A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Concept,Of,Future,Technology,5g,Network,Wireless,Systems,And,Internet

People keep debating whether fifth-generation wireless signals might be risky. Some fear that these signals, traveling at higher frequencies, could damage our cells. Scientists have now studied how 5G waves affect the activity of human skin cells. 



The results reveal no alarming signs of harm. Dr. Vivian Meyer from <a href="https://constructor.university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jacobs University Bremen</a>, led the research to address these concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-5g-causes-no-harm-to-skin-cells">5G causes no harm to skin cells</h2>



Study participants exposed human skin cells to frequencies of 27 GHz and 40.5 GHz. These tests ran for 2 hours or 48 hours at power flux densities of 1 milliwatt per square centimeter and 10 milliwatts per square centimeter.



The team measured how these electromagnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-debris-may-create-a-future-with-no-internet-or-astronaut-missions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fields</a> might trigger changes in gene expression. They also tracked DNA methylation, which helps turn genes on or off.



Recommended safety limits for the general population sit at 1 milliwatt per square centimeter for this frequency range, based on the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection <a href="https://www.icnirp.org/cms/upload/publications/ICNIRPrfgdl2020.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">guidelines</a>. This study used up to 10 times that level to see if any significant shifts might appear.



Some earlier work pointed to possible health effects but failed to control for heat from the equipment. This group included temperature checks to rule out the chance that slight warming created misleading effects.



Many news outlets have highlighted statements that 5G might cause everything from headaches to severe illness. This study tackled those claims by testing real human cells in controlled lab setups.



Non-ionizing radiation, such as 5G, differs from high-energy sources like X-rays. These high-energy sources can break chemical bonds, but 5G waves do not have that ability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-5g-affects-gene-expression">How 5G affects gene expression </h2>



Gene expression involves the way cells read genetic instructions and make proteins. If an outside factor changes that process, it can lead to subtle or major biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-teleportation-communication-achieved-on-regular-internet-cables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consequences</a>.



Researchers found no unusual patterns in the cells that received the 5G signals. They compared them with cells shielded from the waves and saw similar activity levels.



“The quantum energies are far too low to have photochemical or even ionizing effects on cells,” stated Dr. Meyer. The authors also emphasized that routine tasks like making proteins or repairing tissue stayed normal. This calm response in gene expression points to no disruption from 5G.



Millimeter-wave frequencies also have shallow skin penetration, often only a few millimeters into the body. That limited depth further reduces the odds of deep tissue interference.



Scientists watch gene expression in skin cells closely because 5G exposure can link to inflammation or other cell stress. No such signals were noticed in the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-5g-exposure-and-dna-methylation">5G exposure and DNA methylation</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Methylation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Methylation</a> is a chemical tag that can affect how genes function. Certain signals from the environment can change these tags, which sometimes alters cellular behavior.



In this project, no major shifts appeared in the cells’ methylation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taking-a-smartphone-break-can-improve-your-life-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">profiles</a>. This suggests that the exposure did not create epigenetic stress.



Other <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109435" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> found similar outcomes at frequencies in the millimeter-wave range, even when power levels were higher than everyday exposure. These stable methylation patterns match the stable gene expression findings.



Previous concerns stemmed from the fear that 5G might spark changes at the cellular level without immediate symptoms. These fresh data suggest otherwise.



Experts have explored whether electromagnetic exposure could prompt long-term epigenetic shifts. Those might remain hidden until many cell cycles pass.



In these trials, the normal patterns suggest that any subtle changes are unlikely. This observation matches wider evidence that short-term exposure poses no known epigenetic threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-could-reveal-5g-risks">Future studies could reveal 5G risks</h2>



Some people wonder if long-term exposure might still pose unknown risks. Others question whether certain individuals might be more sensitive to electromagnetic signals.



This study indicates no harmful alterations in skin cells from 5G exposure, but more work on various cell types could settle lingering doubts. Future projects may also review how repeated exposure interacts with other environmental factors.



Scientists often stress the importance of consistent methods and proper temperature tracking. Such precautions help isolate real biological changes from simple heating effects. 



The authors believe these findings calm persistent fears and show that 5G exposure to skin cells is unlikely to cause genetic or epigenetic damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-concerns-about-5g-health-risks">Public concerns about 5G health risks</h2>



Many researchers believe large-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-shrinking-earths-atmosphere-and-thats-bad-for-satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monitoring</a> over years could confirm these laboratory insights. Ongoing surveillance might help ease public anxiety.



Policymakers often rely on robust data for safety guidelines. They may update recommendations only if science uncovers new dangers.



Modern wireless networks have always raised questions about health. This well-controlled experiment looks like a solid step toward assurance.



Many wonder if the matter is settled forever. Time will tell whether new research keeps indicating a lack of harm.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/5/pgaf127/8124427?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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5G wireless signals were extensively tested and the final verdict is out on their human impact

People keep debating whether fifth-generation wireless signals might be risky....

Inside dark, hidden burrows, mice rely on their whiskers to make sense of the world. For decades, scientists believed that whisking - the brushing of whiskers against surfaces - was purely a tactile process. 



But researchers at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a> have uncovered a surprising twist. Whisking doesn’t just involve touch. It generates sound.



Published in the journal Current Biology, the study shows that these tiny sounds activate the auditory cortex in mice, revealing a previously unnoticed sensory connection. 



The implications stretch far beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-beings-emit-a-subtle-light-that-fades-after-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a>. They hint at how brains might merge different senses to create a fuller picture of the surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-whiskers-make-sounds">Mice whiskers make sounds</h2>



“Whiskers are so delicate that no one had thought of checking whether they produce sounds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/klotho-s-kl-protein-discovered-boosts-lifespan-muscle-brain-power-with-one-dose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> are able to hear,” said Professor Ilan Lampl of Weizmann’s Brain Sciences Department.



Lampl’s team started by recording the sounds whiskers make when they brush against different surfaces. They used sensitive microphones capable of picking up ultrasonic frequencies - sounds beyond human hearing. The setup mimicked the distance between a mouse’s whiskers and ears.



Surprisingly, the microphones caught faint yet distinct sounds. Whiskers brushing against Bougainvillea leaves and aluminum foil each produced unique acoustic signatures. 



These whisker-generated sounds weren’t loud, but they were consistent enough for the researchers to wonder: Are mice actually listening to their own whiskers?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-brains-listen-to-whisker-sounds">Mice brains listen to whisker sounds</h2>



To answer that question, the researchers recorded neural activity in the auditory cortex of mice. They wanted to see if the brain responded to these whisker-generated sounds.



The results stunned them. The auditory cortex lit up every time a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-perform-first-aid-and-save-unconscious-peers-in-emergencies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mouse</a> whisked against a surface, even when the researchers blocked the pathways that convey touch. The brain wasn’t just feeling the whisker’s touch. It was listening to it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-listen-to-their-own-whiskers">Why listen to their own whiskers?</h2>



Mice navigate through dense, cluttered environments. They sniff, feel, and now, it seems, they also listen. This auditory feedback might help them distinguish between surfaces. 



The sound of whiskers brushing against a dry leaf may signal danger. The rustle of aluminum foil might mean food. Lampl suggests that mice may have developed this sensory connection to avoid predators.



“Since whisking generates much weaker sounds than walking, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-offer-first-aid-to-unconscious-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mouse</a> could rely on it when, for example, choosing whether to walk across a brittle, drier field of crops versus a fresher, quieter one, to avoid being detected by an owl,” said Lampl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-confirms-that-mice-identify-sounds">AI confirms that mice identify sounds</h2>



To confirm that these sounds mattered to the mice, the researchers brought in artificial intelligence (AI). They trained two machine-learning models.



One model analyzed the neural activity in response to whisker-generated sounds. The other analyzed the recorded sounds themselves. Both models accurately identified objects based solely on sound patterns. 



The takeaway? The mice’s brains were not just picking up sound. They were interpreting it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-trained-to-hear-whisker-sounds">Mice trained to hear whisker sounds</h2>



With AI results in hand, the researchers designed a behavioral test. They trained mice whose touch sensation had been blocked to recognize aluminum foil based solely on its whisker-generated sound.



The mice caught on quickly. When they heard the sound of whiskers scraping foil, they responded as if they were touching it. 



This finding confirmed that the auditory cortex could interpret whisker sounds as sensory information, even without tactile input.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-to-whiskers-helps-mice-survive">Listening to whiskers helps mice survive</h2>



Why would mice evolve to listen to their own whiskers? Lampl believes it’s all about survival. 



The sound of whiskers brushing against objects is subtle - much quieter than a mouse’s footsteps. This quiet feedback allows a mouse to navigate without attracting predators.



“Whisking could also help a mouse figure out whether a stem is hollow or sufficiently juicy and worthy of a bite,” Lampl explained. 



The ability to detect subtle acoustic differences might help mice decide what to bite, what to avoid, and where to hide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mouse-whisker-insights-for-robots">Mouse whisker insights for robots</h2>



The study’s findings have broader implications. If mice can merge sound and touch to perceive their environment, robots might do the same. 



