipulated valence but not arousal. Experiments that cross calm‑excited levels might tease apart the role of energy versus positivity.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.eneuro.org/content/early/2025/06/19/ENEURO.0184-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eNeuro</a>.



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Music rewires the brain to quickly navigate emotion

Music can make a sleepy train ride feel romantic or...

For nearly a century, brominated vegetable oil - better known as BVO - helped keep that sharp, zesty taste of citrus-flavored sodas evenly distributed from the first sip to the last. 



Most shoppers never noticed the name on ingredient lists, and few paused to wonder why a cooking oil had been blended with <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Bromine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bromine</a>, a heavy chemical element more often associated with pool disinfectants than with beverages.



Over the past year, though, BVO has moved from obscurity into the spotlight. New toxicology studies forced the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (<a href="https://www.fda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a>) to take a hard second look at an additive it once allowed at up to 15 parts per million. 



The agency’s verdict set off a countdown: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soda-taxes-actually-work-improving-both-health-and-mindset/">all sodas</a> sold after August 2, 2025, must be BVO-free, shutting the door on a substance that first slipped into fizz back in the 1930s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citrus-sodas-and-bvo">Citrus sodas and BVO</h2>



Public worries about <a href="https://cris.msu.edu/news/trending/trending-brominated-vegetable-oil-bvo/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brominated vegetable oil</a> started decades ago, when researchers spotted bromine accumulating in human tissue samples taken in the United Kingdom during the 1970s. Animal studies soon linked high BVO intakes with heart and behavioral problems. 



Even so, the FDA kept the ingredient on a short leash rather than banning it outright, capping concentrations and labeling it “interim” while scientists gathered more data. The arrangement limped along for half a century.



Fresh evidence tipped the scale. A 90-day study funded by the FDA and the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>) tracked rats fed diets ranging from zero to high levels of BVO. 



Bromine not only flooded their bloodstreams but also settled in the heart, liver, and body fat. Thyroid cells enlarged, thyroid-stimulating hormone climbed, and T4 hormone dipped, hinting at metabolic trouble ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-brominated-oils-raised-alarms">Why brominated oils raised alarms</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-seafood-helps-children-develop-better-social-behaviors/">Thyroid shifts</a> matter because that small gland choreographs energy levels, growth, and mood. When bromine crowds out iodine - its chemical cousin - hormone production stumbles. 



Researchers worry that even subtle, long-term interference could nudge people toward weight gain, sluggishness, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unhealthy-diet-leaves-brain-feeling-foggy-frazzled-sad/">brain fog</a>. 



Because bromine accumulates rather than being flushed straight through, the risk grows the longer someone drinks BVO-laced sodas.



Most major brands ditched BVO years ago. PepsiCo pulled it from Gatorade in 2013 and from Mountain Dew soon after. Coca-Cola quietly reformulated Fanta and Powerade. 



Yet store-brand and regional citrus sodas sometimes clung to the old recipe. In mid-2024, Keurig Dr. Pepper still listed BVO in Sun Drop, though the company pledged to roll out a new formula before year’s end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fda-ruling-s-impact-on-bvo-sodas">FDA ruling's impact on BVO sodas</h2>



<a href="https://foodsafety.gwu.edu/jim-jones">James Jones</a>, deputy commissioner for human foods, summed up the agency’s thinking: “The proposed action is an example of how the agency monitors emerging evidence and, as needed, conducts scientific research to investigate safety-related questions, and takes regulatory action when the science does not support the continued safe use of additives in foods.” 



The final rule arrived on July 3, 2024, and became effective a month later, with a one-year grace period to drain warehouses and reset production lines.



Between now and August 2, 2025, shoppers can still run into cans made before the deadline. 



The safest approach is old-fashioned label reading - look for “brominated vegetable oil” or “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0300483X76900512" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brominated soybean oil</a>.” After that date, any product that still lists the additive will be pulled from shelves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-beverage-makers-responded">How beverage makers responded</h2>



For companies, swapping out BVO meant finding other ways to keep citrus oils suspended. Many turned to ingredients already common in European and Japanese drinks, where BVO has been banned for years. 



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278691597803055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sucrose acetate isobutyrate</a> and glycerol ester of wood rosin (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7009419/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEWR</a>) emerged as the go-to solutions; both create a dense phase that marries well with fruit oils without relying on bromine. 



Because the substitutes have long safety records abroad, the transition proved smoother than earlier label rewrites involving artificial dyes.



Retailers responded in parallel. National grocery chains began flagging private-label SKUs that needed reformulation, giving suppliers early notice. 



Craft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-processed-foods-like-soda-and-snacks-are-the-new-silent-killer/">soda makers</a>, eager to stand out in a crowded aisle, advertised “BVO-free” right on the front of the bottle, turning regulatory compliance into a selling point.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-science-says-about-bvo">What science says about BVO</h2>



Several studies over the years had very similar results. Bromine lodged in organs after only three months, a blip compared with human drinking habits that can stretch across decades. 



The thyroid, sensitive to iodine balance, responded quickly. Researchers did not observe tumors or acute poisoning, but the hormonal disruptions alone convinced regulators that routine consumption no longer passed the sniff test.



Back in the 1950s, the FDA first labeled BVO “<a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/generally-recognized-safe-gras" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">generally recognized as safe</a>,” largely because citrus sodas were already popular. 



By 1970, the agency had reversed its stance, restricting use to citrus drinks and setting the 15-parts-per-million ceiling. Subsequent studies, including one published on May 16, 2022, in Food and Chemical Toxicology, kept adding red flags. 



Taken together, the evidence portrays a slow-burn risk rather than an immediate hazard - yet that is exactly the kind of threat public health agencies try to prevent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-the-u-s-food-code">Changes in the U.S. food code</h2>



The BVO saga hints at future shake-ups in the U.S. food code. The FDA is reassessing a roster of additives, with an eye toward automatic bans on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-five-packaged-foods-in-the-u-s-contains-synthetic-dyes/">colorants that cause cancer</a> in animals. 



Speeding up that process would spare consumers from the long twilight period BVO endured. 



For beverage developers, the lesson is clear: lean on ingredients with global acceptance, and keep an eye on toxicology journals as closely as on flavor-trend reports.



By August 2025, American citrus sodas will taste the same to most palates, but the chemistry behind that flavor will have changed. 



With no more swimming pool disinfectants like bromine in your beverages, the drink industry inches toward simpler, more transparent labels - something shoppers have been thirsting for as much as the fizz itself.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278691522003350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food and Chemical Toxicity</a>.



Read the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/brominated-vegetable-oil-bvo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The U.S. FDA ruling on BVO</a>.



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FDA ban on highly toxic soda ingredient finally goes into effect this month

For nearly a century, brominated vegetable oil - better known...

Far below the ocean’s surface, the Great Barrier Reef hums with life. It is not just about colorful fish or vibrant corals. Something else is happening that we cannot see.



Tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">coral</a> larvae drift in the currents, carried away from their parents. Some travel far and some barely move at all. Where these larvae end up can decide the fate of entire reefs.



Now, scientists from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> have unlocked a key mystery. Their new study shows how far these baby corals can go. The research also reveals why this matters more than we ever realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-coral-babies-survive">Why some coral babies survive</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">Corals</a> are under pressure. Heatwaves damage them. Storms cause destruction. Oceans keep getting more acidic. Each year, the risk becomes worse. But not all corals are affected equally. PhD candidate Zoe Meziere explained why some reefs survive better than others.



“Quantifying genetic connectivity can predict the fate of populations as more isolated reefs with lower levels of genetic variation are likely more vulnerable,” said Meziere.



