Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features the devastating floods that swept across Pakistan during the summer of 2025.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154781/monsoon-rains-flood-pakistan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a>, captured by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) aboard NOAA’s polar-orbiting satellite, tells a stark story. Depicted in false color to highlight the presence of water, it reveals broad areas of Pakistan’s landscape drowned beneath muddy expanses. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rivers-split-a-century-old-mystery-has-finally-been-solved/">Rivers</a> are indistinguishable from the surrounding countryside, demonstrating just how much territory has been lost to the flood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deluge-that-overwhelmed-the-land">A deluge that overwhelmed the land</h2>



What began as a particularly strong monsoon season in late June has turned into one of the worst <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-floods-what-turns-a-rainstorm-into-a-catastrophe/">flood</a> events in living memory, with the eastern Punjab province seeing its most severe inundation in history.&nbsp;



Millions of people have been affected, with entire villages swallowed by rivers and farmland drowned under relentless rainfall.



By mid-August, torrential rains pounded the northern mountains, setting off destructive flash floods and landslides. Water surged downstream with little relief for communities in its path.&nbsp;



By the close of the month, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atmosphere-has-a-memory-that-affects-the-timing-of-monsoons/">monsoon</a> rain totals across the country measured 21 percent higher than normal, and in Punjab the increase reached 36 percent.&nbsp;



These figures translated into staggering human consequences, with nearly four million people affected in eastern Punjab alone and close to two million forced to evacuate. About 4,000 villages were inundated as rivers overtopped their banks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-human-toll-of-pakistan-s-floods-nbsp">The human toll of Pakistan’s floods&nbsp;</h2>



In Lahore, Pakistan’s second-largest city, the flooded Ravi River spilled into housing developments and submerged major roads.&nbsp;



To the south along the Chenab, the rising waters engulfed nearby villages and forced authorities to move more than 25,000 people - roughly half the population - from Jalalpur Pirwala by September 8.&nbsp;



In Sindh province, low-lying districts braced for similar outcomes. Evacuations were carried out in anticipation of floodwaters advancing along the Indus River.



The flood’s reach has gone far beyond homes and streets. According to reports, an estimated 75 percent of Pakistan’s farmland has suffered damage. Fields of rice, sugarcane, and cotton - the backbone of agricultural livelihoods - now lie underwater.&nbsp;



These losses will ripple across food security, household income, and the national economy for months, and possibly even years. Farmers who were already struggling with rising input costs now face the prospect of losing entire harvests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monsoon-floods-in-pakistan-nbsp">Monsoon floods in Pakistan&nbsp;</h2>



The numbers highlight how overwhelming this disaster has become. Evacuations on such a scale stretch emergency services to their limits.&nbsp;



Relief agencies have called the flooding in Punjab the worst in the region’s history, a sobering reminder of how vulnerable the densely populated plains are when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atmosphere-has-a-memory-that-affects-the-timing-of-monsoons/">monsoon</a> intensifies.



The unfolding tragedy recalls the catastrophic monsoon of 2022, when Sindh province bore the brunt of widespread inundation.&nbsp;



Flat, low-lying terrain makes this region particularly susceptible to prolonged flooding, with waters lingering for weeks.&nbsp;



In 2025, once again, Sindh has been hit hard. The difference now is the sheer magnitude of rainfall concentrated over a short span of time, overwhelming embankments and drainage systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recovery-resilience-and-responsibility">Recovery, resilience, and responsibility</h2>



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-thousand-years-extreme-storms-are-becoming-much-more-frequent/">floodwaters</a> begin to recede in many regions, Pakistan enters a phase where recovery is urgent but complicated. Rebuilding homes, restoring roads, and clearing debris will take months.&nbsp;



Restoring basic services - clean water, electricity, healthcare - is critical. Farmers must assess ruined fields, decide whether to replant, and find seeds and supplies. Many will need financial help to get back on their feet.



Global climate scientists warn that this kind of extreme monsoon behavior is becoming more likely as the atmosphere warms. Infrastructure built for past rainfall patterns may no longer suffice.&nbsp;



In areas like Punjab and Sindh, better flood defenses, improved drainage systems, and early warning networks will be essential to reduce future devastation.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flood-fatalities-experts-reveal-the-hidden-health-impacts/">human cost</a> of this disaster is not over. Displaced families will need long-term support, including food and shelter. Mental health impacts from loss and upheaval may persist.&nbsp;



The scale of this disaster calls for more than short-term relief. It requires long-term solutions. Governments, aid organizations, and local communities share the responsibility to rebuild in ways that not only replace what was destroyed but also create stronger, safer, and more sustainable systems for the future.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Pakistan’s monsoon floods leave millions displaced

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Butterfly Nebula, located about 3,400 light-years away in the constellation Scorpius.&nbsp;



It’s what astronomers call a planetary nebula - the brief phase when a dying star sheds its outer layers into space.



