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A red supergiant in the Milky Way has thrown a curveball at astronomers. DFK 52, a member of the Stephenson 2 cluster, sits inside a vast bubble of gas and dust that is about 8.2 trillion miles across and roughly the mass of the Sun.



Researchers used the&nbsp;ALMA radio telescope&nbsp;in Chile to observe the red supergiant, which is similar to the well-known star Betelgeuse. The project was led by Mark Siebert at <a href="https://www.chalmers.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chalmers University of Technology</a>.



ALMA revealed that the bubble is expanding, suggesting a violent outburst about 4,000 years ago that somehow did not end the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-discovered-orbiting-the-alpha-centauri-system-the-closest-star-system-to-earth/">star</a>’s life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-bubble-shows-huge-mass-outburst">Star bubble shows huge mass outburst</h2>



The team describes a complex cloud that spreads outward in tangled arcs and clumps, not a tidy sphere, and reaches astonishing size for material tied to a single star. 



The experts report that the detached shell holds roughly one solar mass and extends about 1.4 light years across.



The researchers link the expansion to a short, intense episode of mass loss that happened a few millennia ago. That timing is recent in astronomical terms and sets up a natural test case for how massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-universes-first-molecule-helped-ignite-the-stars/">stars</a> shed material before they explode.



“We got a big surprise when we saw what Alma was showing us. The star is more or less a twin of Betelgeuse, but it’s surrounded by a vast, messy bubble of material,” said Siebert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-radio-telescope-saw">What the radio telescope saw</h2>



The <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a> array measures faint radio light from molecules like carbon monoxide and silicon monoxide, letting astronomers map gas speeds with the Doppler effect. Those data reveal both slow and fast components moving in different patterns around the star.



A compact, slower wind surrounds the star today at about 6.2 miles per second. A faster structure, likely a disk or ring oriented edge on, expands at about 16.8 miles per second and appears to be the relic of the ancient outburst.



This two-part picture matches the brightness and shape of the carbon monoxide emission. The model points to an equatorial feature containing only a few hundredths of the Sun’s mass, along with a slower, continuous wind shedding material at a modest rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-star-lost-mass">Why the star lost mass</h2>



Why did DFK 52 throw off so much mass without dying? The survival of the star after such a forceful ejection raises questions about what set off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-planet-orbits-backward-around-a-dying-star/">event</a>.



“To us, it’s a mystery as to how the star managed to expel so much material in such a short timeframe. Maybe, like Betelgeuse seems to, it has a companion star that’s still to be discovered,” said Siebert. 



The idea of a hidden partner that stirred the atmosphere and helped peel off outer layers has gained traction.&nbsp;



Another possibility is a brief, unstable phase within the star itself. Episodic mass loss has been seen or inferred in other massive stars approaching the end of life, though the precise triggers remain debated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-future-supernovae">What this means for future supernovae</h2>



Dense gas and dust close to a star can change how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-toi-1846-b-possible-oceans-discovered-orbiting-red-dwarf-star/">supernova</a> looks in its first days. When fresh ejecta slam into nearby material, the interaction can brighten the event and imprint unique features on the early spectrum.



Evidence for this behavior already exists. A 2017 paper on SN 2013fs showed that the exploding star had a compact but dense circumstellar medium that was shed shortly before the blast.



DFK 52’s bubble sits farther out, yet it proves the star has a history of strong mass loss. If the star ramps up again before it dies, the environment could set the stage for a very conspicuous supernova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-the-star-to-other-supergiants">Comparing the star to other supergiants</h2>



DFK 52 draws comparisons to red supergiant icons like Betelgeuse and Antares. These are massive, swollen, cool stars nearing the end of their lives and expected to finish as Type II supernovae.



Betelgeuse itself showed how messy these stars can be when it dimmed in late 2019 and early 2020. That event was traced to a dust cloud formed by material leaving the star.



DFK 52 appears less luminous than the most extreme red supergiants but carries a larger, colder envelope at great distance. This combination hints at an unusual history that standard wind models do not capture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The team plans follow up observations to hunt for a companion and to refine the 3D structure of the shell. Better constraints on the gas chemistry and dust properties will also help sort out how the outburst unfolded.



“If this is a typical red supergiant, it could explode sometime in the next million years," said study co-author Elvire De Beck. 



"We’re planning more observations to understand what’s happening, and to find out whether this might be the Milky Way’s next supernova."



The study is published in <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/08/aa55975-25/aa55975-25.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



Image Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)/M. Siebert et al



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Supergiant star survived a violent eruption - but what comes next?

A red supergiant in the Milky Way has thrown a...

That pile of shirts you just dropped off at the charity shop? There’s something you should know about where those donated clothes are really going.



Most of us grew up believing a simple story. You clean out your closet, drop off the clothes you don’t wear anymore at a donation center, and someone who needs them gets to use them. 



It feels good. It seems responsible. 



But the truth about what happens to our old clothes is far more complicated - and, frankly, troubling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dirty-secret-of-donated-clothes">Dirty secret of donated clothes</h2>



Here’s what actually happens when you donate clothes. First, they go to charity shops and collectors who sort through everything. The nicest pieces might be sold at the local thrift store. 



But there’s a catch: these organizations receive far more clothing than they can sell. We’re talking about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-polyester-clothes-stink-more-than-cotton/">mountains of fabric</a> that no one locally wants to buy.



So what happens to the rest? Some items are thrown away. But a huge portion gets packed into bales and shipped overseas. 



The clothes leave the country, which makes our waste figures look better, but the problem doesn’t disappear. It just moves.



A study in Nature Cities tracked clothing donations in nine wealthy cities, including Austin, Toronto, Melbourne, and Oslo. 



The pattern was the same everywhere: too many clothes coming in, not enough local demand, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disturbingly-small-amount-of-plastic-recycling-done-around-the-world/">massive exports</a> to other countries. 



In Norway, almost all collected used clothing leaves the country. The U.S. and Australia ship out huge amounts, too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-donated-clothes-and-charities">Donated clothes and charities</h2>



The charity organizations we rely on are overwhelmed by donations. They were never built to handle this volume of clothing, and they weren’t designed to be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-waste-is-growing-five-times-faster-than-recycling/">waste-management systems</a>.



“We’re used to charities doing the heavy lifting, but they’ve been unable to fully handle the volume of donated clothes for a long time now,” explained Dr. Yassie Samie of <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RMIT University</a> in Melbourne. 



“Charities are driven by social welfare values and need to raise funds for their programs. However, their operations are ill-equipped to deal with the volume of used textiles that need to be reused and recycled.”



Think about the scale here. Global textile waste adds up to tens of millions of tons every year. Much of that starts in wealthy cities where people buy clothes constantly and get rid of them just as fast.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/donated-clothes_textile-waste_fast-fashion-pollution_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/donated-clothes_textile-waste_fast-fashion-pollution_1s.webp" alt="A large mound of waste textiles from donated clothes stretches towards the horizon, showcasing the scale of clothing pollution in the landscape" class="wp-image-1982853"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A large mound of waste textiles from donated clothes stretches towards the horizon, showcasing the scale of clothing pollution in the landscape. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-real-problem-runs-deeper">The real problem runs deeper</h2>



Two words explain why this keeps happening: overconsumption and oversupply. Clothes have gotten incredibly cheap. We buy more than ever before, wear things just a few times, and then toss them. 



The quality is often so poor that items can’t survive being passed between multiple owners or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-trash-to-treasure-e-waste-is-a-literal-gold-mine/">recycled into something new</a>.



Even the best-run charity can’t transform low-quality fast fashion into endless reuse opportunities. 



When these cheap clothes flood secondhand markets, they actually hurt small resale businesses. Some thrift stores import higher-quality used clothing because local donations are often unwearable.



The researchers introduced an important concept called “sufficiency.” It’s not just about recycling or reusing clothes better - it’s about buying less stuff in the first place. 



They compare trying to create a <a href="https://www.epa.gov/circulareconomy/what-circular-economy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circular economy</a> without sufficiency to bailing water out of a boat without fixing the hole. 



If companies keep churning out cheap clothes and we keep treating them like they’re disposable, no amount of recycling will solve the problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-at-the-city-level">Changes at the city-level</h2>



The study doesn’t just point out problems - it offers solutions. Cities need to stop treating textiles as a charity issue and start treating them as waste that needs proper management. 



That means setting up real systems for collecting, sorting, and processing old clothes locally instead of shipping them away.



Cities can also make it easier for people to repair and reuse what they already own. Some places lend out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fashion-history-was-forever-altered-by-the-tiny-eyed-needle/">sewing machines</a> at libraries. Others host swap events or teach basic mending skills. 



When cities offer discounted repair services for people who can’t afford full price, more clothes stay in use longer.



Advertising is also a problem. Fast fashion companies dominate billboards, storefronts, and social media. 



The researchers suggest cities should limit fashion advertising in public spaces and give that visibility to thrift stores, repair shops, and clothing swaps instead.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-fast-fashion-jeans-bad-for-environment/">Sustainable fashion</a> initiatives, like second-hand retailers, struggle to compete with fashion brands’ big marketing budgets and convenient locations,” Dr. Samie noted. 



“Fast fashion alternatives exist but they are under-promoted, despite their potential to significantly reduce cities’ textile waste.”



Urban planning plays a role, too. When cities keep building huge malls while pushing repair cafés and resale shops to the edges of town, they’re basically designing a system where <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452223622000967" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fast fashion</a> wins. 



Some European cities are already changing this by offering cheaper rent and grants to businesses focused on reuse and repair.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-actions-that-individuals-can-take">Actions that individuals can take</h2>



For regular people, the message is pretty clear. The most impactful thing you can do is slow down how often you buy and toss clothes. 



Wear what you own more often. Fix things when they break. When you do buy something new, choose quality that will last.



Support local thrift stores, repair shops, and clothing swaps in your area. These businesses and community groups need customers to survive and grow. The more we use them, the stronger the whole system becomes.



The next time you’re about to donate a bag of clothes, remember this: donating isn’t a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-scientists-are-using-air-to-recycle-plastic/">magic solution</a> that makes overconsumption okay. 



Those clothes might travel thousands of miles and still end up in a landfill, just in a different country. The real solution starts with buying less and using what we have for far longer than we currently do.



Wealthy cities have both the responsibility and the tools to act. But even the best systems won’t work if we keep treating clothes as disposable. 



The change has to happen at every level - from how companies make clothes to how cities manage them to how each of us shops and cares for what we own.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44284-024-00140-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Cities</a>.



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Donating clothes to charity has a dark side, and it will surprise you

That pile of shirts you just dropped off at the...

Bacteria,,Human,Microbiome,,Normal,Microflora,Of,Human,Body,,3d,Illustration

Most of us have heard that the gut is full of bacteria that help with digestion, immunity, and even mood. What you eat and drink shapes that microbial community.



Dairy sits in the middle of the conversation because it provides nutrients and, sometimes, live cultures, yet researchers don’t always agree on its effects. A careful study that sampled the colon lining directly adds useful clues.



Diet studies often rely on stool samples. That’s helpful, but it doesn’t always reflect the bacteria that stick to the gut wall. 



This project looked at those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/">wall-attached microbes</a>, which sit directly against our tissues. The goal was straightforward: see whether everyday dairy habits show up in that community of bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-microbiome">Understanding the microbiome</h2>



Think of your gut microbiome as a bustling neighborhood of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-fingerprints/">trillions of microbes</a> - mostly bacteria, plus some fungi and viruses - that live mainly in your large intestine. 



They help break down parts of food you can’t digest on your own, especially fiber, producing short-chain fatty acids like butyrate that feed your colon cells and help keep inflammation in check. 



These microbes also train your immune system, make certain vitamins, and interact with your nervous system through chemical signals. That's where we get the term "gut feeling." 