When coral species spread their larvae far, they swap genetic material with distant reefs. This boosts their ability to adapt and recover. Corals that keep their offspring close face greater risks. They may struggle to bounce back after disasters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-species-take-different-paths">Coral species take different paths</h2>



Meziere and her team searched for answers. They focused on two coral species found across the Great Barrier Reef, Stylophora pistillata and Pocillopora verrucosa.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-how-humans-completely-changed-caribbean-reef-ecosystems/">species</a> live near each other, but their ways of reproducing could not be more different. Stylophora pistillata plays it safe. It fertilizes its eggs internally. Its larvae do not venture far. Most settle nearby, just meters from their parent colony.



Pocillopora verrucosa does the opposite. It releases eggs and sperm into the sea. Currents carry its larvae far from home.



The results surprised the researchers. Stylophora pistillata larvae traveled only 23 to 102 meters. Pocillopora verrucosa larvae journeyed as far as 52 kilometers.



Professor Cynthia Riginos noted that this is the first study to quantify how connected different coral populations are across the seascape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-journey-of-baby-corals-matters">Why the journey of baby corals matters</h2>



The story does not stop with distance. These differences shape the future of coral populations.



Stylophora pistillata stays close to home. It forms small, tight populations. Over time, these groups grow isolated. They lose genetic diversity. That leaves them vulnerable. Pocillopora verrucosa travels widely. It links distant populations. This mixing keeps its populations strong and diverse.



“Over time, these differences have profound evolutionary impacts with S. pistillata populations being more genetically distinctive with much lower genetic diversity and smaller population sizes than the more widely dispersing P. verrucosa,” explained Professor Riginos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-baby-corals-travel">Where baby corals travel</h2>



The research team did not stop after measuring dispersal. They looked deeper into the genetic maps.



Stylophora pistillata stayed loyal to its local area. Its genetic patterns showed clear boundaries between reefs. Neighboring reefs looked genetically distinct. 



Pocillopora verrucosa showed no such boundaries. Its populations mixed freely throughout the reef. From one end to another, its genetics stayed consistent.



S. pistillata’s world spanned just a few hundred meters, while P. verrucosa’s world stretched across tens of kilometers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-survival-and-recovery">Coral survival and recovery</h2>



Distance is only part of the story. Gene flow also plays a big role. S. pistillata had weak gene flow. Its reefs relied mostly on themselves. This isolation put them at risk. One disaster could wipe out an entire population with no outside help.



P. verrucosa showed strong gene flow, as distant reefs shared genes often. This flow allowed for faster recovery after disasters.



This means that Pocillopora verrucosa can bounce back after bleaching far more quickly than Stylophora pistillata.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-coral-babies-stay-stronger">Some coral babies stay stronger</h2>



Genetic diversity matters for survival. The researchers found striking differences here too.



Stylophora pistillata had low genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">diversity</a>. Its diversity also varied wildly between reefs. The lowest levels appeared in southern parts of the Great Barrier Reef.



Pocillopora verrucosa held onto high diversity. Its genetic richness stayed stable across all reefs. S. pistillata lives in a fragile world, and P. verrucosa thrives in a far more connected one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-conservation-for-corals">Smarter conservation for corals</h2>



The research offers a clear message for coral conservation efforts. Stylophora pistillata needs focused, local protection. Efforts must center on preserving nearby populations. Without these, this species faces collapse.



Pocillopora verrucosa calls for a broader approach. Large-scale conservation networks can help maintain its natural strength.



"Dispersal and connectivity are important drivers of coral adaptation, and being able to adapt is key to having healthy coral reefs in the future,” said Meziere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-reef-restoration">New approach to reef restoration</h2>



Coral restoration should not follow a one-size-fits-all model. Stylophora pistillata may benefit from assisted migration. Moving larvae or adult corals from healthy reefs to damaged ones could restore genetic diversity. 



However, such moves must be done carefully. Forcing new genes into a delicate reef might cause new problems.



Pocillopora verrucosa already benefits from strong natural connections. Protecting these migration routes may be enough.



Each coral species has its own needs. These needs are not the same. Conservation efforts should focus on these differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-for-coral-conservation">New insights for coral conservation </h2>



Coral reefs have an uncertain future. Their survival depends on how well we understand and protect the hidden connections between them.



The study, funded by the Australian Government’s Reef Trust and the Great Barrier Reef Foundation, brings new insights to reef science.



The research makes one thing clear: not all corals are the same. Some need protection close to home, while others depend on far-reaching connections. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2066" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Reef survival may depend on how far baby corals travel

Far below the ocean’s surface, the Great Barrier Reef hums...

Parkinson's,Disease.,3d,Illustration,Showing,Neurons,Containing,Lewy,Bodies,Small

A cancer immunotherapy drug that is already on pharmacy shelves is showing fresh potential in the fight against Parkinson’s disease. 



In mouse experiments, <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2109970">n</a><a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2109970" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ivo</a><a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2109970">lumab–relatlimab</a>, a fixed‑dose antibody combination used for treating melanoma, blocked the cell‑to‑cell spread of toxic protein clumps that drive the disorder.



More than <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/parkinson-disease" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8.5 million people</a> worldwide are living with <a href="https://www.parkinson.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parkinson’s disease</a>. Current drugs ease symptoms but do little to halt the relentless loss of movement, speech, and independence.



<a href="https://profiles.hopkinsmedicine.org/provider/xiaobo-mao/2777172" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xiaobo Mao</a> of Johns Hopkins University led an international team that traced the blockade to a newly revealed partnership between two brain proteins, Aplp1 and LAG‑3. Their study offers a practical target for slowing disease progression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cancer-drug-blocks-parkinson-s">How cancer drug blocks Parkinson’s</h2>



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41419-023-05672-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alpha‑synuclein</a> normally helps nerve cells chat across synapses, yet when it misfolds it becomes sticky and forms Lewy bodies. 



The group discovered that Aplp1 and LAG‑3 act like twin door handles, swinging the misfolded cargo into neurons together.



“Now that we know how Aplp1 and LAG-3 interact, we have a new way of understanding how alpha‑synuclein contributes to the disease progression of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/">Parkinson’s </a>disease,” confirmed Mao.



Deleting either handle in genetically engineered mice cut protein uptake, but deleting both slashed it by 90 percent.



Using cultured neurons, the team showed that antibodies against LAG‑3 disrupted the partnership and kept most toxic fibrils outside. That hint of druggability set the stage for tests with the approved melanoma therapy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repurposing-a-cancer-drug-for-parkinson-s">Repurposing a cancer drug for Parkinson's</h2>



Nivolumab–relatlimab, marketed as <a href="https://www.opdualag.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Opdualag</a>TM, won <a href="https://www.fda.gov/drugs/resources-information-approved-drugs/fda-approves-opdualag-unresectable-or-metastatic-melanoma" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA clearance</a> in 2022 as the first combination to target PD‑1 and LAG‑3 checkpoints in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/computer-model-can-identify-tumor-fighting-immune-cells/">tumors</a>.



Because relatlimab binds LAG‑3, the Parkinson’s team wondered whether it could also short‑circuit the neural handshake.



They injected the antibody mix into mice previously dosed with pathogenic fibrils. Treated animals accumulated far fewer Lewy‑like inclusions, keeping the midbrain’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-enhances-brain-function-during-exercise/">dopamine</a> supply and motor skills intact.



“The anti‑LAG-3 antibody was successful in preventing further spread of alpha‑synuclein seeds in the mouse models,” said <a href="https://profiles.hopkinsmedicine.org/provider/ted-m-dawson/2708436" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ted Dawson</a>, also from Johns Hopkins.