Despite the name, planetary nebulae have nothing to do with planets. Early astronomers thought these glowing shells looked round, like distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">worlds</a> seen through primitive telescopes.&nbsp;



The name stuck, even though many nebulae are anything but round. The Butterfly Nebula, with its outstretched “wings” of gas and dust, is a perfect example.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-a-hidden-heart">Butterfly with a hidden heart</h2>



At the center of this spectacular cloud lies the remnant of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-like-stars-release-massive-superflares-every-100-years/">Sun-like star</a>. It has burned through its fuel and shed most of its mass, leaving behind a blazing hot core.&nbsp;



The star energizes the nebula, making it glow across the spectrum. Yet until recently, the star itself remained hidden.



A dark band of dust and gas cuts through the nebula like the “body” of the butterfly. This band is actually a torus, a doughnut-shaped structure that blocks visible light.&nbsp;



The torus shapes the nebula by forcing gas outward in two opposite directions, creating the iconic bipolar wings. It also conceals the central star from optical view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-brings-clarity">Webb telescope brings clarity</h2>



The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> has now pierced the dust with its Mid-Infrared Instrument, offering the sharpest view yet of the nebula’s core. 



By working in “integral field unit mode,” Webb captured <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Webb/Webb_investigates_complex_heart_of_a_cosmic_butterfly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> and spectra at multiple wavelengths simultaneously. The result is a detailed portrait of how the nebula looks in different slices of light.



The team also added data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array in Chile, which revealed colder gas and dust.&nbsp;



Together, these instruments exposed a structure of extraordinary complexity, with nearly 200 spectral lines tracing atoms and molecules woven into layered shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-central-star-revealed">The central star revealed</h2>



The Webb observations finally pinned down the location of the nebula’s hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-stars-shape-planetary-systems-like-ours-with-ultraviolet-radiation/">star</a>. Its surrounding dust cloud glows brightly in mid-infrared light, betraying its position for the first time.&nbsp;



With a scorching temperature of 220,000 Kelvin - around 400,000 degrees Fahrenheit - this is one of the hottest known central stars in a planetary nebula.



That heat drives the nebula’s glow, but its power doesn’t escape evenly. The dense torus channels the outflow, creating the striking wings that stretch across space.&nbsp;



Webb data show that the torus contains crystalline silicates such as quartz, along with irregular grains about a millionth of a meter across. For cosmic dust, that’s relatively large, suggesting the particles have been accumulating for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jets-layers-and-chemical-signatures">Jets, layers, and chemical signatures</h2>



Outside the torus, the nebula displays a multilayered design. Atoms that need the most energy to ionize cluster near the center. Those requiring less energy appear farther out.&nbsp;



Among the highlights are iron and nickel, which mark out two jets blasting away from the star in opposite directions. These fast-moving streams help sculpt the overall shape of the nebula.



The team also found evidence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs.&nbsp;



On Earth, PAHs are common in soot from fires, exhaust fumes, and even burnt toast. In the Butterfly Nebula, they appear to form when bursts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-solar-wind-directly-to-its-source-for-the-first-time/">stellar wind</a> collide with the surrounding gas.&nbsp;



This could be the first time PAHs have been spotted forming in an oxygen-rich planetary nebula, offering a rare window into the chemistry of dying stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fleeting-beauty-of-the-butterfly-nebula">Fleeting beauty of the Butterfly Nebula</h2>



The entire spectacle will not last long by cosmic standards. The planetary nebula stage endures only about 20,000 years - a brief flicker compared to a star’s lifetime of billions of years.&nbsp;



The Butterfly Nebula is a reminder of how short-lived and yet astonishingly beautiful the final chapters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/">stellar evolution</a> can be.



The results of this study are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/542/2/1287/8241385" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 



The research shows that even well-studied objects like the Butterfly Nebula can surprise us when viewed with fresh eyes.&nbsp;



Webb’s infrared vision has revealed not only the hidden star at the heart of the butterfly, but also the intricate chemistry that surrounds it - from crystalline dust to unexpected organic molecules.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, J. Kastner, M. Zamani (ESA/Webb)



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Secrets of the Butterfly Nebula uncovered by Webb

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a stunning reflection nebula known as GN 04.32.8 in the constellation Taurus.



Reflection nebulae are cosmic clouds of fine dust that become visible not by producing their own light, but by reflecting the light of nearby stars.&nbsp;



Unlike emission <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">nebulae</a>, which glow due to ionized gases radiating light, reflection nebulae shine more subtly.&nbsp;



The light from nearby stars strikes the dust particles within the cloud and scatters in many directions - especially shorter, bluer wavelengths. This scattering effect, similar to the way Earth’s sky appears blue, often gives reflection nebulae their characteristic bluish hue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-taurus-molecular-cloud">The Taurus Molecular Cloud</h2>



“GN 04.32.8 is a small part of the stellar nursery known as the Taurus Molecular Cloud. At only roughly 480 light-years from Earth in the constellation Taurus, it's one of the best locations for studying newly forming stars,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>.