Everyone’s microbiome is a little different, shaped by birth, diet, environment, sleep, stress, and medicines like antibiotics. 



Diversity tends to be a good sign: a wider variety of species usually means a more stable, resilient community.



There’s no single “perfect” microbiome, but you can nudge yours in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-link-between-obesity-anxiety-and-gut-microbiome-changes/">healthy direction</a> with balanced meals, regular movement, enough sleep, and cautious antibiotic use when medically needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-how-dairy-shapes-gut-bacteria">Learning how dairy shapes gut bacteria</h2>



Adults undergoing routine colonoscopies at a veterans’ hospital in Houston participated. Their colons appeared normal, and none had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-helps-fight-cancer-by-changing-gut-microbes/">major conditions</a> that could confound the results. 



During the procedure, doctors collected pinhead-sized biopsies from the colon lining for lab analysis.



In total, the team analyzed 97 biopsies from 34 people. Beforehand, participants completed a food questionnaire that covered the past year, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/">milk, cheese, yogurt</a>, and total dairy intake. 



In the lab, the group used 16S rRNA sequencing to identify which bacteria were present and in what amounts.



Two basic yardsticks apply. “Alpha diversity” refers to how many kinds of bacteria are in a single sample. “Beta diversity” compares how different two people’s communities are.



The analysis adjusted for age, body size, smoking, alcohol use, health conditions, overall diet quality, and which part of the colon the sample came from. That helps separate signals that are likely true associations from those created by other factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-scientists-learned">What the scientists learned</h2>



People who drank more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-makes-dairy-cows-produce-less-milk/">milk</a> - and those who consumed more total dairy - tended to have higher alpha diversity in the bacteria attached to the colon lining. 



Beta diversity also differed between higher and lower consumers of total dairy, milk, cheese, and yogurt, indicating that intake patterns were associated with broader shifts in community structure.



Two familiar bacteria stood out. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/faecalibacterium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Faecalibacterium</a> is often considered beneficial because it makes butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid that fuels colon cells and can calm inflammation. People who consumed more total dairy and more milk had more Faecalibacterium on the colon lining. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41575-022-00631-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Akkermansia</a>, frequently linked to a strong gut barrier and better metabolic markers, also appeared at higher levels with milk intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dairy-products-and-bacteria">Dairy products and bacteria</h2>



When the team accounted for dietary lactose, the milk-microbe links weakened. That points to lactose as a possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boost-your-gut-health-top-five-prebiotic-rich-foods-revealed/">prebiotic</a> - food for specific bacteria - that may help certain microbes grow. 



It also fits a simple nutrition fact: milk contains lactose, while many hard cheeses have very little.



Cheese didn’t follow milk’s pattern. Higher cheese intake was associated with lower amounts of certain bacteria in adjusted models, including <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2176045/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacteroides</a> and Subdoligranulum. 



Scientists don’t treat Bacteroides as purely good or bad; it depends on the species and context. 



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1075996404000071">Subdoligranulum</a> can produce butyrate, which is usually beneficial, so seeing lower levels with higher cheese intake raises questions about which cheese components might shift the balance. Turning milk into cheese changes nutrients in ways that could matter.



Yogurt intake here was very low on average - approximately a few sips per day - so the study couldn’t draw firm conclusions. 



The researchers didn’t see clear links between yogurt and diversity, and classic yogurt cultures like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-cheese-discovered-alongside-ancient-mummies/">Lactobacillus</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-gut-health-shapes-the-brain-development-of-her-baby/">Bifidobacterium</a> appeared at very low levels on the colon lining in these samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colon-lining-yields-clues">Colon lining yields clues</h2>



Most data we see come from stool samples, which reflect what exits the body. The mucosa - the gut’s surface - can look different. 



Studying the wall-attached community gives a closer view of the microbes that interact with the gut barrier and immune cells. It reflects the mucosal surface rather than only what is present in stool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-bacteria-dairy-and-health">Gut bacteria, dairy, and health</h2>



If you tolerate dairy and already drink milk, your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/move-over-microbiome-its-time-for-the-human-guts-virome-to-shine/">gut’s surface community</a> may be more diverse. 



If cheese is your main dairy, the effects likely depend on the type of cheese, your overall diet - especially fiber - and your individual microbiome. 



If you don’t tolerate lactose well, prebiotic fibers from beans, oats, bananas, onions, and asparagus can nourish beneficial bacteria by another route.



Different dairy foods appear to influence the gut’s wall-attached community in distinct ways. 



Larger, longer studies in more diverse groups will help test which dairy components do what, and for whom. For now, what goes in your glass and on your plate shows up in your gut in measurable ways.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/17/3/567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrients</a>.



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Dairy products are both good and bad for your gut health

Most of us have heard that the gut is full...

Big,Bang,In,Space,,The,Birth,Of,The,Universe,3d

A new review argues that modern numerical relativity can push cosmology past its usual shortcuts and test ideas about what, if anything, came before the Big Bang. 



The approach is simple to state and hard to execute: solve Einstein’s equations on a computer where pencil and paper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solving-the-singularity-puzzle-at-the-heart-of-black-holes-has-proven-very-difficult/">symmetry</a> tricks fail.



“This review is an up to date account of the use of numerical relativity to study dynamical, strong gravity environments in a cosmological context and we suggest directions in which future work can be fruitfully pursued,” said the authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-numerical-relativity">Understanding numerical relativity</h2>



Numerical relativity is basically the way scientists use computers to “do” Einstein’s math when it gets too complicated to solve with pencil and paper. 



Einstein’s equations explain <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/2877/1/012063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how space and time bend</a> when there’s matter or energy around. But the equations are messy, and in most real situations - like when two black holes spiral toward each other - you can’t find a neat, exact solution. 



Instead, physicists chop space and time into a grid, feed in the equations, and let supercomputers crunch through the steps to show how the system evolves moment by moment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-running-relativistic-simulations">Running relativistic simulations</h2>



The authors map out how to run relativistic simulations that do not assume the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-warp-drives-extraterrestrial-spacecraft-using-gravitational-waves-experiment/">universe</a> is perfectly smooth in space, then show what those simulations have already taught us and where they can go next. 



They separate the story into early universe beginnings, the hot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/">Big Bang</a> through recombination, and the late universe of large scale structure.



They also spell out the technical roadblocks that trip people up, from setting consistent initial data to choosing stable coordinate gauges as the code evolves in time. 



The point is not just to advocate computation, it is to standardize methods so cosmologists and relativists can understand one another’s results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-numerical-relativity-matters">Why numerical relativity matters</h2>



Fifty years of <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.121101" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> turned numerical relativity from a niche craft into the engine behind precise gravitational waves templates, beginning with the first stable evolutions of binary black holes in 2005. 



When detectors like <a href="https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIGO</a> finally picked up those waves in 2015, the signals matched the computer predictions almost perfectly. 



That’s how we knew the detection was real and how we turn Einstein’s theory into something we can actually test.



Cosmology’s frontier problems share the same strong gravity DNA. Near singularities, or in violent phases of reheating and collapse, analytic symmetry assumptions break, so the only honest way forward is to evolve the full, non linear system on a grid.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-black-holes-to-the-big-bang">From black holes to the Big Bang</h2>



Walk time backward and the standard equations hit a wall, densities and temperatures diverge while the usual homogeneous, isotropic picture loses validity. 



Fully relativistic simulations let researchers ask how matter, curvature, and anisotropy actually interact when no simplifications are allowed.



That matters for questions such as whether a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-order-in-the-chaos-of-the-three-body-problem/">cosmological</a> singularity is local and oscillatory, or whether new physics softens it into a bounce. 



It also matters for identifying observables we can trust, since averages over space are not the same thing as what real observers on timelike or lightlike paths would measure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-inflation-honestly">Testing inflation honestly</h2>



Cosmic inflation explains why the cosmos looks nearly the same in all directions and why primordial fluctuations follow a simple pattern, and it remains consistent with the high precision constraints set by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Planck" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planck mission</a>. 



But most analytic studies of inflation start by assuming the very smoothness that inflation is meant to produce.



Relativistic simulations remove the need for oversimplified assumptions. They let you begin with large irregularities and complex motions, even allowing black holes to form. 



From there, you can still explore whether inflation occurs at all, how long it lasts, and how much the outcome depends on the shape of the potential rather than just on symmetry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-numerical-relativity-beyond-our-universe">Numerical relativity beyond our universe</h2>



The same toolkit reaches hypotheses that used to be out of reach. Hypothetical <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2009.0591" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strings</a> are one example, defects that could shed energy into a background of gravitational waves with a spectrum shaped by their network dynamics. 



With full relativity, one can test how those waves depend on curvature, expansion, and string interactions without linearizing the metric.



Another is the multiverse, where bubbles of space with different vacuum energies collide and, in principle, paint subtle signatures on the cosmic microwave background. 



Numerical relativity is already being <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1112.4487" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">used</a> to compute realistic collision spacetimes and to translate them into curvature and temperature perturbations that observers could look for.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-to-watch-next">What to watch next</h2>



The review highlights several technical roadblocks that remain active research challenges. 



These include finding better boundary conditions for expanding universes and developing gauges that stay stable when regions of collapse happen alongside overall expansion. 



It also emphasizes the need for shared community tools that can generate consistent initial data for cosmological simulations, moving beyond the standard conformally flat setups.



While computing power is critical, progress won’t come from raw speed alone. 



Smarter formulations, rigorous convergence tests, and geodesic-based diagnostics are key to making the next generation of cosmological simulations more precise and directly comparable across research groups. 



That’s what transforms ideas about the universe’s first fractions of a second into testable science.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41114-025-00058-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Living Reviews in Relativity</a>.



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From nothing to everything: What happened before the Big Bang?

A new review argues that modern numerical relativity can push...

Miners in China reported a major gold discovery. The volume of the deposit, if confirmed, would be the largest ever recorded on Earth. 



The conservative estimate given thus far is 1,100 short tons (about 998 metric tons), valued at approximately US$83 billion. 



The discovery occurred in Hunan Province, and the reported figures have drawn intense interest across the mining industry. 



Large new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golds-glow-luminescence-caused-quantum-realm-effects/">gold discoveries</a> are increasingly rare, and most near-surface, high-grade targets were exhausted years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wangu-gold-field">Wangu gold field</h2>



Consider this: 40 separate gold-bearing veins in solid rock about 1.2 miles underground. If you have never seen a gold vein, imagine streaks running through marble cake - the “streaks” are gold within ancient rock. 



The Wangu gold field was initially estimated at about 300 metric tons. New assessments suggest that estimate was far too low. Chen Rulin, a prospector with the <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature-index/institution-outputs/china/hunan-geological-bureau/6108fcff175c0849ad05417d" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Bureau of Hunan Province</a>, has examined rock samples. 



“Many drilled rock cores showed visible gold,” he said. 



Visible gold in core samples typically indicates a high-grade deposit. Notably, computer models indicate there may be additional mineralization deeper, around 1.9 miles down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-breaking-discovery">Record-breaking discovery</h2>



Most gold ore grades are low. Miners consider 8 grams of gold per metric ton a strong grade. That's roughly a paperclip’s mass of gold in a small car’s mass of rock. 



By contrast, this deposit is reported at 138 grams per ton. That is nearly 5 ounces - approximately the weight of a baseball. 