The effect outperformed complete genetic knockout of LAG‑3 because the drug simultaneously disrupted its partner, Aplp1.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-protein-traffic-jam-in-the-brain">A protein traffic jam in the brain</h2>



The brain’s <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12034127/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substantia nigra</a> houses dopamine‑producing neurons that fine‑tune movement. When alpha‑synuclein fibrils march from cell to cell, these neurons choke and die, triggering tremor and rigidity.



LAG-3 had been flagged as a fibril receptor before, yet blocking it alone left plenty of pathology. The new work clarifies that Aplp1 forms a complex with LAG-3, which creates a high‑affinity docking site for toxic cargo.



By filming neurons with pH‑sensitive dye, researchers watched fibrils enter healthy cells in minutes. Removal of either handle delayed entry, while removal of both stopped it almost completely.



The discovery may explain why single‑target strategies have struggled to translate. Therapies that ignore Aplp1 risk leaving a back‑door route open for disease spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-parkinson-s-is-so-difficult">Why Parkinson's is so difficult</h2>



Parkinson’s is diagnosed only after motor symptoms emerge, by which time over half of nigral dopamine neurons have perished. <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/lewy-body-dementia/lewy-body-dementia-causes-symptoms-and-diagnosis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lewy bodies</a> start forming decades earlier and appear to propagate along neural highways.



Scientists debate whether the fibrils cause disease or merely mark dying cells, yet the correlation is strong enough that reducing their spread remains a key goal. 



Animal studies that limit fibril movement often preserve motor behavior and cortical thinking.



The Aplp1–Lag3 duo offers a concise molecular explanation for long‑range propagation. It also supplies a measurable biomarker, their physical interaction, that drug developers can monitor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antibodies-in-action">Antibodies in action</h2>



Preclinical success seldom guarantees human benefit, yet repurposing an approved therapy skips many safety hurdles. 



Opdualag’sTM pharmacokinetics, dosing, and adverse‑event profile are already mapped in thousands of cancer patients.



The antibody crosses the mouse blood–brain barrier at roughly 0.5 percent of plasma levels, similar to other <a href="https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-20642/immune-globulin-human-igg-intravenous/details" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IgG medicines</a>. That level sufficed to curb fibril uptake and protect motor performance in pole and cylinder tests.



If forthcoming primate and human studies confirm brain penetration, clinicians could move swiftly into small Parkinson’s trials using this cancer treatment drug. Outcome measures might track motor scores, cerebrospinal fibril counts, and imaging of nigral dopamine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parkinson-s-gets-help-from-cancer-drug">Parkinson's gets help from cancer drug</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-activated-molecules-kill-cancer-cells-with-precision/">Cancer</a> checkpoint drugs can unleash immune‑related side effects, including rash, thyroid imbalance, and fatigue. Whether similar events would occur at lower neurological doses remains unknown.



Another question is timing. Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/">cancer antibodies</a> are delivered in pulses, whereas chronic neuroprotection for Parkinson's patients might require years of therapy.



Finally, fibril spread is only one facet of Parkinson’s biology. Mitochondrial stress, environmental toxins, and genetics also contribute, so a combination of treatments will likely be needed.



Even so, the ease of testing an off‑the‑shelf cancer medicine for Parkinson's patients makes this avenue irresistible. As Dawson observed, stopping spread “could significantly slow the progression of Parkinson’s disease.”



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49016-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Cancer drug identified that also works to slow Parkinson's disease, according to scientists

A cancer immunotherapy drug that is already on pharmacy shelves...

Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every molecule of the carbon they store has to squeeze through microscopic pores first. These pores, called stomata, dot the surface of nearly every leaf and set the pace for both growth and water loss.



The latest study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that each new stoma is the product of a lively conversation among neighboring cells and a hard look in the mirror. 



Dominique Bergmann and her team traced those talks in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35048692" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a> (Arabidopsis thaliana), the small mustard plant whose genome was first decoded in 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-form-and-adjust-pores">How plants form and adjust pores</h2>



Stomata behave like adjustable valves, opening when light and water are plentiful and closing when drought or darkness loom. Their numbers are not fixed; plants can make more or fewer during development, tweaking their gas exchange to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">environment</a>.



For that plasticity to work, precursor cells must decide whether to divide again or settle down as part of the pavement around a stoma. 



The new research focuses on these larger daughters, called stomatal lineage ground cells, which had been thought to be passive passengers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-sugar-in-ways-we-never-imagined/">leaf</a> development.



The Stanford team captured day‑long movies of living leaves and tracked every fate choice. They discovered that the future of each cell depends on its own size and on the crowd of neighbors encircling it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-nearby-cells-to-control-pores">Plants use nearby cells to control pores</h2>



Signals drift through the leaf in the form of tiny peptides such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20010603/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epidermal patterning factor 1</a> (EPF1) and its sibling EPF2, which tell nearby cells to slow down or stop forming new stomata. 



Because these messages travel only a short distance, the number of stomatal precursors touching a cell sets the strength of the “slow down” order.



Cells bordered by two or more precursors received a louder signal and dismantled an internal protein called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982218302392" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPEECHLESS</a> before it could trigger another split. Those with just one signaling neighbor heard only a whisper and often went on to divide again.



The researchers measured how fast SPEECHLESS disappeared and found that the rate jumped with every extra neighbor. By evening, many well‑connected cells had emptied their nuclei of the division‑promoting factor and settled into a quiet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">life</a> as pavement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cell-size">The role of cell size </h2>



Size turned out to be the second half of the script. When two sister cells emerged from a split, one was noticeably larger and carried a larger nucleus.



Bigger nuclei diluted the amount of SPEECHLESS even before degradation kicked in, pushing the concentration below the threshold needed to spark another round of division. Smaller sisters packed the protein more tightly and were free to keep the lineage going.



To confirm the link, the team boosted SPEECHLESS levels across the board. Large cells that normally would have retired instead re‑entered the cell cycle, proving that concentration, not mere presence, calls the shots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-internal-guides-to-shape-pores">Plants use internal guides to shape pores</h2>



“Compasses have dual roles,” said Bergmann. The study builds on earlier work showing that internal “compasses” guide each split so that one daughter remains small and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">stem</a>‑like while the other grows large.&nbsp;



Bergmann explained that the same molecular north arrow orients the division plane and then reorganizes the contents of the newborn cells to cement their different futures. 



Computational models confirmed that size, neighbor count, and SPEECHLESS levels together predict a cell’s fate better than any factor alone.



Warm nights add another twist: higher temperatures activate a photoreceptor called PIF4 that limits SPEECHLESS production, cutting back the formation of new stomata. 



The Stanford data suggest that heat might tilt the balance further by shrinking protein levels just enough to keep big cells out of the cell cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-crops-and-farming">Improving crops and farming</h2>



Why should anyone without a microscope care how many times a leaf cell divides? Because every stoma trades water for carbon, the final stomatal count shapes a crop’s thirst and yield.



Breeders are already lowering <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37923396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stomatal density</a> in wheat, barley, and rice to save water without hurting photosynthesis. Knowing that cell size and neighbor signals tune those numbers could make such tweaks more precise and less likely to backfire.



The work also hints at strategies for future‑proofing plants against heat waves. If larger precursor cells naturally avoid dividing under high temperature, selecting varieties with slightly bigger epidermal cells could be a subtle way to reduce water loss.



There is an evolutionary angle as well. Fossil leaves show that ancient plants reduced their stomatal density when atmospheric CO₂ climbed, mirroring the choices Bergmann’s cells make on a microscopic scale.



Understanding the cell‑level logic may help scientists read the rock record more accurately and model how modern forests will respond to rising greenhouse gases. It could even inform designs for synthetic leaves or bio‑inspired materials that need self‑regulating pores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-on-plants-and-their-pores">Research on plants and their pores</h2>



The Bergmann lab now wants to trace the still‑mysterious signals that link cell size to peptide output. They suspect a size‑sensing pathway unrelated to SPEECHLESS that may give big cells an extra nudge toward differentiation.