Dr. Ben Efron, a lead researcher in the study, sees potential in collision-avoidance sensors that rely on sound.



“Integrating different types of sensory input is a major challenge in the design of robotic systems. The mouse brain’s whisking system might provide inspiration for technologies that would address this challenge,” said Dr. Efron.



In smoke-filled rooms, underwater environments, or other low-visibility conditions, sensors that interpret subtle sounds could prevent collisions. The mouse brain, it seems, may offer a blueprint for such systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-blind-people-could-benefit">How blind people could benefit</h2>



The study also opens doors for sensory rehabilitation. For people with sensory impairments, integrating touch and sound could enhance perception. 



Consider how blind individuals use the sound of a white cane tapping against a surface. Mice, it turns out, might be doing something similar with their whiskers.



If researchers can replicate this multisensory integration in prosthetic devices, they could create more intuitive feedback systems. Imagine a prosthetic hand that not only feels an object but also “hears” its texture through vibrations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-whiskers-big-sensory-impact">Tiny whiskers, big sensory impact</h2>



Mice whiskers are as thick as human hair at the base, ranging from 40 to 80 microns. 



As they extend outward, they become much thinner, ending at just 3 to 4 microns at the tip. This thin, sensitive structure helps them create tiny sounds and detect slight vibrations.



This study is just the beginning. If mice can use whisker-generated sounds to identify objects, what other animals might do the same? Could cats or rats also listen to their whiskers?



The researchers plan to explore how different animals might use touch-generated sounds. They also want to see if mice can learn to distinguish between even more complex sounds or if they can adapt to new auditory cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-mice-whisker-sounds">Significance of mice whisker sounds </h2>



What started as a simple investigation into whiskers has revealed a complex sensory connection. Mice don’t just feel with their whiskers - they listen to them. 



The implications stretch beyond the burrow, hinting at new ways to merge sound and touch in both nature and technology.



And for researchers like Lampl, the work is far from over. The brain’s ability to integrate multiple senses opens up a world of possibilities, from robotic sensors to prosthetic feedback systems. The whispers of whiskers might just be the start.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982225001241?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Mouse whiskers can actually "hear" the world by creating internal sounds

Inside dark, hidden burrows, mice rely on their whiskers to...

New research focuses on the compelling story of how ancient people began their journeys of migration into the Americas during the late Pleistocene.



It follows genetic clues carried by Indigenous communities who established themselves in different parts of North and South America over thousands of years.



Scientists uncovered these findings by examining high-quality genomic data and interpreting patterns of ancestral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/out-of-africa-hominin-migration-timeline-pushed-back-even-further-by-new-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a>. Among the researchers was Dr. Elena Gusareva from the American Association for the Advancement of Science (<a href="https://www.aaas.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AAAS</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-reveal-ancient-migration-paths">Clues reveal ancient migration paths</h2>



A broader look at prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-climate-shifts-changed-early-human-migration-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a> suggests that Beringia - the land region once connecting Asia and North America - served as a crucial route for these travelers.



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7586" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evidence</a> from fossilized footprints in New Mexico indicates that humans were roaming parts of North America earlier than once thought, and this contradicts the simpler models of migration.



It is worth noting that some lines of evidence dispute a single migration event. Instead, genetic <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1137166" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> suggest multiple pulses of movement, resulting in a patchwork of related yet distinct communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-links-show-ancient-migration-routes">DNA links show ancient migration routes</h2>



By comparing modern DNA profiles, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature21347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> noticed clusters of shared markers that hint at ancient ties. These strands of inherited data paint a bigger picture of how small groups branched off, explored new territories, and eventually settled in diverse environments.



“These findings highlight how population history and environmental pressures shaped the genetic architecture of human populations across North Asia and South America,” said Gusareva and colleagues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-shaped-ancient-migrations">How climate shaped ancient migrations</h2>



Ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/115000-year-old-human-footprints-found-alathar-lake-arabian-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> encountered dramatic weather changes and unfamiliar animal life as they moved into new areas. Some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27507099/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scholars</a> believe these challenges forced communities to split off in different directions, which gave rise to subtle genetic differences over time.



With each passing generation, families held onto pieces of ancestral DNA that reveal how past adaptations helped them endure tough climates. 



These stories are visible in the DNA of modern Indigenous peoples who trace their roots back to the far north of Asia and the southern tip of the Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-megafauna-mortality">Climate change and megafauna mortality</h2>



Some researchers link a sharp population decline in ancient Siberians to climate instability and the disappearance of <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/australia-over-time/megafauna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megafauna</a>, like mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses. 



These animals played a key role in the survival of early hunter-gatherer groups by providing meat, bones, and fur for tools, clothing and shelter.



As the climate warmed around 10,000 years ago, many large mammals went extinct, triggering a chain reaction that impacted ancient migration patterns. Nomadic communities dependent on these animals were forced to move, adapt their diets, or vanish.



That environmental pressure left a lasting imprint on genetic patterns seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/activity-in-earths-mantle-created-a-land-bridge-that-animals-traversed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a> like the Kets and Nenets of West Siberia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-data-and-disease-risk">Genetic data and disease risk</h2>



Genomic information can help medical teams tailor disease-prevention plans, since certain populations carry genetic variants that affect immune responses. Smaller communities may have fewer variations in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546662/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HLA genes</a>, which can influence their response to infections.



A broader analysis of genetic markers also identifies potential drug sensitivities. In an era of personalized medicine, understanding these inherited factors has become more important than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserving-cultural-heritage">Preserving cultural heritage </h2>



Experts hope this research encourages deeper collaboration with Indigenous communities, ensuring mutual respect and ethical partnerships. 



Protecting local languages, customs, and ancestral territories is vital for preserving cultural heritage.



Traditional knowledge can guide new studies on how early humans survived in settings that required innovative skills. Collaborations between geneticists, anthropologists, and community leaders will likely expand our insights in years to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-genomic-research-plans">New genomic research plans</h2>



Scientists plan to continue adding newly sequenced genomes to existing datasets to trace ancient migration patterns. This expansion may clarify how rare lineages or remote populations fit into the broader narrative of human migration.



Analysts are optimistic that these ongoing discoveries will refine modern views of prehistory. Traces of the longest journeys out of Africa remain visible in people alive today, and shed light on how we are all connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patagonia-s-isolated-genetic-story">Patagonia’s isolated genetic story</h2>



Unlike other regions, Patagonia’s extreme southern location made it one of the last frontiers of human migration. Groups who settled there completed one of the farthest migrations ever recorded, traveling thousands of miles from their ancestral homes near the Arctic Circle.



The isolation was so intense that Patagonian populations, such as the <a href="https://www.tompkinsconservation.org/explore/kawesqar-national-park/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kawésqar</a>, developed some of the lowest genetic diversity levels recorded in the Americas. Their story illustrates the immense toll of geographic boundaries on small populations, both in terms of culture and biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-ancient-migrations">Tracing ancient migrations </h2>



The transformative power of large-scale genomic studies is driving a reexamination of how people first populated the Americas. Enhanced methods allow specialists to detect subtle genetic patterns and connect them to ancient movements.



Preserving Indigenous perspectives matters. Cultural knowledge holds clues that labs alone might overlook, highlighting the bonds that tie present-day communities to those who first blazed these paths long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-migrations-across-continents">Ancient migrations across continents</h2>



Discussions around the planet’s earliest migrations go well beyond the Americas. DNA research in Africa, Europe, and Asia continues to unearth astonishing clues about how human groups formed.



The hope is that such findings will support efforts to safeguard vulnerable communities, encourage fair representation in academic research, and improve health outcomes grounded in scientific understanding.



Ultimately, human history is a tapestry, woven with threads of perseverance, curiosity, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-surf-the-winds-of-storms-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a>. Learning more about that tapestry fosters greater appreciation for the shared origins that unite us.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk5081" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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DNA reveals multiple waves of migration into ancient Americas

New research focuses on the compelling story of how ancient...

Hydrogen is essential for fertilizer production and is increasingly promoted as a clean fuel for decarbonizing industry and shipping.



Yet almost all of today’s hydrogen - about 90 million metric tons a year - comes from reforming oil and gas, releasing roughly 2.4 percent of global CO2 emissions in the process. Blue and green hydrogen remain too expensive to scale rapidly, despite advances in carbon capture and clean electricity production.



A new review highlights a third option: tapping naturally occurring hydrogen produced by geological processes over millions of years. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-for-clean-hydrogen">Hunting for clean hydrogen</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>, <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>, and the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto</a> calculate that Earth’s continental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/">crust</a> has produced enough hydrogen over the past billion years to meet humanity’s projected needs for at least 170,000 years.



Microbes have consumed much of it, and some has leaked away, but the rest could still form recoverable accumulations. To find it, scientists say geologists must pursue hydrogen like helium or gas - though it diffuses and reacts more easily.



“We have successfully developed an exploration strategy for helium, and a similar ‘first principles’ approach can be taken for hydrogen,” said co-author Jon Gluyas, a professor at Durham University. 