South Africa’s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Deep_mine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Deep mine</a> has about 900 metric tons of gold; this new find appears to surpass it. China already produces about 10 percent of the world’s gold; this discovery would add substantially to that base.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supergiant-gold-deposit_Wangu-gold-field_technicians-inspecting_Xinhua_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supergiant-gold-deposit_Wangu-gold-field_technicians-inspecting_Xinhua_1s.webp" alt="Technicians of Hunan Province Geological Disaster Survey and Monitoring Institute check rock samples at the Wangu gold field in Pingjiang County, central China's Hunan Province. Credit: Xinhua/Su Xiaozhou" class="wp-image-1983098"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Technicians of Hunan Province Geological Disaster Survey and Monitoring Institute check rock samples at the Wangu gold field in Pingjiang County, central China's Hunan Province. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Xinhua/Su Xiaozhou</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fewer-places-to-explore">Fewer places to explore</h2>



To date, humans have extracted about 53,000 metric tons of gold. Scientists estimate there may be another 50,000 metric tons left to discover. 



The challenge is that it is buried deep, dispersed in other rocks, or located in areas that are costly to access. 



Mining was once simpler: find an ore-rich mountain, blast it, and extract the gold. Today, environmental regulations restrict practices that pollute rivers or destroy forests. 



Moreover, most easy-to-access deposits are depleted; what remains requires significant capital and technology. 



Some analysts suggest we are approaching “peak gold” - a decline in new discoveries - while others argue that finds like this indicate substantial resources may remain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-gold-pockets-form">How gold pockets form</h2>



Gold does not appear in rocks by chance; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-gold-reaches-earths-surface-from-the-mantle/">geological processes</a> concentrate it. For years, the prevailing model held that hot, gold-bearing fluids flowed through rock fractures and, as the fluids cooled, gold precipitated along quartz veins. 



However, the picture is more complex. Chris Voisey, a geologist at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a>, points out a problem.



“While this theory is widely accepted, it doesn't fully explain the formation of large gold nuggets, especially considering that the concentration of gold in these fluids is extremely low," Voisey explained.



Researchers from Monash University, <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, and the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (<a href="https://www.ansto.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANSTO</a>) propose that earthquakes may play a role. 



They published research in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01514-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a> suggesting that seismic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-discover-that-earthquakes-play-a-role-in-whats-called-the-gold-nugget-paradox/">shaking and pressure</a> changes can concentrate gold into pockets. 



Scientists find this plausible because earthquakes fracture rocks and rapidly change pressure, potentially causing dissolved gold to precipitate quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wangu-gold-and-goldene">Wangu gold and "goldene"</h2>



While miners pursue conventional ore, scientists are exploring unusual properties of gold in laboratories. In April 2024, researchers produced a one-atom-thick form of gold known as “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01118-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goldene</a>,” which behaves differently from bulk gold. 



“If you make a material extremely thin, something extraordinary happens - as with graphene,” says Shun Kashiwaya from <a href="https://liu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Linköping University</a> in Sweden. 



“The same thing happens with gold. As you know, gold is usually a metal, but if single-atom-layer thick, the gold can become a semiconductor instead.” 



This suggests ultra-thin gold could have novel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invention-turns-toxic-e-waste-into-22-carat-gold-nuggets-instead-of-trash/">electronic applications</a>. However, that topic is separate from mining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-the-wangu-gold-field">Next steps for the Wangu gold field</h2>



China holds more than 2,000 tons of gold reserves, and this discovery would greatly strengthen that position. Gold prices rose when news of the discovery broke. However, the resource still requires verification. 



The Hunan government says drilling is well underway: 55 holes totaling about 65 km, with several deep hits. They’re aiming to add roughly 55 tons of gold resources by the end of 2025 and more than 110 tons during the current five-year plan. 



A newly merged state group, Hunan Mineral Resources Group, is running an “integrated exploration” program. These are targets, not certified reserves.



A discovery of this scale raises questions about what remains undiscovered. Perhaps “peak gold” is farther off than some expect - or perhaps this is one of the last major finds. 



Core samples from the periphery suggest the deposit may extend beyond initial boundaries; if so, it could exceed current estimates. 



Either way, if these figures are confirmed, this could be the largest gold discovery in recorded history. Such events are exceptionally rare.



The initial report was published by the <a href="https://english.news.cn/20241121/cc54468169bb4c8c9db21c08885dc2a5/c.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese State Media</a>.



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Geologists found a "supergiant high-grade gold deposit" that may be the largest on Earth

Miners in China reported a major gold discovery. The volume...

Archaeologists working in western El Salvador uncovered a group of ancient puppet-like figurines. Estimated to be around 2,400 years old, they oddly resemble modern toy dolls used in puppetry.



Experts say the objects once had movable heads attached by string, which makes them different from typical clay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-played-a-spiritual-role-in-prehistoric-cave-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sculptures</a> found in the region.



Dr. Jan Szymański and Dr. Gabriela Prejs from the <a href="https://en.uw.edu.pl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Warsaw</a> led the team that unearthed the five figurines at the site of San Isidro. Each piece has distinctive features, including one that shows a male figure with possible facial tattoos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-people-used-puppets-in-rituals">Ancient people used puppets in rituals</h2>



Two of these puppets are only a few inches tall, while three measure about a foot. 



They each have open mouths, and the larger ones have detachable heads with small holes through the neck and skull, which would allow a cord to pass through the center.



Researchers found them near the top of a pyramidal structure, and they believe the figurines may have been part of the way people celebrated important events. 



One big clue is that these objects were grouped together as though they were still in use, instead of being found as just random <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-isnt-just-ancient-history-its-happening-right-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fragments</a>.



“They are clay actors,” said Dr. Szymański. When held at certain angles, these figures can appear almost alive, sparking curiosity about how people in that society used them during ritual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenes</a>.



Performers could have threaded string through their detachable heads so the pieces could be adjusted in a hand or placed in a staged setting. 



Some historians suggest they were part of ceremonies involving symbolic story re-enactments or even tributes to powerful leaders.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_figurines_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_figurines_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1s.webp" alt="Five figurines from the San Isidro deposit. Scale in centimeters. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)" class="wp-image-1983180"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Five figurines from the San Isidro deposit. Scale in centimeters. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-puppets-matter">Why these puppets matter</h2>



The idea that these were used like small puppets is “super provocative,” said <a href="https://art.utexas.edu/people/julia-guernsey" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julia Guernsey</a> from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. 



Her perspective aligns with the notion that speech or chanting may have been represented by the figurines’ open mouths during performances.



This set of artifacts is only the second known group of its kind found in a secure spot, and it is the first that includes a male figure with facial markings. 



The presence of a male puppet adds another layer to what we know about how gender might have been represented in these roles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-challenges-global-connections">Local challenges, global connections</h2>



El Salvador’s ancient history is often overshadowed by the famous cultures from neighboring areas, particularly the Mayan and other well-known <a href="https://www.arizonamuseumofnaturalhistory.org/explore-the-museum/exhibitions/cultures-of-the-ancient-americas/mesoamerica#:~:text=Mesoamerica%20is%20that%20area%20defined,ecological%2C%20linguistic%20and%20cultural%20diversity." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mesoamerican</a> sites.



Archaeological digs are also tricky because of past volcanic eruptions that buried settlements, and the high population density that currently limits excavation.



In spite of these hurdles, the recent discovery suggests this region had more robust cultural ties than once assumed. 



Jade pendants found nearby resemble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-what-ancient-farmers-were-eating-5000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artifacts</a> from distant spots in Central America, potentially indicating that ideas were shared beyond local borders.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_detachable-heads_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_detachable-heads_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1s.webp" alt="Head of the male figurine with tattoos or scarification. Width 55mm. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)" class="wp-image-1983178"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Head of the male figurine with tattoos or scarification. Width 55mm. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facial-expressions-that-change">Facial expressions that change</h2>



Open mouths appear on all five figurines, so they might have signaled speech or song. 



One puppet even has its hands raised close to the chin, which could hint at a missing object that might have been part of an ancient ceremony.



Dr. Szymański believes the facial expressions, that changed depending on how the viewer held the pieces, could have created a theatrical effect. 



That flair for drama might have allowed ancient audiences to interpret these shapes and movements in multiple ways.



Some archaeologists propose that puppets like these were used to recreate certain events, whether real or imagined. 



In Mesoamerican thought, repeating actions as performances sometimes held the same force as the original happenings.



A king commissioning a self-portrait might have believed the representation actually carried his presence, thus extending his influence. 



These puppets may have worked along similar lines, offering a way to echo authority or spiritual beliefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puppet-shows-in-ancient-el-salvador">Puppet shows in ancient El Salvador</h2>



“This discovery contradicts the prevailing notion about El Salvador’s cultural backwardness,” said Dr. Szymański. 



These figurines tell us about lively networks, proving local societies could trade ideas and objects with places as far away as modern-day Panama.



Many of these connections are clear from similar art styles, patterns, and materials found throughout Central America. 



Shared rituals and puppet-like artifacts unite ancient communities that thrived along trade routes that stretched hundreds of miles.



When archaeologists talk about puppetry, they picture dynamic scenes: heads swiveling, mouths opening, arms twisting. 



Each ancient puppet could have played a unique role in telling a story, and the male figure’s face might also have told a personal story through body art.



Puppets are not common in the record of Mesoamerican archaeology, so these items stand out. 



Early forms of theater, dance, or ceremonial display might have come together around them, giving us one more dimension of ancient creativity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-perspectives-on-power">Shifting perspectives on power</h2>



Some clay pieces from past excavations were linked to grand rulers. Others suggest more community-centered activities that united townspeople in shared ceremonies.



These figurines fit somewhere on that spectrum. Their location high on a pyramid points to importance, but their design also hints at broader participation by many members of society.



Puppeteers might have stood in small gatherings or on open plazas where the rest of the community could watch. 



The movements and expressions of the figurines may have aligned with prayers, songs, or messages of leadership.



It’s possible these puppets were used repeatedly in various scenes until someone decided to bury them in a final event. That closure could have marked a transition of power or a farewell to a deity or ancestor.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_hollow-belly-casing_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/ancient-clay-puppets_hollow-belly-casing_San-Isidro-deposit_credit-PASI_1s.webp" alt="The smallest figurine from the tableau fits inside the hollow belly of another figurine found outside of the deposit. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)" class="wp-image-1983182"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The smallest figurine from the tableau fits inside the hollow belly of another figurine found outside of the deposit. Click image to enlarge. Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI)</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contact-with-other-cultures">Contact with other cultures</h2>



Fragments from other <a href="https://bolinasmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bolinas</a> figurines have been found in older digs in Guatemala, El Salvador, and neighboring countries. 



This consistency in style and design shows how certain ideas and materials circulated among people who had plenty of contact, rather than living in isolation.



Small details like earspools and intricate tattoos distinguish each figurine from the next. These touches remind us that individuality existed even in seemingly uniform objects.



The male puppet’s facial markings strike some researchers as evidence of personal identity. Symbols etched onto clay may connect to real tattoos on living people, or they might indicate supernatural figures who controlled certain rites.



Long before Spanish colonists arrived, indigenous groups here had their own systems of art, performance, and storytelling. 



Each puppet may represent a different voice in that vibrant chorus, showing that ancient Salvadorans had cultural depth worth celebrating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-puppets-and-future-digs">Ancient puppets and future digs</h2>



Scholars hope more discoveries will emerge from the region’s hidden layers. 



They also want to compare newly uncovered objects with artifacts from farther south, bridging gaps in Mesoamerican and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867421002294" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Isthmo-Colombian archaeology</a>.



Bits and pieces of figurines have surfaced before, but finding a complete set offers a fresh chance to ask new questions. 



Researchers see this as a step toward revealing how widespread puppet traditions once were in Central America.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/of-puppets-and-puppeteers-preclassic-clay-figurines-from-san-isidro-el-salvador/A6E2C8408DEAB88D1EBE4BCFDC1FCBAA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



Image Credit: J. Przedwojewska-Szymańska/PASI



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Archaeologists find ancient clay puppets with detachable heads that 'resemble modern toy dolls'

Archaeologists working in western El Salvador uncovered a group of...