If that circuit can be mapped, it might be possible to rewire it, allowing crops to adjust their stomata on demand without penalties in growth. Such control would be a powerful tool in regions where water scarcity and heat routinely threaten harvests.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57730-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How plants decide where to put their breathing pores

Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every...

Everyday life is filled with conveniences that many people take for granted. Stain-resistant fabrics, non-stick cookware, and water-repellent items are all around. These products owe their useful properties to a group of synthetic chemicals called per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, known as PFAS.



While these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-that-eat-forever-chemicals-discovered-in-contaminated-soil/">chemicals</a> make modern life easier, they carry a hidden cost. PFAS are often called “forever chemicals” because they do not break down naturally in the environment. 



Once released, they linger in soil, water, and living organisms. Scientists have been studying their effects on human health for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemicals-and-the-male-brain">Chemicals and the male brain</h2>



One particular chemical, perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), has recently gained attention. Many believed PFHxA, due to its shorter chemical chain, was safer than other PFAS. 



However, new research from the Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience at the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=22012609168&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw1JjDBhDjARIsABlM2StGMBIvmL07X0Z3q-t_9jIUIEPpx5WqGCxapBXIVnzuDwbDzEdilhUaAiDXEALw_wcB">University of Rochester</a> presents a different story.



In the latest study, scientists uncovered that early life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-offer-new-hope-against-forever-chemicals/">exposure</a> to PFHxA may trigger anxiety-related behaviors and memory issues in male mice.



“Although these effects were mild, finding behavioral effects only in males was reminiscent of the many neurodevelopmental disorders that are male-biased,” said Ania Majewska, PhD, professor of Neuroscience and senior author of the study.



The researchers noted that males are more frequently diagnosed with disorders such as autism and ADHD. “This finding suggests that the male brain might be more vulnerable to environmental insults during neurodevelopment,” Majewska added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-exposure-and-brain-development">Chemical exposure and brain development </h2>



The research team exposed pregnant and nursing mice to PFHxA through mealworm treats. The chemical affected their offspring, particularly the brains of male mice.



The male offspring who received higher doses showed several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-threaten-arctic-wildlife-and-human-health/">changes</a>. These included reduced activity, increased anxiety-like behavior, and memory problems. Interestingly, female mice exposed similarly showed no such changes.



“Finding that developmental exposure to PFHxA has long-term behavioral consequences in a mammalian model is concerning when considering short-chain PFAS are thought to be safer alternatives to the legacy PFAS that have been phased-out of production,” said Elizabeth Plunk, first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-effects-of-pfhxa-exposure">Long-term effects of PFHxA exposure</h2>



The team monitored the mice into adulthood. They discovered that male mice exposed to PFHxA retained behavioral changes well beyond their early life stages.



“This work points to the need for more research in short-chain PFAS. To our knowledge, PFHxA has not been evaluated for developmental neurobehavioral toxicity in a rodent model,” said Majewska.



“Future studies should evaluate the cellular and molecular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/">effects</a> of PFHxA, including cell-type specific effects, in regions associated with motor, emotional/fear, and memory domains to elucidate mechanistic underpinnings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulatory-actions-and-concerns">Regulatory actions and concerns</h2>



PFHxA’s shorter chain did not prevent it from persisting in water. The European Union restricted its use in 2024, following earlier restrictions on longer chain PFAS. 



Scientists remain concerned because PFHxA can easily spread through water systems, posing a threat to ecosystems and drinking water supplies.



In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency recently set a national drinking water standard for PFAS. This action aims to reduce exposure for millions of people and prevent potential long-term health risks.



PFAS chemicals are found in food, water, animals, and humans. They resist stains, oil, and water but are linked to various health issues, including developmental problems in babies, certain cancers, immune system disruption, and hormonal imbalances. 



The ability of forever chemicals to build up in the body makes their health effects difficult to avoid over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The findings highlight the importance of examining chemicals considered “safe.” They reveal that even short-chain PFAS like PFHxA may pose hidden risks, especially to the developing brain.



According to the study authors, further research is needed. "These preliminary findings indicate that PFHxA exposure may cause long-lasting changes in many behavioral domains in a mammalian model, and more research is needed to expand these evaluations to other cognitive domains," they wrote.



The research received funding from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a>, the&nbsp;University of Rochester I<a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/del-monte-neuroscience/idd-research-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ntellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center</a>, and the&nbsp;University of Rochester <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/environmental-health-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Health Sciences Center</a>.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ejn.70174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Journal of Neuroscience</a>. 



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'Safe' forever chemicals may impair brain development

Everyday life is filled with conveniences that many people take...

A new executive order aimed at deregulating the U.S. seafood industry is raising red flags among scientists and policy experts. While the order claims to boost competitiveness and cut red tape, critics warn it could do more harm than good - weakening the very systems that protect seafood sustainability.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and the University of Washington outlined their concerns in a recent paper. They argue that the executive order misses the mark, prioritizing short-term gains over long-term stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-seafood-deregulation-order">Inside the seafood deregulation order</h2>



Signed in April 2025, the order - titled “Restoring American Seafood Competitiveness” - claims that U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-seafood-industry-has-been-hit-hard-by-the-covid-19-pandemic/">seafood markets</a> are held back by overregulation and unfair trade practices. It calls for reducing regulatory burdens, eliminating unsafe imports, and strengthening the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafood-spoilage-hidden-dangers-in-the-cold-chain/">seafood supply chain</a>.



However, the researchers say the plan is moving too fast and with too little support. They describe it as a policy that risks unraveling decades of scientific progress.



“(It’s) a significant escalation in undoing federal regulatory frameworks, weakening scientific authority and deemphasizing aquaculture development,” said Halley Froehlich of UC Santa Barbara and Jessica Gephart of the University of Washington.



“Instead of reform, it’s dismantling regulations in a very short amount of time,” added Froehlich, the paper’s lead author.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noaa-s-role-under-threat">NOAA’s role under threat</h2>



The scientists point to cuts to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as a major concern. NOAA oversees roughly 500 commercial fishery stocks in the U.S. It plays a key role in managing, monitoring, and protecting marine resources.



Under the new directive, NOAA faces budget cuts, staff reductions, and tighter controls on communication. That’s a serious blow to its ability to coordinate sustainable fishing, especially across regions where fish migrate between countries.



“It’s quite problematic because NOAA is so central to how we manage our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/">fisheries</a>,” Froehlich said. “Data collection, monitoring, oversight, you name it, NOAA is part of that, and a really important part.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plan-ignores-the-ocean-s-limits">The plan ignores the ocean’s limits</h2>



The executive order is supposed to help boost domestic seafood production. But the researchers argue that the ocean has limits - and we’re already close to reaching them.



“We are not going to get more out of the ocean,” Froehlich said. “We’re already near ‘peak fish,’ meaning maintenance and recovery of our stocks.”



Wild fisheries - both in the U.S. and globally - are already producing at or near their maximum sustainable levels. That leaves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-now-produces-more-food-than-wild-fishing/">aquaculture</a> as the only real path for growth. 



However, the new order gives little attention to farmed seafood and offers even less support to the agencies that regulate it. The scientists call it a mismatch between promises and practical outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-data-cutting-capacity">Cutting data, cutting capacity</h2>



One of the most troubling issues is the potential loss of data. The researchers warn that NOAA’s online databases, climate research, and monitoring tools may be defunded or decommissioned.



Without this data, managing fisheries becomes guesswork. It also makes it harder to prepare for climate-driven shifts in marine ecosystems.