The review outlines the critical elements of such a strategy and identifies where current knowledge is solid or still developing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-hydrogen-form">How does hydrogen form?</h2>



Hydrogen forms through several crustal reactions. One of the best known is serpentinization, where water reacts with iron-rich minerals underground, oxidizing iron and releasing molecular hydrogen. 



Other pathways include radiolysis - where decaying uranium splits water molecules - and organic shale maturation, which can generate hydrogen alongside hydrocarbons. 



Production rates vary widely by region, depending on temperature, pressure, rock type, and the availability of liquid water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-holding-hydrogen-underground">Holding hydrogen underground</h2>



After formation, hydrogen must migrate through fractures and porous rock layers until it meets a geological trap that prevents further escape.



Traditional seals like rock salt or claystone can work, but because hydrogen molecules are so small, maintaining containment over geological time may require exceptionally tight caps. Even a perfect seal is not enough if microbes lurk in the reservoir.



“We know, for example, that underground microbes readily feast on hydrogen," said co-author Barbara Sherwood Lollar of the University of Toronto. 



"Avoiding environments that bring them into contact with the hydrogen is important in preserving hydrogen in economic accumulations.” 



Sherwood noted that high temperatures, salty brines, or low nutrient levels can slow microbial consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-deposits-in-earth-s-crust">Targeting deposits in Earth's crust</h2>



The review challenges speculation that mantle-derived hydrogen, sometimes touted as limitless, could be a major target. Analyses of isotopic fingerprints and gas ratios show that most mature accumulations originate from crustal rocks, not from deep-Earth plumes.



The good news is that suitable crustal settings are common: ancient cratonic shields, younger rift basins, iron-rich volcanic belts, and faulted sedimentary basins all provide the right mix of source, pathways, and potential traps. 



Some systems are geologically young, forming hydrogen within the past few million years, while others date back hundreds of millions.



Scientists have found encouragement in real-world hints. A village water well in Bourakébougou, Mali, accidentally tapped a stream of 98 percent hydrogen in 2012. Similar incidents have been reported in Kansas, South Australia, and the Pyrenees.



Drilling for water, oil, or minerals has accidentally revealed many deposits - hinting that targeted exploration could find much more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-accumulated-hydrogen">Searching for accumulated hydrogen</h2>



Turning theory into drill bits will require integrating geophysics, geochemistry, microbiology, and reservoir engineering.



Study lead author Chris Ballentine from the University of Oxford offered a culinary analogy. “Combining the ingredients to find accumulated hydrogen in any of these settings can be likened to cooking a soufflé - get any one of the ingredients, amounts, timing, or temperature wrong and you will be disappointed.”



“One successful exploration recipe that is repeatable will unlock a commercially competitive, low-carbon hydrogen source that would significantly contribute to the energy transition - we have the right experience to combine these ingredients and find that recipe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-significant-hydrogen-fields">Identifying significant hydrogen fields</h2>



To pursue that recipe, the research team has launched <a href="https://www.snowfoxdiscovery.com/">Snowfox Discovery Ltd</a>., aiming to identify “societally significant” hydrogen fields.



Early priorities include mapping iron-rich rock belts intersected by deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-plays-critical-role-ecosystem-health/">groundwater</a>, quantifying how fast different microbial communities devour hydrogen, and testing seal integrity for a highly diffusive gas.



Seismic imaging and magnetotelluric surveys could reveal subsurface alteration zones where hydrogen-generating reactions are ongoing. Meanwhile, isotopic tracers will help distinguish fresh hydrogen from ancient residues or from contamination by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/">methane</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-greener-fuel">A step toward greener fuel</h2>



If abundant, natural hydrogen could bridge blue and green hydrogen as a low-carbon feedstock during infrastructure scale-up.



However, extraction must avoid repeating the environmental mistakes of fossil-fuel development. Regulators will need to set standards for monitoring leaks, safeguarding groundwater, and managing co-produced gases.



Even partial success would diversify the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-energy-biodiversity-wildlife-habitats-delicate-balancing-act/">clean energy</a> portfolio and relieve pressure on renewables to shoulder all hydrogen demand. 



With the window to limit global warming rapidly closing, exploring Earth’s hidden hydrogen could buy valuable time - and illuminate a new frontier where geology and the energy transition meet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-025-00670-1">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Clean hydrogen source could power Earth for 170,000 years

Hydrogen is essential for fertilizer production and is increasingly promoted...

Cancer is one of the many health risks linked to physical inactivity, and it has become a growing concern in today’s sedentary world.



Most of us know that we should move more. Yet, with modern life keeping us in chairs and behind screens, the cost of sitting too much is steep - about £7.4 billion a year in the U.K. alone. But beyond the financial toll, it’s our health that suffers most.



Now, fresh evidence suggests a simple habit could make a big difference: walking. New research from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> shows that taking more daily steps can lower your chances of developing certain cancers. 



The study followed over 85,000 U.K. adults and found a strong connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-can-drastically-improve-your-health-without-thousands-of-daily-steps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">walking</a> regularly and a reduced risk for 13 types of cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-step-cancer-connection">Understanding the step-cancer connection</h2>



Participants wore devices that tracked how much - and how intensely - they moved each day. On average, they were monitored for six years.



The researchers spotted a clear pattern: the more someone walked, the lower their cancer risk. This link held up no matter how fast or slowly those steps were taken.



In fact, the benefits started to appear around 5,000 steps per day. Below that, there wasn’t much effect. But once participants hit 7,000 steps, cancer risk dropped by 11%. At 9,000 steps, the risk fell by 16%. Beyond that, the advantage leveled off, with only small additional improvements.



These numbers back the common advice to walk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-prove-how-many-daily-steps-you-should-take-to-avoid-early-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">10,000 steps a day</a> - not just for heart health or fitness reasons, but as a way to lower cancer risk as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pace-doesn-t-matter-movement-does">Pace doesn’t matter; movement does</h2>



Researchers also looked at how fast people walked. While faster walking was initially linked to lower cancer risk, this difference disappeared when total movement was taken into account. It turns out that it’s the overall amount of activity that matters most - not how briskly you do it.



Swapping sitting time for either light or moderate activity reduced cancer risk. But trading light movement for more intense activity didn’t add extra benefits. The key message? Just move more, at any speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-types-of-cancer-are-affected">What types of cancer are affected?</h2>



The experts looked at 13 cancers: esophageal, liver, lung, kidney, gastric, endometrial, myeloid leukemia, myeloma, colon, head and neck, rectal, bladder, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diet-improves-health-in-women-with-breast-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breast cancer</a>.



Over six years, about 3% of participants developed one of these cancers. For men, the most common were colon, rectal, and lung cancers. For women, breast, colon, endometrial, and lung cancers were most common.



Physical activity showed the strongest protection against six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-linked-to-32-cancer-types-that-could-drive-40-of-cases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer types</a>: gastric, bladder, liver, endometrial, lung, and head and neck cancers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-study-stands-out">Why this study stands out</h2>



Most earlier studies in this field have relied on people reporting their own activity levels. That method isn’t always reliable. People often forget or overestimate how much they move. This new study used wearable trackers, which gave a much clearer picture of actual daily movement.



It’s also different from research that focuses only on intense exercise. While hitting the gym can be helpful, not everyone is able or motivated to do that. The research suggests that even lighter movement, like walking, can reduce cancer risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-add-up">Small changes add up</h2>



You don’t have to walk miles at a time to see real health benefits. Just 4,000 steps a day - roughly equal to two miles (3.2 kilometers) or about 40 minutes of light walking - can help improve your long-term health.



The good news is that you don’t need to carve out a large chunk of time to make it happen. These steps can be spread throughout the day, making it easier to fit movement into your routine.



Consider small adjustments to your daily habits. Take the stairs instead of the lift whenever possible - it’s a simple way to get your heart rate up. During your lunch break, step outside for a short walk to clear your mind and add to your daily total. 



If you're often on phone calls, use that time to walk around instead of sitting still while you talk. Even parking a little farther away from your destination can give you those extra steps that make a difference.



Incorporating more movement into your day, especially during middle age, can be one of the easiest and most effective ways to reduce your risk of cancer over time. It doesn’t require a gym membership or special equipment - just a conscious decision to sit less and move more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-simple-way-to-lower-cancer-risk">A simple way to lower cancer risk</h2>



Of course, the connection between movement and cancer is complex. Scientists still have more to learn - especially about how different types of activity influence individual cancers over time.



But one thing is clear: sitting less and moving more really matters. You don’t have to run marathons. Just get up, take more steps, and you could be walking toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermittent-fasting-could-be-the-key-to-better-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">better health</a> - one day at a time.



Details of the study are published in the <a style="font-style: italic;" href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2025/03/14/bjsports-2024-109360">British Journal of Sports Medicine</a>.



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Walking each day at any speed lowers the risk of cancer

Cancer is one of the many health risks linked to...

