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Before you make a decision, your brain is already busy. It starts pulling in evidence, thinking through options, and slowly leaning toward a choice - all without you even realizing it.



Take a simple situation: two drivers in rush hour traffic. They both see the same congested road. One hits the gas to merge. The other taps the brakes and waits. 



Same scene, different reaction. Why? That’s a question that scientists have been trying to answer for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decision-making-in-the-brain">Decision-making in the brain</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a>, working with teams from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Stanford University, and Boston University, may be closer to cracking the code. 



The study was focused on how individual brain cells - each with its own quirks - somehow work together to land on a decision. In particular, the team investigated the dorsal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-distinct-maps-discovered-in-the-brain/">premotor cortex</a> - a part of the brain that helps turn decisions into actions. 



When we choose to reach, move, or act, the dorsal premotor cortex is in play. But it’s not as simple as one neuron equals one thought. The activity here is all over the map.



The researchers trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-structure-of-rhesus-macaques-is-shaped-by-social-interactions/">rhesus macaques</a> to look at a checkered screen and figure out whether red or green was more dominant. Sometimes the answer was obvious, while other times it was tough to call.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-from-individual-neurons">Signals from individual neurons </h2>



While the monkeys made their choices, the scientists recorded signals from individual neurons. 



The researchers found that even during the same trial, the neurons didn’t behave in sync. The monkeys showed a wide range of responses, something scientists call “heterogeneity.”



Dr. Tatiana Engel, an associate professor at the Princeton Neuroscience Institute, is the senior author of the study.



“The widespread assumption is that this heterogeneity reflects the complex dynamics involved in cognition,” said Dr. Engel. "But surprisingly, we found that this apparent complexity arises from a very different neural coding principle.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurons-work-together-for-a-decision">Neurons work together for a decision </h2>



The team developed a new type of computational model to help explain this complexity. It revealed that a neuron's behavior is shaped by two key factors. 



The first is tuning - when a neuron responds and what kind of decision it reacts to. The second is neural dynamics - how the brain’s internal state influences that activity as it unfolds over time.



Imagine a rolling landscape. In this model, valleys represent stable decisions. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/">neurons</a> activate, their patterns move like a ball rolling down a hill. 



On steeper slopes (easier choices), the ball moves quickly toward a clear answer. On flatter ground (harder decisions), the ball wobbles more, making mistakes more likely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-coordinated-journey-in-the-brain">A coordinated journey in the brain</h2>



When the team compared this model to real brain data, it held up. The tuning stayed the same no matter how easy or hard the task was, but the shape of the mental terrain shifted. 



That shift helped explain why neurons that look random on the surface are actually following the same deeper logic.



“Think of it like a group of skiers descending a mountain,” explained Dr. Engel. “Each prefers a slightly different path, but all are shaped by the same slope beneath them."



"Similarly, each neuron has its own preference and activity, but the group of cells collectively in the premotor cortex takes a coordinated journey and gradually settles into a stable state that represents the decision.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-beyond-the-lab">Why this matters beyond the lab</h2>



The study helps decode how the brain works when we’re weighing choices, especially the tricky ones. That kind of insight is crucial - not just for understanding everyday decision-making, but for understanding mental health disorders.



In conditions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schizophrenia-linked-to-irregular-fatty-metabolism-in-the-brain/">schizophrenia</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fructose-intake-may-contribute-to-bipolar-disorder-and-aggression/">bipolar disorder</a>, decision-making can be disrupted. Knowing how neurons usually coordinate could help pinpoint what’s going wrong. It also opens the door to designing more targeted therapies that focus on decision-related brain activity.



The team isn’t done yet. Their next step is to dig deeper into the roles of different types of neurons and how their connections shape this internal landscape.



“Every decision is unique,” said Dr. Engel. “But by digging down to the level of single trials and single neurons, we can start to make sense of it.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09199-1">Nature</a>.



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How your brain makes a decision before you know it

Before you make a decision, your brain is already busy....

Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more time in the trees than previously assumed. This finding from the Max Planck Institute challenges long-standing ideas about the anatomy and evolution of gorillas.



Western and Bwindi mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/">gorillas</a>, studied across Gabon and Uganda, were observed over many years. Even the largest males, weighing up to 170 kg, showed substantial tree use. 



Adult females in Loango spent 34% of their time in trees, while Bwindi females clocked 21%. That is a huge jump from the 7% figure for Virunga gorillas.



Study lead author Dr. Martha M. Robbins is a zoologist in the Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute</a> for Evolutionary Anthropology.



“Adult females spent 20% to 30% of their time in the trees, while silverbacks spent 18% to 20% of their time being arboreal, which is much more than 2 to 7% found previously in the Virunga mountain gorillas,” said Dr. Robbins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-gorillas-different-tree-habits">Different gorillas, different tree habits</h2>



The Virunga population shaped our early understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-gorillas-get-sick-from-being-too-social/">gorilla</a> habits. These highland gorillas live in fruit-scarce zones and rarely climb. But the new study included data from five groups in Bwindi and one in Loango, totaling nearly 5,200 observation days.



The findings are clear: tree use varies widely between populations. Even juveniles and subadults in Bwindi and Loango spent 32% to 43% of their time in trees - double the rate seen in Virunga’s younger gorillas.



The researchers also found that body size plays a role but does not prevent tree climbing. 



“This demonstrates that the large body size of gorillas is not necessarily a limiting factor to tree climbing and that gorillas can be just as arboreal as some chimpanzee populations,” said co-author Rhianna Drummond-Clarke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-is-not-just-about-fruit">Climbing is not just about fruit</h2>



The researchers expected fruit to be the main driver behind climbing. While gorillas did climb more while eating fruit, the full story is more complex. In Loango, adult females were more arboreal when eating leaves than fruit. In Bwindi, the reverse was true.



Even silverbacks, the heaviest individuals, climbed trees to eat fruit. At Bwindi, silverbacks were arboreal 82% of the time they ate fruit. But fruit formed just 14% of their diet, meaning most of their tree time involved eating leaves.



At Loango, gorillas often ate fallen fruit from the ground. This shows fruit-eating can be a terrestrial act too. Meanwhile, western gorillas also ate lots of tree leaves, about 30% of their diet, driving folivorous tree use, similar to some monkeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-is-the-main-reason-to-climb">Feeding is the main reason to climb</h2>



What were the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/">gorillas</a> doing in trees? Mostly feeding. Adult female gorillas were far more likely to climb while feeding than when resting or traveling.



Even when eating nonfruit, Loango females climbed more than Bwindi ones. This likely reflects differences in diet and foraging strategy. The energy payoff from fruit seems to outweigh the climbing cost, especially for massive silverbacks.



Also, Loango females were heavier climbers than their Bwindi peers when not eating fruit. This surprising reversal shows that even leaf-seeking gorillas may spend considerable time off the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-ape-evolution">What this means for ape evolution</h2>



These results have big implications. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">Gorillas</a> have long been labeled as terrestrial because of their bulk and plant-heavy diets. But that view no longer holds. The study shows gorilla arboreality spans all life stages, from infants to adults.



That shift affects how we interpret the fossil record. Gorilla-like bones have been taken to suggest ground-based life. But frequent tree climbing changes the picture. 



“We demonstrate that large body size and a largely folivorous diet in apes are also consistent with frequent arboreality,” noted the study authors.



Studies of limb proportions and bone strength now suggest a range, from more tree-based western gorillas to more ground-based Virunga ones. 



This means our models of ancient human relatives may need adjustment. Gorilla-like features may not imply they lived solely on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-are-tree-climbers-not-just-walkers">Gorillas are tree climbers, not just walkers</h2>



Gorillas are not just forest-floor giants. They climb often and for various reasons. From feeding on leaves to exploring the canopy, these behaviors offer key insights into how apes, including humans, evolved.



Future research may look into how such large animals navigate trees. They might distribute their weight across branches or use special movement strategies, similar to orangutans or chimpanzees. 



This research opens new doors in our understanding of ape mobility and evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00590-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Gorillas spend much more time in trees than we previously thought

Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more...