“Without the data, expertise and capacity to study and understand these systems we run the risk of fishery collapses becoming more common and long-lasting,” the authors wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-conflicts-and-mismatched-markets">Trade conflicts and mismatched markets</h2>



The executive order also makes assumptions about seafood markets that don’t align with reality. 



Much of the seafood farmed in the U.S. isn’t what consumers demand most. And a large portion of seafood caught in U.S. waters is processed overseas before being sold back into the domestic market.



If tariffs are imposed on imported or foreign-processed seafood, prices for high-demand products like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">shrimp</a> could rise sharply. Right now, only about 10% of shrimp eaten in the U.S. comes from domestic sources.



“In disrupting the market dynamics we do have, especially with trade wars with our trading partners, it’s likely that we’re going to have the opposite effect of creating opportunity long-term,” Froehlich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-alternative-to-seafood-deregulation">An alternative to seafood deregulation </h2>



The paper was submitted as evidence in a recent hearing by the House Natural Resources Committee’s Water, Wildlife and Fisheries Subcommittee. The scientists hope their findings will influence how Congress approaches <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seafood-will-help-feed-earths-future-population-of-10-billion/">seafood policy</a> moving forward.



“When it comes to any shifts in production, these high levels of uncertainty are not a beneficial thing to happen for the sector,” Froehlich said.



While deregulation may sound appealing to some, the authors argue that a stable, well-regulated system - backed by science and data - is what actually keeps seafood both sustainable and competitive. In their view, cutting corners now could cost the industry far more in the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X25002106">Marine Policy</a>.



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Why seafood deregulation may hurt more than help

A new executive order aimed at deregulating the U.S. seafood...

Most people assume they know what to expect from alcohol: drink enough, and your judgment gets fuzzy. But what if alcohol doesn’t affect everyone the same way?



A recent study from The University of Texas at El Paso (<a href="https://www.utep.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UTEP</a>) suggests that gender shapes how alcohol steers choices.



A research team led by Dr. Alexander Friedman set out to answer a simple but deep question. Does <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cure-for-alcohol-addiction-was-discovered-by-accident/">alcohol</a> sway decision making differently in males and females? Turns out, it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-and-drink-selection">Alcohol and drink selection</h2>



Rats may not attend cocktail parties. Still, they make decisions just like humans do. Especially when rewards are involved.



Friedman’s team designed a clever experiment. They built the REward COst in Rodent Decision making system (RECORD). It is a special arena where rats pick drinks. 



At first, no alcohol was involved. The rats simply chose between drinks with different levels of sweetness. The researchers recorded their sober preferences.



But then came the twist. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-americans-now-link-alcohol-consumption-to-cancer/">Alcohol</a> entered the mix. The drinks now had different alcohol levels. They mimicked sweet cocktails people often enjoy.



Suddenly, male rats started to act differently. They chased stronger alcohol drinks. This happened even though they had earlier preferred sweeter options. Some males kept chasing those strong drinks for up to two months after the experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-females-stayed-the-course">Females stayed the course </h2>



Females, however, did not flinch. Despite drinking more alcohol per body weight, female rats stuck with their original choices. They were not tempted by the stronger stuff.



“Our findings demonstrate that acute alcohol consumption profoundly affects male rats’ decision making, suggesting a gender specific vulnerability to alcohol’s effects,” said Friedman. 



“In particular, this study is interesting because it helps us understand the neuronal underpinnings of decision making and how an alcohol induced state can bias our choices.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-affects-our-decisions">Alcohol affects our decisions</h2>



This study is not just about rats moving through a lab arena. Friedman believes these findings go far beyond laboratory walls. He thinks humans might show similar behavior patterns.



Alcohol plays a big part in many situations where decisions matter. People <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-alcohol-in-moderation-does-not-prolong-life/">drink</a> at business meetings. They drink during family gatherings, and also drink at social events where important choices often happen. 



This research brings up a serious question. Could alcohol push men and women toward different decisions after drinking?



Friedman pointed out that alcohol at work events or social gatherings might cause men to act differently. He believes men could make choices under the influence that they would likely avoid if they were sober. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-nudge-toward-new-solutions">A nudge toward new solutions</h2>



Dr. Robert Kirken, dean of UTEP’s College of Science, feels happy about this work. “We’re incredibly proud of Dr. Friedman and his team for advancing our understanding of how alcohol impacts decision making,” said Kirken.



“This work has the potential to inform more targeted approaches to addressing substance use and its consequences, and it exemplifies the kind of meaningful, translational science we strive to support.”



The study might lead to better treatments for alcohol related problems. Friedman thinks knowing these gender based effects could change how experts treat alcohol <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-small-amounts-of-alcohol-increase-cancer-risk/">misuse</a>. Treatments could get smarter and more personalized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-alcohol-and-decision-making">Understanding alcohol and decision-making</h2>



The research opens the door to a completely new way of thinking about alcohol and its effects on decision making. 



The results suggest that alcohol does not simply blur choices in the same way for everyone. Instead, its impact appears to depend on deeper factors such as gender and brain biology.



Now, with this foundation in place, scientists have a chance to explore this subject even further. They can study the links between alcohol, brain circuits, and gender-specific behaviors in more detail. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-effects-of-alcohol">The hidden effects of alcohol</h2>



The findings might reveal surprising connections that could change how we understand alcohol’s role in human behavior. Looking ahead, there is hope that doctors and health professionals will one day use this knowledge to help people navigate alcohol’s hidden effects. 



Treatments and advice could become more personal, focusing on how alcohol affects different individuals instead of applying a one-size-fits-all approach. 



For now, one fact stands out clearly. Alcohol does not guide every person down the same path.



The project received strong backing from major institutions, including the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/alcalc/article-abstract/60/3/agaf017/8113315?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alcohol and Alcoholism</a>.



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Drunk decisions: Alcohol affects men and women differently

Most people assume they know what to expect from alcohol:...

Some of the biggest questions in planetary science are written across the dusty surface of Mars. Why did a planet that once had flowing rivers and lakes end up as a frozen desert? How did Mars lose its grip on liquid water - and what does that say about a planet’s ability to stay habitable? 



A new study may bring us closer to an answer. Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a> have proposed a new model that explains why Mars couldn’t hold on to its early climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-mars-climate">The mystery of Mars' climate</h2>



The team suggests that Mars had short bursts of warmth triggered by gradual changes in sunlight. But each time conditions improved, the planet pushed itself right back into a deep freeze. That’s very different from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-a-stabilizing-mechanism-that-keeps-it-habitable/">Earth</a>, which has stayed habitable for billions of years.



“For years, we’ve had this huge unanswered question for why Earth has managed to keep its habitability while Mars lost it,” said Edwin Kite, a participating scientist on NASA’s Curiosity rover and associate professor at the University of Chicago. 



“Our models suggest that periods of habitability on Mars have been the exception, rather than the rule, and that Mars generally self-regulates as a desert planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-case-of-the-missing-carbon">The case of the missing carbon</h2>



Curiosity’s recent discovery of carbonate-rich rocks on Mars helped make this new theory possible. These minerals were the missing link in a puzzle scientists have been trying to solve for years. 



If Mars once had a thick, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-mars-missing-atmosphere-hiding-in-plain-sight/">carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere</a> - enough to warm the planet and allow water to flow - where did all that carbon go? “People have been looking for a tomb for the atmosphere for years,” Kite said.



Scientists had suspected that, like Earth, Mars might lock away carbon dioxide in its rocks through chemical reactions with water. But early tests by Mars rovers failed to find those carbonate deposits. 



That changed when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/">Curiosity</a> reached higher elevations on Mt. Sharp and finally hit the carbonate-rich layers they’d been hoping to find.



