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From the songs of dawn to the soaring silhouettes over oceans, birds often inspire us with grace and freedom. Yet, beyond their beauty lies a deeper role: they act as movers of nutrients, linking land, sea, and sky. 



Just as whales recycle nutrients through their excretions, seabirds may quietly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabird-flights-and-amazing-feeding-behavior-in-the-ocean-captured-with-tiny-cameras/">marine life</a> with something far less glamorous: their droppings.



While bird guano has long been known as a rich fertilizer for land and coastal ecosystems, what happens in the open sea is still a mystery. 



Researchers recently turned their eyes to an unlikely subject, bathroom habits of seabirds far from shore. What they uncovered sheds light on how even the smallest actions can ripple across vast ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-that-only-poop-midair">Seabirds that only poop midair</h2>



On Japan’s remote islands, researchers noticed something unusual about streaked shearwaters. Instead of relieving themselves while floating, these seabirds poop midair. 



The study revealed that the birds follow this routine every 4 to 10 minutes. This aerial approach may keep them clean and at the same time fertilize the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-is-harming-seabirds-even-more-than-we-realized/">ocean</a> below.



Study lead author Leo Uesaka from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a> explained that the initial focus of the research had nothing to do with bird waste. 



“I was studying how seabirds run on sea surface to take off,” said Uesaka. “While watching the video, I was surprised that they dropped feces very frequently. I thought it was funny at first, but it turned out to be more interesting and important for marine ecology.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabird-poop-and-ocean-nutrients">Seabird poop and ocean nutrients</h2>



Seabird droppings are rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. On land, they enhance soils and boost coastal ecosystems. Yet, their impact at sea remains less explored. 



Streaked shearwaters and their relatives, with populations totaling around 424 million, may deliver a steady nutrient supply to the open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-have-highly-sensitive-beaks-to-locate-food/">ocean</a>. These nutrients support plankton - the foundation of marine life.



The new study compared this process to the “whale pump,” in which whales recycle nutrients through their excretion.



Just like whales, vast seabird populations may shape marine productivity through their waste. This makes their periodic bathroom habits more than just a quirk - they could influence entire food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-avoid-pooping-in-water">Seabirds avoid pooping in water</h2>



The team strapped tiny backward-facing cameras, the size of erasers, to 15 shearwaters. They recorded nearly 200 bathroom events. 



The footage showed that the birds usually relieved themselves after takeoff. Some even took off briefly just to poop, returning to the water moments later.



Interestingly, nearly all excretion occurred midair. Only one recorded event happened while floating. This suggests the birds actively avoid releasing waste on the surface. 



Researchers believe this may help seabirds keep feathers clean, reduce pathogen risks, avoid predators, and release nutrients into the ocean. The flight posture may also make it easier to exert gut pressure compared to floating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-and-body-weight">Patterns and body weight</h2>



“Streaked shearwaters have very long and narrow wings, good for gliding, not flapping,” said Uesaka. 



“They have to flap their wings vigorously to take off, which exhausts them. This means the risk of excreting on the sea surface outweighs the effort to take off. There must be a strong reason behind that.”



The research uncovered another surprising detail: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-sea-ice-makes-it-harder-for-seabirds-to-find-food/">birds</a> kept a steady rhythm, often every few minutes, regardless of how much time passed after eating. Each bird excreted about 30 grams per hour, more than 5% of its body weight. 



That rapid loss could help lighten their load mid-flight, making gliding more efficient. This finding challenges earlier land-based estimates, which suggested lower excretion rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ecosystems">Implications for ecosystems</h2>



While the waste of a single bird seems trivial, the collective output of millions becomes immense. Their droppings may transport nutrients far from breeding colonies, enriching distant ocean waters. This influence might be crucial in areas where seabirds gather in large numbers.



The study also raises a health dimension. Seabird feces can carry pathogens like avian influenza. If excreted in shared feeding grounds, they might spread diseases across colonies. 



This possibility highlights how seabird behavior links not only to nutrient cycles but also to marine epidemiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-and-hidden-nutrients">Seabirds and hidden nutrients</h2>



“We don’t know why they keep this excretion rhythm, but there must be a reason,” said Uesaka. 



He plans to expand studies with longer-lasting cameras and GPS to map where droppings fall at sea. "Feces are important. But people don’t really think about it," said Uesaka.



Ultimately, the study shows that even small, seemingly insignificant behaviors can shape ecosystems. What seems trivial may hold vital clues to how life sustains itself across the oceans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(25)00818-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Seabirds only poop when they are flying, and that's a great thing for the ocean

From the songs of dawn to the soaring silhouettes over...

Some of the first human settlers in the Americas carried more than primitive skills and tools, they also brought a small but powerful genetic variant called MUC19. 



That gene fragment, inherited from an extinct hominin called Denisovans, appears to have helped early people cope with new diseases, foods, and landscapes.



In a new study, a team of scientists led by the University of Colorado Boulder (<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>), with collaborators including <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a>, traced a Denisovan-derived variant of a gene called MUC19 that is unusually common in people with Indigenous American ancestry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-denisovans-gave-us-muc19">Denisovans gave us MUC19</h2>



“In terms of evolution, this is an incredible leap,” said Fernando Villanea, an assistant professor in the Anthropology department at CU Boulder and a lead author of the study. “It shows an amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-most-diverse-forests-are-failing-to-adapt-to-climate-change/">adaptation</a> and resilience within a population that is simply amazing.”



The result ties a deep past event to a much later journey. Long before humans crossed the Bering Strait ice corridors, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/">Denisovans</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-autism-to-neanderthal-dna-genetic-variants-found-in-modern-humans/">Neanderthals</a> interbred.



Later, Neanderthals and humans did the same. Along that chain, a Denisovan version of MUC19 made its way into some human populations. Natural selection then favored it in the Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinct-cousins-left-their-mark">Extinct cousins left their mark</h2>



Denisovans were close cousins of both humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-analysis-reveals-most-recent-modern-human-to-interbreed-with-neanderthals/">Neanderthals</a>. They ranged from Siberia south toward Oceania and west onto the Tibetan Plateau. 



Fossil traces are sparse, and the first recognized Denisovan was identified only 15 years ago through DNA in a bone fragment.



Like Neanderthals, Denisovans likely had prominent brow ridges and lacked chins - we think. What we know much more about is their genetic legacy. 



“We know more about their genomes and how their body chemistry behaves than we do about what they looked like,” Villanea said.



They left DNA behind in many modern people, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">shaping biology</a> from immunity to altitude tolerance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muc19-improved-human-health">MUC19 improved human health</h2>



MUC19 sits in a family of 22 mucin genes in mammals. These genes help build mucus, a frontline barrier that protects tissues and traps pathogens. 



“It seems like MUC19 has a lot of functional consequences for health, but we’re only starting to understand these genes,” said Villanea.



Earlier work showed Denisovans carried a distinctive MUC19 sequence. Some modern humans inherited it. That kind of admixture was common in the ancient world. 



While all modern humans carry some Neanderthal DNA, only about 5 percent of us have Denisovan genes in our blood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-american-adaptation">DNA reveals American adaptation</h2>



Villanea and co-lead author David Peede examined already published <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/">genomes</a> from people in Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, and Colombia. 



They asked a simple question with big implications: Where is the Denisovan MUC19 variant most common?



The answer pointed to the Americas. Roughly one in three people of Mexican ancestry carries a copy of the Denisovan MUC19 variant. 



The signal is strongest on genomic segments that reflect Indigenous American heritage. In contrast, only about 1 percent of people with Central European ancestry carry it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-denisovan-core-neanderthal-shell">Denisovan core, Neanderthal shell</h2>



The team found another twist. The Denisovan segment sits inside a larger stretch of Neanderthal-derived DNA. “This DNA is like an Oreo, with a Denisovan center and Neanderthal cookies,” Villanea said.



That sandwich points to the path this gene likely took. Denisovans first passed MUC19 to Neanderthals. Later, Neanderthals passed that package to humans.



It is the first clear case of Denisovan DNA reaching humans through Neanderthals and not only through direct Denisovan-human mixing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-settlers-in-the-americas">First settlers in the Americas</h2>



After humans reached the Americas, selection seems to have boosted the Denisovan MUC19. Why here and not elsewhere? 



The first Americans faced environments unlike any their ancestors had known. New pathogens, new foods, new seasons and new terrains.



A mucus-related gene that improved barrier defenses or mucosal health may have offered an edge.



“All of a sudden, people had to find new ways to hunt, new ways to farm, and they developed really cool technology in response to those challenges,” noted Villanea. “But over 20,000 years, their bodies were also adapting at a biological level.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-genes-and-new-worlds">Ancient genes and new worlds</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-superhighways-through-eurasia-recreated-with-supercomputers/">migration</a> story spans ice, coastlines, and time. Early people moved from a shared ancestral population around the Bering Strait into a continent that contains rainforests, deserts, high mountains, and grasslands.



“What Indigenous American populations did was really incredible,” Villanea said. “They went from a common ancestor living around the Bering Strait to adapting biologically and culturally to this new continent that has every single type of biome in the world.”



Genes like MUC19 offer a record of that adaptation. They capture how ancient encounters with cousins like Denisovans left tools that descendants later used.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muc19-humans-and-the-future">MUC19, humans, and the future</h2>



The team now wants to test what different versions of MUC19 do in living people. 



Does the Denisovan variant change mucus properties in the mouth, gut, or airways? Does it alter infection risk or inflammation? Those answers would connect a striking evolutionary story to present-day health.



For now, the lesson is broad. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-early-homo-species-discovered-lived-with-australopithecus-challenges-human-evolution-theory/">Human evolution</a> is not a straight line. It is a braided river with tributaries from Neanderthals and Denisovans. Some of those tributaries carried genes that mattered when humans stepped into a new world.



The first Americans adapted with ingenuity, culture, and technology - and, as this study shows, with a little help from very ancient DNA.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl0882%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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DNA from extinct human cousins helped early humans colonize the Americas

Some of the first human settlers in the Americas carried...

Mountain forests don’t keep rising endlessly. At a certain point, trees run out of room to grow. A new global study shows why: cold temperatures set the upper limit everywhere, while water availability determines which tree species can survive close to that edge. 



This boundary, called the treeline, is where tall forests give way to smaller, scattered, and stunted growth. 



Research over decades has found that treelines align with temperature - not with a fixed altitude. They typically appear where the growing season lasts about 90 days and the average temperature hovers around 6.4°C (43.5°F).