Heat doesn’t just make us sweat - it also changes how we feel. Blistering heat can shift our emotions and scientists are now able to quantify the changes.



A massive study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-shape-what-goes-viral-on-social-media/">social media</a> data revealed that individuals become significantly more irritable in extreme heat. The research implies that rising temperatures may directly affect the emotional health of millions of people around the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-heat-changes-emotions-nbsp">How heat changes emotions&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers reviewed 1.2 billion social media posts from 157 countries, all posted during 2019. They used advanced computer programs to analyze posts written in 65 different languages, giving each post a score based on how positive or negative it sounded. 



The team matched these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">mood</a> scores with local weather data to see how temperature affected what people were saying online.



The results were clear and consistent across the world. When temperatures rose above 95 degrees Fahrenheit, people's posts became about 25 percent more negative in lower-income countries. In wealthier countries, the negativity increased by about 8 percent. 



"Social media data provides us with an unprecedented window into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">human emotions</a> across cultures and continents," said Jianghao Wang from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAS</a>). 



"This approach allows us to measure emotional impacts of climate change at a scale that traditional surveys simply cannot achieve, giving us real-time insights into how temperature affects human sentiment worldwide."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-inequality-of-heat-s-impact">The inequality of heat’s impact</h2>



The researchers used World Bank data to separate countries by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-income-households-are-most-threatened-by-wildfire/">income</a> levels, with the dividing line set at $13,845 per person per year. Countries below this threshold showed emotional responses to heat that were stronger than those in wealthier nations. 



This makes sense considering that richer countries have more air conditioning, better healthcare, and stronger infrastructure to deal with extreme weather.



“Thanks to the global coverage of our data, we find that people in low- and middle-income countries experience sentiment declines from extreme heat that are three times greater than those in high-income countries,” noted Yichun Fan of the Sustainable Urbanization Lab and <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>. 



“This underscores the importance of incorporating adaptation into future climate impact projections.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-stress-and-human-well-being">Climate stress and human well-being </h2>



Siqi Zheng of MIT, who led the study along with colleagues from multiple international institutions, emphasized that the stakes go beyond economics or public health.



“Our study reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-and-extreme-rainfall-study-reveals-a-missing-link/">rising temperatures</a> don’t just threaten physical health or economic productivity - they also affect how people feel, every day, all over the world,” said Zheng. 



“This work opens up a new frontier in understanding how climate stress is shaping human well-being at a planetary scale.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions-linked-to-heat">Emotions linked to heat</h2>



The researchers used something called Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) to analyze the social media posts. 



This artificial intelligence system can understand the emotional tone of text written in dozens of languages, making it possible to compare feelings across different cultures and countries.



The team examined posts from both Twitter and Weibo, a popular Chinese social media platform. Each post received a sentiment score between 0.0 (very negative) and 1.0 (very positive). 



The researchers then grouped these scores by location - 2,988 different places around the world - and compared them with local weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-emotional-impacts-of-heat">Future emotional impacts of heat</h2>



The researchers didn't stop at current conditions. They used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/">climate models</a> to predict how extreme heat might affect human emotions by the year 2100. 



Even assuming people will adapt somewhat to higher temperatures over time, they project that emotional well-being will worsen by 2.3 percent due to heat alone by the end of the century.



"It's clear now, with our present study adding to findings from prior studies, that weather alters sentiment on a global scale," said Nick Obradovich from the Sustainable Urbanization Lab and the Laureate Institute for Brain Research in Tulsa.



"And as weather and climates change, helping individuals become more resilient to shocks to their emotional states will be an important component of overall societal adaptation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-human-well-being">Climate change and human well-being</h2>



The research opens up entirely new ways of thinking about climate change. Most studies focus on physical health impacts, economic damage, or environmental destruction. 



But this work shows that rising temperatures also attack our psychological well-being, creating a kind of emotional pollution that spreads across the planet.



The study has some limitations. Social media users aren't perfectly representative of everyone - young children and elderly people use these platforms less than other age groups. 



Ironically, these are often the people most vulnerable to extreme heat, which means the real emotional impact of hot weather might be even worse than the study captured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-warmer-world">Preparing for a warmer world</h2>



The research comes from the Global Sentiment project at <a href="https://sul.mit.edu/">MIT's Sustainable Urbanization Lab</a>. 



The scientists have made their complete dataset available to other researchers, hoping it will help communities and policymakers prepare for a world that keeps getting hotter.



"We hope this resource helps researchers, policymakers, and communities better prepare for a warming world," said Zheng.



As temperatures continue rising globally, understanding these emotional effects becomes more important. 



The study suggests that climate change isn't just an environmental problem or an economic challenge - it's also a mental health crisis that hits the world's poorest people the hardest.



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Climate change affects how we feel, not just how we live

Heat doesn’t just make us sweat - it also changes...

Beneath the stable crust of North America, scientists have discovered something extraordinary: the deep roots of the continent are slowly dripping away in blobs of rock.&nbsp;



This unusual geologic process appears to be driven by the remnants of an ancient tectonic plate, revealing a rare opportunity to observe “cratonic thinning” as it happens in real time.&nbsp;



The phenomenon was identified by researchers at the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. Study lead author Junlin Hua conducted the research as a postdoctoral fellow at UT’s Jackson School of Geosciences.



“We made the observation that there could be something beneath the craton,” said Hua. “Luckily, we also got the new idea about what drives this thinning.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-and-why-is-north-america-dripping">How and why is North America dripping?</h2>



Cratons are ancient, stable rock formations that form the deep cores of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-only-has-six-continents-not-seven-tectonic-plates-under-iceland-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continents</a>. Some have remained relatively unchanged for billions of years.&nbsp;



However, these formations are not immune to change. In rare cases, they lose parts of their structure, particularly their deepest root layers - a process known as cratonic thinning.



This thinning has been observed before in places like the North China Craton, which lost a substantial portion of its root millions of years ago.&nbsp;



But what sets the new discovery apart is that the process is happening now, under the Midwestern United States, providing scientists with a live glimpse of how continents can subtly reshape from within.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-dynamics-and-tectonic-plates">Mantle dynamics and tectonic plates</h2>



Despite the striking nature of the discovery, researchers stress that there is no immediate threat to the surface landscape. The dripping occurs in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s mantle</a> at a glacial pace, and over time it is expected to taper off.&nbsp;



The process is driven by mantle dynamics, which influence how tectonic plates evolve but do so on a timescale of millions of years.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="A figure from the study showing rock dripping from the craton. The researchers hypothesize that the dripping is caused by the remnants of the subducting Farallon slab below the craton. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience" class="wp-image-1964272"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A figure from the study showing rock dripping from the craton. The researchers hypothesize that the dripping is caused by the remnants of the subducting Farallon slab below the craton. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience</figcaption></figure>



Eventually, the effect will fade as the driving force behind the thinning - an ancient tectonic plate - sinks deeper into the Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-legacy-of-the-farallon-plate">Hidden legacy of the Farallon Plate</h2>



The research team attributes this geologic activity to the lingering presence of the Farallon Plate, a former oceanic plate that began subducting beneath North America roughly 200 million years ago.&nbsp;



Although the remnants of the plate are now about 600 kilometers below the surface, the study suggests it still plays an active role in reshaping the continent above it.



Thorsten Becker is a co-author of the study and professor at the Jackson School’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and Institute for Geophysics.&nbsp;



“This sort of thing is important if we want to understand how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-hidden-pattern-in-planet-orbits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> has evolved over a long time,” said Becker. “It helps us understand how do you make continents, how do you break them, and how do you recycle them [into the Earth.]”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detailed-insights-into-earth-s-interior-nbsp">Detailed insights into Earth's interior&nbsp;</h2>



The research stems from a broader seismic modeling project led by Hua, now a professor at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology</a> of China. 



The model uses a technique called full-waveform seismic tomography, which offers detailed insights into the Earth's interior by analyzing how seismic waves travel through different materials.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_seismic-map_credit-UTexas_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/north-america-continent_dripping-into-mantle_seismic-map_credit-UTexas_1s.webp" alt="Seismic waves pass through different geological features at different speeds. This map shows seismic speed in the Earth’s crust at 200 kilometers depth across the continental United States and portions of Central America and Canada. The North American craton (outlined in black dashes) has a high seismic velocity compared to its surroundings. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience" class="wp-image-1964274"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Seismic waves pass through different geological features at different speeds. This map shows seismic speed in the Earth’s crust at 200 kilometers depth across the continental United States and portions of Central America and Canada. The North American craton (outlined in black dashes) has a high seismic velocity compared to its surroundings. Click to enlarge. Credit: Hua et al., Nature Geoscience</figcaption></figure>



Developed with support from co-author Stephen Grand and his team, the model was built using seismic data from the <a href="https://www.earthscope.org/about/earthscope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthScope project</a>.



“Because of the use of this full-waveform method, we have a better representation of that important zone between the deep mantle and the shallower lithosphere where we would expect to get clues on what’s happening with the lithosphere,” Becker said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visualizing-the-dripping-of-north-america-nbsp">Visualizing the dripping of North America&nbsp;</h2>



The high-resolution model allowed scientists to visualize the dripping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-complete-record-of-snowball-earth-found-in-rock-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rock formations</a> for the first time and to trace their connection to the Farallon Plate.&nbsp;



The experts believe the plate influences the flow of mantle material in a way that scrapes and weakens the underside of the North American craton. It may also release volatile substances that further degrade the craton’s stability.



Interestingly, although the dripping appears most concentrated in a specific area beneath the Midwest, the entire craton - which spans most of the United States and Canada - shows signs of thinning. 



“A very broad range is experiencing some thinning,” Hua said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-the-earth-drip">Modeling the Earth drip</h2>



To test the mechanics of the process, the researchers built a dynamic computer simulation. When the Farallon Plate was included in the model, the craton’s base began to drip. 



When the plate was removed, the dripping stopped - strong evidence linking the two phenomena.



Becker emphasized that while no model is perfect, the resemblance between the simulation and observed data suggests the researchers are on the right track.&nbsp;



“You look at a model and say, ‘Is it real, are we overinterpreting the data or is it telling us something new about the Earth? But it does look like in many places that these blobs come and go, that it’s (showing us) a real thing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



This discovery adds a new layer to scientists’ understanding of how continents evolve over geological time. 



It demonstrates that even the most ancient and seemingly immutable structures beneath our feet are still subject to deep and hidden forces.&nbsp;



As researchers continue to refine seismic imaging technologies and develop more detailed models of Earth’s interior, they may uncover even more about the dynamic processes shaping our planet from below.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01671-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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North America is "dripping" underneath, losing blobs of rock into Earth's mantle

Beneath the stable crust of North America, scientists have discovered...

High-mass stars form quickly and push back hard on their surroundings. Radiation and winds should strip away the very fuel they need to grow, yet these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-sized-exoplanet-is-spiraling-toward-destruction-toi-2431-b/">stars</a> still bulk up fast.



A new study points to a simple answer: long, dense streams of gas that deliver material straight to the center of action, even where a classic disk is hard to find or very small.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alma-finds-streams">ALMA finds streams</h2>



The study was led by Fernando A. Olguin of <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> with collaborators in Japan, Taiwan, China, and the United States.



Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array in Chile (<a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>), the team examined a young, massive source called G336.018-00.827 ALMA1. 



They found two gas streams converging toward the protostar, one of which connects directly to the central region, with a clear change in velocity that signals rotation and infall.



The researchers expected a prominent <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/anatomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accretion disk</a> a few hundred astronomical units across. 



Instead, they saw spiral arms reaching inward and either no large disk or an extremely compact one, likely smaller than 60 astronomical units, or about 5.6 billion miles.