Physicists have reached an unexpected breakthrough: they changed beams of light into a supersolid that flows without normal resistance. This marks a major milestone in condensed matter physics because it shows that light can adopt a structure resembling a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-00637-8">solid</a> while also moving around freely like a liquid.



“We actually made light into a solid. That’s pretty awesome,” said <a href="https://polaritonics.nanotec.cnr.it/people/dimitris-trypogeorgos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dimitrios Trypogeorgos</a> from Italy’s National Research Council (CNR). This is the first demonstration of this peculiar mix of solidity and fluidity using photons instead of atoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-background">Quantum background</h2>



Most people see light as something that travels in waves, but in advanced research, it can also be treated as photons. These tiny bits of energy sometimes band together with matter to form quasiparticles that behave in ways not seen in everyday items.



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/141074a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum effects</a> often only show up when things are extremely cold, near minus 460oF (238oC). In those conditions, random motion slows to a crawl, and subtle interactions become easier to spot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-light-was-shaped">How light was shaped</h2>



The team used a semiconductor with specialized layers to control how photons interact with material. This setup allowed them to create a medium in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-quantum-device-uses-crystal-layers-to-generate-entangled-photons/">photons</a> combined with other particles to form a type of condensate that organized into a solid-like grid.



That structured grid didn’t stop these particles from flowing without friction, though. Previous supersolids were made from atomic gases, but using light and matter together is a new route to exploring these odd states.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-experiment">Insights from the experiment</h2>



Researchers found that the resulting formation showed properties of solids, yet it had <a href="https://knotphysics.net/superfluidity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zero viscosity</a>, which means it offered no internal friction. This dual identity made it a supersolid, and placed it in an unusual category of matter that many experts have wanted to study in detail.



“While the team has convincingly shown that they produced a supersolid, additional measurements and analyses are necessary to comprehend its properties fully,” said <a href="https://www.lkb.fr/quantumfluids/about-the-team/people/alberto-bramati/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alberto Bramati</a> from Sorbonne University in France. He and others believe further tests might reveal even more surprises about the nature of quantum fluids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-supersolid-matters">Why this supersolid matters</h2>



When something lacks viscosity, it can flow in a nearly frictionless way. That suggests possibilities for applications that need smooth transport, such as superconductors, or for quantum computing systems that rely on minimal energy loss.



Scientists are intrigued by the chance to explore how a supersolid evolves under different conditions. These findings might help in designing new materials or devices that show stable performance while also harnessing quantum properties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-using-light-supersolids">Future research using light supersolids</h2>



This experiment opens fresh avenues for studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-form-of-quantum-entanglement-discovered-will-transform-next-gen-technology/">quantum</a> particles that move as if they have no barriers. Researchers believe that having a supersolid based on light can simplify future work, since it may be easier to manipulate photons than to chill atoms to very low temperatures.



Experts are also hoping to watch how this supersolid responds to tweaks in temperature and external fields. Understanding those responses could drive progress in making specialized photonic systems that store and carry information with high efficiency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-perspectives">Practical perspectives</h2>



Many quantum effects seem rarefied, yet the knowledge gained often leads to useful discoveries. Superfluids once looked like a curiosity, but they advanced cryogenics and found roles in sensors.



Supersolids made from light might do something similar, especially for systems that require precise control of energy. This achievement hints at a future where photonic supersolids serve as a platform for advanced devices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-challenges">Possible challenges</h2>



Although the new setup shows promise, there could be technical hurdles. Maintaining the right conditions to keep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-photon-theory-casts-doubt-on-double-slit-experiment-quantum-light-interference-pattern/">photons</a> locked in a solid state might be tricky.



If scientists can stabilize these conditions over longer periods, they will be able to collect more detailed data. That could reveal how flexible the material is, or how it reacts when disturbed by external factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reaching-for-more-answers">Reaching for more answers</h2>



Trypogeorgos and his colleagues foresee plenty of questions to tackle. Are there new phases of matter waiting to emerge from similar setups?



Researchers might also look into mixing various types of particles with photons to craft specialized supersolids. Each twist could lead to new physics that changes our understanding of how matter and light behave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wider-view">A wider view</h2>



Supersolidity is not just a scientific quirk. It brings attention to the ways quantum mechanics can reshape our view of nature by blending properties once thought to be totally separate.



Flowing like liquids yet forming solid grids, these newly created structures stand as an example of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/">quantum</a> rules can bend conventional wisdom. They showcase a unique overlap of order and freedom in a single material.



Physicists are still exploring what unexpected features might arise. Identifying potential uses for these odd states of light may take time, but the journey already looks rewarding.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08616-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Physicists succeed in converting light into a supersolid that flows like a liquid

Physicists have reached an unexpected breakthrough: they changed beams of...

Imagine a world without apples, almonds, tomatoes, or coffee. It would not just be bland - it would be dangerously imbalanced. This isn’t fiction but a potential reality if pollinators like bees disappear. World Bee Day, observed on May 20, is a global call to remember, appreciate, and protect these essential creatures.



In 2025, under the theme&nbsp;"Bee inspired by nature to nourish us all,"&nbsp;the campaign goes beyond admiration. It urges action to support biodiversity, sustainable agriculture, and ecosystem resilience. 



Bees, alongside other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-bee-species-face-extinction-due-to-honey-bee-competition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, not only fill our plates but also keep our planet’s life systems in balance. Their survival is tightly linked to our own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-help-most-plants-grow">Pollinators help most plants grow</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bees</a> are important, but they’re not the only creatures that help plants grow. Butterflies, birds, bats, and even some animals like lemurs also move pollen from one flower to another. This process is called pollination. 



Without it, most plants can't make fruits or seeds. Together, all these pollinators help nearly 90 out of every 100 wild plants grow. They also help with growing more than three-quarters of the food crops we eat, like apples, almonds, onions, coffee, and avocados.



There are more than 20,000 kinds of bees in the world. Most of them live in the wild. We usually just take them for granted. But when they disappear, we feel the difference. 



Farmers lose money because crops don’t grow well. Food prices go up. The variety of fruits and vegetables drops. Our meals become less healthy.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-survival-depends-on-more-than-just-pollen-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollinators</a> don’t just help plants grow. They make fruits bigger, tastier, and more colorful and work for free, every day, without anyone asking. But when nature is damaged, pollinators are usually the first to be affected. And when they vanish, we have a lot to lose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-bee-day-live-like-bees">World Bee Day: Live like bees</h2>



Bees live in a way that works well with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. They don’t destroy or waste anything. Instead, bees build hives, help flowers grow, and support many other plants and animals. Everything they do fits into the natural system. It’s smart, balanced, and helpful to the planet.



This year’s World Bee Day message means we should look at how bees live and learn from them. Bees work together, help each other and keep nature healthy without causing harm.



If we follow their example, we can grow food in better ways. We don’t need to clear forests or harm wild plants. We can farm without using harmful chemicals. Nature already knows the right way - bees are showing it to us. We just need to watch and do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-are-in-trouble">Pollinators are in trouble</h2>



This isn’t just a story about bees dying. It’s about something much bigger. Nature is like a chain, and pollinators are one of its strong links. When that link breaks, the whole system starts to fall apart. Animals, plants, and people all feel the damage.



Pollinators like bees, butterflies, bats, and birds are disappearing much faster than they should - up to 1,000 times faster. Around 35 out of every 100 insect pollinators are in danger. For animals like birds and bats, 17 out of 100 are also at risk.



If this keeps happening, the way we eat will change. Fruits, nuts, seeds, and leafy vegetables may become rare. The bright, fresh foods we enjoy today might be replaced by plain, cheap ones like rice, wheat, and corn. That means less nutrition and more hunger.



Farmers will have a harder time growing crops. Prices in stores will go up. The poorest people, who already struggle, will suffer the most. No one wants that kind of future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-bee-day-and-pollinator-protection">World Bee Day and pollinator protection</h2>



In 2018, the United Nations officially started World Bee Day. They chose May 20 because it’s the birthday of Anton Janša. He lived in Slovenia in the 1700s and helped improve how people care for bees. He believed bees were special because they worked hard and didn’t need much in return.



Today, we still respect bees for the same reason. But respect is not enough anymore. Bees are in danger, and they need our help.



Yurdi Yasmi is the director of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Plant Production and Protection Division.



“This call is extended to all Member Nations, international and regional organizations, civil society, leaders of Indigenous Peoples, researchers, the private sector, everyone working in the sector and anyone with an interest in bees and other pollinators to get involved, share their experiences and show how important these pollinators are,” said Yasmi.



The <a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a> is not just spreading awareness. It’s also training beekeepers, supporting eco-friendly farms, and encouraging laws that protect pollinators. Their message is simple - if we protect pollinators, we protect our future too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-projects-are-helping-people-and-nature">Bee projects are helping people and nature</h2>



In Samoa, bees do more than make honey. A project called “<a href="https://beeeducated.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bee Educated!</a>” trains women to care for hives. They learn, earn, and teach others. Bees bring money and confidence. They also bring balance to the land. It’s not just a project - it’s a movement.