The latest study was led by Yuyang Xie in the Department of Biology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (<a href="https://bio.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC</a>). 



The researchers pulled together one of the largest datasets of its kind to test a straightforward idea: heat sets the treeline’s height, while moisture determines which tree species can survive there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-sets-mountain-tree-boundaries">Cold sets mountain tree boundaries</h2>



Xie’s team compiled more than 2,000 treeline records for dozens of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-reveals-ice-age-life-in-the-australian-blue-mountains/">mountain</a> regions. Across genera and continents, the uppermost trees appeared where local heat fell well below each species’ comfort zone.



“Heat deficits, averaging around 35 percent below genus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-get-a-boost-from-diverse-neighbors-especially-in-wet-forests/">species</a> level thermal optima, consistently restrict the presence of treeline,” said Christian Körner, a plant ecologist at the <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>.



Water availability then sorted which species could endure those margins. Sites with similar cold at the limit showed different species mixes depending on how wet or variable the climate was throughout the year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-treeline-shifts">Predicting treeline shifts</h2>



To move past one-size-fits-all models, the team introduced the Relative Distance to Optimum (RDO) index. It measures how far a species lives from the temperature and moisture it prefers.



RDO captures the slack or stress that a population carries at the limit, making projections of upslope or downslope shifts more precise for particular tree groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-steers-the-forest-edge">Rainfall steers the forest edge</h2>



Independent evidence backs the moisture filter. A Himalayan study found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-face-unprecedented-climate-shifts-across-their-ranges/">treelines</a> advanced faster on the wet eastern slopes but slowed or stalled on drier sites despite warming.



Spring precipitation emerged as a key control. The pattern reinforces the idea that water availability governs whether warming translates into actual upslope establishment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-trees-impact-ecosystems">Shifting trees impact ecosystems</h2>



Treelines often lag behind climate change because trees take years to reach stature that qualifies as a tree. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforests-replanted-seedlings-after-logging-do-not-recover-well/">Seedlings</a> may appear far above today’s forest but remain shrubs for decades.



Local conditions can blunt simple warming signals. Windswept ridges that dry quickly can resist upward transitions, while lee slopes with late melting snow may shelter starts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-forecasts-for-forests">Better forecasts for forests</h2>



Land managers can think of treelines as following two simple rules. Cold determines how high trees can grow in a region, and water decides which species can survive near that limit. 



Forecasts that include species-specific tolerances will be more accurate than those based on temperature alone. Using RDO-style metrics can highlight areas where moisture is the main barrier, pointing to hotspots where monitoring or targeted planting could have the greatest impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-map-shows-tree-limits">Map shows tree limits</h2>



The new map does not claim that water controls treeline height. Instead, it shows that cold fixes the height, while water determines which species can function there.



This framing explains why distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-surprising-role-of-low-relief-mountain-ranges-in-climate-regulation/">mountain ranges</a> share similar thermal limits yet display very different tree lineups. It also explains why some places shift quickly while others hardly budge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-research-refines-treelines">Climate research refines treelines</h2>



Improved climate data near the ground will help scientists better define the limits within which each species can survive. 



Long-term monitoring across the treeline zone will show whether seedlings are able to grow into mature trees or if their growth stalls at a younger stage.



The biggest gains will come from pairing physiology with climate. Knowing when populations live far from their optima can guide restoration and risk assessment before the forest edge moves. 



"Our findings highlight the synergic effects between heat and moisture in determining the taxonomic variation in treeline formation, offering insights for alpine treeline studies under climate change," the researchers concluded. 



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2504685122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How cold air and water shape the limits of mountain trees

Mountain forests don’t keep rising endlessly. At a certain point,...

Silhouette,Business,People,Discussion,Communication,Meeting,Concept

Body posture sends steady social signals. Long before anyone speaks, the way a person naturally stands can hint at how they see status, power, and the people around them. Not just in heated moments - your baseline stance matters.



Most research on posture looks at quick shifts tied to mood. This current study asked a different question: Are there trait-level differences in posture that stick over time and actually tell us something <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychologists-claim-the-7-38-55-rule-is-secret-to-exceptional-eq-emotional-intelligence/">about personality</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-posture-to-social-personality">Linking posture to social personality</h2>



The research tested whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-men-and-women-react-differently-to-stress/">individual differences</a> in everyday, natural posture relate to individual differences in personality. 



In a large sample, the team tracked posture in neutral settings and linked those measures with attitudes toward competition, power, and social hierarchy.



The work was led by Soren Wanio-Theberge and Jorge Armony at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, who have argued that body language connects directly to emotions; these studies put that idea in a more precise frame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-mood-and-posture">Social mood and posture</h2>



The relationship the authors describe reflects individual differences in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36048034/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">postural dominance</a> and submission. 



People vary in how “open” or “closed” they tend to hold themselves at rest, and those patterns align with how they think about social rank. 



The work suggests that postural signaling of social rank occurs not only in brief displays but as a stable individual trait with consequences for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/social-processing" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">socioaffective processing</a>.



To ensure the posture measure was sound, the researchers validated it against physiological data from relevant musculature and showed that it remained stable over a one-month interval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-they-measured-it">How they measured it</h2>



Across the five studies, four relied on photos participants submitted of themselves standing in a natural pose. One brought participants to the lab for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-felt-emotions-in-unusual-body-parts/">physiological measurements</a>. 



In total, there were 608 young adult participants. Postural ratings across time tended to be stable, which supports the idea that baseline stance is more than a passing mood.



In one experiment, participants were instructed to pose in a dominant or submissive way. 



In the submissive stance, they adopted a stooped, bent-forward posture. When instructed to appear dominant, they stood upright, with hips forward and torso leaning backward. 



This might remind you of the “power pose” idea, but there was no indication in this particular study that an altered posture produced an altered state of mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neck-flexion-and-positioning">Neck flexion and positioning</h2>



The most informative feature was how much the head tilts down or up - <a href="https://www.stonybrookmedicine.edu/lifestyle-medicine/movement/resources/neck" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neck flexion</a>. The scientists focused on the angle that captures chin-down vs. chin-up - i.e., how much the head is tilted forward relative to the neck/torso. 



The team extracted body keypoints from simple front/side photos, then computed posture angles - including a neck-flexion angle - from those keypoints.



The position of your neck, combined with your body posture and stance, correlated to personality: more-upright individuals tended, on average, to endorse more dominance-oriented views and scored higher on some manipulative/antisocial trait measures. 



To clarify, people who naturally held their head higher (less flexion; more “chin up”) tended, on average, to score higher on dominance-related and some antisocial/manipulative traits (e.g., social dominance orientation, primary psychopathy, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/machiavellianism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Machiavellianism</a>). They also scored lower on empathy and anger control.



Crucially, neck flexion was a group-level correlation, not a diagnosis, and the pattern held when participants returned about a month later, suggesting a stable trait rather than just a passing mood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-posture-and-social-cues">Posture and social cues</h2>



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/body-language-expresses-emotions-across-cultures/">body-emotion links</a> are well known: raising the fists (anger), moving the torso backward (fear), curving the lower back or “lordotic” posture (sexual receptiveness in female mammals), and arching the back (rats and other four-legged animals). 



In social situations, an open, erect, and expanded stance often reads as dominant. A slumped, closed posture tends to read as submissive.



These visible patterns form a practical “menu” of cues people use, especially with strangers. Any one of them, or a mix, can help you <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39311863/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">figure out what someone may be signaling</a> without saying a word.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-links-that-showed-up">Personality links that showed up</h2>



Early in the series, people with more erect postures scored higher on personality traits associated with psychopathic tendencies. Later work broadened the view. 



The final study assessed psychopathy, manipulativeness, competitiveness, and belief in the existence of social hierarchies. 



In the authors’ words, this range of attributes reflects “the use of intimidation in order to improve one’s access to resources in the environment at the expense of others."



The authors reasoned that for some dominant individuals, “the experience of being at the bottom of the heap can be intolerable." 



A feedback loop can follow: standing tall and straight takes effort and often draws deferential treatment. That social response can reinforce a dominant posture over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-everyone-stands-the-same">Not everyone stands the same</h2>



People who scored lower on these dominance-related traits showed a wider range of stances rather than sticking to one “strong” look. 



Flexibility in posture - opening up in some moments, settling into neutral in others - fits with lower endorsement of competitive, top-down views of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/having-an-active-social-life-helps-the-brain-make-better-sense-of-the-world/">social life</a>.



The big picture here is that natural posture, captured in everyday conditions, carries information about personality and social attitudes. It wasn’t just a flash in the pan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underlying-issues">Underlying issues</h2>



There are limits. The sample leaned heavily toward female undergraduates, and the methods were correlational. Culture also shapes how people use space and stance. 



As people age, normal changes in muscle and body mass can affect posture, no matter their personality. Those realities matter when you apply these findings to new groups or settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-this-into-the-real-world">Bringing this into the real world</h2>



When you meet someone new, you take in many cues at once - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">face</a>, voice, handshake, movement. Posture is one cue among many, and it’s a useful one. 



A person standing up straight can come across as confident and trustworthy. However, in special circumstances, a consistently erect, expanded stance was associated with stronger endorsement of social dominance and related traits. 



On the flip side, a person who slumps isn’t automatically timid; context matters.



The study closes with a practical note: a person who appears to use their body to intimidate you - even if they do not fully succeed - is someone to avoid.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-you-should-take-from-this-study">What you should take from this study</h2>



Trait-level posture exists - that isn't up for debate. It links directly to how people think about rank and competition. The measure was checked against muscle activity and held steady over one month. 



Briefly adopting a pose - dominant or submissive - didn’t seem to change people’s mindset in this set of studies. 



And while posture can inform first impressions, it should sit alongside other signals before you decide how to engage.



That’s the takeaway: pay attention, stay thoughtful, and use posture as one clear piece of the larger social puzzle.



The full studies were published in the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fpspp0000515" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>.



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Observing how a person stands will quickly reveal their personality type and traits

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Gold behaves differently when it is reduced to a single layer of atoms. Electrons take new routes and light couples to the surface in surprising ways. A team reports they have isolated such a layer and given it a fitting name: "goldene," echoing graphene’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graphene-wonder-material-changing-the-world-is-officially-declared-safe-for-humans/">single-atom carbon sheet</a>.



Why would anyone fuss over atom-thick gold? Shrinking to two dimensions can unlock properties you don’t see in bulk metal. 



That includes tunable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/researchers-announce-an-unexpected-breakthrough-in-graphene-physics-that-could-lead-to-a-new-generation-of-ultra-efficient-computers/">electrical behavior</a>, stronger interactions with light, and a hyperactive surface useful for catalytic reactions. 