"Our work seems to show that these structures are being fed by streamers, which are flows of gas that bring matter from scales larger than a thousand astronomical units, essentially acting as massive gas highways," said Olguin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-streamers-help-stars-grow">Gas streamers help stars grow</h2>



Astronomers classify high-mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-found-suggesting-new-space-objects-called-intermediate-mass-black-holes/">stars</a> as those above roughly eight times the Sun’s mass. According to a 2002 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/416059a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, that threshold marks a regime where radiation pressure and ionized winds become strong and can choke off simple spherical collapse.



In massive protostars, theory and observations indicate that non-spherical accretion is needed, helping radiation escape through polar regions while matter continues to arrive through denser paths near the midplane. 



A recent <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2501.16866v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preprint</a> explains that streamers fit this bill because they channel gas along narrow tracks with high momentum.



The ALMA1 data show that the western, blueshifted streamer carries enough material inward to overwhelm local feedback near about 61 astronomical units, which is approximately 5.7 billion miles. 



That supply helps maintain a dense inner region where growth can continue despite radiation pressure from the young star.



These flows do not need to end at the disk edge. In ALMA1, the observed streamers penetrate well inside the expected disk radius, potentially feeding a very small unresolved disk or even the protostar itself, which changes how we picture the last link in the inflow chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alma-shows-spiral-gas">ALMA shows spiral gas</h2>



ALMA’s long-baseline setup delivered a sharp view, resolving features on scales of about 86 astronomical units, or roughly 8 billion miles. 



The team mapped both dust emission and several molecular lines, including methanol and sulfur monoxide, to trace motion and temperature structure around the central source.



Those tracers reveal a velocity gradient along one streamer that bends at a characteristic radius near 500 astronomical units, or about 46.5 billion miles. 



The change implies a shift from infall-dominated flow to rotation-dominated motion as the gas nears the center.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/gas-streamers_star-forming-region_G336.018-00.827_Alma_KyotoU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/gas-streamers_star-forming-region_G336.018-00.827_Alma_KyotoU_1s.webp" alt="The dust emission of the high-mass star forming region G336.018-00.827 ALMA1 at radio wavelengths. The star symbol indicates the protostellar position. The gas is rotating and falling along the red and blue arrows. The gas flow (streamer) indicated by the blue arrow transports gas from the molecular cloud core to the high-density region in the vicinity of the protostar. Credit: KyotoU / Fernando Olguin" class="wp-image-1983174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The dust emission of the high-mass star forming region G336.018-00.827 ALMA1 at radio wavelengths. The star symbol indicates the protostellar position. The gas is rotating and falling along the red and blue arrows. The gas flow (streamer) indicated by the blue arrow transports gas from the molecular cloud core to the high-density region in the vicinity of the protostar. Click image to enlarge. Credit: KyotoU / Fernando Olguin</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-streamers-beat-radiation">Gas streamers beat radiation</h2>



Kinematic modeling indicates that the outer segment of the blueshifted streamer behaves like a rotating, infalling envelope. 



Inside roughly 500 astronomical units, the speeds line up best with near-Keplerian rotation, as expected when gas settles into a compact structure before reaching the protostar.



At the point where the flow turns, the team sees signs of shocks that heat and concentrate material.



Vibrationally excited sulfur monoxide is compact and peaks near that location, consistent with gas slamming into denser regions as it changes course toward the inner <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-planet-orbits-backward-around-a-dying-star/">system</a>.



Mass estimates for the inner streamers fall in the range of a few tenths of a solar mass, with inferred infall rates high enough to replenish the center on useful timescales. 



The modeled momentum of the inflow exceeds the local radiation force by about two orders of magnitude near the inner radius, which explains how accretion continues.



Taken together, the picture is simple. A large-scale reservoir funnels material into extended spiral arms, the arms feed narrow streamers, and those streamers push gas right into the inner tens of astronomical units where star growth is decided.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-streamers-replace-big-disks">Gas streamers replace big disks</h2>



Large, rotating disks around young massive stars do exist. ALMA has <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2020/02/aa37154-19/aa37154-19.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">imaged</a> a roughly 1,000 astronomical unit disk with a prominent spiral arm around the forming O-type star AFGL 4176 mm1, a clear case where a massive disk structures the flow.



Streamers have also been spotted feeding lower-mass protostars, where arc-like flows guide gas from envelopes into compact inner regions. 



That broader <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/02/aa47486-23/aa47486-23.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> suggests that filamentary feeding is a common tool nature uses across stellar masses, not just an outlier in one cloud.



ALMA1 shows that a large, obvious disk is not required for a high-mass protostar to keep growing. 



A very small disk can still be present, but the heavy lifting can be done by the streamers themselves if the reservoir and geometry cooperate.



That flexibility helps resolve a long-standing tension in massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-map-twin-stars-to-discover-hidden-planets-with-unprecedented-accuracy/">star</a> formation. 



If radiation pressure gets strong early, steady supply lines must find a way to keep delivering mass to the center without being blown away, and focused streams are well suited for that job.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



"We found streamers feeding what at that time was thought to be a disk, but to our surprise, there is either no disk or it is extremely small," said Olguin.



The team plans to apply the same methods to other regions to test how often streamers dominate the final stages of accretion. 



They will also probe even closer to the center to confirm or rule out tiny disks that current data cannot fully resolve.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adw4512" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Astronomers struggle to understand how high-mass stars get so big

High-mass stars form quickly and push back hard on their...

Birds may seem to be singing randomly, but new research suggests their vocalizations may follow hidden rules similar to those that govern human language.



Over the past three decades, scientists have used birdsong as models to understand how humans acquire and transmit language.&nbsp;



Birdsong even serves as a tool for studying <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/speech-impairment" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech disorders</a> in humans because it shares biological similarities with human speech. Unlike human subjects, birds can be studied in natural conditions without significant ethical or logistical barriers.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-sing-through-notes-and-calls">Birds sing through notes and calls</h2>



But do birds follow the same linguistic rules as we do? To explore this question, it helps to first understand how birds structure their songs.



Notes are continuous sounds separated by short pauses, while phrases are short sequences of notes that always appear together.



Calls are typically short, innate sounds, whereas songs are longer sequences of learned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/">notes</a> or phrases. Bouts are series of similar calls or songs separated by longer rests.



But do these patterns reflect true linguistic rules? One of the best candidates is Zipf's law of abbreviation (ZLA), a principle that shows up in nearly every human language. 



ZLA predicts that frequently used words or sounds tend to be shorter, while rare ones are longer. A team of researchers, including Rebecca Lewis of the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>, set out to put ZLA to the test.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-language-pattern-in-bird-songs">Human language pattern in bird songs</h2>



The researchers developed a new method to test ZLA. They introduced an R package called ZLAvian and analyzed songs from 11 populations across seven species archived in the Bird-DB.



Overall, the results showed a weak but consistent tendency to use shorter sounds more frequently. However, at the individual population level, only one out of eleven showed strong evidence of ZLA.



Studying ZLA in birdsong presented several challenges that are absent in human language. Most <a href="https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/news/new-study-finds-where-birds-are-declining-most-some-locales-with-positive-trends" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird populations</a> use only a few note types compared to our many words, making it difficult to see clear links between sound length and frequency.



Because birds copy songs from others rather than creating them, any variations could reflect shared learning rather than something that emerged independently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-results-in-different-bird-species">Mixed results in different bird species</h2>



More than three decades ago, Jack P. Hailman and colleagues noticed that black-capped chickadees often produced shorter bouts of calls frequently than longer ones, but the pattern did not clearly match Zipf's Law.



Later studies showed mixed results. A 2013 study found no evidence of ZLA in common ravens, while a 2020 study of captive African penguins suggested shorter notes were more common.



More recently, some researchers found no evidence of ZLA in the calls of domesticated Java sparrows, while others reported evidence in wild house finches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-question-of-language">The bigger question of language</h2>



The challenges lead to the bigger question. Do birds really follow ZLA, or should we even expect them to? In humans, it is one of the most consistent patterns in language.



The idea of ZLA comes from the Law of Least Effort, which suggests that people naturally choose the path of least resistance to achieve a goal.&nbsp;



Interestingly, ZLA is not only applicable to spoken words but also to written symbols and texts. However, when it comes to animals - including primates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-and-whales-got-new-backbones-for-life-in-the-water/">cetaceans</a>, bats, and even hyraxes - the evidence is unclear. Very few studies have tested whether ZLA holds true for birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-talk-can-t-be-simplified">Bird talk can’t be simplified</h2>



For humans, shortening words rarely changes their meaning - “television” and “TV” both convey the same idea. But in birdsong, the exact sound of a note can carry crucial information. 



In some species, females interpret particular notes as signals of male quality, and because these notes may be difficult to produce, even slight alterations could distort the message and affect mate choice. This sensitivity might explain why the linguistic principle of Zipf’s Law of Abbreviation (ZLA) is not consistently observed in birdsong. 



While the study found some hints of the pattern in certain species and populations, others showed no evidence at all, suggesting that if ZLA exists in birdsong, it is far less consistent than in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/">human language</a>. 



Future research with larger datasets and broader sampling will be essential to determine whether this linguistic rule truly applies to birds when they communicate.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



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Birds may follow a hidden pattern of human language

Birds may seem to be singing randomly, but new research...

Astronomers recorded a star merging with a black hole as it burst into a supernova. Thanks to AI-assisted technology, it was possible to study this extraordinary event as it unfolded.



In July 2023, the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) flagged an unusual cosmic flash while scanning the skies for anomalies. The explosion is now known as SN 2023zkd.&nbsp;



Further observations of its characteristics confirmed that this was no ordinary supernova.



The discovery was made by a collaborative group conducting a survey known as the Young Supernova Experiment (YSE). The team consists of scientists from the Center for Astrophysics at Harvard &amp; Smithsonian and <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rarity-in-supernova-history">A rarity in supernova history</h2>



The supernova SN 2023zkd was likely the result of a heavyweight star locked in a tight orbit with a lurking black hole companion.



Over time, the black hole’s gravity pulled out material, like gas and dust, from the star. This reduced the star’s angular momentum, bringing the star ever closer to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/free-floating-black-hole-appears-to-be-feeding-on-a-star/">black hole</a>.



In close proximity to the black hole, the star was subjected to extreme gravitational stress. Over time, it partially merged with its companion in what astronomers call an instability-induced merger - a process that can prematurely trigger a star’s explosion.



Study lead author Alexander Gagliano is a researcher at the NSF Institute for Artificial Intelligence and Fundamental Interactions.



"This discovery shows how important it is to study how massive stars interact with companions as they approach the end of their lives," Gagliano said in a <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/ai-helps-astronomers-discover-new-type-supernova" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">news release</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-detected-star-black-hole-merger">AI-detected star-black hole merger</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/">AI tools</a> are trained on thousands of light curves - graphs that show how a star’s brightness changes over time - to detect subtle signs of an outburst. One of these tools is the Lightcurve Anomaly Identification and Similarity Search (LAISS).



As the scientists were tracking SN 2023zkd’s decline, LAISS detected unusual color changes. Surprisingly, it eventually displayed two additional peaks of brightness following its detection. 



The first peak came when the explosion’s shockwave hit the thin gas the star had shed earlier. The second, delayed peak arose as the ejecta slammed into a denser, disk-shaped cloud of material around the equator of the star.



“Our machine learning system flagged SN 2023zkd months before its most unusual behavior, which gave us ample time to secure the critical observations needed to unravel this extraordinary explosion,” said Gagliano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-star-or-a-binary-supernova">Single star or a binary supernova?</h2>



At first, astronomers considered single-star explanations because some characteristics were a match. The first possible explanation was a luminous blue variable (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5620488/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LBV</a>), which is a massive, unstable star known for dramatic outbursts. 