In the 1920s, the yellow-spored mold Aspergillus flavus gained infamy after members of Howard Carter’s team died not long after opening Tutankhamun’s tomb.



Decades later, a similar fate befell scientists who entered the crypt of Poland’s King Casimir IV. Within weeks, 10 of the 12 researchers succumbed to respiratory illness, and investigators traced the deadly outbreak to dormant A. flavus spores. 



Long dismissed as a toxic mold, Aspergillus flavus has revealed a new role: producing compounds that match some of the most trusted cancer therapies for acute myeloid leukemia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-aspergillus-flavus-the-basics">Understanding Aspergillus flavus - the basics</h2>



This fungus is commonly found in soil, decaying vegetation, and grains. It thrives in warm, humid environments, which makes it a persistent problem in agricultural settings - especially in crops like corn, peanuts, and tree nuts. 



What makes it particularly concerning is its ability to produce aflatoxins, which are highly toxic and carcinogenic compounds. 



Aflatoxin contamination in food can pose serious health risks to both humans and livestock, prompting strict regulations and regular testing in the food industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mold-s-molecular-treasure-map">Mold’s molecular treasure map</h2>



The breakthrough came from Sherry Gao’s laboratory at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, where researchers hunt for drugs hidden in microbial genomes.



The team focused on ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides, or RiPPs - small, ring-shaped molecules known for complex bioactivity. Scientists have cataloged thousands of RiPPs in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-they-found-two-key-bacteria-that-cause-multiple-sclerosis/">bacteria</a>, but they've found only a handful in fungi.



“Purifying these chemicals is difficult,” explained lead author Qiuyue Nie, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Pennsylvania. Moreover, scientists can easily overlook the genes that direct their synthesis.



Using a two-pronged strategy, the team first compared the chemical fingerprints of a dozen Aspergillus strains, then zeroed in on gene clusters likely to encode RiPP machinery. 



Turning those genes off caused the mysterious chemical peaks to vanish. This confirmed the researchers had found an active RiPP factory inside the tomb-dwelling mold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tomb-mold-to-cancer-medicine">From tomb mold to cancer medicine</h2>



Isolation and structural analysis revealed four previously unknown molecules sporting an intricate lattice of interlocking rings. The scientists named them asperigimycins in honor of their fungal source.



Two of the four showed notable activity against leukemia cells straight out of the flask, but a chemical tweak proved transformative.



By adding a fatty tail identical to one found in royal jelly - the nutrient-rich substance that turns ordinary bee larvae into queens - the team produced a lipid-capped asperigimycin. It matched cytarabine and daunorubicin, drugs that have anchored leukemia care since the 1970s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-drug-gets-inside">How the drug gets inside </h2>



Why did that extra lipid unleash such power? Gao’s group deployed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/">CRISPR</a>-based screen, knocking out genes in leukemia cells and tracking changes in drug uptake. 



One transporter, SLC46A3, emerged as essential. It normally shuttles nutrients out of lysosomes, the cell’s recycling compartments. The researchers learned that the fatty tag let the mold-derived asperigimycins hitch a ride through this portal.



“This gene acts like a gateway,” Nie said. “Knowing that lipids can affect how this gene transports chemicals into cells gives us another tool for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oral-peptides-pave-the-way-for-new-drug-development/">drug development</a>.” 



The insight may rescue other cyclic peptides that falter in trials because they cannot cross cellular barriers efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disarming-cancer-s-dividing-machinery"><a></a>Disarming cancer’s dividing machinery</h2>



Microscopy and biochemical assays showed that the modified asperigimycins halt tumor growth by sabotaging microtubules, the protein scaffolds that haul chromosomes apart during mitosis.



Intriguingly, the mold-derived molecules left breast, liver, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-can-sniff-out-lung-cancer/">lung cancer</a> lines largely untouched, as well as an array of bacteria and yeast. 



That selectivity hints at fewer side effects for patients, a perennial challenge for chemotherapy agents that indiscriminately target all fast-dividing cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mold-modern-answers">Ancient mold, modern answers</h2>



For decades, scientists debated how fungi construct RiPPs, often mistaking them for non-ribosomal peptides. The current study resolves that puzzle by linking chemical signatures to the responsible genes.



“The synthesis of these compounds is complicated, but that’s also what gives them this remarkable bioactivity," said Nie.



Comparative genomic scans have already flagged similar RiPP gene clusters in dozens of other molds, suggesting a trove of undiscovered molecules with antibiotic, antiviral, or immunomodulatory potential. According to Nie, this is an unexplored region with tremendous potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tomb-to-trial">From tomb to trial</h2>



The next step is to test asperigimycins in mice to gauge toxicity, dosage, and efficacy in living organisms. Success there could pave the way for human clinical trials. Gao, reflecting on the journey from tomb lore to lab bench, recalls one guiding principle.



“Fungi gave us penicillin. These results show that many more medicines derived from natural products remain to be found,” Gao said.



Nature’s pantry still holds untold remedies waiting to be unlocked. With each advance in genomic mining and synthetic tailoring, the line between microbial menace and medical marvel grows ever thinner.



It’s a testament to evolution’s vast chemical imagination - and to scientists bold enough to mine mold and other microbes for the next life-saving drug.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41589-025-01946-9">Nature Chemical Biology</a>.



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Toxic mold found in ancient tombs has been engineered into a promising cancer drug

In the 1920s, the yellow-spored mold Aspergillus flavus gained infamy...

Smiling,Mature,Mother,And,Adult,Daughter,On,Sofa,In,Living

Imagine chatting over coffee with your grandmother when she pauses mid-sentence and mutters, “Oh, what’s the word I’m looking for?” That familiar snag - scientists call it word-finding difficulty (WFD) - often arrives long before gray hair or reading glasses. It can feel trivial, yet it quietly hints at how the brain ages.



Those hesitations pop up everywhere, from grocery aisles to family reunions. They even slip into laboratory tasks designed to stress-test language. 



Far from mere annoyance, a faltering word can help clinicians spot trouble brewing in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupil-size-during-sleep-decides-if-new-or-old-memories-are-replayed/">memory networks</a> years before other symptoms emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-word-finding-difficulty-wfd">Word-finding difficulty (WFD)</h2>



Early work at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a> and <a href="https://www.baycrest.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baycrest Health Sciences</a> ties WFD to the same neural highways that falter in Alzheimer’s disease. 



Researchers note that slower speech, rather than the odd lapse, tracks most closely with overall cognitive health. 



Beyond disease, fresh evidence links verbal fluency to longevity; adults who keep words flowing live longer than peers whose speech grows hesitant.



Because everyday talk is complex, scientists break the puzzle into manageable pieces. 



Clues come from spontaneous pauses like “um,” “uh,” and from those frustrating “tip-of-the-tongue” moments when meaning is clear but the sound won’t surface. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-wfd-theories">Three WFD theories</h2>



One camp blames a global slowdown. The processing speed theory says an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-hotspot-found-in-the-brain-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/">aging brain</a> resembles an old laptop that needs a beat to open each file. 



Neural transmissions still fire, just more leisurely, leading to extra silence before the right syllable appears.



Another view, the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33934024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inhibition deficit</a> hypothesis, argues that older adults struggle to hush irrelevant notions. Competing names or ideas intrude, and mental traffic control can’t wave them aside quickly. 



Yet real-world conversations rarely show a flood of wrong guesses, casting doubt on inhibition as the chief culprit.



A third explanation zooms straight into language. The <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319777924_Research_into_Tip_of_the_Tongue_State_Transmission_Deficit_Model_vs_Blocking_Hypothesis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission deficit</a> hypothesis pictures vocabulary as a layered web: concept at the top, word form in the middle, and sound at the bottom. 



Age loosens the link between the middle and bottom tiers, so the speaker knows the concept but can’t launch its sound. That fragile connection makes spoken naming harder than listening or reading, which rely on sturdier routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-picture-word-game">Picture-word game</h2>



To probe these ideas, scientists use <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35389697/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">picture-word interference</a> tasks. Volunteers see a picture - say, a dog - while a word flashes or plays. If that word is “cat,” its meaning overlaps and slows the answer. 