This new work shows how to make a freestanding gold sheet just one atom thick, rather than only growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/altermagnetism-third-form-of-magnetism-existence-confirmed/">ultrathin films</a> on a supporting surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-they-made-goldene">How they made goldene</h2>



According to Lars Hultman, a materials scientist at <a href="https://liu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Linköping University</a> in Sweden and senior author of a study in Nature Synthesis, the method could “expand the boundaries of what it’s possible to do with materials,” and it starts with a naturally layered crystal.



The group first created a gold-containing “MAX phase,” a crystal that stacks atomic layers in a repeating pattern. 



They began with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32384996/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ti₃SiC₂</a>, then heated a gold-coated film to approximately 670°C (1,238°F), allowing gold atoms to replace silicon and form Ti₃AuC₂. 



In earlier work, that swap left atom-thick gold trapped between other layers. 



“The good news was that we had gold layers that were just one atom thick,” Hultman says. “The bad news was that they were stuck inside the host crystal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freeing-the-monolayer">Freeing the monolayer</h2>



Metals prefer to bead up, not spread flat at the atomic scale. The team avoided that by etching away the non-gold layers while protecting the newly exposed gold. 



They used Murakami’s reagent, a classic etchant that reacts strongly with titanium and carbon but largely ignores gold under the right conditions.



Surfactants acted like traffic control on the gold surface. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040609008012030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CTAB</a>, a bulky molecule, and small sulfur-bearing molecules such as cysteine or cysteamine attached to gold and helped keep the sheet from curling or merging into blobs during the etch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tuning-goldene-s-chemistry">Tuning goldene's chemistry</h2>



Selectivity mattered. If the etchant was too strong, the structure broke into nanoparticles. If it was too weak, the process dragged out and damaged the sheet. 



The sweet spot used low concentrations paired with the right surfactants. The etch ran in darkness to prevent light-driven reactions that generate cyanide species capable of dissolving gold.



Spacing between the gold layers in the starting crystal mattered too. 



Layers that were too close attracted each other as they were freed, merging into thicker pieces. More separation gave surfactants time to slip in and stabilize the sheet.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/goldene_supermaterial_graphene-cousin_one-atom-thick_infographic_NatSynth_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/goldene_supermaterial_graphene-cousin_one-atom-thick_infographic_NatSynth_1s.webp" alt="a, Schematic atomic positions corresponding to a square in b, and HR-STEM image of Ti3AuC2 orientation marked in b. Yellow, blue and black balls represent Au, Ti and C atoms, respectively. Scale bar, 5 Å. b, Cross-sectional HR-STEM image of Ti3AuC2, after etching by Murakami’s reagent with CTAB, where the original Ti3AuC2 structure remains at the left side and goldene appears at the right side of the etching frontline. Scale bar, 5 nm. c, Zoomed-in partly twisted goldene after etching away Ti3C2 slabs marked in b. Scale bar, 2 nm. d, Schematic illustration of the preparation of goldene. Credit: Nature Synthesis" class="wp-image-1983205"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">a, Schematic atomic positions corresponding to a square in b, and HR-STEM image of Ti3AuC2 orientation marked in b. Yellow, blue and black balls represent Au, Ti and C atoms, respectively. Scale bar, 5 Å. b, Cross-sectional HR-STEM image of Ti3AuC2, after etching by Murakami’s reagent with CTAB, where the original Ti3AuC2 structure remains at the left side and goldene appears at the right side of the etching frontline. Scale bar, 5 nm. c, Zoomed-in partly twisted goldene after etching away Ti3C2 slabs marked in b. Scale bar, 2 nm. d, Schematic illustration of the preparation of goldene. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature Synthesis</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tighter-atomic-spacing">Tighter atomic spacing</h2>



Electron microscopes revealed true monolayers: freestanding gold sheets only one atom thick. The flakes were not large; most spanned from a few nanometers to about 100 nanometers across (about 0.0000039 inches).



As with many single-atom materials, the sheets showed natural ripples and slightly curled edges, but they remained single layers rather than stacks.



Measurements showed the distance between neighboring gold atoms shrank by about 9% compared with ordinary gold. 



Confinement to two dimensions can tighten bonding, and that’s reflected in the shorter spacing. Elemental mapping confirmed the identity: the sheets were truly gold, not a titanium-based lookalike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-x-rays-revealed">What the x-rays revealed</h2>



<a href="https://jlab.chem.yale.edu/research/techniques/photoelectron-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy</a> found a higher binding energy shift - about 0.88 electronvolts - compared with regular metallic gold. 



That shift signals a different electronic environment for goldene’s atoms, consistent with a two-dimensional metal rather than bulk gold.



Atomistic simulations suggest that a perfect goldene sheet remains stable at room temperature. The same modeling helps explain the observed ripples and the tendency for edges to curl or aggregate when surface chemistry is not tuned correctly. 



That guidance, together with the experiments, points to practical levers - etch strength, surfactant choice, light exposure, and layer spacing - to improve yield and size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-goldene-matters">Why goldene matters</h2>



Gold already plays a role in electronics, photonics, sensing, and medicine. Flattening it to a single layer boosts surface area and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graphene-superhighway-allows-electronic-devices-to-use-much-less-power/">tweaks electron behavior</a>. 



That combination could help catalysts that convert waste streams into useful chemicals, enhance light-harvesting in solar components, or make photothermal therapies more efficient by heating tumors locally with less material.



Because goldene exposes so many atoms directly on the surface, you can get more effect from less metal than with larger particles. That can cut costs while trimming environmental impact tied to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graphene-new-wonder-material-earth-technology-found-moon-soil/">mining and refining</a>.



In short, the team hid a monolayer of gold inside a layered crystal, then etched away everything else while “soaping” the gold so it stayed flat. 



The result is a freestanding, one-atom-thick metal sheet with clear structural and electronic signatures that differ from those of bulk gold - and a wide-open set of possibilities that now moves from wish list to working material.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44160-024-00518-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Synthesis</a>.



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Introducing 'goldene': the world's newest supermaterial that is one atom thick

Gold behaves differently when it is reduced to a single...

You know that feeling when everyone tells you something is impossible, so you never even try? That is what happened in chemistry for a hundred years. Students memorized a rule, one called Bredt's rule, and then everyone obeyed it. Professors taught it. Nobody questioned it. And it was wrong.



The team of chemists behind this study didn't set out to break Bredt's rule, it just happened. 



They made molecules that supposedly couldn't exist. Not only did they make them - they used them to create novel compounds that could become tomorrow's medicines. 



This is not a tiny correction. It is like learning that you can divide by zero under narrowly defined conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-bredt-s-rule">Understanding Bredt's rule</h2>



Back in 1924, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Bredt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julius Bredt</a> examined certain molecules and concluded it could not happen. He was talking about molecules where two rings connect at a bridge point - the bridgehead. 



Bredt argued you cannot place a double bond there in small molecules. The bond would be extremely twisted and break.



For a century, every chemistry textbook repeated this. They called these impossible molecules "anti-Bredt olefins." Students learned to spot them and cross them out. Case closed.



However, <a href="https://garg.chem.ucla.edu/about-neil" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neil Garg</a>, a distinguished professor of chemistry and biochemistry at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a>, disagreed. His team went ahead and made these "impossible" molecules anyway. 



"People aren't exploring anti-Bredt olefins because they think they can't," Garg pointed out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-bredt-s-rule-false">Proving Bredt's rule false</h2>



The UCLA team took a strategic approach. They knew these molecules would fall apart quickly, so they never tried to isolate them. Instead, they set up a chemical relay.



When fluoride is added, the molecule expels the leaving group and forms the forbidden, twisted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/">double bond</a> at the bridgehead. Before it can fall apart, another molecule quickly captures it. The sequence happens quickly.



The anti-Bredt olefin exists just long enough to react, then transforms into something stable. It is like crossing hot coals - you keep moving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-formation">Evidence of formation</h2>



So how can you prove something existed if it vanished instantly? You look at what is left behind. The products tell the story.



When the team made a twisted molecule with a specific handedness - left-handed versus right-handed - the final product preserved the same twist. 



That outcome occurs only if the anti-Bredt olefin formed in between. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecular-fingerprints-could-be-key-to-early-cancer-detection/">molecular fingerprints</a> are consistent with that conclusion.



Computer simulations supported the findings. The calculations predicted what they observed in the lab. When theory and experiment align, the result is compelling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medicine-needs-3d-shapes">Medicine needs 3D shapes</h2>



This is why drug companies are interested. Many molecules lie relatively flat, but bodies are full of pockets and grooves that need three-dimensional shapes to fit properly. These techniques build molecules with pronounced three-dimensional features.



"There's a big push in the pharmaceutical industry to develop chemical reactions that give three-dimensional structures like ours because they can be used to discover <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/generic-drugs-are-not-created-equal-and-a-new-study-reveals-why/">new medicines</a>," Garg explained.



Each new shape is a potential key for a biological lock we have not opened yet. The anti-Bredt olefins are doorways to thousands of molecular structures nobody could make before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bredt-s-rule">Rethinking Bredt's rule</h2>



Bredt was not entirely wrong - his rule works most of the time. But treating it as an unbreakable law was the mistake. Science advances when exceptions are discovered.



"We shouldn't have rules like this - or if we have them, they should only exist with the constant reminder that they're guidelines, not rules. It destroys creativity when we have rules that supposedly can't be overcome," Garg said.



Now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chemistry-of-wine-what-actually-shapes-its-texture/">chemistry</a> teachers face an interesting problem. How do you teach something that was "never" but is now "sometimes"? How do you tell students about rules while also telling them to question everything?



The answer is to teach the rule and the exception together. Show how clever chemistry can outsmart the limitations. That is more honest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



Labs everywhere are already planning experiments. Some groups want to make new drugs. Others are exploring additional “impossible” molecules. Materials scientists are considering plastics and electronics with novel properties.



"What this study shows is that contrary to one hundred years of conventional wisdom, chemists can make and use anti-Bredt olefins to make value-added products," Garg noted.



The techniques keep improving. Each successful reaction teaches chemists something new about controlling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-may-have-just-solved-the-mystery-of-sleep/">unstable molecules</a>. Today's impossibility becomes tomorrow's routine procedure.



But the real victory is not just about molecules. It is about mindset. When you stop accepting "can't" as final, you start finding ways around it. 