SN 2023zkd exhibited multi-year brightening that resembled LBV behavior. But it was far too bright. Its steady, persistent brightness is not compatible with the short bursts typical of LBVs.



Similar to the LBV theory, other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-binary-star-system-d9-found-near-supermassive-black-hole-sagittarius-a-milky-way/">single-star</a> theories also crumbled under the weight of the evidence.&nbsp;



The binary merger theory - the idea that the star collided with a black hole - explained the presence of the equatorial disk of debris, as well as the persistent brightness. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opening-the-secrets-of-the-universe">Opening the secrets of the universe</h2>



SN 2023zkd offers a preview of what’s to come as large observatories and AI work together. This study relied on data from telescopes located in various parts of the world, including the United States, Australia, and Japan.&nbsp;



“We think this might be part of a whole class of hidden explosions that AI will help us discover,” said V. Ashley Villar, an assistant professor of astronomy at Harvard University.



Future campaigns will track AI alerts using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ground-based-telescopes-detect-light-from-the-cosmic-dawn/">telescopes</a> across the spectrum. Astronomers will map stellar gas in optical, infrared, X-ray, and radio wavelengths to piece together the chain of events that cause a star to explode.



"We're now entering an era where we can automatically catch these rare events as they happen, not just after the fact," noted Gagliano. "That means we can finally start connecting the dots between how a star lives and how it dies, and that's incredibly exciting."



The study was published in the August issue of <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/adea38" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: Melissa Weiss/CfA



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Can black holes detonate stars? Rare supernova holds the clues

Astronomers recorded a star merging with a black hole as...

For centuries, humans have gazed into the night sky, wondering what lies beyond the planets we know. Each new discovery in the Solar System reshapes our sense of place in the cosmos.



Now, astronomers are once again pointing to the possibility of an unseen world - one that may be orbiting far beyond Neptune. This hypothetical body has been given the tentative name "Planet Y."



The idea of hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/">planets</a> is not new. Astronomers once speculated about Planet X, which was believed to be seven times Earth’s mass and orbiting 50 times farther from the Sun than Earth.



That idea was mostly debunked. Later came Planet Nine, a still-viable candidate about 10 times Earth’s mass, at least 300 times farther from the Sun. Now, evidence is mounting for yet another contender.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warped-orbits-suggest-hidden-planet">Warped orbits suggest hidden planet</h2>



Amir Siraj at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> and his colleagues suggest a new possibility. They noticed a warping effect in the orbits of some Kuiper belt objects, a distant region filled with icy remnants, including Pluto. 



“If that warp is real, the simplest explanation is an undiscovered inclined planet,” Siraj said.



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-earth-like-planet-may-be-hiding-just-beyond-neptune/">potential world</a> would be smaller than Earth but larger than Mercury, orbiting 100 to 200 times farther from the Sun than Earth does. 



Its gravity seems to nudge nearby objects about 15 degrees out of the solar system’s flat plane, like ripples disturbing a lake’s surface.



“Our signal is modest, but credible,” Siraj said, estimating just a two to four percent chance of being a fluke. Early evidence for Planet Nine carried similar odds, though the signatures differ. 



Planet Nine would tug objects toward it, while this “Planet Y” appears to tilt orbits out of alignment. In theory, both worlds could exist at once.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexplained-kuiper-belt-tilt">Unexplained Kuiper belt tilt</h2>



The new research shows that if no hidden planets exist, the average plane of the Kuiper belt should align with the invariable plane of the solar system.



 However, astronomers now detect a clear warp between 80 and 200 astronomical units (AU).



This tilt is unlikely to be primordial, since natural orbital precession would erase it in less than 100 million years. For the warp to persist, something must be maintaining it - such as the gravity of a hidden planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-planet-y-scenarios">Possible Planet Y scenarios</h2>



Jonti Horner at the <a href="https://www.unisq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Queensland</a> in Australia sees this as possible.



“It plays into the fact that we simply don’t know what’s out there. It’s only in the last couple of decades that we’ve really started to explore the space beyond Neptune,” he said.



Astronomers believe such planets might not have formed so far from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/widest-high-resolution-photo-of-the-sun-ever-captured-solar-orbiter/">Sun</a>. Instead, they could have been scattered outward early in the Solar System’s history. “Scattering seems more likely,” Horner said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-models-support-planet-y-theory">Models support Planet Y theory</h2>



Numerical experiments suggest that a planet with a mass between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-life-on-mercury-possibly-in-the-planets-craters-study-reveals/">Mercury</a> and Earth, an orbit of roughly 100 to 200 AU, and an inclination greater than 10 degrees could maintain the observed warp.



Lower-mass bodies like Pluto could contribute, but far less effectively. Planets more massive than Earth would cause distortions in nearer regions, making them poor fits for the data.



The proposed Planet Y differs from Planet Nine in both location and influence. Planet Nine, if real, is thought to explain the clustering of orbital paths at great distances. Planet Y, by contrast, would explain why the Kuiper belt’s average plane is warped.



“The signature is different,” Siraj said, emphasizing that both ideas could coexist without contradiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-hidden-worlds-continues">Search for hidden worlds continues</h2>



The outer solar system is one of astronomy’s greatest frontiers, and the next decade promises breakthroughs. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-images-from-the-vera-c-rubin-observatory-are-breathtaking/">Vera C. Rubin Observatory</a> will soon begin its 10-year survey, mapping the night sky in unprecedented detail. This facility could spot Planet Y directly or confirm indirect signs of its influence.



“Rubin will rapidly expand the catalog of well-measured trans-Neptunian objects,” Siraj said. If Planet Y exists, “within the survey’s first few years” we may either see it or gather stronger proof of its gravitational effects.



For now, Planet Y remains hypothetical, a hint drawn from subtle orbital patterns. But history shows that careful attention to small irregularities can reveal great discoveries. 



From Neptune’s prediction in the 19th century to Pluto’s identification in the 20th, the search for hidden worlds has always reshaped our cosmic understanding. If Planet Y is real, it may soon step from speculation into fact.



The study is published in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.14156" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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Planet Y: Astronomers find signs of a new world hiding in our own Solar System

For centuries, humans have gazed into the night sky, wondering...

McDermitt Caldera in Oregon is attracting attention for what could be one of the largest lithium deposits ever identified in the United States. Many view it as a potential boost for domestic battery production, while local communities voice concern over the impact on wildlife and cultural sites.



The excitement stems from <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-01273-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimates</a> that value the deposit at about $1.5 trillion. Some geologists say these ancient volcanic sediments could contain between 20 and 40 million metric tons of lithium.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lithium-deposit-exposes-priorities">Lithium deposit exposes priorities</h2>



“This feature is 16 million years old, and we’re making decisions in a matter of years,” said <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sammy-Castonguay" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sammy Castonguay</a>, a geologist at Treasure Valley Community College. 



Castonguay’s statement has stirred local debate over how the development might reshape the high desert.



Industry advocates see a path to addressing the ballooning need for electric vehicle batteries. 



Neighbors around the caldera and the <a href="https://mcdermittlithium.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McDermitt deposit</a> worry that large-scale extraction could damage an ecosystem that supports pronghorn antelope, sage-grouse, and other sensitive species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-environmental-dilemma">The environmental dilemma</h2>



A <a href="https://eplanning.blm.gov/public_projects/2025844/200559254/20083724/250089906/HiTechPlanOfOperations_Presentation.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proposal</a> from HiTech Minerals Inc. seeks to add roads and hundreds of wells to test for lithium in Malheur County. 



The Bureau of Land Management (<a href="https://www.blm.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BLM</a>) once offered a brief window for public comment, which drew criticism from groups who say that’s not enough time to evaluate lasting changes.



The Oregon Chapter of the Sierra Club indicates they support cleaner energy but believe drilling must not come at the expense of fragile habitats.



Some see parallels to disputes in Nevada, where communities have fought lithium ventures they say <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invention-turns-toxic-e-waste-into-22-carat-gold-nuggets-instead-of-trash/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">threaten water sources</a>. 



Malheur County is among Oregon’s poorest areas, and certain residents hope new jobs might brighten its economic outlook. “We need to do this the Oregon way - with full accountability and shared benefits,” said <a href="https://repgregsmith.com/about/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greg Smith</a>, director of economic development in Malheur County.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lithium-deposits-are-so-valuable">Why lithium deposits are so valuable</h2>



Cleaner transportation and renewable energy storage have skyrocketed demand for lithium. Its light weight and excellent electrochemical properties make it key in modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-car-batteries-may-soon-be-made-of-rock/">battery</a> production. 



Global interest in ramping up supply has fueled both exploration and debate. Many want a homegrown source to cut reliance on overseas materials, but critics stress that extracting metals can have lasting ecological implications.



Mining typically means large excavations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/promethium-rare-earth-element-elusive-properties-finally-decoded-after-80-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical processing</a>, and water usage. Press releases and early studies mention concerns about dust, vehicle exhaust, and possible leakage of industrial byproducts.



Meanwhile, some economists argue that lithium’s high market price presents an opportunity to jump-start local development. Balancing those perspectives can be tough for rural communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-volcanic-origins">Unique volcanic origins</h2>



Past eruptions formed the caldera and left mineral-rich clays across a wide basin. The environment eventually became a semi-arid habitat that’s important for migrating wildlife. 



One <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0360544278900312" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> found high levels of lithium in these sediments, suggesting an unusually concentrated resource. Analysts say that if extraction methods prove efficient, the U.S. could rank among the top global suppliers of this metal.



The caldera lies near the Oregon-Nevada border. Projects on both sides have followed a similar pattern: geological surveys, land modification, and pilot drilling. 



Some scientists emphasize that claystone deposits differ from salt brine operations found in South America. 



Processing claystone may require more complex techniques, including acid leaching, which can raise questions about waste disposal and water safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-for-wildlife-and-culture">Concerns for wildlife and culture</h2>



Habitat for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-regulations-have-helped-safeguard-the-sage-grouse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sage-grouse</a> is already shrinking, and many local groups fear the consequences of losing more desert terrain.



The region also holds deep cultural value for several Indigenous tribes. 



Tribal leaders in nearby areas have contested past proposals by pointing to sites sacred for ceremonies and important for traditional ways of life. As the push for lithium grows, local voices want to remain central in discussions about land use.



Opponents argue that insufficient environmental reviews could harm unique species such as <a href="https://westernnativetrout.org/what-are-western-native-trout-and-char/lahontan-cutthroat-trout/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lahontan cutthroat trout</a>. 



Past drilling in high desert regions showed that groundwater tables can be affected by large-scale operations. Proponents, though, say modern techniques and strong oversight may mitigate many risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-signals-on-lithium-s-future">Mixed signals on lithium’s future</h2>



Experts note that the caldera deposit could give the U.S. a competitive advantage in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-electric-car-battery-charges-in-just-4-5-minutes/">battery</a> supply. At the same time, non-governmental organizations believe short-term profit shouldn’t overshadow the ecological and historical wealth found in Oregon’s high desert. 



Mining companies emphasize their intent to follow federal standards and incorporate feedback from local communities. Yet friction persists over whether that outreach is genuine.



<a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/oregon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sierra Club Oregon</a> suggests it’s possible to develop lithium alternatives or find better ways to source the metal. Advocates of the project maintain that these clays represent a crucial resource in an era when every major carmaker is transitioning to electric models.



Disagreements arise from how fast these projects roll out, and whether rural populations have a real say in shaping them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-this-lithium-deposit">What's next for this lithium deposit?</h2>



Local debates often center on water needs for drilling and processing. Some scientists point out that advanced recycling and new battery chemistries might alleviate the environmental strain. 