In Yemen, beekeeping keeps going even through war. With support from the FAO and World Bank, farmers get better tools. They learn how to protect their bees and gather honey safely. Despite conflict and climate stress, the bees - and their keepers - persist.



These stories prove something important. When you help bees, you help people. You protect culture, jobs, and land. And you do it with nature, not against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-participating-in-world-bee-day-2025">Participating in World Bee Day 2025</h2>



You don’t need to own a big farm to help bees and other pollinators. Small actions at home make a big difference. You can plant flowers that naturally grow in your area. These flowers give bees food. You can stop using harmful sprays in your garden. You can let wild bees build their nests safely.



Buying honey from nearby beekeepers also helps. So does telling your friends and family why bees matter. Even putting a shallow bowl of water with some stones outside gives bees a place to rest and drink.



Farmers can help too. They can grow many kinds of crops instead of just one. This gives pollinators more food. They can also reduce their use of pesticides and plant hedges and trees around fields to create safe spaces for bees.



Governments can support all these efforts. They can give money or rewards to farmers who protect pollinators. They can listen to Indigenous people, who have deep knowledge of nature and land. The more people who join in, the better it is for pollinators - and for us all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-can-still-protect-bees">We can still protect bees</h2>



Bees may be small, but their role in nature is huge. They help flowers, fruits, and vegetables grow by carrying pollen between plants. This links everything in the natural world - from the soil beneath our feet to the air we breathe.



Bees don’t just move pollen. They help life continue. They build hives from wax and turn flower nectar into honey which feeds people around the world.



Even though bees work quietly, their effect is powerful. Without them, many plants would stop growing. Our food system would weaken. Whole ecosystems would fall out of balance.



World Bee Day is not just a time to thank bees. It’s also a serious reminder. If we don’t act now, we could lose them. But it’s also a message of hope. We can still choose to protect bees and follow the example of nature.



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World Bee Day 2025: Protecting the pollinators that feed the world

Imagine a world without apples, almonds, tomatoes, or coffee. It...

Carbon credits have become a popular tool for offsetting the environmental impact of air travel. 



Every flight we take adds to the growing cloud of greenhouse gas emissions hovering over the planet. The aviation industry now emits more carbon dioxide than many individual nations. 



To soften the environmental blow, some airlines offer passengers the option to “offset” their emissions - usually by paying into forest protection schemes. 



The promise is simple: fund the preservation of trees, and they’ll absorb enough carbon to balance out your flight. But does it really work? A new study says not always.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-carbon-credits">Concerns about carbon credits</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.bu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boston University</a> and the nonprofit Clean Air Task Force recently examined how forest carbon credit systems are run and regulated in North America. 



These programs are often part of the voluntary carbon market, where companies and individuals can buy credits to compensate for their emissions. But the study found that the protocols behind many of these credits are weak - and in some cases, entirely ineffective.



“There’s been a lot of appetite for these credits so corporations can meet their sustainability goals, but some of the credits that have been sold have been found to be dubious at best,” said Lucy Hutyra, a BU College of Arts &amp; Sciences Distinguished Professor, and chair of Earth and Environment.



“This paper is not about whether the system is broken, let’s just scrap it; it’s looking at what works well, what doesn’t, and how we can improve it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flaws-in-the-current-system">Flaws in the current system</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-carbon-credits-are-not-tied-to-forest-preservation-as-claimed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest carbon credits</a> come in different forms. Some are part of mandatory systems; others are voluntary. At the cheaper end, they involve paying landowners to keep forests standing. 



On paper, each credit is a promise to absorb one ton of carbon dioxide somewhere to make up for one ton emitted elsewhere. But it’s not always that simple.



The researchers evaluated 20 forest carbon credit protocols and gave each one a score based on how effectively it guarantees climate benefits. Most didn’t score well. 



Only one protocol received a “satisfactory” rating - and it hasn’t even been used yet. None earned a “robust” rating or higher.



“Our results show that the protocols used to generate credits are a critical weak link in the forest carbon market system,” said BU alum Rebecca Sanders-DeMott, the Clean Air Task Force's director of ecosystem carbon science. 



“Without significant improvements, the integrity of the forest carbon market will remain at risk,” she stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-essential-role-of-forests">Essential role of forests</h2>



Forests play an essential role in absorbing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-co2-could-push-temperatures-much-higher-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric carbon</a>. But depending on how a credit scheme is managed, the benefits may be overstated. 



One example is the use of “buffer zones,” which are extra preserved areas intended to act as insurance in case something happens to the main forest area, such as a wildfire or disease outbreak.



“In the current system, the buffer pool risks are very conservative, very low estimates of risk,” said Hutyra. “The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-wildfire-season-is-longer-peaks-earlier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire</a> risk in one part of California could be really quite different than another part.”



They propose the establishment of larger buffer zones and detailed, location-specific risk maps to better reflect real-world threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-credits-need-improvement">Carbon credits need improvement</h2>



In addition to managing risk better, the study highlights four other areas where the carbon market could improve. 



It lists 22 total recommendations - half are relatively simple to implement, like reassessing project risks every five years. The rest are more complex.



One major issue is something called “leakage.” If you protect one area of forest from development, but that simply pushes deforestation or construction to another location, you haven’t achieved a true reduction in emissions.



“The net effect is no actual change in the land <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sink</a>, in real emissions to the atmosphere,” Hutyra explained.



To fix this, they suggest national and global tracking of land use changes and stronger incentives to support truly climate-positive outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-carbon-credits">What’s next for carbon credits </h2>



The research team is now focused on getting their recommendations into the hands of those who can make a difference. 



The Clean Air Task Force is preparing an easy-to-read version of the report, organizing webinars, and reaching out to groups who manage carbon credit protocols.



Even without strong federal interest in regulating these markets right now, the researchers are hopeful that their work will help steer voluntary efforts in a more effective direction.



“Global energy demand is rising and, while decarbonizing our energy systems is critical, it will take time - decades, in fact. Meanwhile, the impacts of climate change are already being felt and are accelerating. Forests, which have long served as vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon sinks</a>, are under increasing threat," said Sanders-DeMott.



"By taking these recommendations seriously, carbon market actors can help restore confidence in carbon markets and unlock the full potential of forests to mitigate the worst effects of climate change, buying us time as we scale the technologies we need to ensure a high-energy, zero-emissions future.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF005414" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Forest carbon credits are failing, so what needs to change?

Carbon credits have become a popular tool for offsetting the...

European honey bees, celebrated for their industrious nature, may be pushing Australia’s native bees to the brink. 



Research from <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> reveals how these introduced bees could be reducing the reproductive success of native cavity-nesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>. 



The findings hint at a deeper problem - one that could disrupt ecosystems and challenge biodiversity in ways that few expect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-bee-reproductive-struggles">Native bee reproductive struggles</h2>



Dr. Kit Prendergast, a researcher at Curtin’s School of Molecular and Life Sciences, didn't just set up bee hotels to provide shelter. She turned them into research stations. 



“Bee hotels are more than just a way to give <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-survival-depends-on-more-than-just-pollen-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> a place to nest - they’re powerful research tools that let us measure how well native bees are surviving and reproducing in different environments,” Dr. Prendergast said.



For two spring-to-summer seasons, Dr. Prendergast and her team studied 1000 native bee nests in 14 urban bushland and garden sites. 



The findings? In areas swarming with honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>, native bees faced trouble. They produced fewer female offspring. Their offspring had higher mortality rates. And the males that survived were noticeably smaller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-outcompete-native-bees">Honey bees outcompete native bees </h2>



Honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-is-giving-beekeepers-a-better-way-to-fight-colony-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> collected pollen from many types of plants, including both local and non-native ones. Native bees, however, focused on a smaller number of specific plants. 



This difference in foraging behavior made it harder for native bees to find enough food, as honey bees took pollen from a wider range of sources.



During the first year, honey bees collected pollen from 10.3 different species on average, while native bees gathered from just 4.3. In the second year, honey bees still maintained their wide range, collecting from 8.1 species. Native bees, however, only managed 2.8.



That’s a lot of overlap. Too much. In areas with high pollen overlap, native bees provisioned fewer cells for their offspring. Less food meant fewer babies. And fewer babies meant a population under pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-intensify-pollen-competition">Urban gardens intensify pollen competition</h2>



Gardens may look like paradises for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-wearing-tiny-qr-codes-reveal-foraging-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>, but they can also be battlegrounds. 



Honey bees, with their broad pollen preferences, took full advantage of exotic plants. They outcompeted native bees in residential gardens, where floral diversity was often lower and more fragmented.



Dr. Prendergast pointed out that in these urban gardens, the impact of honey bee densities became more pronounced. Parasitism rates among native bees increased, suggesting that honey bee competition might make them more vulnerable to parasites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-affect-native-bee-sex-ratios">Honey bees affect native bee sex ratios</h2>



Honey bees didn’t just take pollen. They also affected the sex ratio of native bees. Female bees need more resources to develop, and when those resources get scarce, fewer females emerge.