The Taurus Molecular Cloud is one of the closest and most extensively studied regions for low-mass star formation.&nbsp;



Unlike larger star-forming regions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/">Orion</a> that produce many high-mass stars, the Taurus Molecular Cloud is dominated by the formation of Sun-like and smaller stars, making it a prime analog for understanding the conditions that led to the birth of our own solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energetic-stars-in-the-constellation-taurus-nbsp">Energetic stars in the constellation Taurus&nbsp;</h2>



“This reflection nebula is illuminated by the system of three bright stars in the center of this image, mainly the variable star V1025 Tauri in the very center," ESA noted. 



“One of those stars overlaps with part of the nebula: this is another variable star that is named HP Tauri, but is classified as a T Tauri star, for its similarity to yet another variable star elsewhere in the Taurus Molecular Complex.”&nbsp;



T Tauri stars are young, energetic stars in the earliest stages of stellar evolution, just beginning their journey toward becoming stable main sequence stars like our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-sun-like-stars-with-secret-companions/">Sun</a>.&nbsp;



These stars are highly variable, often exhibiting strong stellar winds and flares as they settle into equilibrium. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dynamic-star-system">A dynamic star system</h2>



In this case, the trio of T Tauri stars - named HP Tau, HP Tau G2, and HP Tau G3 - are believed to be gravitationally bound, forming a dynamic triple star system.



“Eagle-eyed viewers might notice the small, squashed, orange spot, just left of center below the clouds of the nebula, that’s crossed by a dark line. This is a newly-formed protostar, hidden in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/">protoplanetary disc</a> that obstructs some of its light,” explained ESA.



“Because the disc is edge-on to us, it’s an ideal candidate for study. Astronomers are using Hubble here to examine it closely, seeking to learn about the kinds of exoplanets that might be formed in discs like it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-light-of-hot-young-stars">The light of hot, young stars</h2>



Reflection nebulae are usually found in regions where new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-billion-white-dwarf-stars-in-milky-way-galaxy-might-have-habitable-planets/">stars</a> are forming, often near or within dense molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Some reflection nebulae can span light-years across and serve as markers of stellar nurseries - places where future generations of stars are taking shape.



Reflection nebulae offer astronomers a valuable glimpse into the structure and composition of the interstellar medium and help trace the life cycles of stars from birth to maturity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-reflection-nebulae-nbsp">Examples of reflection nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



One well-known example is the reflection nebula surrounding the Pleiades star cluster, also called the Seven Sisters.&nbsp;



The Iris Nebula, located in the constellation Cepheus about 1,300 light-years from Earth, is a striking reflection nebula illuminated by the young star SAO 19158.



This nebula is a popular target for astrophotographers due to its vivid colors and intricate structure.



Found about 1,600 light-years away, M78 is the brightest reflection nebula in the Orion constellation and one of the easiest to observe with amateur telescopes. It’s illuminated by two young stars, HD 38563A and HD 38563B.&nbsp;



M78 is part of a larger complex of gas and dust that includes many other star-forming regions within the Orion Molecular Cloud.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Radiant young stars illuminate the constellation Taurus 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a dazzling view of the globular cluster NGC 1786, which was captured by the Hubble Space Telescope.&nbsp;



Unlike open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trio-of-star-clusters-may-be-the-same-system-at-different-ages/">clusters</a>, which are younger and more loosely arranged, globular clusters are tightly concentrated and typically located in a galaxy’s halo.



The globular cluster NGC 1786 is located in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way about 160,000 light-years from Earth.&nbsp;



“NGC 1786 itself is in the constellation Dorado. It was discovered in the year 1835 by John Herschel,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-globular-clusters-nbsp">Observing globular clusters&nbsp;</h2>



Globular clusters are densely packed, spherical groups of stars that orbit the cores of galaxies like satellites.&nbsp;



Each cluster can contain tens of thousands to millions of stars, all bound tightly together by gravity. These stars are generally very old - often over 10 billion years - making globular clusters some of the oldest known structures in the universe.



The image of NGC 1786 is part of a broader observing program aimed at comparing old globular clusters in nearby dwarf galaxies with those found in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-may-be-inside-a-giant-void-in-the-universe-explains-hubble-tension/">Milky Way</a>.&nbsp;



“Our galaxy contains over 150 of these old, spherical collections of tightly-bound stars, which have been studied in depth - especially with Hubble Space Telescope images like this one, which show them in previously-unattainable detail,” said ESA.