Others say U.S. projects reduce dependence on foreign supply chains, which could lower geopolitical risks. 



The trade-off is that most lithium deposits, wherever they are, carry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/huge-lithium-deposit-from-volanic-ash-found-in-pennsylvania/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">certain environmental implications</a>. A few watchers say this moment holds a chance to reevaluate how to conduct resource extraction.



As these Oregon proposals move ahead, investors are confident that demand for lithium won’t dip anytime soon, but local communities want to ensure they aren’t left with the mess once the initial excitement fades.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/10/1/68" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Minerals</a>.



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Lithium deposit valued at $1.5 trillion has been discovered in the U.S.

McDermitt Caldera in Oregon is attracting attention for what could...

Age matters in forests. A new study tracks how the world’s trees shifted in age from 2010 to 2020 and what that means for the carbon they hold.



Forests help pull carbon dioxide from the air every year, but that help depends on how many stands are young, middle-aged, or old. A global carbon assessment found land ecosystems absorbed roughly 3.5 petagrams of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-in-the-tropics-cool-earth-more-than-anywhere-else/">carbon</a> per year in the 2010s, with wide swings from place to place.



The research was led by Simon Besnard at the <a href="https://www.gfz.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GFZ</a> Helmholtz Centre for Geosciences in Potsdam, Germany.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-trees-hold-more-carbon">Old trees hold more carbon</h2>



Young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">trees</a> grow fast, yet older stands hold far more carbon per acre. In the new analysis, old forests above 200 years averaged about 98 megagrams of carbon per hectare, while stands under 20 years held about 43.5.



Old stands are not carbon idle, either. Decades of research show many old growth forests keep accumulating carbon - just at steadier rates - and they store large amounts in wood and soils.



Stock and flow differ. A young stand can add carbon quickly year by year, but a large, old stand already holds a deep reservoir that took centuries to build.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-age-of-forests">Measuring the age of forests</h2>



The team used a high-resolution forest age map and paired it with satellite-based estimates of aboveground biomass to estimate aboveground carbon. They relied on the European Space Agency’s Biomass CCI v4 dataset for 2010 through 2020.



The researchers also tracked stand replacement - cases where fire or harvest removed most trees and a new cohort took over. Satellite maps of forest loss and regrowth were combined with machine-learning age estimates to pinpoint when and where these events occurred.



To link age-related forest changes with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/">atmosphere</a>, the team compared shifts in forest dynamics with atmospheric inversion estimates of net ecosystem exchange. 



This method uses measured CO₂ concentrations to infer how much carbon regional landscapes absorb or release, providing a way to connect local changes with broader carbon flux patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-trees-are-maturing">Where trees are maturing</h2>



Several regions added older forests over the decade. Europe, China, and parts of North America showed net aging, which reflects long-running reforestation and managed regrowth.



Large areas moved the other way. The Amazon, the Congo Basin, Southeast Asia, and parts of Siberia saw more young stands as disturbances replaced older cohorts.



Patterns were patchy inside countries and biomes. Some grids showed strong aging while neighbors trended younger, a sign that local fire history and logging shaped the mosaic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-younger-forests-less-carbon">Younger forests, less carbon</h2>



“We estimate a net global loss of 140 million metric tons of carbon each year from aboveground biomass,” said Besnard. The shift from older to younger stands reduced the carbon stored above ground at a planetary scale.&nbsp;



When old forests were replaced by young ones, those areas accounted for roughly 0.10 to 0.16 petagrams of the annual global loss in aboveground carbon. That was a small slice of forest area, but a large share of the stock change.



The sink can still look stronger for a few years after a big replacement event. Young stands often pull in carbon quickly, yet they start from a smaller store and do not rebuild centuries of stock on policy relevant timelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-trees-are-irreplaceable">Old trees are irreplaceable</h2>



Secondary forests can accumulate biomass at impressive rates. A large synthesis paper in 2016 found tropical secondary forests recover a big fraction of their biomass within decades, though exact speeds vary by climate and land-use history.



High growth does not equal high storage right away. Many services linked to older, complex canopies, including deep carbon pools, take far longer to return.



Fast growing plantations can help with uptake, but uniform stands usually store less carbon and support less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> than naturally regenerating, diverse forests. That tradeoff matters when the goal is both climate mitigation and durable ecosystem function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-forest-ages-worldwide">Shifting forest ages worldwide</h2>



The study’s age maps indicate a clear global pattern. In the tropics, stand replacement shifted age classes toward younger forests, while large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climate-triggers-major-changes-in-the-temperate-rainforest/">temperate zones</a> nudged toward maturity.



In boreal regions, vast stretches kept their older structure, yet fire hotspots created younger pockets. Those pockets may grow fast, but they also highlight vulnerability to repeated burns.



Mature forests, between 81 and 200 years old, expanded in area over the decade. This expansion points to regrowth catching up in places where disturbance slowed or management favored retention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-alters-carbon-balance">Age alters carbon balance</h2>



Net ecosystem exchange can strengthen in regions where old stands were recently replaced by young ones. 



The analysis reported that for every one-percent annual increase in old to young replacement, the carbon sink trend deepened by about 34 grams of carbon per square meter per year.



That correlation does not mean replacement is a climate strategy. The apparent boost leans on legacies old stands leave behind, like fertile soils, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/buried-seeds-in-soil-help-forests-recover-faster-after-damage/">seed banks</a>, and structural remnants.



As inversion tools improve, we will get cleaner signals that separate mixed-age patches. For now, the link between age transitions and regional flux changes is strong enough to inform policy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-forests-preventing-carbon-loss">Protecting forests, preventing carbon loss</h2>



The researchers tested two simple futures out to 2050. Under business as usual, total aboveground carbon stayed roughly flat due to ongoing turnover, with losses in some regions balanced by gains in others.



Under a conservation scenario that halts stand replacement after 2030, total aboveground carbon rose by roughly 0.55 to 0.63 petagrams per year relative to 2020 levels. That gain came mostly from forests aging into mature and maturing classes.



“Forests are among our most important natural climate regulators," said Besnard. "Protecting old forests is essential to prevent further carbon losses, while careful management of younger forests can help maximize carbon uptake."



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02821-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Old-growth forests remain Earth’s strongest carbon vaults

Age matters in forests. A new study tracks how the...

Extreme heat is creeping into more of our lives every year. Summers are hotter, heat waves last longer, and nights don’t cool the way they once did. Yet many older adults don’t see heat as a threat, and even fewer prepare for it in advance. 



A new review of more than 40 studies shows that this lack of awareness could have deadly consequences.



The new research analyzed 41 studies worldwide between 2010 and 2024. Most of them - 29 in total - looked at coping strategies during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-adults-may-not-be-safe-from-heat-waves-even-inside-their-homes/">heat waves</a>, such as staying hydrated or moving to cooler spaces. Only one study focused on actual preparedness before extreme weather arrives.



“Extreme heat is not often viewed as a weather disaster like hurricanes or floods, but it should be,” said Professor Smitha Rao of <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a>. “It is not something that is visible, which is why it is often called the ‘silent killer.’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-issue-matters-now">Why the issue matters now</h2>



Heat doesn’t feel the same at 75 as it does at 25. As people age, their bodies lose some ability to regulate temperature. 



Medical conditions and medications can make overheating worse, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wearable-sensor-can-help-prevent-dangerous-dehydration/">dehydration</a> happens more quickly. Many older adults don’t notice the danger until it’s too late, often while at home or even during the night.



That risk is growing more urgent as older adults become one of the fastest-growing age groups. By 2050, people 65 and older will outnumber children under five. 



This demographic shift coincides with climate change bringing record-breaking heat, with 2023 and 2024 among the hottest years and temperatures still rising.



“We tend to react based on past experiences in our lives and the reality has changed,” said Professor Holly Dabelko-Schoeny. “The things that worked in the past to deal with heat waves are not going to work in this new reality.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-health-and-medications">The role of health and medications</h2>



The danger isn’t just outside. Many heat-related deaths occur in people’s own homes. Older adults and their caregivers may not realize that certain medical conditions or medications increase vulnerability. 



As bodies age, the natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-a-lower-heat-tolerance-than-expected/">regulate temperature</a> weakens. That means what once felt like a tolerable summer evening could now be life-threatening.



“We may not realize that our bodies’ reactions to heat changes as we age, and older adults and their caregivers may not realize that some of the medicines they are taking or medical conditions they have may make them prone to overheating,” Rao said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-in-service-and-policy">Gaps in service and policy</h2>



Beyond individual coping strategies, only seven studies in the review looked at how services are delivered during extreme heat. Many programs put more effort into protecting against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-extreme-cold-events-fit-climate-change-model-global-warming/">extreme cold</a> than against heat, showing how unbalanced the awareness remains. 



The fewest studies explored policies to safeguard older adults, even though that could make the biggest difference.



Changes in local policies show what’s possible. In Columbus, the Central Ohio Transit Authority now makes buses free during extreme heat events. That allows anyone, young or old, to travel without cost to cooling centers.



“It is good to see policy changes like this that are responding to what our new normal looks like,” said Marisa Sheldon, director of the Age-Friendly Innovation Center at Ohio State’s College of Social Work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-relationships">The role of relationships</h2>



Preparedness isn’t only about air conditioning or public transport. Relationships matter. In a related article in the journal Environmental Communication, researchers found that older adults’ sources of information - and the trust they place in them - are key to survival.



“One compelling finding from both studies was the importance of relationship building,” said co-author Fiona Doherty, now an assistant professor of social work at the University of Tennessee. 



“Not only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neighbors-can-help-reduce-the-health-risks-of-living-alone/">connecting neighbors</a>, but also learning what information sources older adults trust and building trust between individuals and community agencies so that community members follow expert guidance and change their behavior when necessary.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facing-the-future-of-heat">Facing the future of heat</h2>



As the world heats up, the risks for older adults grow sharper. Heat isn’t dramatic like a hurricane, but it is just as dangerous. 



Preparing homes, creating clear public policies, and building stronger community networks may save lives. 



What once worked may no longer be enough. The challenge now is to change how we think about heat - and to make sure no one is left unprepared.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000689">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Extreme heat is leaving older adults dangerously unprepared

Extreme heat is creeping into more of our lives every...

The "All-American" is the best among home pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is first and foremost a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. Standard pressure cookers are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning racks and instructions Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 930: Capacity: 30 Quarts (Liquid), 14 Quart Jars, 19 Pint Jars* Inside diameter: 12 5/8 inches Inside height: 14 inches Overall height: 19 inches Weight: 21.25 pounds Includes 2 racks *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com

All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 30 Quarts

The "All-American" is the best among home pressure canners. With...

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure canners. With proper care it will last a lifetime. Made in the USA since 1930. Read more Overview Only All-American Pressure Cookers/Canner feature an exclusive, precision machined "metal-to-metal" sealing system. Positive action clamping locks align the cover to the base, forming a steam-tight seal. At the same time, this metal-to-metal seal automatically permits venting under unusual pressure conditions, providing an extra margin of safety over conventional rubber or composition gasket cookers. The All-American Pressure Cooker/Canner is, first and foremost, a canner. It is large and heavy-cast for processing larger quantities of food per load. The USDA recommends pressure canning as the only safe way to can meat, fish, poultry and vegetables. "Pressure cookers" are not recommended for canning because a fully loaded canner takes a longer time for heating and cooling. This time is taken into account when determining processing times in standard canning timetables. Features & Benefits: Crafted of the finest hand cast aluminum Stay-cool bakelite top handle Geared steam gauge Pressure regulator weight with settings of 5, 10 and 15 psi Smooth, easy to clean satin finish Exclusive metal-to-metal seal - no gaskets to crack, burn, replace or clean Double thickness edges for additional protection on points of heaviest wear Automatic overpressure release Includes canning racks and instructions Available in 6 sizes Made in the USA since 1930 Specifications for Model 941: Capacity - 41.5 Quarts (Liquid), 19 Quart Jars, 32 Pint Jars Inside diameter - 15 1/4 inches Inside Height - 14 1/4 inches Overall Height - 19 inches Weight - 33 pounds Includes 2 racks *Jar capacities based on standard Mason jar sizes All-American Pressure Cooker/Canners are intended for home use applications. Models 910, 915, 921 and 925 are suitable for use on newer glass/flat top ranges. We recommend verifying weight restrictions with your stove manufacturer. Larger models 930 and 941 are heavy and not suitable for glass top ranges. "We bought an All-American Pressure Canner (Model 921) over 30 years ago, and have used it exclusively for all our canning. It is still as good as new." Greg Seaman, Founder, Eartheasy.com

All-American Pressure Canner/Cooker - 41.5 quart

The "All-American" is the best among home food production pressure...