“In some conditions, greater overlap in pollen use was associated with lower offspring numbers in native bees,” Dr. Prendergast noted. 



And the offspring that did emerge? More males than females. This male-biased sex ratio could destabilize native bee populations over time, making it harder for them to recover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-reduces-reproduction">Competition reduces reproduction</h2>



Pollen is essential for bees. They collect it, eat it, and use it to feed their young. The study found that honey bees gathered pollen from more plant types than native bees.



In the first year, honey bees collected pollen from 58 plant species, but native bees only collected from 41. The next year, honey bees still foraged from 41 species, while native bees dropped to 24.



This difference matters. When honey bees take pollen from many plants, they leave less for native bees. 



With less pollen available, native bees have less food to feed their young. This leads to fewer offspring, smaller young, and fewer females, which can weaken native bee populations over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-urban-vs-bushland-divide">The urban vs. bushland divide</h2>



Urban gardens didn’t just have more honey bees. They had more floral competition and higher parasitism rates. 



Native bees in bushland remnants fared slightly better, surrounded by more native flora and fewer honey bees. But even in these relatively protected areas, the pressure was still on.



The competition in gardens was particularly intense, with honey bees exploiting exotic plants that native bees couldn’t use as effectively. As a result, native bees had to work harder, forage longer, and ultimately, face greater risks from parasites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-increase-native-bee-mortality">Honey bees increase native bee mortality </h2>



Mortality rates for native bee offspring spiked in the first year of the study. Urban gardens with high honey bee densities saw the most significant increases. Fewer provisioned cells. More dead larvae. And for the males that did survive? They were smaller than usual.



“This shows that honey bees are not as benign as some might think - they can negatively impact local ecosystems and potentially contribute to declines in native bee populations,” Dr. Prendergast explained. 



And those smaller males? They’re less likely to find mates, further straining the population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-collect-more-pollen">Honey bees collect more pollen</h2>



Pollen analysis revealed a stark picture. Honey bees collected over twice as many pollen species as native bees. They didn’t just stick to native plants - they also targeted exotics, increasing the overlap and making it harder for native bees to find enough food.



The most common pollen species for honey bees included Eucalyptus marginata, Corymbia calophylla, and Melaleuca sp. For native bees, it was the same lineup. 



This shared preference intensified the competition, with honey bees taking more than their share, leaving native bees with less.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-protect-native-bees">Strategies to protect native bees</h2>



What can be done to protect native bees? Dr. Prendergast suggests increasing native plant diversity in urban areas. By planting more species that native bees prefer - and that honey bees don’t - we can reduce competition.



Managing honey bee populations in urban gardens could also help. Fewer managed hives, fewer feral colonies. But it’s not that simple. Honey bees are valuable pollinators, and their removal isn’t always practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Dr. Prendergast’s work is just the beginning. The study, funded by the City of Stirling, the <a href="https://www.aws.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Wildlife Society</a>, Hesperia, and the <a class="" href="https://www.forrestresearch.org.au/">Forrest Research Foundation</a>, points to a need for more targeted research.



Future studies could focus on long-term monitoring, examining how native bee populations fare over several years in areas with varying honey bee densities.



Understanding how pollen overlap affects native bee fitness in different habitats could also provide clues for more effective conservation strategies. Because in this hidden battle, the stakes are high. 



For native bees, survival may depend on more than just flowers - it may depend on the flowers they can still call their own.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/bee-science/articles/10.3389/frbee.2025.1508958/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Bee Science</a>.



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Native bee species face extinction due to honey bee competition

European honey bees, celebrated for their industrious nature, may be...

Nature’s seasonal cycle offers countless marvels, and the shape and descent of leaves are among them. The way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaves</a> flutter down might appear random, but new findings suggest a more structured pattern than previously thought.



Matthew Dominic Biviano and Kaare Hartvig Jensen from the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> set out to investigate whether leaf geometry somehow reduces the loss of valuable nutrients.



After examining this process in detail, the team discovered that shape plays a noticeable role. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-falling-leaves-deliver-nutrients">How falling leaves deliver nutrients</h2>



Leaves come in an impressive range of sizes and outlines. Some have smooth edges, others have deep lobes, but all serve as living solar panels through <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, which is the process by which plants use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that fuel growth.



Beyond gathering sunlight, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trees-decide-between-growing-and-breathing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaves</a> also supply valuable carbon when they fall. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-27373-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> suggest that about 40% of a tree’s captured carbon is stored in leaves before they drop.



A leaf that falls straight down likely lands closer to the tree that produced it. This matters because decaying leaf litter sends carbon and minerals into the soil, which can then feed the parent plant and its surrounding community.



If a leaf drifts too far, however, that resource might not be returned to the same tree. Trees can end up missing out on a chunk of the nutrients they originally invested in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-wetlands-are-turning-into-mercury-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaf</a> growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaf-shape-and-descent-speed">Leaf shape and descent speed</h2>



The two physicists designed an apparatus to release 100 artificial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-understand-why-rose-petals-have-pointed-tips/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaves</a> inside a tank of water. This slower water environment allowed them to observe how shape and symmetry affect sinking behavior without the rapid variables of air currents.



Through repeated trials, the team found patterns in how leaves fell. Some shapes plummeted down briskly, while others seemed to twist or spin, adding extra distance in their underwater journey.



Data from this experiment indicated that symmetrical forms dropped more swiftly. Leaves with simpler outlines moved less erratically, suggesting that these shapes limit how far they can drift.



Asymmetrical or heavily lobed leaves, on the other hand, displayed a slower descent. Their uneven outlines created more swirling movement in the water, a motion that may also occur in air and increase the travel distance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaf-shapes-and-nutrient-recycling">Leaf shapes and nutrient recycling</h2>



One interpretation of these findings is that certain trees evolved leaf shapes that descend faster, leading to less wandering. That means most nutrients stay within easy reach of the parent tree’s roots.



In contrast, leaves with dramatic lobes or irregular shapes might inadvertently end up far away. This could hold advantages in other contexts, but it may offer fewer benefits for reusing nutrients.



Scientists have long pondered the variety of leaf designs in nature. Many are symmetrical in a left-right sense, which might be due to simple genetic or developmental rules.



This study suggests a functional angle as well. A faster drop rate might be one reason so many trees produce leaves with balanced shapes and fewer pronounced lobes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaf-shape-affects-nutrient-spread">Leaf shape affects nutrient spread</h2>



Every leaf is a balancing act of multiple needs. Photosynthesis efficiency, water collection, temperature control, and aerodynamic or <a href="https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/sedimentation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sedimentation</a> behavior can all influence how leaves end up looking.



A species might sacrifice faster drop rates if a particular shape offers a better solution for life in its habitat. What works best in one environment may not work in another.



The distance leaves travel also shapes ecological interactions. Fallen leaves add vital nutrients for fungi, microbes, and insects in the soil, which support overall forest health.



If those resources end up scattered, they can still help neighboring plants, but the original tree may gain fewer rewards for its investment. The new insights from the water-tank trials could prompt deeper studies into how leaf forms differ across various climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-falling-leaves-affect-forest-health">How falling leaves affect forest health</h2>



Some researchers aim to probe more tree types, possibly working in wind tunnels or actual forest settings. Others might apply these principles to other plant organs that detach and disperse.



By uncovering the role of leaf shape, scientists add a new twist to our understanding of forest cycles. The research highlights how small changes can ripple through the life of an ecosystem.



Walking through a forest, people often notice an abundance of fallen leaves close to the trunk. These findings add context to that sight, suggesting a quiet biological strategy at play.



When leaves don’t stray far, the tree’s nutrients remain close, fueling new growth in the seasons ahead. This hidden process may help ensure forests remain robust and self-sustaining.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-fallen-leaves-in-nature">Observing fallen leaves in nature</h2>



Not every tree follows the same patterns. Tropical species with huge leaves might face different conditions, while ornamental breeds in gardens could show unique traits.



Curious observers might find it interesting to look at fallen leaves and ponder their shape and destination on the ground. Sometimes, that simple act of watching can reveal how nature finds ways to keep cycles intact.



The research from Denmark connects a leaf’s geometry with its journey back to the soil beneath its parent tree. This link highlights nature’s subtle interdependencies and the practical ways that form relates to function.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2024.0654" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of The Royal Society Interface</a>.



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Leaf shape is a tree's secret weapon to reclaim nutrients

Nature’s seasonal cycle offers countless marvels, and the shape and...

We all know that feeling. The alarm blares, and instead of getting up, we slap the snooze button and drift back to sleep. Those extra minutes feel like a gift, but are they really? Sleep experts warn that hitting snooze disrupts crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/irregular-sleep-may-cause-premature-muscle-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> stages. 



Yet, a study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.massgeneralbrigham.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mass General Brigham</a> reveals that more than half of sleep sessions end with a snooze alarm. The average person spends 10.8 minutes each morning in a cycle of fragmented sleep before finally waking up



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-hits-snooze-the-most">Who hits snooze the most?</h2>



Some people can’t help but keep hitting the snooze button. Researchers divided snooze users into three groups. 