“It really is something you cannot know until you have a rover on the surface,” said study co-author Benjamin Tutolo, a professor at the University of Calgary. 



“The chemistry and mineralogy measurements they provide really are essential in our continuing quest to understand how and why planets stay habitable, in order to search for other hospitable worlds out in the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-climate-cycle-worked-against-life">Mars' climate cycle worked against life</h2>



Mars and Earth started out with a lot in common. Both are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/">rocky planets</a>. Both have water and carbon. Both are at a decent distance from the Sun. Yet only one has remained friendly to life.



The new study explains how small differences added up over time. Earth has a built-in thermostat: carbon cycles from the atmosphere into rocks and back again through volcanic activity. 



When Earth heats up, reactions pull carbon dioxide out of the air, cooling things down. Then volcanoes push it back out again, preventing a deep freeze. On Mars, that cycle doesn’t work the same way.



“In contrast to Earth, where there are always some volcanoes erupting, Mars right now is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-volcano-arsia-mons-captured-with-its-head-above-the-clouds-in-sunrise-photo/">volcanically dormant</a>, and the average rate of volcanic outgassing on Mars is slow,” Kite said. 



“So in that situation, you don't really have a balance between carbon dioxide in and carbon dioxide out, because if you have even a little bit of liquid water, you're going to draw down carbon dioxide through carbonate formation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-carbon-in-mars-climate">The role of carbon in Mars' climate </h2>



The carbon imbalance means any brief warming on Mars - such as from a slowly brightening sun - triggers its own undoing. Water reappears. It helps form carbonates. That pulls carbon out of the air. Then the greenhouse effect fades, and Mars cools off again.



The models show Mars could have had warm, wet periods lasting a few million years, followed by dry spells that lasted 100 million years or more. That kind of stop-start habitability, with massive gaps in between, isn’t great for sustaining life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traces-of-environmental-catastrophe">Traces of environmental catastrophe </h2>



Between Curiosity, Perseverance, and the fleet of orbiters circling the planet, we’re finally piecing together a real history of what happened to Mars' climate.



“Fortunately, Mars preserves a trace of that environmental catastrophe in the rocks on its surface,” said Kite. “And today we're in a golden age of Mars science, with two plutonium-powered rovers on the surface and an international fleet of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-insight-mro-spacecraft-teamed-up-with-ai-to-find-a-fresh-impact-crater/">spacecraft</a> in orbit that allow us to deeply explore the planet for these traces.”



The more we understand about how Mars lost its atmosphere, the more we can learn about what keeps a planet stable - and what makes it fragile.



The full study was published in the journal Nature.



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Climate collapse: Why did Mars become a desert?

Some of the biggest questions in planetary science are written...

Aging doesn’t look the same for everyone. Most people know someone who seems to age faster or slower than others. One person may still run marathons in their 70s, while another starts struggling with memory and energy in their 50s. 



This aging discrepancy raises a basic question: Is there a way to actually measure how fast someone is aging?



Scientists from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>, Harvard University, and the University of Otago in New Zealand have created a tool that uses a single brain scan to estimate how quickly your body and mind are aging. And it does this while you’re still in midlife, before major health problems show up.



“The way we age as we get older is quite distinct from how many times we’ve traveled around the sun,” said Ahmad Hariri, professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-clues-hidden-in-a-single-scan">Aging clues hidden in a single scan</h2>



The new tool, called DunedinPACE Neuroimaging or DunedinPACNI, can be used with a standard MRI brain scan. It gives doctors and researchers a read on your aging pace and potential risk for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-focused-medicine-physical-activity-reduces-chronic-disease-risk/">chronic diseases</a> long before symptoms appear. 



This kind of early warning system could give people a chance to make changes that might actually slow or prevent serious health problems.



“What’s really cool about this is that we’ve captured how fast people are aging using data collected in midlife,” Hariri said. “And it’s helping us predict diagnosis of dementia among people who are much older.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-most-aging-clocks-get-it-wrong">Why most aging clocks get it wrong</h2>



Many "aging clocks" already exist, but they mostly rely on things like blood tests or genetic markers collected from people of various ages at one point in time. That approach can be misleading.



According to Hariri, things that look like faster aging may simply be because of differences in exposure to things such as leaded gasoline or cigarette smoke that are specific to their generation. "We need to figure out how we can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-technology-uses-eye-scanner-to-measure-biological-aging/">monitor aging</a> in an accurate way."



The new model avoids that problem by using data from a rare and detailed dataset: the Dunedin Study. This long-term project has followed more than 1,000 people born in Dunedin, New Zealand, between 1972 and 1973. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-scans-predict-rates-of-aging">Brain scans predict rates of aging</h2>



Researchers have been tracking the participants' physical and mental health for over 50 years. Every few years, the study measured things like blood pressure, cholesterol, glucose, body mass index, kidney and lung function - even gum health. 



By analyzing how these markers changed over time, the researchers created a personalized aging rate for each participant.



The team trained DunedinPACNI to predict that rate of aging based only on brain scans taken when the participants were 45. Once the model was trained, it was tested on other datasets from the U.S., U.K., Canada, and Latin America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-brain-keeps-the-score">Your brain keeps the score</h2>



The results held up across different groups. People who were aging faster, according to the tool, performed worse on cognitive tests, experienced faster shrinkage of the hippocampus - the brain’s memory center - and faced a higher risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">cognitive decline</a>.



In one sample of 624 older adults, those who were aging the fastest had a 60% higher chance of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/">dementia</a> and started showing symptoms earlier than their slower-aging peers.



When the team first saw the results, they were amazed. "Our jaws just dropped to the floor,” Hariri said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-the-brain">More than just the brain</h2>



The tool also revealed a strong link between brain aging and overall physical decline. People with high aging scores were more likely to suffer from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugary-drinks-linked-to-millions-of-diabetes-and-heart-disease-cases/">heart disease</a>, lung issues, strokes, and other chronic illnesses. 



These individuals were 18% more likely to be diagnosed with a major disease and 40% more likely to die in the next few years compared with people aging at an average pace.



“The link between aging of the brain and body are pretty compelling,” Hariri said.



The model worked just as well across different racial and socioeconomic groups, including low-income and non-white participants in the U.K. and people in Latin America. "It seems to be capturing something that is reflected in all brains,” Hariri said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-populations-growing-problems">Aging populations, growing problems</h2>



Globally, the number of people over 65 is expected to double by 2050. That means more people will deal with diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-benefits-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s</a>, which already cost the world $1.33 trillion in 2020 and could climb to $9.12 trillion by mid-century.



“But because we live longer lives, more people are unfortunately going to experience chronic age-related diseases, including dementia,” Hariri said.



Current Alzheimer’s drugs don’t stop or reverse the disease - they mostly manage symptoms. One reason they may not work well is that they’re given too late. "Drugs can't resurrect a dying brain,” Hariri said.



That’s where a tool like DunedinPACNI could change things. If doctors can spot who’s at higher risk earlier, they could try new treatments while there’s still time to protect the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scans-may-identify-causes-of-faster-aging">Scans may identify causes of faster aging</h2>



Besides tracking dementia risk, the tool could help explain why certain factors - like poor sleep or mental health problems - seem to make people age faster.



“We really think of it as hopefully being a key new tool in forecasting and predicting risk for diseases, especially Alzheimer's and related dementias, and also perhaps gaining a better foothold on progression of disease,” Hariri said.



“More research is needed to advance DunedinPACNI from a research tool to something that has practical applications in healthcare,” said Ethan Whitman, a Ph.D. student in clinical psychology at Duke and the study’s first author.



In the meantime, the researchers hope others will use the tool in studies that already have brain scan data but lack long-term health tracking. It could open a new window into how we age - and how we might slow the process down.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-025-00897-z">Nature Aging</a>.