If it is “fog,” the shared consonant kick-starts articulation. This setup teases apart semantic and phonological forces without the messiness of free conversation.



Moving experiments online has boosted participation. Researchers turned the task into a fast-paced game, keeping attention high across all ages. 



Reaction times shrink into the millisecond range, revealing hiccups long before a listener hears any stumble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-125-volunteers-revealed">What 125 volunteers revealed</h2>



In one study, 125 adults aged 18 to 85 tackled the game, logged executive-function scores, and recorded natural chat for later analysis. 



Older participants slowed markedly when “cat” accompanied a dog image and enjoyed less help from a “fog” cue. Those patterns matched the weakened pathway predicted by the transmission deficit hypothesis.



Yet when daily speech samples were scored, neither semantic slowdown nor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-planning-how-our-brains-prepare-to-speak/">phonological</a> boost predicted real-life WFD. 



Instead, overall reaction time - the raw speed of pulling any word - stood out as the best indicator. The finding nudged attention back toward general <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-speed-at-which-the-brain-processes-information/">processing speed</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-outpaces-distraction">Speed outpaces distraction</h2>



Follow-up work confirmed that the cadence of ordinary talk mirrors cognitive vitality. The University of Toronto team found that people who spoke more slowly also scored lower on tasks requiring planning and focus, even when word-finding errors were rare. 



Crucially, pauses to chase a lost word did not track with decline; what mattered was how briskly sentences rolled once the right words appeared.



This distinction eases common worries. A brief hunt for a noun may simply reflect normal aging, whereas a gradual slowdown in fluent speech could wave a red flag earlier than memory tests. 



Clinicians now argue that talking speed belongs in standard cognitive checkups, alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-you-position-your-arm-can-alter-blood-pressure-readings-according-to-scientists/">blood pressure</a> and reflex taps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-to-early-detection">Looking ahead to early detection</h2>



The picture-word game offers a quick, engaging way to capture subtle shifts before they tip into impairment. Because it measures speed and accuracy together, it may outshine traditional naming lists for spotting risk early. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-baby-talk-reveals-about-infant-learning/">Speech-analysis</a> software, already parsing recordings for millisecond pauses, could soon alert physicians when a patient’s verbal tempo drifts.



Meanwhile, everyday habits still matter. Conversational practice, storytelling, word games, and even learning new languages keep those neural pathways exercised. 



Just as daily walks support the heart, lively chatter supports the mind. And when a loved one stalls on a name, patience helps more than finishing the thought for them. 



Sometimes the right word arrives on its own schedule - one more reminder that brains, like conversations, thrive when given a little time to breathe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13825585.2024.2315774" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition</a>.



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Scientists identify a speech pattern that is a clear indication of a person in cognitive decline

Imagine chatting over coffee with your grandmother when she pauses...

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees...

When humans burst into laughter together, moods lift almost automatically. New research shows that a similar boost happens in our closest cousins.



An international team led by <a href="https://bloomington.iu.edu/">Indiana University</a> scientists has discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/">bonobos</a> become more upbeat after hearing the giggles of their companions. This finding pushes the evolutionary history of positive emotions back millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laughter-changed-ape-choices">Laughter changed ape choices</h2>



To explore laughter’s influence, the researchers designed a cognitive-bias test often used in animal psychology to gauge optimism or pessimism.



First, they trained bonobos at the <a href="https://www.apeinitiative.org/">Ape Initiative</a> in Des Moines, Iowa, to recognize two kinds of boxes: black ones that always contained a delicious snack and white ones that were always empty.



Once the apes consistently chose black and ignored white, the experimenters introduced a third, ambiguous gray box. They then played one of two sounds: recorded bonobo laughter or a neutral control noise.



“We know that other apes, like chimpanzees, have contagious laughter during play," said lead author Sasha Winkler, a primatologist at <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>. "We were wondering if that behavior could be explained by positive emotions produced from the sound itself.” 



If the bonobos felt a surge of good feeling after hearing laughter, the team expected them to treat the uncertain gray box as if it were the rewarding black one.



That is exactly what happened. “Think of it like the rose-colored glasses effect,” Winkler said. “The bonobos were much more likely to approach the gray boxes after hearing laughter, treating them like the rewarded boxes, and indicating a more optimistic expectation of finding a treat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-optimism-to-our-ancestors">Tracing optimism to our ancestors</h2>



This study is the first experimental proof that great-ape laughter can shift mood and cognition the way human laughter does.



“The tendency to behave more optimistically after hearing laughter suggests that the sound alone induced a positive emotional state in bonobos,” said senior author Erica Cartmill, the director of Indiana University’s Cognitive Science Program.



“This is the first study of which we're aware to measure a positive affect shift in nonhuman primates from a brief experimental intervention.”



Great apes -&nbsp; bonobos, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-wild-chimpanzees-can-teach-us-about-parenting/">chimpanzees</a>, gorillas, orangutans - all emit play calls that acoustically resemble human chuckles. Earlier work tied those sounds to a common evolutionary origin. The new findings add a cognitive twist.



“Our results suggest that laughter in other apes shares not only phylogenetic and behavioral similarities with human laughter but also perhaps some of the same cognitive-emotional underpinnings,” Winkler noted.



“This emotional contagion appears to have been present in the primate lineage long before the evolution of language.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laughter-empathy-and-apes">Laughter, empathy, and apes</h2>



Emotional contagion is often described as a foundational element of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/little-benjamina-the-oldest-evidence-of-social-empathy-in-humans/">empathy</a> - the capacity to share another’s feelings. As Winkler put it, “studies like ours can help to untangle the evolutionary building blocks of empathy, communication, and cooperation in humans.”



By revealing that a simple vocal cue can brighten outlooks in bonobos, the research suggests that the mechanisms linking social sound to positive mood were already in place in a common ancestor millions of years ago.



Cartmill added that the work answers a long-standing bias in emotion research. “Our emotions influence many aspects of cognition, including memory, attention, and decision-making, but research has historically focused on negative emotions with clear behavioral correlates, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-pathway-discovered-that-suppresses-fear/">fear</a> and aggression.”



“We wanted to better understand the relationship between positive affect and cognition in our closest living relatives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kanzi-and-the-future-of-empathy">Kanzi and the future of empathy</h2>



The experiments involved four bonobos, including the celebrated language-using ape Kanzi, who recently passed away.



“I feel incredibly grateful to have had the opportunity to work with Kanzi while he was still alive,” Winkler said. 



“We hope this brings greater public awareness of the remarkable similarities between us and bonobos, who are an endangered species. We have so much to learn from these incredible animals.”



Future studies will test whether laughter exerts similar cognitive effects in chimpanzees and other primates. They will also explore how social context - for example, hearing laughs from friends versus strangers - modulates optimism.



For now, the discovery that bonobo giggles brighten expectations highlights a shared emotional heritage and hints that a simple laugh has been boosting group spirits since long before humans walked the Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02594-8">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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Laughter lifts bonobo moods, offering clues to human emotion

When humans burst into laughter together, moods lift almost automatically....

The Microbiota Vault Initiative is growing fast. Announced on World Microbiome Day, it aims to protect microbial diversity before it disappears. This nonprofit project, inspired by the Svalbard Seed Vault, wants to preserve crucial microbes from people, animals and the environment.



"The Microbiota Vault Initiative represents a proactive effort to protect and preserve the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-they-found-two-key-bacteria-that-cause-multiple-sclerosis/">microbial</a> life that is essential for the health of our planet and its inhabitants," noted Maria Gloria Dominguez-Bello, who leads the initiative.



With guidance from 25 scientists across different continents, the Vault is shaping global policy on microbial conservation. By archiving healthy microbes, the Vault could help future generations prevent health crises and ecological collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-microbes-are-disappearing">Why microbes are disappearing</h2>



Microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-fingerprints/">communities</a> keep our systems running. In humans, they help digest food, shape immunity and reduce disease risk. In soil, they recycle nutrients and maintain plant growth. In permafrost, they trap carbon and control methane emissions.