“Being very stable and long-lived, they act as galactic time capsules, preserving stars from the earliest stages of a galaxy’s formation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stars-in-globular-clusters">Stars in globular clusters</h2>



For many years, astronomers believed that the stars in globular clusters all formed at roughly the same time. However, studies of Milky Way clusters have revealed multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zhulong-spiral-galaxy-like-milky-way-discovered-at-edge-of-universe-should-not-exist/">stellar populations</a> of different ages.&nbsp;



To better understand how globular clusters form - and how they can be used to trace galactic evolution - researchers are now investigating whether clusters like NGC 1786 in external galaxies also show signs of multiple stellar generations.&nbsp;



This research sheds light on the origins and development of the Large Magellanic Cloud. It also helps scientists study the formation history of the Milky Way itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-magellanic-cloud-nbsp">Large Magellanic Cloud&nbsp;</h2>



The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is one of the most prominent and intriguing galaxies in our cosmic neighborhood. It is the largest satellite galaxy of the Milky Way and is visible to the naked eye from the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dozens-of-ghost-galaxies-may-be-orbiting-the-milky-way/">satellite galaxy</a> is a smaller galaxy that orbits a larger one due to gravitational attraction. Just as the Moon orbits the Earth, satellite galaxies are bound to larger galaxies and can slowly orbit them over billions of years. 



These satellites can range in size from relatively massive dwarf galaxies to tiny, faint collections of stars.



Though classified as a dwarf galaxy, the Large Magellanic Cloud spans roughly 14,000 light-years across and contains billions of stars, nebulae, and star clusters.&nbsp;



One of its most famous features is the Tarantula Nebula - the most active star-forming region in the entire Local Group of galaxies. This stellar nursery is so intense that it's forming some of the most massive stars ever observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-interaction-with-the-milky-way-nbsp">Dynamic interaction with the Milky Way&nbsp;</h2>



The Large Magellanic Cloud is also of great interest to astronomers because of its dynamic relationship with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-systems-journey-through-the-milky-way-may-have-altered-earths-climate/">Milky Way</a>. It’s not just a passive companion - it’s interacting gravitationally with both the Milky Way and the Small Magellanic Cloud, another nearby dwarf galaxy.&nbsp;



These interactions have created long streams of gas, such as the Magellanic Stream, that arc across the sky. In fact, recent studies suggest the Large Magellanic Cloud may be on its first infall into the Milky Way’s halo, rather than orbiting it for billions of years as once thought.&nbsp;



This motion could have significant effects on the structure of our galaxy, possibly even perturbing the Milky Way’s dark matter halo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-research">Significance of the research </h2>



The detailed observations of NGC 1786 not only showcase the stunning capabilities of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/">Hubble Space Telescope</a> but also deepen our understanding of how galaxies like the Milky Way and the LMC evolve over time.&nbsp;



By examining ancient globular clusters in both the Milky Way and its neighboring galaxies, astronomers are uncovering vital clues about star formation and the processes that shaped our universe.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Glittering time capsule: Hubble peers into a galaxy's past

Today’s Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features an incredible phenomenon that was captured on the far outskirts of the Milky Way.



A young, massive star has announced its arrival with a dramatic display. It has fired off twin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-young-stars-jet-colliding-with-space-dust/">jets</a> of gas so powerful they stretch across eight light-years - about twice the distance from our Sun to the Alpha Centauri system.&nbsp;



These streams are confined to narrow beams by the star’s magnetic fields and launched along its spin axis.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-jets-of-a-young-star">The jets of a young star</h2>



The James Webb Space Telescope captured the event in exquisite infrared detail, showing the jets carving their way through interstellar gas and dust.



The stellar outburst belongs to a rare class of cosmic displays known as Herbig-Haro objects. They form when material falling onto a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-star-wsb-52-fires-an-explosive-jet-that-crashed-back-into-its-own-planetary-disk/">newborn star</a> is shot back out into space at incredible speeds.&nbsp;



The star at the heart of this spectacle lies in a cluster about 15,000 light-years away. The star has a mass that is already ten times greater than the Sun’s.&nbsp;



The outflow is hurtling through space at hundreds of thousands of miles per hour, leaving behind a trail that astronomers can now study as a record of the star’s growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-discovery">An unexpected discovery</h2>



The discovery took astronomers by surprise, including Yu Cheng of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (<a href="https://www.nao.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NAOJ</a>). 



“We didn’t really know there was a massive star with this kind of super-jet out there before the observation. Such a spectacular outflow of molecular hydrogen from a massive star is rare in other regions of our galaxy,” said Cheng.&nbsp;



More than 300 Herbig-Haro objects are known, but most of them come from stars much smaller than this one. Webb’s sharp images reveal not just the scale but also the delicate structure of this jet, including knots, shocks, and filaments where the stream slams into surrounding material.