The UCLA team did not discover a new element or invent a new instrument. They simply refused to accept that something was impossible without checking for themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Most of us are not going to synthesize anti-Bredt olefins in our kitchens. But we all encounter rules that might be more like suggestions. 



Sometimes the biggest advances come from people brave enough (or stubborn enough) to test the boundaries.



The chemists did not break physics. They found a path nobody thought to look for. The mountain was still there - they just discovered a tunnel. After a hundred years of going around, someone finally went through.



Next time someone says something is impossible, ask whether anyone has actually tried it recently. You might be surprised by what is possible when you stop assuming and start experimenting.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq3519" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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100-year-old chemistry rule proven false, textbook updates needed

You know that feeling when everyone tells you something is...

A red supergiant in the Milky Way has thrown a curveball at astronomers. DFK 52, a member of the Stephenson 2 cluster, sits inside a vast bubble of gas and dust that is about 8.2 trillion miles across and roughly the mass of the Sun.



Researchers used the&nbsp;ALMA radio telescope&nbsp;in Chile to observe the red supergiant, which is similar to the well-known star Betelgeuse. The project was led by Mark Siebert at <a href="https://www.chalmers.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chalmers University of Technology</a>.



ALMA revealed that the bubble is expanding, suggesting a violent outburst about 4,000 years ago that somehow did not end the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-discovered-orbiting-the-alpha-centauri-system-the-closest-star-system-to-earth/">star</a>’s life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-bubble-shows-huge-mass-outburst">Star bubble shows huge mass outburst</h2>



The team describes a complex cloud that spreads outward in tangled arcs and clumps, not a tidy sphere, and reaches astonishing size for material tied to a single star. 



The experts report that the detached shell holds roughly one solar mass and extends about 1.4 light years across.



The researchers link the expansion to a short, intense episode of mass loss that happened a few millennia ago. That timing is recent in astronomical terms and sets up a natural test case for how massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-universes-first-molecule-helped-ignite-the-stars/">stars</a> shed material before they explode.



“We got a big surprise when we saw what Alma was showing us. The star is more or less a twin of Betelgeuse, but it’s surrounded by a vast, messy bubble of material,” said Siebert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-radio-telescope-saw">What the radio telescope saw</h2>



The <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a> array measures faint radio light from molecules like carbon monoxide and silicon monoxide, letting astronomers map gas speeds with the Doppler effect. Those data reveal both slow and fast components moving in different patterns around the star.



A compact, slower wind surrounds the star today at about 6.2 miles per second. A faster structure, likely a disk or ring oriented edge on, expands at about 16.8 miles per second and appears to be the relic of the ancient outburst.



This two-part picture matches the brightness and shape of the carbon monoxide emission. The model points to an equatorial feature containing only a few hundredths of the Sun’s mass, along with a slower, continuous wind shedding material at a modest rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-star-lost-mass">Why the star lost mass</h2>



Why did DFK 52 throw off so much mass without dying? The survival of the star after such a forceful ejection raises questions about what set off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-planet-orbits-backward-around-a-dying-star/">event</a>.



“To us, it’s a mystery as to how the star managed to expel so much material in such a short timeframe. Maybe, like Betelgeuse seems to, it has a companion star that’s still to be discovered,” said Siebert. 



The idea of a hidden partner that stirred the atmosphere and helped peel off outer layers has gained traction.&nbsp;



Another possibility is a brief, unstable phase within the star itself. Episodic mass loss has been seen or inferred in other massive stars approaching the end of life, though the precise triggers remain debated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-future-supernovae">What this means for future supernovae</h2>



Dense gas and dust close to a star can change how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-toi-1846-b-possible-oceans-discovered-orbiting-red-dwarf-star/">supernova</a> looks in its first days. When fresh ejecta slam into nearby material, the interaction can brighten the event and imprint unique features on the early spectrum.



Evidence for this behavior already exists. A 2017 paper on SN 2013fs showed that the exploding star had a compact but dense circumstellar medium that was shed shortly before the blast.



DFK 52’s bubble sits farther out, yet it proves the star has a history of strong mass loss. If the star ramps up again before it dies, the environment could set the stage for a very conspicuous supernova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-star-to-other-supergiants">Comparing the star to other supergiants</h2>



DFK 52 draws comparisons to red supergiant icons like Betelgeuse and Antares. These are massive, swollen, cool stars nearing the end of their lives and expected to finish as Type II supernovae.



Betelgeuse itself showed how messy these stars can be when it dimmed in late 2019 and early 2020. That event was traced to a dust cloud formed by material leaving the star.



DFK 52 appears less luminous than the most extreme red supergiants but carries a larger, colder envelope at great distance. This combination hints at an unusual history that standard wind models do not capture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The team plans follow up observations to hunt for a companion and to refine the 3D structure of the shell. Better constraints on the gas chemistry and dust properties will also help sort out how the outburst unfolded.



“If this is a typical red supergiant, it could explode sometime in the next million years," said study co-author Elvire De Beck. 



"We’re planning more observations to understand what’s happening, and to find out whether this might be the Milky Way’s next supernova."



The study is published in <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/08/aa55975-25/aa55975-25.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



Image Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)/M. Siebert et al



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Supergiant star survived a violent eruption - but what comes next?

A red supergiant in the Milky Way has thrown a...

That pile of shirts you just dropped off at the charity shop? There’s something you should know about where those donated clothes are really going.



Most of us grew up believing a simple story. You clean out your closet, drop off the clothes you don’t wear anymore at a donation center, and someone who needs them gets to use them. 



It feels good. It seems responsible. 



But the truth about what happens to our old clothes is far more complicated - and, frankly, troubling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dirty-secret-of-donated-clothes">Dirty secret of donated clothes</h2>



Here’s what actually happens when you donate clothes. First, they go to charity shops and collectors who sort through everything. The nicest pieces might be sold at the local thrift store. 



But there’s a catch: these organizations receive far more clothing than they can sell. We’re talking about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-polyester-clothes-stink-more-than-cotton/">mountains of fabric</a> that no one locally wants to buy.



So what happens to the rest? Some items are thrown away. But a huge portion gets packed into bales and shipped overseas. 



The clothes leave the country, which makes our waste figures look better, but the problem doesn’t disappear. It just moves.



A study in Nature Cities tracked clothing donations in nine wealthy cities, including Austin, Toronto, Melbourne, and Oslo. 



The pattern was the same everywhere: too many clothes coming in, not enough local demand, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disturbingly-small-amount-of-plastic-recycling-done-around-the-world/">massive exports</a> to other countries. 



In Norway, almost all collected used clothing leaves the country. The U.S. and Australia ship out huge amounts, too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-donated-clothes-and-charities">Donated clothes and charities</h2>



The charity organizations we rely on are overwhelmed by donations. They were never built to handle this volume of clothing, and they weren’t designed to be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-waste-is-growing-five-times-faster-than-recycling/">waste-management systems</a>.



“We’re used to charities doing the heavy lifting, but they’ve been unable to fully handle the volume of donated clothes for a long time now,” explained Dr. Yassie Samie of <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RMIT University</a> in Melbourne. 



“Charities are driven by social welfare values and need to raise funds for their programs. However, their operations are ill-equipped to deal with the volume of used textiles that need to be reused and recycled.”



Think about the scale here. Global textile waste adds up to tens of millions of tons every year. Much of that starts in wealthy cities where people buy clothes constantly and get rid of them just as fast.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/donated-clothes_textile-waste_fast-fashion-pollution_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/donated-clothes_textile-waste_fast-fashion-pollution_1s.webp" alt="A large mound of waste textiles from donated clothes stretches towards the horizon, showcasing the scale of clothing pollution in the landscape" class="wp-image-1982853"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A large mound of waste textiles from donated clothes stretches towards the horizon, showcasing the scale of clothing pollution in the landscape. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-real-problem-runs-deeper">The real problem runs deeper</h2>



Two words explain why this keeps happening: overconsumption and oversupply. Clothes have gotten incredibly cheap. We buy more than ever before, wear things just a few times, and then toss them. 



The quality is often so poor that items can’t survive being passed between multiple owners or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-trash-to-treasure-e-waste-is-a-literal-gold-mine/">recycled into something new</a>.



Even the best-run charity can’t transform low-quality fast fashion into endless reuse opportunities. 



When these cheap clothes flood secondhand markets, they actually hurt small resale businesses. Some thrift stores import higher-quality used clothing because local donations are often unwearable.



The researchers introduced an important concept called “sufficiency.” It’s not just about recycling or reusing clothes better - it’s about buying less stuff in the first place. 



They compare trying to create a <a href="https://www.epa.gov/circulareconomy/what-circular-economy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circular economy</a> without sufficiency to bailing water out of a boat without fixing the hole. 



If companies keep churning out cheap clothes and we keep treating them like they’re disposable, no amount of recycling will solve the problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-at-the-city-level">Changes at the city-level</h2>



The study doesn’t just point out problems - it offers solutions. Cities need to stop treating textiles as a charity issue and start treating them as waste that needs proper management. 



That means setting up real systems for collecting, sorting, and processing old clothes locally instead of shipping them away.



Cities can also make it easier for people to repair and reuse what they already own. Some places lend out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fashion-history-was-forever-altered-by-the-tiny-eyed-needle/">sewing machines</a> at libraries. Others host swap events or teach basic mending skills. 



When cities offer discounted repair services for people who can’t afford full price, more clothes stay in use longer.



Advertising is also a problem. Fast fashion companies dominate billboards, storefronts, and social media. 



The researchers suggest cities should limit fashion advertising in public spaces and give that visibility to thrift stores, repair shops, and clothing swaps instead.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-fast-fashion-jeans-bad-for-environment/">Sustainable fashion</a> initiatives, like second-hand retailers, struggle to compete with fashion brands’ big marketing budgets and convenient locations,” Dr. Samie noted. 



“Fast fashion alternatives exist but they are under-promoted, despite their potential to significantly reduce cities’ textile waste.”



Urban planning plays a role, too. When cities keep building huge malls while pushing repair cafés and resale shops to the edges of town, they’re basically designing a system where <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452223622000967" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fast fashion</a> wins. 



Some European cities are already changing this by offering cheaper rent and grants to businesses focused on reuse and repair.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-actions-that-individuals-can-take">Actions that individuals can take</h2>



For regular people, the message is pretty clear. The most impactful thing you can do is slow down how often you buy and toss clothes. 



Wear what you own more often. Fix things when they break. When you do buy something new, choose quality that will last.



Support local thrift stores, repair shops, and clothing swaps in your area. These businesses and community groups need customers to survive and grow. The more we use them, the stronger the whole system becomes.