But modern lifestyles are chipping away at these microbial partners. Dominguez-Bello’s research shows that cesarean births, antibiotics, and formula feeding disrupt gut microbes. Industrial diets also harm beneficial species.



"The microbiome is under big threat, a threat that is in many ways analogous to climate change," warned Martin Blaser, the Henry Rutgers Chair of the Human Microbiome at Rutgers University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-microbiota-vault-is-different">Why Microbiota Vault is different</h2>



Unlike seed banks that back up crop genetics, this vault goes further. It stores unique microbes that might never be collected again. Samples come from human stool, fermented foods and, soon, vulnerable environments. 



Already, over 1,200 human samples and 190 food samples have been cryopreserved at minus 80 degrees Celsius (minus 112 degrees Fahrenheit) in Zurich.



The initiative stores backup copies at the depositor’s request. All rights remain with local collectors. They can ask for DNA sequencing under open-access terms. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/little-known-nutrient-can-boost-your-brain-and-fight-cancer/">vault</a> itself does not patent or commercialize anything.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-this-effort-ethical">What makes this effort ethical</h2>



From the start, ethics and fairness have guided every decision. Depositors retain full control. Communities that supply samples get proper recognition and share in any future benefits.



"We are absolutely committed to developing the Microbiota Vault in a way that maximizes equity around the world.," stated Dominguez-Bello.



Workshops help researchers adopt standard protocols. The Global Microbiome Network symposia (<a href="https://www.microbiotavault.org/event/glomine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GloMiNe</a>), held annually, bring together scientists, ethicists, and policymakers. Locations so far include Peru, Africa, Asia and Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiota-vault-helps-the-climate">Microbiota Vault helps the climate</h2>



Losses in microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-link-between-obesity-anxiety-and-gut-microbiome-changes/">biodiversity</a> threaten both human and planetary health. For instance, Bifidobacterium infantis, once common in infant guts, is declining in industrial societies. This loss links to higher allergy and diabetes risks.



Other examples are equally worrying. The bacterium Helicobacter pylori, though known for causing ulcers, once helped regulate immune responses. Its decline may contribute to the incidence of asthma and metabolic issues. 



In nature, Methanoflorens stordalenmirensis, which is found in Arctic permafrost, helps control methane storage. Losing it could worsen climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-for-the-future">Building for the future</h2>



The current Microbiota Vault development phase, called “Growth Phase 1,” will run to 2029. Scientists aim to collect 10,000 samples and build a permanent vault in a cold region like Switzerland or Canada. Future steps include adding samples from threatened environments and improving global capacity.



Though techniques for restoring microbes remain uncertain, storing them now may support future therapies and climate recovery. Reintroducing extinct microbes may not be possible, but preserving them offers a vital safety net.



"If it is too late, and key members of the microbiome are gone, like the dodo bird, we can't restore them, unless we have them safely stored away" remarked Blaser.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiota-vault-joins-global-efforts">Microbiota Vault joins global efforts</h2>



This is not just a scientific project. It is a worldwide call to recognize microbial diversity as essential heritage. The Vault works with Indigenous communities, emphasizes depositor sovereignty, and engages with global biodiversity policies, including the Nagoya Protocol.



The initiative also partners with other efforts like the Global Microbiome Conservancy and the U.K. Crop Microbiome Cryobank, building a united front to conserve life’s smallest allies.



The Microbiota Vault is not a backup plan, it is a lifeline. In the face of ecological and health threats, it offers a rare chance to act before more vital microbes are lost.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61008-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Microbial vault: The race to save Earth's disappearing microbes

The Microbiota Vault Initiative is growing fast. Announced on World...

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a single variety: the creamy Hass. That genetic sameness has streamlined production into a multibillion-dollar industry. 



But it also invites disaster, as uniform orchards can collapse quickly when faced with a new pest, pathogen, or heat wave.



To find a different path, experts from <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a> have traveled far back in time - 11,000 years - to a Honduran rockshelter whose charred ancient avocado pits chronicle the birth of the crop and offer clues to a more resilient future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-fossils-in-a-cave">Avocado fossils in a cave</h2>



El Gigante, perched high in the western Honduran highlands, is a natural vault. Its dry interior has preserved plant remains that would normally rot in the humid tropics.



“It’s a truly incredible preservation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plant fossils</a> and an abundance of avocado remains in a tropical region where plants generally do not preserve well,” said co-author Heather B. Thakar, an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at Texas A&amp;M.



Layer upon layer of seeds, rinds, and other botanical scraps lie undisturbed, creating a sequential record of human meals - and human influence on local plants - stretching back to the end of the last ice age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocados-outlived-their-giants">Avocados outlived their giants</h2>



According to the scientists, avocados first evolved to entice gigantic browsers such as gomphotheres and mammoths.



“Avocados are an amazing food source for humans, rich in healthy fats and nutrients that are essential to us,” Thakar said.



“But they originally evolved as a food source for ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-the-disappearance-of-north-americas-megafauna/">megafauna</a> like giant sloths (gomphotheres) and mammoths that lived in the Americas during the last ice age.”



When those animals disappeared, humans stepped in to fill the ecological vacancy. Evidence at El Gigante shows early foragers selectively tending wild trees, nurturing seedlings with bigger seeds and fleshier fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-over-thousands-of-years">Farming over thousands of years</h2>



The team radiocarbon-dated hundreds of pits and rinds to build an exceptionally fine-grained timeline. Measurements revealed a steady upsizing: seeds grew larger and rinds thicker as the centuries passed.



“Through traditional forest management practices, people were selecting bigger and thicker-skinned avocados,” Thakar noted.



By 7,500 years ago, fruit size and durability hint that growers could harvest and transport avocados across larger distances. Full domestication appears roughly 2,000 years ago. 



That makes avocado cultivation in Honduras older than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">maize</a>, beans, or squash - crops that would later dominate Mesoamerican farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-lessons-for-future-crops">Past lessons for future crops</h2>



“Our work with El Gigante's avocado remains offers valuable information about resilience and adaptation in the face of climate change,” Thakar said.



Unlike modern orchardists who propagate identical Hass cuttings through grafting, ancient farmers planted seeds, preserving genetic variety.



“Much of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a> of ancient avocados still exists in wild populations in Mexico and Central America,” Thakar added.



“By developing new avocado varieties through seed selection from both modern domesticated plants and wild populations, we may have a better chance of adapting to these changing conditions than relying on cloning alone.”



Broadening commercial stock with traits such as drought tolerance or disease resistance could buffer future harvests against environmental shocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-avocado-cave-earns-global-notice">Ancient avocado cave earns global notice</h2>



Scientists and local communities alike recognize El Gigante not just for its cultural importance, but for its scientific value as well. 



Honduras has proposed the shelter for <a href="https://www.wmf.org/videos/content-world-monuments-fund-and-unesco-world-heritage-sites?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=22461168217&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAD4zJBFj8U_yyOJyxKFquaCnnbg_W&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw64jDBhDXARIsABkk8J4mTznkcgn5ncX37Yk-yEugipmynhK175QfaNBsiUamSXP-bxWKUXQaAi-cEALw_wcB">UNESCO World Heritage</a> status, and Thakar’s team supplies documentation to bolster the case.



“All of the research that we have undertaken is used in support of El Gigante's recent nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage site,” she said.



Although the site’s awkward three-meter climb has deterred looters, occasional campers and hunters do stray inside - making formal protection urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cave-full-of-agriculture">A cave full of agriculture</h2>



El Gigante also stores early evidence for squash and maize domestication. Thakar is actively working on a publication that details the arrival of maize and the 4,500 years of diversification and improvement of this globally important crop.



Thakar's methods - radiocarbon dating, stable-isotope chemistry, and 3-D morphometrics - merge hard science with cultural anthropology. 



She applies this toolkit across Mexico, Belize, and Nicaragua to map humanity’s long partnership with plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-farming-modern-lessons">Ancient farming, modern lessons</h2>



“The vast majority of food consumed today is a product of domestication,” Thakar said.