“I was really surprised at the order, symmetry, and size of the jet when we first looked at it,” said Jonathan Tan of the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a>.



The perfect alignment of the opposite streams suggests the process fueling this star’s growth has been steady for more than 100,000 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-massive-star-formation-nbsp">Mystery of massive star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The new <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2025/09/Immense_stellar_jet_in_Milky_Way_outskirts#msdynmkt_trackingcontext=0ad1e29a-3bb6-4b03-99c0-1f5c2ba20000" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observation</a> has reopened one of the longest-running debates in astronomy: how do massive stars form? For decades, scientists have been split between two main ideas. 



One theory suggests that stars this large form through a steady process called core accretion, where gas builds up in a stable disk and launches outflows in predictable directions.&nbsp;



The other theory, known as competitive accretion, involves a chaotic tug-of-war in which streams of gas fall in from all sides, twisting the orientation of the jets.



The Webb data now tilt the balance toward the first explanation. The opposing jets are nearly 180 degrees apart, showing that the central disk has remained steady throughout the star’s lifetime.&nbsp;



“What we’ve seen here, because we’ve got the whole history - a tapestry of the story - is that the opposite sides of the jets are nearly 180 degrees apart from each other. That tells us that this central disc is held steady and validates a prediction of the core accretion theory,” said Tan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-of-the-early-universe-nbsp">Conditions of the early universe&nbsp;</h2>



The star’s home lies in a cluster called Sharpless 2-284, a relatively pristine region on the galaxy’s periphery. Because it is far from the Milky Way’s busy center, its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-universes-first-molecule-helped-ignite-the-stars/">stars formed</a> in an environment low in heavy elements.&nbsp;



Astronomers call this property metallicity, and it mirrors the conditions of the early universe, before multiple generations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-discovery-twin-stars-with-parallel-disks-and-jets/">stars</a> had enriched space with the products of nuclear fusion.



“Webb’s exquisite data have also shown us that relatively more stars seem to form at lower masses in Sh2-284 than in closer, more metal-rich clusters. This cluster is an excellent region to help us understand star formation throughout the Universe,” said Morten Andersen of the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Southern Observatory</a>.



Image Credit: ESA



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Young star lights up the Milky Way with colossal jets

Today’s Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

In Florida, Burmese pythons swallow large animals whole, including deer and alligators. Scientists have now made a breakthrough discovery in their understanding of exactly how specialized cells in the guts of pythons are able to digest bones down to nothing.



The answer is a previously unknown intestinal cell that gathers calcium and phosphorus and helps push the excess out safely. That finding clarifies why bones never appear in python feces after a big meal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-python-gut-cells">Studying python gut cells</h2>



The work comes from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jehan-Herve-Lignot" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jehan-Hervé Lignot</a> of the <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montpellier</a>, with collaborators in France and the United States. 



The study on captive juvenile Burmese pythons compared meals with and without bones to track how the intestine responded.



The team used light and electron microscopy along the gut and measured blood levels of calcium and key hormones. 



When bones or calcium were present, a specialized cell produced particles rich in calcium, phosphorus, and iron.



These particles formed inside a small pocket within the intestinal lining. In fasting snakes or those fed boneless prey, the pockets stayed mostly empty.



The authors also identified the same type of cell in other snake species that feed on vertebrates. 



This finding points to a broader digestive strategy among reptiles that consume their prey whole, suggesting it may be more widespread in nature than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bones-disappear-without-a-trace">Bones disappear without a trace</h2>



The intestine completely dissolved bone so no fragments passed out in feces. The specialized cell then packaged extra minerals and moved them toward excretion.



In the experiments, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-snake-day-2025-protecting-natures-silent-guardians/">snakes</a> fed boneless prey did not produce the mineral particles. That pattern links the cell’s activity directly to dietary calcium and phosphorus.



“We wanted to identify how they were able to process and limit this huge absorption of calcium through the intestinal wall,” said Lignot summarizing the goal of the project.&nbsp;



He also noted that the discovery raises questions about other animals. Marine predators that consume bony fish or aquatic mammals are likely to encounter the same challenge, according to Lignot.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-in-python-intestines">Cells in python intestines</h2>



The new cell sits among enterocytes, the cells that normally absorb nutrients. Unlike typical enterocytes, it is slender with short microvilli and holds a central mineral core inside the crypt.



When calcium supplements were added to boneless prey, large particles filled the intestinal pockets. In snakes on low calcium diets, hormone levels also shifted as the body tried to adjust.



Those signals fit the body’s checks and balances for calcium handling. They also help explain how snakes avoid calcium overload after bone heavy meals.