Image Credit: Ethan Whitman, Duke University



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How fast are you aging? Brain scans reveal hidden clues

Aging doesn’t look the same for everyone. Most people know...

Tropical trees are dying at faster rates than ever before. While deforestation continues to be a major issue, even untouched forests are seeing increased rates of tree death. 



Scientists have long pointed to drought, extreme heat, and wildfires as key contributing factors to tropical tree mortality. But now, they are highlighting another powerful and often-overlooked force: thunderstorms.



Unlike the more familiar hurricanes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-bomb-cyclones-increasing-due-to-climate-change/">cyclones</a>, these storms are short but intense. Their high winds and lightning can be devastating to trees.



According to a recent study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a>, these storms are becoming more frequent due to climate change - and they’re causing serious harm to tropical forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-climate-cost-of-tropical-tree-death">The climate cost of tropical tree death</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/">Tropical forests</a> have massive effects on global climate. They're like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/">lungs of the Earth</a>, and we're seeing trees in them dying at higher rates than in the past, and the composition of forests is changing, too,” said Evan Gora, a forest ecologist at&nbsp;Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. 



“That could be really problematic for the future of not just tropical forests, but for the planet.”



While storms might seem like fleeting events, their impact on tropical forests can be lasting. These powerful bursts of wind and lightning can injure or topple even the largest trees, disrupting forest structure and biodiversity in seconds.



“Being in the forest during a tropical storm is unforgettable,” said study co-author Vanessa Rubio. “As the storm quickly builds, the sky darkens, humidity changes drastically, and strong winds shake the trees. 



"Then, thunder and lightning come. Leaves and branches fall to the ground, rain pours down, and your instinct is to get back to the field station as quickly as possible.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silent-driver-of-tree-death">A silent driver of tree death</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thunderstorms-are-becoming-more-intense-due-to-climate-change/">Thunderstorms</a> haven’t been given the same attention as other climate-related threats. But that’s starting to change. The team re-examined data from earlier studies on tropical tree death and forest carbon levels. They found that storms are just as significant - if not more so - than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-crisis-un-warns-of-unprecedented-emergency/">drought</a> or heat.



“We were surprised to find that storms may be the largest single factor causing tree death in these forests, and they’re largely overlooked by research into carbon storage in the tropics,” said Gora. 



“Our estimates suggest that storms are responsible for 30 to 60% of tree mortality in the past, and that number must be increasing as storm activity increases by 5 to 25% each decade.”



When the researchers added storms to the largest plot-based study on tropical forest carbon, the picture changed dramatically. The previous data showed a sharp drop in carbon when temperatures rose above a certain point. But adding storms made that link disappear.



“But when you add storms, that relationship goes away,” Gora said. “It basically shows that you have to include storms, or you might not get the answers right.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-double-trouble-for-tropical-trees">Double trouble for tropical trees</h2>



The team found that storms and drought often hit the same forests. The southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-show-amazon-rainfall-is-getting-more-extreme/">Amazon</a>, for instance, experiences both frequent storms and severe water stress. These combined threats are reshaping the region’s ecology.



“During my studies on threats to tropical forests, my professors, our textbooks, and even overall climate policy never mentioned small, convective storms as a potential source of forest mortality,” said study co-author Ian McGregor.



“I don't remember seeing them in global climate models used to inform climate policy. Given our findings, however, it's clear we need a more thorough understanding of these storms to have more accurate climate models, and thus more effective policy,” he added.



So why have storms flown under the radar until now? Part of the reason is that heat and drought are easier to measure. Tools like weather stations and long-term satellite tracking make it simpler to monitor those threats. 



But storms are different. They strike quickly and cause scattered damage. Satellites often miss the evidence of tropical tree deaths, and it’s nearly impossible for researchers to check vast forests manually after every storm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-trees-from-sky-to-soil">Tracking trees from sky to soil</h2>



To address these challenges, the team launched the Gigante project, co-led by the University of Birmingham. It uses a combination of lightning-tracking systems, drones, and field experts to monitor large areas of tropical forest. 



This enables scientists to pinpoint the location and extent of tree death, when the damage occurs, and which species are most at risk.



“If we make decisions about which species to plant or conserve based on an incorrect understanding of what's actually killing these trees and which species are most vulnerable, those forests won’t reach their full potential,” said Gora. 



Mature trees are especially vulnerable to storm damage. Without clearer insight, we might not realize our reforestation choices were flawed until decades later.



“However, if we can build a more holistic picture of what’s driving forest change, we can be a lot more confident in guiding forest management practices for long-term sustainability," noted Gora.



Understanding why tropical trees are dying isn’t just a scientific concern - it’s a climate priority with global consequences.



The study is to be <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/news-insights/press-release/thunderstorms-are-major-driver-tree-death-tropical-forests">published</a> in a perspective article in the journal Ecology Letters.



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Tropical tree deaths are increasing, even in untouched forests

Tropical trees are dying at faster rates than ever before....

Fire has licked the planet’s surface for more than 400 million years, scorching forests, clearing grasslands, and lofting smoke into the upper air. Yet pinning down when people stopped fearing flames and started steering them has been surprisingly hard.



A fresh <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2500042122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of a 300,000‑year‑old sediment core pulled from the East China Sea finds a sharp surge in soot about 50,000 years ago, a signal that stands apart from normal climate‑driven wildfire patterns.



The work, led by Dr. Zhao Debo at the <a href="http://english.qdio.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Oceanology</a>, Chinese Academy of Sciences, together with partners in Germany and France, strings together chemical, archaeological, and climate evidence into one timeline.



“Our findings challenge the widely held belief that humans only began influencing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ideas-traveled-farther-than-people-in-the-early-days-of-farming/">environment</a> with fire in the recent past, during the Holocene,” said Dr. Zhao Debo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-humans-began-using-fire">When humans began using fire</h2>



Researchers tracked <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01343-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyrogenic carbon</a>, the charred plant residue left when biomass burns incompletely, because rivers flush those tiny black flecks into coastal mud where they store a record of past fires.



Between 60,000 and 45,000 years ago that charcoal fraction doubled, then stayed high. The jump broke its long connection to East Asian monsoon strength, showing that weather alone could not explain the flames.



Parallel charcoal peaks in Europe, Southeast Asia, and the Papua New Guinea–Australia corridor line up with the same window, pointing to a continent‑scale shift rather than scattered lightning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/">strikes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-use-spreads-across-continents">Fire use spreads across continents</h2>



Archaeological <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/more-45000-years-ago-modern-humans-ventured-neanderthal-territory-here-s-what-happened" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hearths</a> from Bulgaria’s <a href="https://visitbulgaria.com/bacho-kiro-cave/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacho Kiro Cave</a> to northern Australia’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Madjedbebe" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madjebebe</a> site cluster inside the same interval, confirming that <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/more-45000-years-ago-modern-humans-ventured-neanderthal-territory-here-s-what-happened" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">campfires</a> had become routine parts of daily life.



Genetic <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09154-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> trace almost all non‑African ancestry to a single successful wave of Homo sapiens that left Africa about 50,000 years ago, matching the charcoal timeline.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/humans_fire_early-homo-sapiens_map-sites_credit-IOCAS_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/humans_fire_early-homo-sapiens_map-sites_credit-IOCAS_1s.webp" alt="Fire history of Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea–Australia and age distribution of archaeological sites since the last 300,000 years. Credit: IOCAS" class="wp-image-1976185"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fire history of Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea–Australia and age distribution of archaeological sites since the last 300,000 years. Click image to enlarge. Credit: IOCAS</figcaption></figure>



While earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-ancient-plant-farming-found-in-east-africa/">humans</a> played with sparks, evidence for habitual fire stretches back at least 250,000 years in Europe, those earlier experiments were local and intermittent. The new record shows the first moment when fire use scales with population growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-cold-nights-and-campfires">Migration, cold nights, and campfires</h2>



The out‑of‑Africa travelers trekked into ice‑age Eurasia where nights dipped well below freezing. Fire kept predators away, cooked meat, dried hides, and allowed late‑night tool making.