Understanding that protracted process can guide modern breeders. Ancient cultivators operated without greenhouses or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/">genetic engineering</a>, yet they produced crops - like avocadoes - exquisitely tuned to local soils and climates.



Unearthing those forgotten lineages may reveal alleles lost in today’s streamlined varieties. 



“By studying domestication, we can recover ancient varieties and cultural knowledge that has helped humans become the incredibly successful species that we are," said Thakar.



"It's information that can be used to improve our crops today and ensure our continued survival into the future."



From a Honduran cliffside to global orchards, the avocado’s story shows that agricultural resilience springs from diversity - and that sometimes the best way forward is to look back.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417072122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Cave discovery of ancient avocados could rescue a global crop

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a...

Closeup,Of,X-ray,Image,Of,Teeth,And,Mouth,With,All

Millions of Americans schedule wisdom‑tooth surgery each year, treating the third molars as little more than biological clutter. However, these grinders hide valuable dental stem cells at their core, and may prove to be critical in the treatment of several serious diseases. 



That routine visit to your dentist could soon double as the first step in a personalized medical plan, now that researchers have confirmed the teeth hide stem cells with a knack for rebuilding bone, cartilage, and even nerve tissue. 



The research was led by Dr. Gaskon Ibarretxe, an associate professor in the Cell Biology and Histology Department at the <a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en/en-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Basque Country</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-hidden-cells">Unlocking hidden cells</h2>



Every wisdom tooth shelters a soft core called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39849603/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dental pulp</a>, a vascular pocket that keeps the tooth alive. 



Scientists have isolated pulp‑resident cells that behave like immature body builders, able to transform into neurons, heart muscle or bone, once coaxed in the lab.



Ibarretxe’s team recently turned pulp cells into electrically excitable neuron‑like cells, that could fire the voltage spikes that real neurons use to talk.



“That jump from marker expression to genuine electrical activity is essential, because damaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-changes-in-the-brain-between-the-ages-of-11-25-and-how-it-influence-our-decisions/">brain</a> circuits need cells that can send signals,” noted Ibarretxe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harvesting-stem-cells-from-teeth">Harvesting stem cells from teeth</h2>



Roughly 10 million wisdom teeth are removed in the United States every year. Most head straight to a biomedical‑waste bin, yet each freshly extracted tooth offers a painless harvest of living tissue.



Dentists usually perform these surgeries on teens or young adults, an age sweet spot when pulp cells still divide briskly and carry few DNA errors.



Laboratories already partner with oral‑surgery clinics to bank teeth on dry ice, then ship them to GMP‑grade freezers where the pulp is processed and stored in liquid nitrogen. 



<a href="https://stemodontics.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stemodontics</a>, one such service, calls the practice “biological insurance.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-stem-cells-are-medical-assets">Dental stem cells are medical assets</h2>



Most extracted wisdom teeth are discarded without a second thought, but some companies now offer preservation kits to turn this waste into long-term medical assets. 



The kits are sent to dental offices ahead of time and include all materials needed to keep the dental stem cells in the pulp viable during transport.



Unlike embryonic or cord blood stem cells, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24850632/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dental pulp stem cells</a> are collected with minimal ethical concerns, since the tissue would otherwise be thrown away. 



This makes them a practical choice for expanding access to personalized regenerative therapies, especially as the cost of stem cell banking continues to fall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dental-stem-cells-and-disease">Dental stem cells and disease</h2>



Pre‑clinical studies show that dental‑pulp cells can ease motor symptoms in rodent models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/">Parkinson's</a> disease by replacing lost dopamine‑making neurons.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/">Alzheimer’s</a> research, the same cells secrete growth factors that protect synapses and may slow the buildup of toxic proteins. A 2024 <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2024.1440334/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> outlined how pulp‑derived cells help clear amyloid plaques and calm brain inflammation.



Clinical momentum is growing. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41591-025-00036-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a> recently reported early‑phase trials in which stem‑cell implants survived and released dopamine in people with Parkinson’s. 



While those trials used embryonic lines, dental stem cells may offer similar benefits without the ethical baggage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-personal-biobank">Building a personal biobank</h2>



Banking one’s own dental stem cells eliminates immune‑rejection worries, and can shave months off treatment timelines that would otherwise require donor matching.



Extraction logistics are straightforward: the oral surgeon places each tooth into a sterile vial, couriers rush the package to a lab, and technicians thaw, isolate, and freeze the pulp cells in under 24 hours.



The upfront fee rivals that of cord‑blood banking, yet the potential payoff spans decades because adult stem‑cell lines can be expanded repeatedly for multiple therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cells-used-in-multiple-health-issues">Stem cells used in multiple health issues </h2>



Outside the nervous system, dental stem cells build mineralized tissue faster than bone‑marrow cells, making them attractive for use in jaw repair after tumor surgery.



Cardiologists have tested dental‑pulp secretions in mice with heart failure and found improved ejection fractions, hinting at the potential for future cardiac patches grown from a patient’s own molar.



Orthopedic researchers see value too: in vitro, the cells lay down collagen and calcium in orderly sheets that mimic healthy cartilage, a property that could revolutionize joint‑repair grafts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-therapies-for-disease">Breakthrough therapies for disease </h2>



Regulators still need long‑term safety data, especially because transplanted cells must integrate without forming tumors.



Researchers are drafting multicenter trials that compare pulp‑cell implants with standard deep‑brain stimulation for movement disorders. 



If the dental stem cells restore function and trim health‑care costs, dentists may soon hand every patient a preservation kit along with post‑op ice packs.



The field also faces equity questions: wisdom‑tooth banking should not become a luxury limited to families who can afford elective services. Public biobanks or insurance incentives could close that gap.



For now, the message is simple: before tossing those molars, consider the regenerative gold hiding inside. The next breakthrough therapy for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/">Alzheimer's</a> disease or spinal‑cord injury may start with the tooth your dentist once called an inconvenience.



The study is published in <a href="https://stemcellres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13287-025-04134-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stem Cell Research &amp; Therapy</a>.



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Stem cells from extracted wisdom teeth are like "medical gold," able to treat multiple diseases

Millions of Americans schedule wisdom‑tooth surgery each year, treating the...

Climate change did not start in the modern era. Africa’s ancient past reveals societies already grappling with climate instability, using various coping strategies to adapt. 



During the Holocene Epoch, which began around 11,000 years ago, ecosystems transformed drastically. 



A wet phase known as the African Humid Period brought widespread rains for millennia. It was followed by increasing aridity, shrinking lakes, and expanding deserts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-climate-strategies-were-flexible">Ancient climate strategies were flexible </h2>



Faced with these upheavals, ancient African societies responded not with uniformity but flexibility. 



The communities crafted livelihoods that mixed herding, cultivation, fishing, and foraging. These combinations helped them survive long-term environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">change</a>.



"What we see is not a linear story of progress but a complex mosaic of strategies that helped people stay resilient. That has real lessons for food systems today," said Leanne N. Phelps, the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bones-show-climate-driven-changes">Bones show climate-driven changes</h2>



The research team analyzed isotopes from human and animal remains across Africa. These isotopes carry the chemical signature of consumed foods. For instance, C3 plants like wheat grow in cooler, wetter areas. C4 plants such as millet and sorghum thrive in hot, dry regions.



By grouping individuals with similar isotope profiles, the team identified isotopic niches. These niches matched unique livelihood strategies. Then, researchers linked these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">strategies</a> with archaeological and ecological data.



One key finding: pastoral-based diets had the widest range of carbon values. That suggests livestock-based lifestyles adapted to diverse conditions. C3 crop-based strategies, on the other hand, were more limited in range and geography.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-pastoralism">The role of pastoralism</h2>



Pastoralism was the most common livelihood in the archaeological record, appearing at 61% of studied sites. 



Pastoral systems showed high variation in diet and environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">setting</a>, from dry savannas to elevated plateaus. Some involved cattle or camel specialization. Others blended livestock with foraged or aquatic foods.