The study outlines a clean path for excess mineral waste that keeps blood chemistry stable. That is essential for nerve and muscle function after a large meal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-mouths-bigger-meals">Big mouths, bigger meals</h2>



A 2024 <a href="https://journals.ku.edu/reptilesandamphibians/article/view/21867" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> measured maximal gape at 26 centimeters, about 10.2 inches, in huge pythons captured in Florida. It also documented a 35 kilogram white tailed deer that was 93 percent of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/34-million-year-old-snake-fossil-hibernophis-breithaupti-changes-our-understanding-of-evolution/">snake</a>’s maximal gape area.



In the field, biologists filmed a 14.8 foot, 115 pound female python consuming a 77 pound deer in the Everglades. That single observation helps anchor the upper limits of what a python can swallow.



Florida’s wildlife agency notes that Burmese pythons are an invasive predator and can consume meals equal to 100 percent of their body mass. Adults in the state often reach 6 to 9 feet, and some exceed 18 feet.



These numbers frame the demand that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-long-necked-dinosaurs-struggled-with-fatal-bone-disease/">bone</a> heavy meals place on the gut. Without a mineral handling system, the animals would risk dangerous spikes in blood calcium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-pythons-in-florida">Invasive pythons in Florida</h2>



Burmese pythons are firmly established across the Florida Everglades and in the wetlands and marshes that surround the area. 



They feed on wild mammals, many kinds of birds, and different reptiles, including some species that are legally protected.



Removal programs continue to expand. In 2025, the <a href="https://conservancy.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservancy of Southwest Florida</a> reported a significant <a href="https://conservancy.org/conservancy-surpasses-20-ton-milestone-in-burmese-python-removal-sets-new-record-season/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milestone</a> of more than 20 tons of captured snakes since 2013.



Biology drives policy. Knowing that these snakes can absorb skeletons and return excess calcium safely explains why large prey remains off the landscape after a predation event.



It also clarifies why control teams often find little trace of what was eaten. Bones do not linger to flag a kill site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-scientists-want-to-learn-next">What scientists want to learn next</h2>



Researchers are asking how widespread the cell is across reptiles and birds that eat bone rich diets. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/34-inch-creature-with-mustache-found-in-brazil-new-snake-species-leptophis/">Species</a> such as bearded vultures would be informative tests.



They also want to trace how the particles exit the body and whether any end up in feces as stable crystals. Answers could guide new ways to detect heavy predation.



Another open question sits at the gene level. The team is exploring what turns the crypt cell on and off when calcium levels change.



Comparative work may map how the cell evolved in different lineages. That could show whether the trait arose once or many times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-findings-were-tested">How the findings were tested</h2>



The team fed whole rodents, boneless rodents, and boneless rodents injected with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-bacillus-megaterium-turns-co2-gas-into-calcium-carbonate-limestone/">calcium carbonate</a>. They mapped where particles formed along the small intestine and how fast they appeared.



Blood samples tracked calcium alongside hormones that regulate bone and mineral balance. The results fit the pattern of a system tuned to intercept and neutralize mineral surges from skeletal meals.



The work used juvenile snakes raised in controlled conditions. That choice removed confounding factors like prior diet and variable health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-cells-and-invasive-pythons">Gut cells and invasive pythons</h2>



Similar cells may exist in animals that consume bony fish or whole vertebrates. Pinpointing them could change how we read fecal mineral signatures in the wild.



If birds that rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-bone-tools-suggest-early-humans-were-smarter-than-we-thought/">bone</a> heavy diets show the same mechanism, ecologists could gain a noninvasive marker of diet. It may also inform how captive animals should be fed to avoid calcium stress.



The cell could even shape how toxins bound to bone are handled after a meal. That is a practical question for wildlife managers working in polluted wetlands.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/14/jeb249620/368391/Diet-dependent-production-of-calcium-and" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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Unknown cell type explains the 'supernatural' digestive power of invasive pythons

In Florida, Burmese pythons swallow large animals whole, including deer...

A new national map spotlights the locations where PFAS toxic chemicals, which have been tied to cancer, have turned up in the water sources that feed public taps. 



The chemicals sit under a big umbrella called per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (<a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PFAS</a>), and scientists have not given them a clean bill of health.



One key correction matters here. Only some PFAS earn the Group 1 carcinogen label, which means they are carcinogenic to humans. 



The current consensus puts perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in that box, while perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is classified as possibly carcinogenic, and not proven in people,.



This is according to a summary by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (<a href="https://www.iarc.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IARC</a>) and a companion article in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12183505/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Oncology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-map-tracks-pfas-in-drinking-water">Map tracks PFAS in drinking water</h2>



Graham F. Peaslee of the <a href="https://www.nd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Notre Dame</a> has tracked PFAS in real world settings for years. 



“For a lifetime of exposure at these concentrations in our drinking water, the risk of disease was unacceptably high,” Peaslee explains.