“Even during the Last Glaciation, the use of fire had probably started to reshape ecosystems and carbon fluxes,” added <a href="http://english.qdio.cas.cn/people/jzg/202208/t20220803_310174.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Wan Shiming</a>, a co‑author on the study.



Controlled flame also opened new food groups. Roasting tubers breaks down starches, and heated stone cracks to yield sharper blades, advantages that likely boosted survival odds for the migrants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burning-added-carbon-to-land-and-ocean">Burning added carbon to land and ocean</h2>



Modern wildfires already release between 116 and 385 teragrams of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-10455-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyrogenic carbon</a> to land and sea each year, a sizable slice of the global carbon ledger. 



When ancient people started burning wood on purpose, they nudged that ledger long before industrial smokestacks appeared.



Charcoal is stable. Some pieces survive for millennia in soils, some drift as <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2305030121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dissolved black carbon</a> into the deep ocean where currents can store it for thousands of years. 



By pushing extra charcoal into these sinks, early fire managers may have offset part of the carbon dioxide they released.



Climate models that begin counting human impacts only with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cave-discovery-of-ancient-avocados-could-rescue-a-global-crop/">farming</a> or factories might therefore miss a slow, earlier perturbation that started when nightly campfires became normal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-human-fire-use-shaped-climate">Early human fire use shaped climate</h2>



The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212682112000261" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East China Sea</a> record shows that environmental influence is not a recent human monopoly. Small groups with stone tools and wooden spears were already altering regional fire regimes and, in turn, the carbon cycle.



That insight reframes today’s policy debates. If early people changed atmospheric chemistry with nothing but sticks and sparks, eight billion of us wielding fossil fuels carry far more leverage, and responsibility, than any ancestral hunter‑gatherer could imagine.



Fire management still shapes global climate in modern times. Prescribed burns reduce fuel loads but also emit smoke; savanna fires in Africa and Australia pulse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-greenhouse-gas-detecting-satellite-is-now-in-orbit/">greenhouse gases</a> each dry season; boreal megafires now send record carbon plumes aloft. 



Understanding the deep history of intentional burning helps calibrate those modern choices. Fifty thousand years later we still gather around flames, but the scale has ballooned from glowing embers to global power grids.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2500042122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Early humans learned to use and control fire much sooner than previously believed

Fire has licked the planet’s surface for more than 400 million...

Removes chlorine from your shower water without reducing the water flow! Please note, this package includes 1 filter. Read more Overview Does not reduce the water flow, like other filters sometimes do. This premium Shower Filter- has the U.S. Patent No. D 441,048 S. Please Note: This product includes 1 filter. For additional filters please click here. Features & Benefits: Chlorine-removing Easily installed Fits standard showers Made in USA Chlorine and your Shower Removing chlorine from your shower will improve the condition of your hair and skin within one week. It will also improve your health. "A long, hot shower can be dangerous. The toxic chemicals are inhaled in high concentrations." From: Bottom Line; Dr. John Andelman, PhD. "Water is chlorinated to kill microorganisms, but the Chlorine also kills the healthy probiotic bacteria in the intestines." From: Restoring Your Digestive Health; Jordan S. Rubin, N.MD., PhD. "Avoiding contact with chlorinated water is of the utmost importance. This includes bathing water and drinking water. Chlorine kills bacteria, friendly and unfriendly, in the intestines. It can be absorbed through the skin. I recomend installing a shower filter to remove Chlorine." From: Patient, Heal Thyself; Jordan S. Rubin, N.MD., PhD. What is the Effect of Chlorine in the Shower? Chlorine is a toxic gas which attacks living cells. It was used during World War I as a chemical warfare agent. It is used today as a additive to drinking water to kill harmful micro-organisms. While this can be an important health benefit, Chlorine itself is far from beneficial: it attacks organic material, such as the skin and skin oils, which dries out the skin and hair. Because Chlorine vaporizes along with the hot water, it is inhaled into the lungs. It is also absorbed into the skin. According to some experts, 5 times more Chlorine enters the body through the skin during a shower than enters through drinking 8 glasses of chlorinated tap water! What are the Benefits of Using the Premium Shower Filter? Smoother skin - your skin won't dry out as much. Healthier hair- less brittle, fewer split ends, deeper, longer lasting color for dyed or highlighted hair Eliminates chlorine odor from skin and hair Prevents breathing Chlorine gas or its absorption into skin Stops burning around the eyes of Chlorine-sensitive people How Long Before I Notice Results? Elimination of Chlorine odor is immediate! 5 to 7 days are required for skin and hair to regain their natural balance How Does the Premium Shower Filter Work? A patented mixture of zinc and copper called KDF-55, plus crystal Quartz, converts Chlorine into Zinc Chloride. Zinc is considered to be helpful in alleviating dandruff and is used in anti-dandruff shampoos. Unlike carbon, KDF stands up to hot water and is very effective in filtering out Chlorine, odors and dirt particles. KDF possesses strong bacteriostatic character, inhibiting the growth of bacteria, fungus, algae and mildew. The Premium Shower Filter contains 16 oz. of KDF and 2 oz. of crystal Quartz for enhanced performance. How Long will the Premium Shower Filter Last? On average, the filter will last about one year. Initially, the filter will remove 98% of the Chlorine. Over time, the removal percentage declines until it is at about 87% after one year. Accordingly, we recommend annual cartridge replacement. Premium Shower Filter- Installation and Operation Unscrew and remove the existing shower head from the shower arm (1/2 in. pipe). To minimze water drips, wrap the included teflon tape around the shower arm and the filter (optional). Screw the Premium Shower Filter onto the shower arm and screw the shower head onto the Shower Filter. Hand Tighten Only- overtightening can crack the filter housing. The Premium Shower Filter is now ready for use. Simply turn on the water as usual. The very first time the Shower Filter is used, the water may take a minute or so to flow through. Whenever the Premium Shower Filter is opened to replace the cartridge, the o-rings that keep the filter from leaking should be properly seated in their channels, and rubbed with petroluem jelly to keep them supple. Petroluem jelly can also be used on the threads of the housing. The Premium Shower Filter housing is warranted for 1 year from date of purchase for defects or cracks. The filter cartridge is warranted for one year from any manufacturing malfunction. The useful life of the filter cartridge varies depending on water conditions and usage and therefore cannnot be under warranty for usage. We are proud that the Premium Shower Filter has been designated a Maker's Diet Approved item in renowned author Jordan S. Rubin's New York Times Bestselling book, titled The Maker's Diet. To find out more about The Maker's Diet, go to their website at: www.makersdiet.com. For BULK orders, please email orders@eartheasy.com

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Enjoy the natural, sweet, honey fragrance infused straight from the hive into the wax! This 100% pure beeswax candle is poured into a decorative glass holder shaped like a beehive. Read more Overview Pure beeswax candle poured into a signature beehive glass. It comes in a gift box complete with a matchbook - perfect for a gift! Beeswax is made from the nectar of flowers by honeybees. In a candle it emits a subtle, honey fragrance. Free of paraffin and other toxins, these candles are 100% natural and will burn soot free. Wicks are made from 100% cotton and contain no lead or metal. Features & Benefits: 4.2 oz. candle in beehive glass holder 100% pure, naturally filtered, unscented beeswax Burns for over 35 hours Made in the USA

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