By contrast, ancient cultivation based on C3 plants like wheat and barley appeared in fewer locations and narrower climate zones. 



These farming systems depended more on stable water sources, such as those in the Nile Valley or Ethiopian highlands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-foraging-and-blended-strategies">Fishing, foraging, and blended strategies</h2>



Aquatic-based diets showed strong enrichment in nitrogen isotopes, indicating heavy fish consumption. These strategies were especially common near coastal zones or large lakes, including in South Africa and around Lake Chad.



Some communities combined foraging and farming or practiced mixed herding-hunting-fishing strategies. 



In the Zambezi Basin, such blending appeared around 2,000 years ago. It may reflect social contact between Bantu-speaking farmers moving south and San hunter-gatherers moving north.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-climate-strategies-across-regions">Distinct climate strategies across regions</h2>



Different regions across the African continent developed distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-elite-responsible-for-majority-of-global-climate-warming/">strategies</a> in response to their unique environmental conditions. 



In East Africa, the presence of elevated terrain combined with highly seasonal rainfall created favorable conditions for the development of specialized pastoral systems. 



These highland areas offered varied microclimates that could support livestock grazing even during challenging periods, allowing herding communities to flourish.



On the other hand, West Africa experienced a slower progression toward intensive food production. This delay may have been influenced by several factors. 



One key challenge was the prevalence of livestock diseases, particularly trypanosomiasis, which is spread by tsetse flies and affects cattle health. 



Additionally, the region's flatter landscapes and relatively uniform ecological zones may have limited the range of adaptable subsistence strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-patterns-and-climate-adaptation">Dietary patterns and climate adaptation </h2>



Isotopic evidence from human and animal remains reveals how dietary patterns shifted over time. In the northern parts of Africa, declining rainfall led to increased reliance on C3 plants, which grow better in cooler, wetter environments. 



Meanwhile, in southern regions, rising rainfall levels were associated with greater consumption of C4 plants and expanded use of livestock, signaling a growing emphasis on pastoralism. 



These dietary shifts reflect broader trends in ecological adaptation and livelihood restructuring across millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-ancient-climate-strategies">Learning from ancient climate strategies </h2>



Ancient Africa's response to climate instability shows that survival came from adaptability. The research concludes that no single solution worked across the continent. Instead, resilience emerged from flexible strategies that reflected local conditions.



"If we want climate solutions and global environmental change solutions to work, they need to be rooted in an understanding of the way that people have been using available resources throughout time," said Phelps.



This deep-time perspective reveals a crucial insight: durable strategies come from local knowledge, ecological awareness, and diversified livelihoods. Past success stories may yet help shape tomorrow’s responses to a changing climate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(25)00130-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>.



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Ancient societies used mixed strategies to survive climate change

Climate change did not start in the modern era. Africa’s...

After nearly two decades in orbit, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is trying something new. 



Engineers have taught the spacecraft how to roll - hard. This isn't just a simple tilt. These are full-body rolls, sometimes nearly upside down.



The purpose is to see deeper beneath the surface of Mars and hunt for signs of water and ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teaching-mars-orbiter-to-roll">Teaching Mars Orbiter to roll </h2>



The new technique comes from scientists at the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 



Between 2023 and 2024, MRO performed three massive rotations - what the team calls "very large rolls" - to boost the performance of one of its key instruments.



“Not only can you teach an old spacecraft new tricks, you can open up entirely new regions of the subsurface to explore by doing so,” said Gareth Morgan of the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Arizona.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-planning-and-careful-balance">Advanced planning and careful balance </h2>



Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was originally built to roll up to 30 degrees to aim its cameras and sensors at specific features on the Martian surface. 



It's a flexible platform, designed to twist and turn in space so scientists can target impact craters, landing zones, and more.



“We’re unique in that the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farewell-to-gaia-the-spacecraft-that-mapped-the-milky-way/">spacecraft</a> and its software are designed to let us roll all the time,” said Reid Thomas, MRO’s project manager at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.



But the bigger rolls - 120 degrees or more - are something else entirely. These require advanced planning and careful balance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-orbiter-why-every-roll-counts">Mars Orbiter: Why every roll counts</h2>



MRO's five main science instruments all have different needs. When one is pointed at Mars, others might lose their ideal view.



That means every maneuver is scheduled weeks in advance. Teams negotiate which instruments will be active and when. 



An algorithm takes over from there, guiding the orbiter to roll and aim while keeping its solar panels locked on the Sun and its antenna aimed at Earth. For very large rolls, even those systems go dark temporarily.



“The very large rolls require a special analysis to make sure we’ll have enough power in our batteries to safely do the roll,” Thomas said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flipping-for-stronger-radar-returns">Flipping for stronger radar returns</h2>



The massive rolls are especially helpful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shallow-ice-discovered-on-mars-could-help-future-human-missions/">SHARAD</a>, the Shallow Radar instrument on board. It is designed to see about half a mile to 1.2 miles (0.8 - 1.9 kilometers) below the Martian surface. 



SHARAD can also differentiate between ice, rock, and sand - a crucial capability for identifying water that future astronauts might one day use.



“The SHARAD instrument was designed for the near-subsurface, and there are select regions of Mars that are just out of reach for us,” said Morgan. “There is a lot to be gained by taking a closer look at those regions.”



Normally, SHARAD's signals bounce off parts of the orbiter before hitting Mars, which muddies the data. But by flipping the spacecraft 120 degrees, SHARAD gets a clean line of sight. That single move boosts signal strength tenfold or more.



This improvement is big, but it comes with tradeoffs. During the maneuver, MRO can't communicate with Earth or recharge its batteries. That limits the team to one or two very large rolls each year - for now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-instruments-with-new-tricks">Old instruments with new tricks </h2>



SHARAD isn’t the only instrument adjusting to new routines. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/">Mars Climate Sounder</a>, a radiometer built at JPL, is also leaning into MRO’s roll capability. It tracks temperatures and atmospheric changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-mars-red-scientists-think-they-figured-out-billion-year-old-mystery/">Mars</a>, revealing patterns in dust storms and cloud formations.



Originally, this instrument used a gimbal to adjust its view. But the gimbal started to fail in 2024. Now, the Climate Sounder depends on the orbiter's roll maneuvering instead.



“Rolling used to restrict our science, but we’ve incorporated it into our routine planning, both for surface views and calibration," said Mars Climate Sounder’s interim principal investigator, Armin Kleinboehl of JPL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-orbiter-still-delivers-after-18-years">Mars Orbiter still delivers after 18 years</h2>



NASA's Mars Reconnaissance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-rover-captured-driving-for-the-first-time/">Orbiter</a> has been circling the Red Planet since 2006. It's an aging but incredibly capable machine. 



These new rolling maneuvers show that even after 18 years in space, it's still finding new ways to contribute.



By shifting its body in bold new directions, MRO is helping us see what lies beneath the Martian dust - and just maybe, where water waits to be found.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech



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Mars Orbiter taught to 'roll over' for a view beneath the surface

After nearly two decades in orbit, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter...

Ever get so mentally drained that your brain just says, “I’m done”? That feeling of cognitive fatigue may not be as mysterious as it seems. 



In a recent study, researchers used brain scans to track what happens in our heads when fatigue sets in - and how we decide whether to keep going or give up.



The research team from <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/som">Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine</a> and the Kennedy Krieger Institute studied 28 healthy adults using functional MRI. The goal was to observe brain activity during moments of cognitive fatigue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-mental-fatigue">A closer look at mental fatigue</h2>



The volunteers - 18 women and 10 men between the ages of 21 and 29 - were paid $50 to participate. They also had the chance to earn more money depending on their performance. Before starting any tasks, each person received a baseline MRI scan.



Inside the MRI machine, participants were given <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hijacks-the-brain-disrupting-sleep-and-memory/">memory</a> exercises. They saw sequences of letters and had to remember where certain ones appeared. The farther back a letter was in the sequence, the harder it was to recall, making the task mentally taxing. 