The next time you’re about to donate a bag of clothes, remember this: donating isn’t a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-scientists-are-using-air-to-recycle-plastic/">magic solution</a> that makes overconsumption okay. 



Those clothes might travel thousands of miles and still end up in a landfill, just in a different country. The real solution starts with buying less and using what we have for far longer than we currently do.



Wealthy cities have both the responsibility and the tools to act. But even the best systems won’t work if we keep treating clothes as disposable. 



The change has to happen at every level - from how companies make clothes to how cities manage them to how each of us shops and cares for what we own.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44284-024-00140-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Cities</a>.



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Donating clothes to charity has a dark side, and it will surprise you

That pile of shirts you just dropped off at the...

Bacteria,,Human,Microbiome,,Normal,Microflora,Of,Human,Body,,3d,Illustration

Most of us have heard that the gut is full of bacteria that help with digestion, immunity, and even mood. What you eat and drink shapes that microbial community.



Dairy sits in the middle of the conversation because it provides nutrients and, sometimes, live cultures, yet researchers don’t always agree on its effects. A careful study that sampled the colon lining directly adds useful clues.



Diet studies often rely on stool samples. That’s helpful, but it doesn’t always reflect the bacteria that stick to the gut wall. 



This project looked at those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/">wall-attached microbes</a>, which sit directly against our tissues. The goal was straightforward: see whether everyday dairy habits show up in that community of bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-microbiome">Understanding the microbiome</h2>



Think of your gut microbiome as a bustling neighborhood of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-fingerprints/">trillions of microbes</a> - mostly bacteria, plus some fungi and viruses - that live mainly in your large intestine. 



They help break down parts of food you can’t digest on your own, especially fiber, producing short-chain fatty acids like butyrate that feed your colon cells and help keep inflammation in check. 



These microbes also train your immune system, make certain vitamins, and interact with your nervous system through chemical signals. That's where we get the term "gut feeling." 



Everyone’s microbiome is a little different, shaped by birth, diet, environment, sleep, stress, and medicines like antibiotics. 



Diversity tends to be a good sign: a wider variety of species usually means a more stable, resilient community.



There’s no single “perfect” microbiome, but you can nudge yours in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-link-between-obesity-anxiety-and-gut-microbiome-changes/">healthy direction</a> with balanced meals, regular movement, enough sleep, and cautious antibiotic use when medically needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-how-dairy-shapes-gut-bacteria">Learning how dairy shapes gut bacteria</h2>



Adults undergoing routine colonoscopies at a veterans’ hospital in Houston participated. Their colons appeared normal, and none had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-helps-fight-cancer-by-changing-gut-microbes/">major conditions</a> that could confound the results. 



During the procedure, doctors collected pinhead-sized biopsies from the colon lining for lab analysis.



In total, the team analyzed 97 biopsies from 34 people. Beforehand, participants completed a food questionnaire that covered the past year, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/">milk, cheese, yogurt</a>, and total dairy intake. 



In the lab, the group used 16S rRNA sequencing to identify which bacteria were present and in what amounts.



Two basic yardsticks apply. “Alpha diversity” refers to how many kinds of bacteria are in a single sample. “Beta diversity” compares how different two people’s communities are.



The analysis adjusted for age, body size, smoking, alcohol use, health conditions, overall diet quality, and which part of the colon the sample came from. That helps separate signals that are likely true associations from those created by other factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-scientists-learned">What the scientists learned</h2>



People who drank more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-makes-dairy-cows-produce-less-milk/">milk</a> - and those who consumed more total dairy - tended to have higher alpha diversity in the bacteria attached to the colon lining. 



Beta diversity also differed between higher and lower consumers of total dairy, milk, cheese, and yogurt, indicating that intake patterns were associated with broader shifts in community structure.



Two familiar bacteria stood out. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/faecalibacterium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Faecalibacterium</a> is often considered beneficial because it makes butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid that fuels colon cells and can calm inflammation. People who consumed more total dairy and more milk had more Faecalibacterium on the colon lining. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41575-022-00631-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Akkermansia</a>, frequently linked to a strong gut barrier and better metabolic markers, also appeared at higher levels with milk intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dairy-products-and-bacteria">Dairy products and bacteria</h2>



When the team accounted for dietary lactose, the milk-microbe links weakened. That points to lactose as a possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boost-your-gut-health-top-five-prebiotic-rich-foods-revealed/">prebiotic</a> - food for specific bacteria - that may help certain microbes grow. 



It also fits a simple nutrition fact: milk contains lactose, while many hard cheeses have very little.



Cheese didn’t follow milk’s pattern. Higher cheese intake was associated with lower amounts of certain bacteria in adjusted models, including <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2176045/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacteroides</a> and Subdoligranulum. 



Scientists don’t treat Bacteroides as purely good or bad; it depends on the species and context. 



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1075996404000071">Subdoligranulum</a> can produce butyrate, which is usually beneficial, so seeing lower levels with higher cheese intake raises questions about which cheese components might shift the balance. Turning milk into cheese changes nutrients in ways that could matter.



Yogurt intake here was very low on average - approximately a few sips per day - so the study couldn’t draw firm conclusions. 



The researchers didn’t see clear links between yogurt and diversity, and classic yogurt cultures like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-cheese-discovered-alongside-ancient-mummies/">Lactobacillus</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-gut-health-shapes-the-brain-development-of-her-baby/">Bifidobacterium</a> appeared at very low levels on the colon lining in these samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colon-lining-yields-clues">Colon lining yields clues</h2>



Most data we see come from stool samples, which reflect what exits the body. The mucosa - the gut’s surface - can look different. 



Studying the wall-attached community gives a closer view of the microbes that interact with the gut barrier and immune cells. It reflects the mucosal surface rather than only what is present in stool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-bacteria-dairy-and-health">Gut bacteria, dairy, and health</h2>



If you tolerate dairy and already drink milk, your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/move-over-microbiome-its-time-for-the-human-guts-virome-to-shine/">gut’s surface community</a> may be more diverse. 



If cheese is your main dairy, the effects likely depend on the type of cheese, your overall diet - especially fiber - and your individual microbiome. 



If you don’t tolerate lactose well, prebiotic fibers from beans, oats, bananas, onions, and asparagus can nourish beneficial bacteria by another route.



Different dairy foods appear to influence the gut’s wall-attached community in distinct ways. 



Larger, longer studies in more diverse groups will help test which dairy components do what, and for whom. For now, what goes in your glass and on your plate shows up in your gut in measurable ways.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/17/3/567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrients</a>.



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Dairy products are both good and bad for your gut health

Most of us have heard that the gut is full...

Big,Bang,In,Space,,The,Birth,Of,The,Universe,3d

A new review argues that modern numerical relativity can push cosmology past its usual shortcuts and test ideas about what, if anything, came before the Big Bang. 



The approach is simple to state and hard to execute: solve Einstein’s equations on a computer where pencil and paper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solving-the-singularity-puzzle-at-the-heart-of-black-holes-has-proven-very-difficult/">symmetry</a> tricks fail.



“This review is an up to date account of the use of numerical relativity to study dynamical, strong gravity environments in a cosmological context and we suggest directions in which future work can be fruitfully pursued,” said the authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-numerical-relativity">Understanding numerical relativity</h2>



Numerical relativity is basically the way scientists use computers to “do” Einstein’s math when it gets too complicated to solve with pencil and paper. 



Einstein’s equations explain <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how space and time bend</a> when there’s matter or energy around. But the equations are messy, and in most real situations - like when two black holes spiral toward each other - you can’t find a neat, exact solution. 



Instead, physicists chop space and time into a grid, feed in the equations, and let supercomputers crunch through the steps to show how the system evolves moment by moment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-running-relativistic-simulations">Running relativistic simulations</h2>



The authors map out how to run relativistic simulations that do not assume the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-warp-drives-extraterrestrial-spacecraft-using-gravitational-waves-experiment/">universe</a> is perfectly smooth in space, then show what those simulations have already taught us and where they can go next. 



They separate the story into early universe beginnings, the hot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/">Big Bang</a> through recombination, and the late universe of large scale structure.



They also spell out the technical roadblocks that trip people up, from setting consistent initial data to choosing stable coordinate gauges as the code evolves in time. 



The point is not just to advocate computation, it is to standardize methods so cosmologists and relativists can understand one another’s results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-numerical-relativity-matters">Why numerical relativity matters</h2>



Fifty years of <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.121101" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> turned numerical relativity from a niche craft into the engine behind precise gravitational waves templates, beginning with the first stable evolutions of binary black holes in 2005. 



When detectors like <a href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIGO</a> finally picked up those waves in 2015, the signals matched the computer predictions almost perfectly. 



That’s how we knew the detection was real and how we turn Einstein’s theory into something we can actually test.



Cosmology’s frontier problems share the same strong gravity DNA. Near singularities, or in violent phases of reheating and collapse, analytic symmetry assumptions break, so the only honest way forward is to evolve the full, non linear system on a grid.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-black-holes-to-the-big-bang">From black holes to the Big Bang</h2>



Walk time backward and the standard equations hit a wall, densities and temperatures diverge while the usual homogeneous, isotropic picture loses validity. 



Fully relativistic simulations let researchers ask how matter, curvature, and anisotropy actually interact when no simplifications are allowed.



That matters for questions such as whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-order-in-the-chaos-of-the-three-body-problem/">cosmological</a> singularity is local and oscillatory, or whether new physics softens it into a bounce. 



It also matters for identifying observables we can trust, since averages over space are not the same thing as what real observers on timelike or lightlike paths would measure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-inflation-honestly">Testing inflation honestly</h2>



Cosmic inflation explains why the cosmos looks nearly the same in all directions and why primordial fluctuations follow a simple pattern, and it remains consistent with the high precision constraints set by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Planck" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planck mission</a>. 



But most analytic studies of inflation start by assuming the very smoothness that inflation is meant to produce.



Relativistic simulations remove the need for oversimplified assumptions. They let you begin with large irregularities and complex motions, even allowing black holes to form. 



From there, you can still explore whether inflation occurs at all, how long it lasts, and how much the outcome depends on the shape of the potential rather than just on symmetry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-numerical-relativity-beyond-our-universe">Numerical relativity beyond our universe</h2>



The same toolkit reaches hypotheses that used to be out of reach. Hypothetical <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2009.0591" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strings</a> are one example, defects that could shed energy into a background of gravitational waves with a spectrum shaped by their network dynamics. 