A new Waterkeeper Alliance <a href="https://waterkeeper.org/news/new-analysis-finds-pfas-in-98-of-tested-u-s-waterways-across-19-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> collected PFAS samples upstream and downstream of suspected sources in 19 states. 



It detected one or more PFAS in 98 percent of waterways tested, and it documented hotspots where levels of PFOA or PFOS exceeded federal limits.



Several cases stand out in the public data set. A Michigan waterway showed PFOA at 44 parts per trillion, and a South Carolina site measured PFOS at 30 parts per trillion. 



One North Carolina river reach posted PFOS at 23 parts per trillion with PFOA at 10 parts per trillion.



Sampling focused on places most likely to funnel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pfas-forever-chemicals-in-tap-water-linked-to-33-percent-increase-in-cancer-rates/">PFAS</a> into rivers and creeks. That means reaches near a wastewater treatment plant and downstream fields where biosolids are applied as soil amendments. 



In these areas, PFAS can ride along in treated effluent and in sludge spread on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-on-pfas-levels-in-water">Limits on PFAS levels in water</h2>



In April 2024, the Environmental Protection Agency (<a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/04/26/2024-07773/pfas-national-primary-drinking-water-regulation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a>) finalized a national drinking water rule that sets legally enforceable maximum contaminant level limits for several PFAS. 



For PFOA and PFOS, the limit is 4 parts per trillion, and utilities originally had until 2029 to comply.



Those are tiny numbers, but they matter in risk terms. If a surface water source feeding a public system sits above those limits for PFOA or PFOS, the utility must monitor and, if needed, add treatment so that finished water meets the standard.



On May 14, 2025, the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-announces-it-will-keep-maximum-contaminant-levels-pfoa-pfos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a> announced it would retain the PFOA and PFOS limits and give systems more time to meet them. 



At the same time, it would reconsidering standards for several other PFAS. The agency’s announcement also signaled an intent to extend compliance for PFOA and PFOS to 2031.



That decision drew strong reactions because it leaves many communities managing mixtures with less federal guardrail for the shorter chain compounds. 



It also means states and cities may need to decide how far to go on their own, and which technologies to buy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exposure-adds-up">Exposure adds up</h2>



PFAS do not readily degrade in the environment, and they can move from household goods to landfills to wastewater plants, then back into surface water used for drinking supplies. 



Even when concentrations are low, steady intake can increase body burdens over time.



“Ideally, we need to strengthen drinking water monitoring and treatment to reduce PFAS exposure through this route,” said Jennifer L. Freeman, a professor of toxicology at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>. 



She added that the standards set in 2024 were a step in the right direction and should not be weakened.



A part per trillion is a measurement used for trace pollutants. It helps regulators set enforceable lines, at very low doses, for those contaminants that have health concerns. It also pushes laboratories and utilities to rely on highly sensitive methods to see what is present.



EPA Method 1633, which Waterkeeper’s lab used, reflects that push toward sensitive and standardized testing. It aims to give comparable results across states so a reading in one watershed means the same thing in another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-water-utilities">Local water utilities</h2>



If your city relies on a river, reservoir, or well field flagged by the map, your water utility will be testing on a set schedule and reporting results to the public. 



You will see whether finished tap water meets federal limits, and what steps the utility is taking if it does not.



Treatment options exist, but they vary in cost and fit. Granular activated carbon, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis all remove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-that-eat-forever-chemicals-discovered-in-contaminated-soil/">PFAS</a> to differing degrees. 



Utilities will need to match the options to source water chemistry, budget, and system scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-water-and-local-governments">PFAS, water, and local governments</h2>



Treating one pollutant at a time can miss a major opportunity to reduce overall cancer risk. A peer reviewed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40541903/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> estimates that tackling multiple co-occurring contaminants together could prevent more than 50,000 lifetime cancer cases in the United States.



The logic is simple. Many water systems face several pollutants at once, and integrated treatment can reduce exposures more efficiently than piecemeal fixes.



Expect more state level rules and funding as federal timelines stretch and communities press for action. 



Some states have already set their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-dietary-fiber-supplement-could-remove-pfas-forever-chemicals-from-the-body/">PFAS</a> limits or passed laws to curb the use of PFAS in consumer products, which reduces what ends up in wastewater and land.



Public water systems will continue the cycle of monitoring, reporting, and upgrading as needed. The best outcome is steady, measurable drops in PFAS at the tap, along with clear communication about progress.



The study is published in <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/6968b3fd79054a48b164f62c1e21a124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research</a>.



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Map marks cities in the US where PFAS toxins were detected in drinking water

A new national map spotlights the locations where PFAS toxic...

Music often does more than entertain. It paints images in our minds, builds worlds, and stirs emotions we can’t always explain. A new study shows how even the tiniest human touches in sound can influence this inner world.