Before and after each exercise, the participants rated how mentally tired they felt. They also got feedback on their performance and could earn bonuses between $1 and $8 depending on the difficulty of the task they chose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-key-brain-areas-light-up">Two key brain areas light up</h2>



The scans revealed something striking. When participants felt mentally tired, two brain regions showed a noticeable increase in activity. 



The right insula - a deep brain area linked to feelings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-fatigue-impairs-athletic-performance/">fatigue</a> - and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which helps manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">working memory</a>, both lit up. In fact, the activity in these areas more than doubled compared to the baseline.



Dr. Vikram Chib is an associate professor of biomedical engineering at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and a research scientist at Kennedy Krieger Institute.



“Our lab focuses on how [our minds] generate value for effort,” said Dr. Chib. "We understand less about the biology of cognitive tasks, including memory and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-improves-memory-formation-and-recall/">recall</a>, than we do about physical tasks, even though both involve a lot of effort.”



Dr. Chib noted that while cognitive tasks clearly wear people out, there’s still a lot to learn about how and why that fatigue builds up in the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motivation-matters-a-lot">Motivation matters - a lot</h2>



Participants were more likely to push through harder tasks when the rewards were higher. The research team noticed that people needed strong financial incentives to stay mentally engaged.



“That outcome wasn’t entirely surprising, given our previous work finding the same need for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incentives-help-pregnant-women-quit-smoking/">incentives</a> in spurring physical effort,” said Dr. Chib.



It seems the brain weighs whether mental effort is “worth it,” and only goes the extra mile when it sees a clear benefit.



“Our study was designed to induce cognitive fatigue and see how people’s choices to exert effort change when they feel fatigue, as well as identify locations in the brain where these decisions are made," explained Dr. Chib.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-fatigue-in-mental-health">Rethinking fatigue in mental health</h2>



Fatigue is a major challenge in conditions like PTSD and depression. Understanding how it works in healthy brains is a first step toward better treatment.



“Now that we’ve likely identified some of the neural circuits for cognitive effort in healthy people, we need to look at how fatigue manifests in the brains of people with these conditions,” said Dr. Chib.



He believes the same scanning techniques could eventually help doctors classify cognitive fatigue more objectively. That could open the door for new therapies, including medication and cognitive behavioral therapy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-brain-scans-don-t-show">What the brain scans don’t show</h2>



The team is quick to point out the limitations. Functional MRI tracks blood flow in the brain, which signals general activity, but it doesn’t capture the finer details of neuron-level behavior.



“This study was performed in an MRI scanner and with very specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-can-boost-brainpower-and-productivity/">cognitive tasks</a>. It will be important to see how these results generalize to other cognitive effort and real-world tasks,” said Dr. Chib.



Still, the findings offer a clearer view into how we respond to mental exhaustion - and what it takes for the brain to keep going.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/45/24/e1612242025">JNeurosci</a>.



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Mental fatigue: When the brain needs a reason to keep going

Ever get so mentally drained that your brain just says,...

Gold is everywhere - in our phones, computers, medical devices, and satellites. But getting it out of the ground or from discarded electronics usually means dealing with cyanide, mercury, and a lot of toxic waste. 



That’s been the trade-off: valuable metal at a steep environmental cost. But now, researchers at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> in Australia are showing there’s a better way.



The Flinders team, working across green chemistry, engineering, and physics, has developed a safer, more sustainable method to recover gold. 



The method works not only on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-iron-ore-deposits-reveal-a-1-3-billion-year-old-secret/">ore</a>, but also on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-waste-is-growing-five-times-faster-than-recycling/">electronic waste</a> and even scientific byproducts. Instead of relying on mercury or cyanide, the technique uses materials that are widely available and far less toxic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-gold-from-e-waste">Extracting gold from e-waste</h2>



At the heart of the method is trichloroisocyanuric acid - a common disinfectant used in pool and water treatment. When mixed with salt water, it becomes a powerful gold extractor. 



Once the gold is dissolved, it’s captured by a sulfur-rich polymer developed by the Flinders team. The polymer binds selectively to gold, even in complex mixtures full of other metals.



Then comes the clever part: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-polymers-that-are-considered-safe-release-harmful-toxins/">polymer</a> can be broken down to release the gold and be recycled for future use. This makes the entire process cleaner, safer, and more circular.



“The study featured many innovations including a new and recyclable leaching reagent derived from a compound used to disinfect water,” said Professor Justin Chalker, who leads the Chalker Lab.



“The team also developed an entirely new way to make the polymer sorbent, or the material that binds the gold after extraction into water, using light to initiate the key reaction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-safer-option-for-small-scale-miners">A safer option for small-scale miners</h2>



The method has already been tested on a wide range of materials, including e-waste, ore concentrates, and mixed-metal scrap. And it's not just a lab experiment. The researchers are planning to scale it up, working with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gold-mining-causes-long-lasting-damage-in-the-amazon-rainforest/">mining</a> companies and recycling facilities to put it into real-world use.



“The aim is to provide effective gold recovery methods that support the many uses of gold, while lessening the impact on the environment and human health,” said Professor Chalker.



This is especially important in small-scale and artisanal mines around the world, where mercury is still widely used to extract gold. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-pollution-in-the-amazon-is-recorded-in-tree-rings/">Mercury pollution</a> from gold mining is one of the leading sources of contamination globally. The team worked with experts in the United States and Peru to test the new method on gold ore, with the goal of offering safer alternatives to these communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gold-from-a-mound-of-e-waste">Gold from a mound of e-waste </h2>



The researchers aren’t just solving a technical problem. They’re trying to make sure the solution actually fits into real systems -economic, environmental, and social.



“We are especially grateful to our engineering, mining, and philanthropic partners for supporting translation of laboratory discoveries to larger scale demonstrations of the gold recovery techniques,” noted Professor Chalker.



Dr. Max Mann, one of the study's lead authors, highlighted the scale of the problem. “This paper shows that interdisciplinary collaborations are needed to address the world's big problems managing the growing stockpiles of e-waste.”



Dr. Thomas Nicholls noted that the newly developed gold sorbent is made using a sustainable approach in which UV light is used to make the sulfur-rich polymer. He explained that recycling the polymer after the gold has been recovered further increases the green credentials of this method.



“We dived into a mound of e-waste and climbed out with a block of gold! I hope this research inspires impactful solutions to pressing global challenges," said Dr. Harshal Patel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-forward-for-gold-recovery">A path forward for gold recovery</h2>



The work out of Flinders University is more than just a chemistry breakthrough. It’s a potential roadmap for how science can rethink an entire process - replacing toxic practices with something smarter, cleaner, and just as effective.



Dr. Lynn Lisboa connected the project to the bigger picture. “With the ever-growing technological and societal demand for gold, it is increasingly important to develop safe and versatile methods to purify gold from varying sources," she said.



If the new extraction method continues to succeed at larger scales, it could help rewrite how the world mines, recycles, and values one of its most sought-after elements.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01586-w">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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Turning trash into treasure: Scientists are safely extracting gold from e-waste

Gold is everywhere - in our phones, computers, medical devices,...

Rodents don’t usually evolve overnight. Like most species, they change slowly through tiny shifts passed down over thousands or millions of years. But when the world changes fast, like it has in cities over the past century, some animals keep up. 



In fact, some animals even adapt to urbanization in real time. A team of researchers recently spotted signs of that kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-are-driving-rapid-evolution/">rapid evolution</a>. The clues were found in hundreds of skills sitting quietly in drawers at the Field Museum in Chicago.



The skulls weren’t newly collected specimens - they spanned more than a century. And hidden in their measurements were subtle changes that told a bigger story.



By comparing the skulls of eastern chipmunks and eastern meadow voles collected over the past 125 years, scientists at the Field Museum uncovered signs of these animals adjusting to an increasingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-can-effectively-adapt-to-urban-environments/">urban environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-time-machine-in-a-museum">A time machine in a museum</h2>



“Museum collections allow you to time travel,” said Stephanie Smith, a mammalogist and XCT laboratory manager at the Field Museum. 