With full relativity, one can test how those waves depend on curvature, expansion, and string interactions without linearizing the metric.



Another is the multiverse, where bubbles of space with different vacuum energies collide and, in principle, paint subtle signatures on the cosmic microwave background. 



Numerical relativity is already being <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1112.4487" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">used</a> to compute realistic collision spacetimes and to translate them into curvature and temperature perturbations that observers could look for.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-to-watch-next">What to watch next</h2>



The review highlights several technical roadblocks that remain active research challenges. 



These include finding better boundary conditions for expanding universes and developing gauges that stay stable when regions of collapse happen alongside overall expansion. 



It also emphasizes the need for shared community tools that can generate consistent initial data for cosmological simulations, moving beyond the standard conformally flat setups.



While computing power is critical, progress won’t come from raw speed alone. 



Smarter formulations, rigorous convergence tests, and geodesic-based diagnostics are key to making the next generation of cosmological simulations more precise and directly comparable across research groups. 



That’s what transforms ideas about the universe’s first fractions of a second into testable science.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41114-025-00058-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Living Reviews in Relativity</a>.



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From nothing to everything: What happened before the Big Bang?

A new review argues that modern numerical relativity can push...

Miners in China reported a major gold discovery. The volume of the deposit, if confirmed, would be the largest ever recorded on Earth. 



The conservative estimate given thus far is 1,100 short tons (about 998 metric tons), valued at approximately US$83 billion. 



The discovery occurred in Hunan Province, and the reported figures have drawn intense interest across the mining industry. 



Large new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golds-glow-luminescence-caused-quantum-realm-effects/">gold discoveries</a> are increasingly rare, and most near-surface, high-grade targets were exhausted years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wangu-gold-field">Wangu gold field</h2>



Consider this: 40 separate gold-bearing veins in solid rock about 1.2 miles underground. If you have never seen a gold vein, imagine streaks running through marble cake - the “streaks” are gold within ancient rock. 



The Wangu gold field was initially estimated at about 300 metric tons. New assessments suggest that estimate was far too low. Chen Rulin, a prospector with the <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature-index/institution-outputs/china/hunan-geological-bureau/6108fcff175c0849ad05417d" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Bureau of Hunan Province</a>, has examined rock samples. 



“Many drilled rock cores showed visible gold,” he said. 



Visible gold in core samples typically indicates a high-grade deposit. Notably, computer models indicate there may be additional mineralization deeper, around 1.9 miles down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-breaking-discovery">Record-breaking discovery</h2>



Most gold ore grades are low. Miners consider 8 grams of gold per metric ton a strong grade. That's roughly a paperclip’s mass of gold in a small car’s mass of rock. 



By contrast, this deposit is reported at 138 grams per ton. That is nearly 5 ounces - approximately the weight of a baseball. 



South Africa’s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Deep_mine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Deep mine</a> has about 900 metric tons of gold; this new find appears to surpass it. China already produces about 10 percent of the world’s gold; this discovery would add substantially to that base.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supergiant-gold-deposit_Wangu-gold-field_technicians-inspecting_Xinhua_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supergiant-gold-deposit_Wangu-gold-field_technicians-inspecting_Xinhua_1s.webp" alt="Technicians of Hunan Province Geological Disaster Survey and Monitoring Institute check rock samples at the Wangu gold field in Pingjiang County, central China's Hunan Province. Credit: Xinhua/Su Xiaozhou" class="wp-image-1983098"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Technicians of Hunan Province Geological Disaster Survey and Monitoring Institute check rock samples at the Wangu gold field in Pingjiang County, central China's Hunan Province. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Xinhua/Su Xiaozhou</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-places-to-explore">Fewer places to explore</h2>



To date, humans have extracted about 53,000 metric tons of gold. Scientists estimate there may be another 50,000 metric tons left to discover. 



The challenge is that it is buried deep, dispersed in other rocks, or located in areas that are costly to access. 



Mining was once simpler: find an ore-rich mountain, blast it, and extract the gold. Today, environmental regulations restrict practices that pollute rivers or destroy forests. 



Moreover, most easy-to-access deposits are depleted; what remains requires significant capital and technology. 



Some analysts suggest we are approaching “peak gold” - a decline in new discoveries - while others argue that finds like this indicate substantial resources may remain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-gold-pockets-form">How gold pockets form</h2>



Gold does not appear in rocks by chance; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-gold-reaches-earths-surface-from-the-mantle/">geological processes</a> concentrate it. For years, the prevailing model held that hot, gold-bearing fluids flowed through rock fractures and, as the fluids cooled, gold precipitated along quartz veins. 



However, the picture is more complex. Chris Voisey, a geologist at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a>, points out a problem.



“While this theory is widely accepted, it doesn't fully explain the formation of large gold nuggets, especially considering that the concentration of gold in these fluids is extremely low," Voisey explained.



Researchers from Monash University, <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, and the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (<a href="https://www.ansto.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANSTO</a>) propose that earthquakes may play a role. 



They published research in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01514-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a> suggesting that seismic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-discover-that-earthquakes-play-a-role-in-whats-called-the-gold-nugget-paradox/">shaking and pressure</a> changes can concentrate gold into pockets. 



Scientists find this plausible because earthquakes fracture rocks and rapidly change pressure, potentially causing dissolved gold to precipitate quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wangu-gold-and-goldene">Wangu gold and "goldene"</h2>



While miners pursue conventional ore, scientists are exploring unusual properties of gold in laboratories. In April 2024, researchers produced a one-atom-thick form of gold known as “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01118-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goldene</a>,” which behaves differently from bulk gold. 



“If you make a material extremely thin, something extraordinary happens - as with graphene,” says Shun Kashiwaya from <a href="https://liu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Linköping University</a> in Sweden. 



“The same thing happens with gold. As you know, gold is usually a metal, but if single-atom-layer thick, the gold can become a semiconductor instead.” 



This suggests ultra-thin gold could have novel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invention-turns-toxic-e-waste-into-22-carat-gold-nuggets-instead-of-trash/">electronic applications</a>. However, that topic is separate from mining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-the-wangu-gold-field">Next steps for the Wangu gold field</h2>



China holds more than 2,000 tons of gold reserves, and this discovery would greatly strengthen that position. Gold prices rose when news of the discovery broke. However, the resource still requires verification. 



The Hunan government says drilling is well underway: 55 holes totaling about 65 km, with several deep hits. They’re aiming to add roughly 55 tons of gold resources by the end of 2025 and more than 110 tons during the current five-year plan. 



A newly merged state group, Hunan Mineral Resources Group, is running an “integrated exploration” program. These are targets, not certified reserves.



A discovery of this scale raises questions about what remains undiscovered. Perhaps “peak gold” is farther off than some expect - or perhaps this is one of the last major finds. 



Core samples from the periphery suggest the deposit may extend beyond initial boundaries; if so, it could exceed current estimates. 



Either way, if these figures are confirmed, this could be the largest gold discovery in recorded history. Such events are exceptionally rare.



The initial report was published by the <a href="https://english.news.cn/20241121/cc54468169bb4c8c9db21c08885dc2a5/c.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese State Media</a>.



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Geologists found a "supergiant high-grade gold deposit" that may be the largest on Earth

Miners in China reported a major gold discovery. The volume...

Archaeologists working in western El Salvador uncovered a group of ancient puppet-like figurines. Estimated to be around 2,400 years old, they oddly resemble modern toy dolls used in puppetry.



Experts say the objects once had movable heads attached by string, which makes them different from typical clay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-played-a-spiritual-role-in-prehistoric-cave-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sculptures</a> found in the region.



Dr. Jan Szymański and Dr. Gabriela Prejs from the <a href="https://en.uw.edu.pl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Warsaw</a> led the team that unearthed the five figurines at the site of San Isidro. Each piece has distinctive features, including one that shows a male figure with possible facial tattoos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-people-used-puppets-in-rituals">Ancient people used puppets in rituals</h2>



Two of these puppets are only a few inches tall, while three measure about a foot. 



They each have open mouths, and the larger ones have detachable heads with small holes through the neck and skull, which would allow a cord to pass through the center.



Researchers found them near the top of a pyramidal structure, and they believe the figurines may have been part of the way people celebrated important events. 



One big clue is that these objects were grouped together as though they were still in use, instead of being found as just random <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-isnt-just-ancient-history-its-happening-right-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fragments</a>.



“They are clay actors,” said Dr. Szymański. When held at certain angles, these figures can appear almost alive, sparking curiosity about how people in that society used them during ritual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenes</a>.



Performers could have threaded string through their detachable heads so the pieces could be adjusted in a hand or placed in a staged setting. 



Some historians suggest they were part of ceremonies involving symbolic story re-enactments or even tributes to powerful leaders.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_figurines_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_figurines_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1s.webp" alt="Five figurines from the San Isidro deposit. Scale in centimeters. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)" class="wp-image-1983180"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Five figurines from the San Isidro deposit. Scale in centimeters. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-puppets-matter">Why these puppets matter</h2>



The idea that these were used like small puppets is “super provocative,” said <a href="https://art.utexas.edu/people/julia-guernsey" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julia Guernsey</a> from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. 



Her perspective aligns with the notion that speech or chanting may have been represented by the figurines’ open mouths during performances.



This set of artifacts is only the second known group of its kind found in a secure spot, and it is the first that includes a male figure with facial markings. 



The presence of a male puppet adds another layer to what we know about how gender might have been represented in these roles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-challenges-global-connections">Local challenges, global connections</h2>



El Salvador’s ancient history is often overshadowed by the famous cultures from neighboring areas, particularly the Mayan and other well-known <a href="https://www.arizonamuseumofnaturalhistory.org/explore-the-museum/exhibitions/cultures-of-the-ancient-americas/mesoamerica#:~:text=Mesoamerica%20is%20that%20area%20defined,ecological%2C%20linguistic%20and%20cultural%20diversity." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesoamerican</a> sites.



Archaeological digs are also tricky because of past volcanic eruptions that buried settlements, and the high population density that currently limits excavation.



In spite of these hurdles, the recent discovery suggests this region had more robust cultural ties than once assumed. 



Jade pendants found nearby resemble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-what-ancient-farmers-were-eating-5000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artifacts</a> from distant spots in Central America, potentially indicating that ideas were shared beyond local borders.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_detachable-heads_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_detachable-heads_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1s.webp" alt="Head of the male figurine with tattoos or scarification. Width 55mm. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)" class="wp-image-1983178"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Head of the male figurine with tattoos or scarification. Width 55mm. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facial-expressions-that-change">Facial expressions that change</h2>



Open mouths appear on all five figurines, so they might have signaled speech or song. 