The first group barely hit snooze, maybe once or twice, for just three minutes. The second group snoozed a bit more, pressing it twice and snoozing for over six minutes. The last group - the heavy snoozers - couldn’t stop. 



They hit snooze four times per morning, spending about 20 minutes in a foggy, half-awake state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-snoozing-disrupts-sleep">Why snoozing disrupts sleep</h2>



“Unfortunately, the snooze alarm disrupts some of the most important stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>,” said Robbins. 



“The hours just before waking are rich in rapid eye movement sleep. Hitting the snooze alarm will interrupt these critical stages of sleep and typically only offer you light sleep in between snooze alarms."



“The best approach for optimizing your sleep and next day performance is to set your alarm for the latest possible time, then commit to getting out of bed when your first alarm goes off.”



Wake up feeling groggy and disoriented? That’s sleep inertia. The study backed this up, showing heavy snooze users slept less soundly and felt less rested during the day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-women-use-the-snooze-button-more">Women use the snooze button more</h2>



Women seem to use the snooze button more than men. In the study, women pressed snooze an average of 2.5 times per session, while men hit it 2.3 times. Women also spent more time in snooze mode, averaging 11.5 minutes compared to 10.2 minutes for men.



Why do women snooze more? Researchers think it might be because women often deal with more sleep problems, like insomnia or restless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>. They might also have more responsibilities, like work, childcare, or other tasks that can interrupt their sleep. 



In the morning, they try to grab a few extra minutes of rest by hitting snooze. But those extra minutes don’t always provide real rest - they often leave them feeling more tired and groggy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weekdays-vs-weekends">Weekdays vs. weekends </h2>



People hit the snooze button more on weekdays than on weekends. The study found that from Monday to Friday, the average number of snoozes per session was 2.5. On weekends, it dropped slightly to 2.3.



Why the difference? During the workweek, people have set schedules and early alarms, so they’re more likely to hit snooze to squeeze in a bit more sleep. 



On weekends, they have more freedom to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-loss-has-a-greater-impact-on-heart-health-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> in and less pressure to get up at a specific time. As a result, they don’t feel the need to keep pressing snooze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-sleep-duration-affects-snoozing">How sleep duration affects snoozing</h2>



Not everyone has time to hit snooze. Those sleeping less than five hours hardly used the snooze function. 



However, those logging more than nine hours couldn’t get enough. They hit snooze four times per session, stretching their wake-up window to 20 minutes of fragmented sleep.



Researchers suggest that short sleepers might have tighter schedules, with no room for those few extra minutes in bed. Meanwhile, long sleepers may feel like they have more time to spare, leading to more snoozing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-countries-hit-snooze-the-most">Which countries hit snooze the most</h2>



Snooze habits vary from country to country. In the study, Sweden had the highest average snooze usage, with people hitting the snooze button 2.7 times per session. 



Germany and the United States were close behind at 2.5 snoozes per session. Japan and Australia kept their snooze time shorter, averaging 2.2 presses per session. 



When it came to how long people stayed in snooze mode, Sweden was again the leader. People there spent an average of 11.7 minutes hitting snooze. In Japan, that number was much lower - just 9.2 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-prime-season-to-hit-snooze">The prime season to hit snooze</h2>



Seasons matter. In the Northern Hemisphere, December was prime snooze season, with people averaging 2.62 snoozes and 11.83 minutes of fragmented sleep. 



Down south, July took the top spot with 2.35 snoozes. On the flip side, September in the north and November in the south had the lowest snooze rates.



Why the shift? Dark mornings and less daylight in winter could make it harder to wake up, tempting people to hit snooze again and again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bedtime-and-wake-time">Bedtime and wake time</h2>



When you go to bed and wake up can affect how much you hit snooze. People who went to sleep early, around 8 p.m., barely used the snooze button. They averaged 2.5 presses. 



On the other hand, those who stayed up until 10 p.m. hit snooze five times, dragging out their wake-up by 26 minutes.



Wake-up times showed similar patterns. Early risers who woke up at 3 a.m. only hit snooze twice. But those getting up at 1 p.m. pressed snooze nearly seven times, spending 37.6 minutes in a foggy, fragmented state of sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimizing-sleep-and-feeling-rested">Optimizing sleep and feeling rested </h2>



Sticking to a regular sleep schedule meant less snoozing. People who went to bed at their usual time hit snooze five to six times per session. 



But those who stayed up late? They hit snooze up to seven times, struggling to get up in the morning and dragging out their wake-up time.



Is hitting the snooze button worth it? Rebecca Robbins thinks not. "The best approach for optimizing your sleep and next day performance is to set your alarm for the latest possible time, then commit to getting out of bed when your first alarm goes off."



Hitting snooze might feel good in the moment, but it breaks up crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep stages</a>, leaving you groggy and less rested. Next time that alarm rings, think twice before slapping snooze. Your brain - and your mood - will thank you.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-99563-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Hitting the snooze button is a bad idea for maintaining good health

We all know that feeling. The alarm blares, and instead...

Methane is the planet’s second-largest human-influenced climate driver after carbon dioxide. Its levels are climbing faster than at any time in the observational record.



The latest update of the <a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/methanebudget/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Methane Budget</a>, covering 2000-2020, shows that atmospheric levels reached 1,931 parts per billion in January 2024. That's more than two and a half times their pre-industrial value.



Despite this worrying trajectory, researchers argue that cutting methane could deliver big climate dividends at lower cost than equivalent CO₂ reductions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-methane-matters">Why methane matters</h2>



Methane's potency stems from three key characteristics. It absorbs more infrared radiation than CO₂, stays in the air for about a decade, and is rising sharply in concentration. That combination means aggressive methane cuts can slow near-term warming more quickly than CO₂ mitigation alone.



“Methane itself has contributed about 0.5°C of warming during the 2010s, accounting for two-thirds of the warming linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>,” said co-author Sergio Noce, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.cmcc.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMCC Foundation</a>.



With 2023 global temperatures already 1.45 °C above pre-industrial averages, rapid action on methane could help keep mid-century climate targets within reach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-methane-s-origins">Tracing methane's origins</h2>



About two-thirds of annual global methane emissions come from human activities like fossil fuel use, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-can-help-reduce-methane-emissions-from-cows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">livestock</a>, rice farming, and waste management. The remaining one-third to nearly one-half comes from natural systems - wetlands, wildfires, thawing permafrost, and even insects.



“These natural methane emissions are particularly significant, accounting for around 35% to 45% of total annual emissions, according to various estimates that make up our updated budget,” Noce explained.



Together with Simona Castaldi, a professor of ecology at the <a href="https://www.unicampania.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Università degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli</a>, Noce accounted for biogenic sources not directly linked to human activities, with special attention to tiny but prolific contributors: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-play-an-unexpected-role-in-rainforest-revival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">termites</a>.



“Within this broader context, our research focused specifically on termites, which represent a smaller but noteworthy portion of these natural emissions," Noce said. 



"Despite their small size, these tiny organisms produce a substantial amount of methane through their life processes, highlighting their role in the overall methane budget."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-the-numbers">The science behind the numbers</h2>



The Global Methane Budget is compiled by the <a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Carbon Project</a>. It now involves about 70 scientists who merge atmospheric measurements, ground inventories, process models, and satellite retrievals.



The current release is the third major update, ensuring policymakers and researchers are working with the freshest numbers.



“Keeping track of methane emissions and maintaining a vigilant watch over their trends is crucial for effective climate action,” Noce said. 



“Understanding the sources and fluctuations of methane emissions allows us to implement targeted mitigation strategies and monitor their effectiveness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-methane-from-space">Watching methane from space</h2>



One leap forward comes from new orbital eyes. Noce noted the recent advancements in satellite technology, such as MethaneSAT and CarbonMapper, provide valuable tools for real-time monitoring of methane sources.



"This can help identify major emitters and enhance our ability to create effective policies.”



These instruments can spot plumes from individual pipelines, landfills, and well pads, enabling regulators or companies to plug leaks quickly. 



Early trials suggest that a relatively small set of facilities accounts for a large slice of anthropogenic methane releases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-fix-that-pays">Climate fix that pays</h2>



Several analyses suggest that cutting methane offers equivalent warming benefits at a lower marginal cost than deep CO₂ reductions. 



This is largely because many abatement options - such as capturing gas that would otherwise leak or vent - are cost-effective and often pay for themselves.



The <a href="https://www.iea.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Energy Agency</a> estimates that the oil and gas sector could reduce its global methane emissions by up to 70 percent with existing technologies, often turning the captured gas into profitable product.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-action-fast-impact">Fast action, fast impact</h2>



Because methane reacts quickly in the atmosphere, any reductions translate into a noticeable temperature slowdown within a decade. That makes methane strategies an attractive complement to long-term CO₂ decarbonization.



Consistent monitoring enables swift action against warming, helping protect the environment and support long-term sustainability.