"Instead of being limited to studying specimens collected over the course of one project, or one person’s lifetime, natural history collections allow you to look at things over a more evolutionarily relevant time scale.”



The Field Museum’s mammal collection includes over 245,000 specimens from around the world, but its home city is especially well represented. These Chicago-area animals offer a rare chance to study changes across both time and space - right in the scientists’ backyard.



“We’ve got things that are over 100 years old, and they're in just as good of shape as things that were collected literally this year,” said Smith. “We thought, this is a great resource to exploit.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-rodents-in-the-city-of-chicago">Comparing rodents in the city of Chicago</h2>



The team focused on two rodent species that still call Chicago home. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-play-a-vital-role-in-maintaining-forest-health/">Chipmunks</a>, which live above ground and eat a wide range of food, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-behavior-of-voles-linked-to-oxytocin-levels/">voles</a>, which live underground and mostly stick to plants. The contrast between them was part of the point.



“We chose these two species because they have different biology, and we thought they might be responding differently to the stresses of urbanization,” said Anderson Feijó, assistant curator of mammals at the Field Museum.



Two interns with the Field Museum Women in Science program - Alyssa Stringer and Luna Bian - played a central role in the work. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodent-skulls-and-city-adaptations">Rodent skulls and city adaptations</h2>



The researchers measured the skulls of 132 chipmunks and 193 voles. The skulls hold clues about diet, body size, and even sensory abilities.



“From the skulls, we can tell a little bit about how animals are changing in a lot of different, evolutionary relevant ways - how they're dealing with their environment and how they're taking in information,” said Smith.



Stringer and Bian measured basic features of each rodent skull, like overall length and the length of the tooth rows. 



The researchers also used 3D scanning to digitally map 82 chipmunk and 54 vole skulls. This allowed them to compare tiny differences in shape across specimens using a method called geometric morphometrics.



The results revealed small but telling shifts. Chipmunks showed an increase in skull size, but their tooth rows got shorter. 



Voles developed smaller bony structures in their skulls that are tied to hearing. The changes weren’t random - but they also weren’t clearly linked to temperature or climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodents-respond-to-a-louder-bigger-city">Rodents respond to a louder, bigger city</h2>



To dig deeper, the team used satellite data to track how the city grew over time. They looked at building coverage starting in the 1940s and matched those trends to the locations where specimens were collected. 



Older specimens came from areas known to be wild back then - or from downtown areas that were already developed.



“We tried very hard to come up with a way to quantify the spread of urbanization,” said Feijó. “We took advantage of satellite images showing the amount of area covered by buildings, dating back to 1940.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-driven-by-urbanization">Changes driven by urbanization </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/">Urbanization</a>, not climate, seemed to drive the rodent skull changes. And the way each species adapted may reflect how it lives.



“Over the last century, chipmunks in Chicago have been getting bigger, but their teeth are getting smaller,” said Feijó. “We believe this is probably associated with the kind of food they're eating."



"They're probably eating more human-related food, which makes them bigger, but not necessarily healthier. Meanwhile, their teeth are smaller - we think it's because they're eating less hard food, like the nuts and seeds they would normally eat.”



As for the voles? The parts of their skulls that hold the inner ear - the auditory bullae - have shrunk. “We think this may relate to the city being loud - having these bones be smaller might help dampen excess environmental noise,” said Smith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-not-a-win">A warning, not a win</h2>



It might be tempting to see this as a success story - rodents adjusting to city life. But the scientists see it differently. 



The adaptations may help, but they’re not necessarily positive. Smaller teeth and smaller ear bones are symptoms of change, not signs of health.



“These findings clearly show that interfering with the environment has a detectable effect on wildlife,” said Feijó.



“Change is probably happening under your nose, and you don't see it happening unless you use resources like museum collections,” said Smith.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icb/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/icb/icaf081/8158706?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Integrative and Comparative Biology</a>.



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Chicago’s rodents are evolving with the city

Rodents don’t usually evolve overnight. Like most species, they change...

If you walk through a grocery store and grab a box of breakfast cereal or a sports drink off the shelf, there’s a good chance it contains synthetic food dyes. 



These dyes aren't just in candy. They're in many foods and drinks marketed to kids. New research shows that nearly 1 in 5 packaged foods and beverages in the U.S. contains synthetic coloring agents.



The study comes from scientists at <a href="https://www.georgeinstitute.org/">The George Institute for Global Health</a>, the University of North Carolina, and the Center for Science in the Public Interest. The team analyzed almost 40,000 products from the top 25 U.S. food companies. 



The researchers focused on ingredients, especially in five categories that are heavily marketed to children: candy, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-are-consuming-more-sugary-drinks-than-ever/">sugary drinks</a>, frozen meals, breakfast cereals, and baked goods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-numbers-behind-the-colors">The numbers behind the colors</h2>



Products aimed at kids were far more likely to contain synthetic dyes. About 28% of items in child-targeted categories had these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-ingredients-in-u-s-foods-are-potentially-unsafe/">additives</a>. In contrast, only 11% of products in other categories used them.



Even more concerning is the sugar connection. Products with synthetic dyes had, on average, 141% more sugar than those without them. To put that into perspective: that’s 33.3 grams of sugar per 100 grams of product, compared to 13.8 grams in dye-free products.



Dr. Elizabeth Dunford, a research fellow at The George Institute and adjunct assistant professor at the University of North Carolina, sees this as a clear red flag.



“Given the accumulation of evidence over the last 40 years pointing to the health harms of synthetic dyes, it’s disappointing to see that they’re still so prevalent in our food system, particularly in products that are designed to appeal to children,” said Dr. Dunford.



“The high levels of sugar in these brightly colored products suggests that companies are using synthetic dyes to market <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sweet-snacks-rewire-the-brain-to-prefer-unhealthy-food/">sweet foods</a> and beverages, but both ingredients are linked to poor health outcomes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-brands-still-use-synthetic-dyes">Which brands still use synthetic dyes?</h2>



When it comes to brands, confectionery companies led the pack. Ferrero had synthetic dyes in 60% of its products. Mars was close behind at 52 percent. 



In beverages, the numbers were equally high. Over half of PepsiCo’s energy drinks had synthetic dyes. A striking 79% of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-levels-of-toxic-metals-detected-in-popular-drinks/">sports drinks</a>, no matter the brand, used them.



Dr. Thomas Galligan, principal scientist for food additives and supplements at the Center for Science in the Public Interest, noted the slow progress toward phasing these additives out.



"The FDA recently asked the food industry to voluntarily phase synthetic dyes out of the food supply, but many companies had previously made promises to stop using them and then failed to keep those promises. So, it remains to be seen if food companies will comply with this new request,” said Dr. Galligan.



“If the FDA were to require warning labels on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fda-faces-scrutiny-over-synthetic-food-dyes/">synthetically dyed foods</a>, similar to the rule in place since 2010 in the European Union, there would be a much stronger incentive for industry to reformulate."



Dr. Galligan noted that those warnings would also ensure consumers are better able to protect themselves from products sold by companies who choose not to phase dyes out entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-parents-and-consumers-can-do">What parents and consumers can do</h2>



There may be hope on the policy front. According to Dr. Dunford, lawmakers across the U.S. are starting to act. Several states have introduced bills this year aimed at limiting or banning synthetic dyes in foods, especially those marketed to children.



“But until the regulatory process catches up with the science, parents and health-conscious consumers should always check the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controversial-soda-additive-has-been-banned-by-the-fda/">ingredients</a> label for synthetic dyes and for high levels of added sugar. If a product contains either, you are better off not buying it, especially for your kids.”



For now, awareness is key. The colors might make snacks look fun, but what they bring along isn’t harmless. It's worth flipping the box over and reading the label - especially if it's going into a child's lunchbox.



Many healthier products skip artificial dyes entirely. Taking a few extra seconds in the store can help protect your family from unnecessary additives and their possible health effects.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.jandonline.org/article/S2212-2672(25)00166-2/abstract">Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics</a>.



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One in five packaged foods in the U.S. contains synthetic dyes

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