One puppet even has its hands raised close to the chin, which could hint at a missing object that might have been part of an ancient ceremony.



Dr. Szymański believes the facial expressions, that changed depending on how the viewer held the pieces, could have created a theatrical effect. 



That flair for drama might have allowed ancient audiences to interpret these shapes and movements in multiple ways.



Some archaeologists propose that puppets like these were used to recreate certain events, whether real or imagined. 



In Mesoamerican thought, repeating actions as performances sometimes held the same force as the original happenings.



A king commissioning a self-portrait might have believed the representation actually carried his presence, thus extending his influence. 



These puppets may have worked along similar lines, offering a way to echo authority or spiritual beliefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puppet-shows-in-ancient-el-salvador">Puppet shows in ancient El Salvador</h2>



“This discovery contradicts the prevailing notion about El Salvador’s cultural backwardness,” said Dr. Szymański. 



These figurines tell us about lively networks, proving local societies could trade ideas and objects with places as far away as modern-day Panama.



Many of these connections are clear from similar art styles, patterns, and materials found throughout Central America. 



Shared rituals and puppet-like artifacts unite ancient communities that thrived along trade routes that stretched hundreds of miles.



When archaeologists talk about puppetry, they picture dynamic scenes: heads swiveling, mouths opening, arms twisting. 



Each ancient puppet could have played a unique role in telling a story, and the male figure’s face might also have told a personal story through body art.



Puppets are not common in the record of Mesoamerican archaeology, so these items stand out. 



Early forms of theater, dance, or ceremonial display might have come together around them, giving us one more dimension of ancient creativity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-perspectives-on-power">Shifting perspectives on power</h2>



Some clay pieces from past excavations were linked to grand rulers. Others suggest more community-centered activities that united townspeople in shared ceremonies.



These figurines fit somewhere on that spectrum. Their location high on a pyramid points to importance, but their design also hints at broader participation by many members of society.



Puppeteers might have stood in small gatherings or on open plazas where the rest of the community could watch. 



The movements and expressions of the figurines may have aligned with prayers, songs, or messages of leadership.



It’s possible these puppets were used repeatedly in various scenes until someone decided to bury them in a final event. That closure could have marked a transition of power or a farewell to a deity or ancestor.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_hollow-belly-casing_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_hollow-belly-casing_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1s.webp" alt="The smallest figurine from the tableau fits inside the hollow belly of another figurine found outside of the deposit. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)" class="wp-image-1983182"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The smallest figurine from the tableau fits inside the hollow belly of another figurine found outside of the deposit. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contact-with-other-cultures">Contact with other cultures</h2>



Fragments from other <a href="https://bolinasmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bolinas</a> figurines have been found in older digs in Guatemala, El Salvador, and neighboring countries. 



This consistency in style and design shows how certain ideas and materials circulated among people who had plenty of contact, rather than living in isolation.



Small details like earspools and intricate tattoos distinguish each figurine from the next. These touches remind us that individuality existed even in seemingly uniform objects.



The male puppet’s facial markings strike some researchers as evidence of personal identity. Symbols etched onto clay may connect to real tattoos on living people, or they might indicate supernatural figures who controlled certain rites.



Long before Spanish colonists arrived, indigenous groups here had their own systems of art, performance, and storytelling. 



Each puppet may represent a different voice in that vibrant chorus, showing that ancient Salvadorans had cultural depth worth celebrating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-puppets-and-future-digs">Ancient puppets and future digs</h2>



Scholars hope more discoveries will emerge from the region’s hidden layers. 



They also want to compare newly uncovered objects with artifacts from farther south, bridging gaps in Mesoamerican and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867421002294" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Isthmo-Colombian archaeology</a>.



Bits and pieces of figurines have surfaced before, but finding a complete set offers a fresh chance to ask new questions. 



Researchers see this as a step toward revealing how widespread puppet traditions once were in Central America.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/of-puppets-and-puppeteers-preclassic-clay-figurines-from-san-isidro-el-salvador/A6E2C8408DEAB88D1EBE4BCFDC1FCBAA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



Image Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI



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Archaeologists find ancient clay puppets with detachable heads that 'resemble modern toy dolls'

Archaeologists working in western El Salvador uncovered a group of...

Heat doesn’t just make us sweat - it also changes how we feel. Blistering heat can shift our emotions and scientists are now able to quantify the changes.



A massive study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-shape-what-goes-viral-on-social-media/">social media</a> data revealed that individuals become significantly more irritable in extreme heat. The research implies that rising temperatures may directly affect the emotional health of millions of people around the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-heat-changes-emotions-nbsp">How heat changes emotions&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers reviewed 1.2 billion social media posts from 157 countries, all posted during 2019. They used advanced computer programs to analyze posts written in 65 different languages, giving each post a score based on how positive or negative it sounded. 



The team matched these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">mood</a> scores with local weather data to see how temperature affected what people were saying online.



The results were clear and consistent across the world. When temperatures rose above 95 degrees Fahrenheit, people's posts became about 25 percent more negative in lower-income countries. In wealthier countries, the negativity increased by about 8 percent. 



"Social media data provides us with an unprecedented window into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">human emotions</a> across cultures and continents," said Jianghao Wang from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAS</a>). 



"This approach allows us to measure emotional impacts of climate change at a scale that traditional surveys simply cannot achieve, giving us real-time insights into how temperature affects human sentiment worldwide."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-inequality-of-heat-s-impact">The inequality of heat’s impact</h2>



The researchers used World Bank data to separate countries by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-income-households-are-most-threatened-by-wildfire/">income</a> levels, with the dividing line set at $13,845 per person per year. Countries below this threshold showed emotional responses to heat that were stronger than those in wealthier nations. 



This makes sense considering that richer countries have more air conditioning, better healthcare, and stronger infrastructure to deal with extreme weather.



“Thanks to the global coverage of our data, we find that people in low- and middle-income countries experience sentiment declines from extreme heat that are three times greater than those in high-income countries,” noted Yichun Fan of the Sustainable Urbanization Lab and <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>. 



“This underscores the importance of incorporating adaptation into future climate impact projections.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-stress-and-human-well-being">Climate stress and human well-being </h2>



Siqi Zheng of MIT, who led the study along with colleagues from multiple international institutions, emphasized that the stakes go beyond economics or public health.



“Our study reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-and-extreme-rainfall-study-reveals-a-missing-link/">rising temperatures</a> don’t just threaten physical health or economic productivity - they also affect how people feel, every day, all over the world,” said Zheng. 



“This work opens up a new frontier in understanding how climate stress is shaping human well-being at a planetary scale.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions-linked-to-heat">Emotions linked to heat</h2>



The researchers used something called Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) to analyze the social media posts. 



This artificial intelligence system can understand the emotional tone of text written in dozens of languages, making it possible to compare feelings across different cultures and countries.



The team examined posts from both Twitter and Weibo, a popular Chinese social media platform. Each post received a sentiment score between 0.0 (very negative) and 1.0 (very positive). 



The researchers then grouped these scores by location - 2,988 different places around the world - and compared them with local weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-emotional-impacts-of-heat">Future emotional impacts of heat</h2>



The researchers didn't stop at current conditions. They used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/">climate models</a> to predict how extreme heat might affect human emotions by the year 2100. 



Even assuming people will adapt somewhat to higher temperatures over time, they project that emotional well-being will worsen by 2.3 percent due to heat alone by the end of the century.



"It's clear now, with our present study adding to findings from prior studies, that weather alters sentiment on a global scale," said Nick Obradovich from the Sustainable Urbanization Lab and the Laureate Institute for Brain Research in Tulsa.



"And as weather and climates change, helping individuals become more resilient to shocks to their emotional states will be an important component of overall societal adaptation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-human-well-being">Climate change and human well-being</h2>



The research opens up entirely new ways of thinking about climate change. Most studies focus on physical health impacts, economic damage, or environmental destruction. 



But this work shows that rising temperatures also attack our psychological well-being, creating a kind of emotional pollution that spreads across the planet.



The study has some limitations. Social media users aren't perfectly representative of everyone - young children and elderly people use these platforms less than other age groups. 



Ironically, these are often the people most vulnerable to extreme heat, which means the real emotional impact of hot weather might be even worse than the study captured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-warmer-world">Preparing for a warmer world</h2>



The research comes from the Global Sentiment project at <a href="https://sul.mit.edu/">MIT's Sustainable Urbanization Lab</a>. 



The scientists have made their complete dataset available to other researchers, hoping it will help communities and policymakers prepare for a world that keeps getting hotter.



"We hope this resource helps researchers, policymakers, and communities better prepare for a warming world," said Zheng.



As temperatures continue rising globally, understanding these emotional effects becomes more important. 



The study suggests that climate change isn't just an environmental problem or an economic challenge - it's also a mental health crisis that hits the world's poorest people the hardest.



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Climate change affects how we feel, not just how we live

Heat doesn’t just make us sweat - it also changes...

Beneath the stable crust of North America, scientists have discovered something extraordinary: the deep roots of the continent are slowly dripping away in blobs of rock.&nbsp;



This unusual geologic process appears to be driven by the remnants of an ancient tectonic plate, revealing a rare opportunity to observe “cratonic thinning” as it happens in real time.&nbsp;



The phenomenon was identified by researchers at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. Study lead author Junlin Hua conducted the research as a postdoctoral fellow at UT’s Jackson School of Geosciences.



“We made the observation that there could be something beneath the craton,” said Hua. “Luckily, we also got the new idea about what drives this thinning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-and-why-is-north-america-dripping">How and why is North America dripping?</h2>



Cratons are ancient, stable rock formations that form the deep cores of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-only-has-six-continents-not-seven-tectonic-plates-under-iceland-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continents</a>. Some have remained relatively unchanged for billions of years.&nbsp;



However, these formations are not immune to change. In rare cases, they lose parts of their structure, particularly their deepest root layers - a process known as cratonic thinning.