The All-Season Wool Comforter is perfect for those living in climates with distinct seasons. It is actually two comforters that tie together, allowing you to remove one layer as the weather warms up. Read more Overview This wool comforter is designed for people living in climates where the temperature changes dramatically from winter to summer. The All-Season Comforter is actually two comforters that tie together, allowing you to remove one layer when the weather warms up. Both comforters have velour ties along the perimeter to keep the two comforters together. The All-Season Comforter is handmade using organic cotton sateen fabric,and filled with Premium Eco-Wool on the inside. The entire perimeter is hand-stitched and hand tuft in the middle to keep the wool from shifting, and enable machine washing. Features & Benefits: Two lightweight wool comforters that tie together Premium Eco-Wool batting Organic cotton sateen fabric cover Fits inside a duvet cover with ease Machine washable Handmade in the USA Size Options: Twin: 68" x 86", 4.6 lbs Queen: 86" x 86", 5.8 lbs King: 100" x 86", 6.6 lbs

All-Season Wool Comforters

The All-Season Wool Comforter is perfect for those living in...

The Allurette washer has been designed for home and travel use to make the hand washing process easy, fast, and mess-free. Read more Overview The Allurette(TM) washer is the new sister product to the Scrubba wash bag. It features a more subtle washboard, and excels at gently and effectively washing virtually all delicates and hand-wash only activewear. Small loads can be gently and effectively washed in just minutes. It is perfect for fashion-lovers with lots of hand-wash only clothing, parents who need to wash baby clothes, active women, the environmentally-conscious, travellers and those with sensitive skin. The Allurette washer is slightly smaller than the Scrubba wash bag and weighs just 112g ( Features & Benefits: Small loads can be washed at home or when travelling in just minutes Suitable for hand wash only clothes including most active ware, lingerie, lace, underwear and baby clothes Protects skin - clothing is washed inside the washer while rubbing the outside, so exposure of water and detergent to skin is minimal. Microbial and hydrolysis resistant polyether TPU Folds down to pocket-size and is small enough to take anywhere Grip circles on the outside prevent sliding on surfaces when washing Transparent 'window' to see washing and filling levels Picture instructions printed right on the outside of the bag Valve to release air Saves you money and time doing laundry while travelling Suitable for virtually all cleaning other than dry clean only - always read the wash label carefully. The Allurette when laid flat measures approximately 49 cm x 26 cm (19.3 x 10.2 inches). When conveniently rolled and clipped the dimensions are 13 cm x 6 cm x 6 cm (5.1 x 2.4 x 2.4 inches). Allurette(TM) Washer FAQ How does the Allurette Washer Work? For a machine quality delicates wash, use a few drops of a specialised handwash or delicate liquid detergent and gently rub the clothes for 2-3 minutes. For stubborn stains, the clothing may be gently rubbed for longer and/or the clothing may be allowed to soak in the Allurette washer prior to rubbing. If soaking clothing in the Allurette washer, ensure the Allurette washer is stored upright (e.g. seal facing upwards) to prevent water wicking through the seal. How much clothing can be washed at once? Effective at cleaning a few delicate items at once, whether it be a couple of pairs of underwear, a bra and a camisole or yoga pants and a sports bra. While the Allurette can hold more clothing, the washing efficiency may be reduced if too much clothing is added. Can I use hot water? Due to the waterproof lining in the bag, we recommend that water no hotter than 50AdegC (122AdegF) be used. Simply put, if it is too hot to hold your hands in, the water is too hot for the Allurette. It is important to read the care label on each clothing item carefully as different fabrics require different water temperatures. Some fabrics need to be washed in cold water to prevent damage. What laundry product should I use in the Allurette? We recommend the use of specialised handwash or delicate liquid detergent. We've found the use of liquid detergents to be more efficient due to the extra time it takes to dissolve solid detergents (powders, leaves, etc.). Using a liquid enables active suds immediately, reducing the overall time required for a wash. Mild baby shampoo (without conditioning additives that may add wax or oils) is a good choice for hand-washable silk fabrics. It will clean the natural protein and revitalize the fibre. You can test for quantities of different cleaning products in the Allurette by checking the amount of suds visible through the clear section of the bag. If you still have suds after 30 seconds of rubbing, then you can probably reduce the amount of detergent for the next load. Optimising the amount is not only better for the environment, but will also minimise the amount of rinsing required and reduce your washing costs over time. Avoid the use of detergents containing harsh chemicals, bleach or ammonia as these ingredients will not only damage your delicate clothing but will reduce the Allurette's longevity. How do I dry my clothes? For Drying - After rinsing the clothing, gently squeeze the excess water from the garment. Do not twist or wring the item as it may stretch the fibers and ruin the fabric. Lay your just-washed garment on a clean, dry towel, patting it into shape. Roll up the towel, encasing the garment. Gently press on the rolled-up towel to encourage water absorption. Repeat with another clean, dry towel if the first one becomes saturated. Always follow the garment's label directions for reshaping and drying. If no care label exists, lay the washed garment on a clean, dry white towel spread over a flat surface that is moisture-resistant. Flip the garment over periodically, and replace the damp towel with a dry one as needed. Air-dry delicate lingerie on a drying rack. If the dry garment is wrinkled, check the care label for appropriate ironing temperature, and if necessary, press the garment gently to finish. If no care label exists, test in an inconspicuous area before pressing. How do I use the Allurette Washer? 1) FILL IT: Add water, cleaning liquid and clothes to the Allurette(TM) Wash Bag (20-40% volume). 2) ROLL & CLIP: Roll down top at least 4-5 times and clip ends (like you would with a dry bag). 3) DEFLATE: Open and squeeze valve to expel air from the Allurette(TM) Washer. 4) RUB: Press down and rub clothes against the Allurette(TM) Washer's unique internal flexible washboard for 30 seconds for a quick traveler wash, or for 3 minutes for a machine quality wash. For delicates, press and rub gently. 5) RINSE: Unclip and unroll the Allurette(TM) Washer's seal. Pour out water. Rinse clothes with fresh water in the Allurette(TM) Washer or under a running tap or shower. 6) DRY: Hang dry clothes on a clothesline, pat dry with a towel, or get creative (hang on a bed post, over a chair, on a hanger, in a tree)! Care & Maintenance Your Allurette(TM) Washer will last much longer if you look after it. Follow these steps to maximize the lifespan of your Allurette(TM): Rinse, invert and dry after each use. While the Allurette(TM) uses microbial and hydrolysis resistant polyether TPU, air drying the inside of the bag will help it last longer and make it more hygienic. Avoid exposure to sunlight or heat: exposure to temperatures over 50 degrees Celsius can damage the inner and outer coatings of the bag. Where possible, dry the bag in the shade (it doesn't take long). Take care when washing clothes with zips, buckles or other hard features: Wrapping the clothes to cover zippers, buckles or other hard features can minimize damage to the Allurette(TM) Washer

Allurette Washer

The Allurette washer has been designed for home and travel...

Truly a work of art in the kitchen. This handsome artisan board makes a perfect canvas to display cheeses, charcuterie, appetizers, fresh fruit or bread. Read more With the Artisan board, Bambu set out to create a cutting and serving board that was more organic and asymmetrical in shape. The unique, slightly oblong design is hand shaped and finished. Tied off with a waxed cotton tie to store easily in any kitchen. Features & Benefits: Hand finished with food-safe natural oil Does not impart or absorb flavors Hand wash in warm soapy water Size: 15 L x 8.5 W x 5/8 H You can use Bamboo Goo to keep your cedar serving tray looking new for years to come.

Artisan Cutting & Serving Board

Truly a work of art in the kitchen. This handsome...

Life is too short for matching socks! These socks are knit in the USA with recycled cotton yarn and mismatched with care. Available in three sizes. Read more Overview Perfect for winter, the Balsam Socks feature Nordic patterns including snowflakes and pinecones, and colors reminiscent of a wintery forest. The Balsam sock is a great "goes with everything" sock. Colors in the Balsam socks: forest green, black, purple, bamboo green, black, and aluminum grey Whether you wear them all day at work, when relaxing at home or to keep your feet warm at night, these socks will brighten any day. Features & Benefits: Socks knit with recycled cotton yarn Mismatched with care Keeps your feet comfortable and warm year round Machine washable and dryable Made in the USA from recycled materials Size Options: Small: Women's 6 - 8, Men's 5 - 7 Medium: Women's 8 - 10, Men's 7 - 9 Large: Women's 10 - 12, Men's 9 - 11 Socks fit true to size. Small, medium and large corresponds to shoe sizes above. If you are on the cusp between sizes and wondering which size to order, these socks will shrink a little but they also stretch. So if you like your socks to fit snug then opt for the smaller size, and if you don't like socks to fit snug then go for the larger size. You can machine wash and dry these socks. Balsam socks are knit with pre-shrunk, colorfast cotton yarns. The colors will not run or fade. Eco friendly Balsam socks are knit from recycled materials. The recycled cotton yarn is created by recovering the scraps left over from the production of cotton t-shirts. All the little cotton scraps are gathered, ground up and spun into yarn. Using recycled cotton reduces the amount of cotton waste sent to landfills. Using recycled cotton yarn also reduces the amount of water, land use, pesticides and herbicides used to grow new cotton fibers as well as eliminates the need for harmful chemicals to dye virgin cotton yarn. This recycled yarn is certified by Oeko-Tex to be free of harmful toxins. Locally made Sock design, knitting and finishing final touches are all completed at small family-owned businesses in Vermont, North Carolina, and Oregon.

Balsam Recycled Cotton Socks

Life is too short for matching socks! These socks are...

This is a great first bowl for your baby. Made from certified organic bamboo, it's easy for little hands to grasp and shaped to help avoid spills. A healthy alternative to plastic bowls. Read more The natural shape of the bamboo culm (the specific name for a bamboo 'stalk') makes an ideally sized small bowl for children. There are no glues or adhesives used. The bowl is tapered to give it a well-rounded rim, so there are no hard edges. Hand wash with warm soapy water and rinse thoroughly Food safe; phthalate-free and BPA-free CPSC Tested and approved; meets US code CFR Title 16 Not recommended for dishwasher or microwave use

Bamboo Baby Bowl

This is a great first bowl for your baby. Made...

A handle designed for parents and an end designed for baby-sized mouths. Made from Certified organic bamboo, these feeding spoons are a healthy alternative to plastic spoons. Set of 2 spoons. Read more Made from USDA Certified Organic bamboo Finished with certified organic flax seed oil Food safe; BPA-free and phthalate-free CPSC tested and approved; meets US code CFR Title 16 Hand wash with warm soapy water and rinse thoroughly Not recommended for dishwasher or microwave use

Bamboo Baby Feeding Spoons

A handle designed for parents and an end designed for...