The findings from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/music/our-research/cross-disciplinary-research/sydney-music-mind-and-body-lab.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sydney Music, Mind and Body Lab</a>, reveal how subtle shifts in rhythm and tone may fuel imagination in ways technology alone cannot replicate. 



These delicate imperfections - tiny fluctuations in timing or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-and-the-mind-new-clues-about-how-we-experience-pleasure/">volume</a> - can transform repetitive beats into living experiences, sparking imagery that feels real and immersive.



Rather than simply hearing structured sounds, listeners create journeys filled with color, movement, and narrative. The study suggests that the human quality of music holds unique power to trigger creativity and emotional depth. 



The research also shows why live performances, with all their small variations, can feel more moving than flawless recordings, and why imagination often thrives when music carries traces of human touch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-musical-shifts-big-mental-impact">Small musical shifts, big mental impact</h2>



Researchers asked 100 participants to imagine a journey while listening to repetitive drumming. Some heard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/">drumming</a> with random micro-variations in loudness and timing, while others heard perfectly uniform beats or silence.



Those who listened to music with micro-variations reported richer imagery, longer imagined journeys, and more lifelike scenes. 



They often described environments filled with movement, color, or emotion that felt authentic and dynamic, which suggests these subtle rhythmic details significantly influence how the brain constructs vivid inner experiences.



"What excites me is that these little details in music are something we can all feel, even if we don't always notice them consciously," said lead researcher Ceren Ayyildiz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-touch-makes-rhythm-alive">Human touch makes rhythm alive</h2>



The study, published in Scientific Reports, relied on computer simulations of drum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-music-tunes-the-emotions-in-our-memories/">sounds</a>. Researchers created two versions: one with flawless uniformity and another with tiny, natural shifts mimicking human performance.



They then analyzed participants’ mental imagery responses with Bayesian multilevel modeling. The results showed that small fluctuations, often unconsciously introduced by performers, significantly enhance imagination.



These subtle imperfections did not distract listeners; instead, they added depth and texture to the soundscape, making the music feel more organic. Participants reported that the variations encouraged richer narratives, longer journeys, and greater immersion in imagined experiences.



This demonstrates that even the smallest rhythmic nuances can transform sound from a mechanical sequence into something that resonates with the human mind, shaping how people visualize and emotionally respond to music.



"It's not just technical perfection but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-touch-molecular-basis-elkin1-discovery/">human touch</a> that makes music feel more alive and sparks the imagination," Ayyildiz said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musical-skills-amplify-imagination">Musical skills amplify imagination</h2>



Listeners with musical training or strong immersion ability experienced even more vivid mental imagery. For them, micro-variations brought authenticity and richness missing from machine-perfect sounds.



"One possible explanation for this finding is that listeners may perceive drumming with tiny random changes - a core component of human music performance - as more natural and organic," said Ayyildiz.



The study highlights how human imperfections in rhythm bring authenticity and create a sense of connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-and-sound-variations-aid-therapy">Music and sound variations aid therapy</h2>



The insights also suggest therapeutic and practical applications. "Mental imagery already plays an important role in many cognitive therapies," said senior author Dr. Steffen Herff.



"Deliberately tailoring background music - for example through subtle changes in timing and loudness - could be used to either stimulate or dampen imagination depending on the specific therapeutic target," 



For audio engineers and producers, the study provides a new perspective. Micro-variations are already used in studio production as key aesthetic drivers in many forms of music including electronic dance music and hip-hop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-expression-drives-connection">Human expression drives connection</h2>



For musicians, especially drummers, the findings emphasize the creative weight of subtle timing shifts. 



"This study demonstrates how the tiny details in rhythmic timing and expression can greatly alter our perceptions of music," said researcher Dr. Simon Barker.



"The relationship between micro-rhythmic variations and imagination, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/">illusion</a>, and connection are at the core of the art of drumming, and this study is a lovely example of this central aspect of rhythmic expression and communication."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-s-power-comes-from-touch">Music’s power comes from touch</h2>



The study adds to a growing body of work exploring music’s role in imagination, connection, and even loneliness. 



Its message is clear: even in a world of machine-perfect precision, the smallest human variations breathe life into sound, reminding us of music’s timeless power to shape emotion, enrich creativity, strengthen bonds, and nurture a uniquely human sense of presence and belonging.



"Even tiny fluctuations can make music more meaningful," said Ayyildiz. "It's a reminder that the human feel still matters."



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/FEh_WfGeCTo?si=4ftg3JG20m5vyTxE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Here, tiny fluctuations in timing and loudness introduce a human touch that breathes life into the rhythm - the kind of nuance shown to spark richer mental imagery. Credit: University of Sydney </figcaption></figure>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-12604-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;



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Tiny human touches can make music sound more powerful

Music often does more than entertain. It paints images in...

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