This thinning has been observed before in places like the North China Craton, which lost a substantial portion of its root millions of years ago.&nbsp;



But what sets the new discovery apart is that the process is happening now, under the Midwestern United States, providing scientists with a live glimpse of how continents can subtly reshape from within.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-dynamics-and-tectonic-plates">Mantle dynamics and tectonic plates</h2>



Despite the striking nature of the discovery, researchers stress that there is no immediate threat to the surface landscape. The dripping occurs in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s mantle</a> at a glacial pace, and over time it is expected to taper off.&nbsp;



The process is driven by mantle dynamics, which influence how tectonic plates evolve but do so on a timescale of millions of years.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="A figure from the study showing rock dripping from the craton. The researchers hypothesize that the dripping is caused by the remnants of the subducting Farallon slab below the craton. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience" class="wp-image-1964272"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A figure from the study showing rock dripping from the craton. The researchers hypothesize that the dripping is caused by the remnants of the subducting Farallon slab below the craton. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience</figcaption></figure>



Eventually, the effect will fade as the driving force behind the thinning - an ancient tectonic plate - sinks deeper into the Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-legacy-of-the-farallon-plate">Hidden legacy of the Farallon Plate</h2>



The research team attributes this geologic activity to the lingering presence of the Farallon Plate, a former oceanic plate that began subducting beneath North America roughly 200 million years ago.&nbsp;



Although the remnants of the plate are now about 600 kilometers below the surface, the study suggests it still plays an active role in reshaping the continent above it.



Thorsten Becker is a co-author of the study and professor at the Jackson School’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and Institute for Geophysics.&nbsp;



“This sort of thing is important if we want to understand how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-hidden-pattern-in-planet-orbits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> has evolved over a long time,” said Becker. “It helps us understand how do you make continents, how do you break them, and how do you recycle them [into the Earth.]”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detailed-insights-into-earth-s-interior-nbsp">Detailed insights into Earth's interior&nbsp;</h2>



The research stems from a broader seismic modeling project led by Hua, now a professor at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology</a> of China. 



The model uses a technique called full-waveform seismic tomography, which offers detailed insights into the Earth's interior by analyzing how seismic waves travel through different materials.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_seismic-map_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_seismic-map_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="Seismic waves pass through different geological features at different speeds. This map shows seismic speed in the Earth’s crust at 200 kilometers depth across the continental United States and portions of Central America and Canada. The North American craton (outlined in black dashes) has a high seismic velocity compared to its surroundings. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience" class="wp-image-1964274"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Seismic waves pass through different geological features at different speeds. This map shows seismic speed in the Earth’s crust at 200 kilometers depth across the continental United States and portions of Central America and Canada. The North American craton (outlined in black dashes) has a high seismic velocity compared to its surroundings. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience</figcaption></figure>



Developed with support from co-author Stephen Grand and his team, the model was built using seismic data from the <a href="https://www.earthscope.org/about/earthscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthScope project</a>.



“Because of the use of this full-waveform method, we have a better representation of that important zone between the deep mantle and the shallower lithosphere where we would expect to get clues on what’s happening with the lithosphere,” Becker said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visualizing-the-dripping-of-north-america-nbsp">Visualizing the dripping of North America&nbsp;</h2>



The high-resolution model allowed scientists to visualize the dripping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rock formations</a> for the first time and to trace their connection to the Farallon Plate.&nbsp;



The experts believe the plate influences the flow of mantle material in a way that scrapes and weakens the underside of the North American craton. It may also release volatile substances that further degrade the craton’s stability.



Interestingly, although the dripping appears most concentrated in a specific area beneath the Midwest, the entire craton - which spans most of the United States and Canada - shows signs of thinning. 



“A very broad range is experiencing some thinning,” Hua said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-the-earth-drip">Modeling the Earth drip</h2>



To test the mechanics of the process, the researchers built a dynamic computer simulation. When the Farallon Plate was included in the model, the craton’s base began to drip. 



When the plate was removed, the dripping stopped - strong evidence linking the two phenomena.



Becker emphasized that while no model is perfect, the resemblance between the simulation and observed data suggests the researchers are on the right track.&nbsp;



“You look at a model and say, ‘Is it real, are we overinterpreting the data or is it telling us something new about the Earth? But it does look like in many places that these blobs come and go, that it’s (showing us) a real thing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



This discovery adds a new layer to scientists’ understanding of how continents evolve over geological time. 



It demonstrates that even the most ancient and seemingly immutable structures beneath our feet are still subject to deep and hidden forces.&nbsp;



As researchers continue to refine seismic imaging technologies and develop more detailed models of Earth’s interior, they may uncover even more about the dynamic processes shaping our planet from below.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01671-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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North America is "dripping" underneath, losing blobs of rock into Earth's mantle

Beneath the stable crust of North America, scientists have discovered...

High-mass stars form quickly and push back hard on their surroundings. Radiation and winds should strip away the very fuel they need to grow, yet these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-sized-exoplanet-is-spiraling-toward-destruction-toi-2431-b/">stars</a> still bulk up fast.



A new study points to a simple answer: long, dense streams of gas that deliver material straight to the center of action, even where a classic disk is hard to find or very small.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alma-finds-streams">ALMA finds streams</h2>



The study was led by Fernando A. Olguin of <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> with collaborators in Japan, Taiwan, China, and the United States.



Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array in Chile (<a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>), the team examined a young, massive source called G336.018-00.827 ALMA1. 



They found two gas streams converging toward the protostar, one of which connects directly to the central region, with a clear change in velocity that signals rotation and infall.



The researchers expected a prominent <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/anatomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accretion disk</a> a few hundred astronomical units across. 



Instead, they saw spiral arms reaching inward and either no large disk or an extremely compact one, likely smaller than 60 astronomical units, or about 5.6 billion miles.



"Our work seems to show that these structures are being fed by streamers, which are flows of gas that bring matter from scales larger than a thousand astronomical units, essentially acting as massive gas highways," said Olguin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-streamers-help-stars-grow">Gas streamers help stars grow</h2>



Astronomers classify high-mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-found-suggesting-new-space-objects-called-intermediate-mass-black-holes/">stars</a> as those above roughly eight times the Sun’s mass. According to a 2002 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/416059a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, that threshold marks a regime where radiation pressure and ionized winds become strong and can choke off simple spherical collapse.



In massive protostars, theory and observations indicate that non-spherical accretion is needed, helping radiation escape through polar regions while matter continues to arrive through denser paths near the midplane. 



A recent <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2501.16866v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preprint</a> explains that streamers fit this bill because they channel gas along narrow tracks with high momentum.



The ALMA1 data show that the western, blueshifted streamer carries enough material inward to overwhelm local feedback near about 61 astronomical units, which is approximately 5.7 billion miles. 



That supply helps maintain a dense inner region where growth can continue despite radiation pressure from the young star.



These flows do not need to end at the disk edge. In ALMA1, the observed streamers penetrate well inside the expected disk radius, potentially feeding a very small unresolved disk or even the protostar itself, which changes how we picture the last link in the inflow chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alma-shows-spiral-gas">ALMA shows spiral gas</h2>



ALMA’s long-baseline setup delivered a sharp view, resolving features on scales of about 86 astronomical units, or roughly 8 billion miles. 



The team mapped both dust emission and several molecular lines, including methanol and sulfur monoxide, to trace motion and temperature structure around the central source.



Those tracers reveal a velocity gradient along one streamer that bends at a characteristic radius near 500 astronomical units, or about 46.5 billion miles. 



The change implies a shift from infall-dominated flow to rotation-dominated motion as the gas nears the center.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/gas-streamers_star-forming-region_G336.018-00.827_Alma_KyotoU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/gas-streamers_star-forming-region_G336.018-00.827_Alma_KyotoU_1s.webp" alt="The dust emission of the high-mass star forming region G336.018-00.827 ALMA1 at radio wavelengths. The star symbol indicates the protostellar position. The gas is rotating and falling along the red and blue arrows. The gas flow (streamer) indicated by the blue arrow transports gas from the molecular cloud core to the high-density region in the vicinity of the protostar. Credit: KyotoU / Fernando Olguin" class="wp-image-1983174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The dust emission of the high-mass star forming region G336.018-00.827 ALMA1 at radio wavelengths. The star symbol indicates the protostellar position. The gas is rotating and falling along the red and blue arrows. The gas flow (streamer) indicated by the blue arrow transports gas from the molecular cloud core to the high-density region in the vicinity of the protostar. Click image to enlarge. Credit: KyotoU / Fernando Olguin</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-streamers-beat-radiation">Gas streamers beat radiation</h2>



Kinematic modeling indicates that the outer segment of the blueshifted streamer behaves like a rotating, infalling envelope. 



Inside roughly 500 astronomical units, the speeds line up best with near-Keplerian rotation, as expected when gas settles into a compact structure before reaching the protostar.



At the point where the flow turns, the team sees signs of shocks that heat and concentrate material.



Vibrationally excited sulfur monoxide is compact and peaks near that location, consistent with gas slamming into denser regions as it changes course toward the inner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-planet-orbits-backward-around-a-dying-star/">system</a>.



Mass estimates for the inner streamers fall in the range of a few tenths of a solar mass, with inferred infall rates high enough to replenish the center on useful timescales. 



The modeled momentum of the inflow exceeds the local radiation force by about two orders of magnitude near the inner radius, which explains how accretion continues.



Taken together, the picture is simple. A large-scale reservoir funnels material into extended spiral arms, the arms feed narrow streamers, and those streamers push gas right into the inner tens of astronomical units where star growth is decided.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-streamers-replace-big-disks">Gas streamers replace big disks</h2>



Large, rotating disks around young massive stars do exist. ALMA has <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2020/02/aa37154-19/aa37154-19.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">imaged</a> a roughly 1,000 astronomical unit disk with a prominent spiral arm around the forming O-type star AFGL 4176 mm1, a clear case where a massive disk structures the flow.



Streamers have also been spotted feeding lower-mass protostars, where arc-like flows guide gas from envelopes into compact inner regions. 



That broader <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/02/aa47486-23/aa47486-23.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> suggests that filamentary feeding is a common tool nature uses across stellar masses, not just an outlier in one cloud.



ALMA1 shows that a large, obvious disk is not required for a high-mass protostar to keep growing. 



A very small disk can still be present, but the heavy lifting can be done by the streamers themselves if the reservoir and geometry cooperate.



That flexibility helps resolve a long-standing tension in massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-map-twin-stars-to-discover-hidden-planets-with-unprecedented-accuracy/">star</a> formation. 



If radiation pressure gets strong early, steady supply lines must find a way to keep delivering mass to the center without being blown away, and focused streams are well suited for that job.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



"We found streamers feeding what at that time was thought to be a disk, but to our surprise, there is either no disk or it is extremely small," said Olguin.



The team plans to apply the same methods to other regions to test how often streamers dominate the final stages of accretion. 



They will also probe even closer to the center to confirm or rule out tiny disks that current data cannot fully resolve.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adw4512" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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