International agreements such as the <a href="https://www.globalmethanepledge.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Methane Pledge</a>, launched at COP26, aim for a 30 percent cut in human-caused methane by 2030. Accurate budgets and real-time satellite surveillance will be essential for verifying progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-remaining-uncertainties">The remaining uncertainties</h2>



Despite improved datasets on global methane emissions, gaps remain. Wetland responses to climate change, the exact scale of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-becoming-a-source-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost thaw</a> emissions, and the resilience of natural sinks all introduce uncertainty.



The budget’s multi-method approach - combining bottom-up inventories with top-down atmospheric inversions - helps reduce uncertainties. 



However, ongoing field campaigns and improved process models are still needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unified-front-on-a-potent-gas">A unified front on a potent gas</h2>



The new Global Methane Budget highlights both urgency and opportunity: methane is rising fast, but affordable solutions are available. The findings highlight methane’s key role in climate change and the need for coordinated scientific action to address it.



With coordinated monitoring, swift leak repair, and targeted agricultural practices, the world could curb a significant slice of near-term warming - buying precious time for the deeper, more expensive task of driving CO₂ to net zero.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/17/1873/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Science Data</a>.



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Cutting methane emissions could quickly slow global warming

Methane is the planet’s second-largest human-influenced climate driver after carbon...

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they own the place. They cross oceans inside cargo ships, set up vast super-colonies, and push out native species on six continents. 



Once a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nest of ants</a> settles in, homeowners and farmers often reach for poison baits, yet the insects lose interest before enough of them carry the toxic treat back home. 



A new study suggests that a tiny splash of caffeine could keep the party going - and give pest managers an edge.



The research shows that moderate doses of caffeine sharpen an ant’s memory for the bait’s location. Ants that sipped a caffeinated sugar drop found it again more quickly on later trips, leaving a stronger scent trail for nest-mates. 



The discovery points to a low-cost tweak that might finally turn the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invader’s own teamwork</a> against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-ant-huge-impact">Tiny ant, huge impact</h2>



The Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) is only about one-tenth of an inch long, yet its cooperative spirit builds super-colonies stretching thousands of miles along the Mediterranean coast and the U.S. West Coast. 



Those armies displace local insects, rob hummingbird feeders, and even short-circuit electrical gear. 



Recent economic analyses peg the global cost of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive ants</a> - including crop losses and control bills - at billions of dollars each year. No wonder pest crews keep searching for smarter tactics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-caffeine-to-ants">Giving caffeine to ants</h2>



To find out, researchers set up a miniature arena: a Lego drawbridge led each ant onto a letter-size acrylic platform where a single sugar drop waited. 



Some drops carried no additive, while others contained 25 parts per million (ppm), 250 ppm, or 2 000 ppm of caffeine. One hundred forty-two ants took part, and each explorer tackled the course four times.



“The idea with this project was to find some cognitive way of getting the ants to consume more of the poisonous baits we put in the field,” says the study’s first author Henrique Galante, a computational biologist at the <a href="https://www.uni-regensburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Regensburg</a>. 



Automated cameras tracked every step, logging travel time and the straightness of each path. Without caffeine, the insects wandered, needing the same span to reach the treat on every attempt. Add a modest stimulant, and the story changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-gives-ant-focus-not-speed">Caffeine gives ant focus, not speed</h2>



“We found that intermediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-evolution-in-plants-the-surprising-story-of-yerba-mate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doses of caffeine</a> actually boost learning - when you give them a bit of caffeine, it pushes them into having straighter paths and being able to reach the reward faster," Galante explained.



In fact, ants that tasted 25 ppm caffeine shaved 28 percent off their foraging time on every return. Those on 250 ppm cut the clock by 38 percent. 



Picture an individual that spent 300 seconds during its first outing - it would need just 113 seconds after three more trips on the lower dose and 54 seconds on the medium dose.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The stimulant</a> did not act like an energy drink. There was no uptick in raw speed. “What we see is that they're not moving faster, they're just being more focused on where they're going,” Galante noted. 



“This suggests that they know where they want to go, therefore, they have learned the locations of the reward.” 



Only path geometry tightened; pace stayed the same. At the heaviest 2 000 ppm dose - the level that kills half of honeybees in tests - the learning advantage disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharper-trails-deadlier-bait">Sharper trails, deadlier bait</h2>



Argentine ants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheromone highways</a>. A worker that discovers food drags its stinger along the ground, laying a chemical breadcrumb trail that guides the next shift. Faster relearning multiplies that effect. 



“We're trying to make them better at finding these baits, because the faster they go and come back to them, the more pheromone trails they lay, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more ants will come</a>, and, therefore, the faster they will spread the poison in the colony before they realize it's poison,” Galante continued.



Adding caffeine could also slash the waste that now limits bait stations. In neighborhoods and orchards, technicians often replenish gels every few days because the first wave of foragers gives up. 



A caffeinated lure might stay attractive long enough for queens and larvae to receive a lethal serving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The team is already field-testing the recipe at infested sites in Spain. They also plan to check whether caffeine interacts with common active ingredients such as hydramethylnon or spinosad. 



“The lowest dose we used is what you find in natural plants, the intermediate dose is similar to what you would find in some energy drinks, and the highest amount is set to be the LD50 of bees - where half the bees fed this dose die - so it's likely to be quite toxic for them,” Galante notes. 



Selecting a concentration that boosts memory without harming pollinators will be crucial.



Caffeine’s appeal extends beyond Argentine ants. Other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> - including fire ants and big-headed ants - share the same food-sharing habits that make baiting tricky. 



If the stimulant nudges their neural circuits in a similar way, managers could deploy a single additive across multiple pest fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-learned-about-ants-and-caffeine">What we learned about ants and caffeine</h2>



To sum it all up, caffeine improves ants' overall focus and learning without increasing speed, allowing them to navigate straighter paths and lay stronger pheromone trails. 



This effect boosts the effectiveness of bait traps, leading more ants to the poison and increasing the chances of it spreading through the colony. 



However, the benefit peaks at moderate doses - very high levels eliminate the learning advantage and can be toxic. So, overall, caffeine makes ants better at foraging and sharing, which ironically makes them more vulnerable to well-designed pest control strategies.



For now, the message is simple: a dash of coffee in the buffet may turn an army’s fabled navigation skills against itself. When the ants get better at remembering dessert, the colony’s days could finally be numbered.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01157-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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When ants eat or drink caffeine, many interesting things happen

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they...

Wildlife trafficking is a crime that extends far beyond the smuggling of charismatic species like elephants and rhinos. It involves the illegal trade of a wide range of animals, plants, and even insects. 



While public attention often focuses on large mammals, the trafficking of insects remains a lesser-known but equally significant threat.



Recently, four men were arrested in Kenya for attempting to smuggle over 5,000 ants. Their aim was to sell these ants as part of the exotic pet trade. The ants were stored in individual test tubes and syringes, cushioned with small amounts of cotton wool. 



This unusual method highlights the extreme lengths traffickers go to transport even the tiniest of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exotic-pet-trade-fuels-insect-smuggling">Exotic pet trade fuels insect smuggling</h2>



Some people collect rare and unusual insects as exotic pets or decorative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a>. These collectors are willing to pay high prices for insects that are hard to find, unique, or visually striking. 



For example, a rhino beetle’s shiny shell can attract buyers in Japan due to its unusual appearance. In Sri Lanka, butterflies with bright and delicate wings are sought after for collections. Praying mantis eggs are treated as curiosities in the United States, where people keep them as unusual pets or decorative items.



Traffickers take advantage of this demand. They collect insects and package them in small, everyday containers like crisp packets, candy boxes, or plastic tubes. These containers blend in with regular luggage or shipments, making the insects difficult to detect at airports or customs checks.



Once smuggled and sold, the insects end up in private collections or as exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pets</a>. Collectors may keep them in glass cases, display them as trophies, or breed them for further trade. Some insects become part of illegal markets where rare or endangered species are sold for profit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-trafficking-is-often-overlooked">Insect trafficking is often overlooked</h2>



When people think of wildlife trafficking, they picture poachers hunting elephants for ivory or rhinos for their horns. But insects? They hardly come to mind. Yet the trade in insects is just as destructive.



Unlike elephants or tigers, insects don’t get much media coverage. Conservationists focus on the big, charismatic animals while the smaller, less glamorous creatures slip through the cracks. 



The black market takes full advantage of this oversight, smuggling insects without drawing much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-insect-populations">Declining insect populations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a> are disappearing rapidly around the world. Pesticides used in farming and gardening poison them, killing large numbers of insects. 



Climate change disrupts their habitats, making it harder for them to find food, reproduce, or survive. Urban development also destroys natural areas, replacing forests, fields, and wetlands with buildings and roads. This leaves insects with fewer places to live.



While pesticides, climate change, and urban sprawl are widely recognized threats, another danger looms – trafficking. Insects that are already endangered become even more vulnerable as collectors and traffickers seek out rare species. These individuals capture and sell insects for profit, exploiting their scarcity.



Despite its impact, insect trafficking remains largely unnoticed. Unlike the illegal trade in elephants or tigers, insect smuggling often goes unreported. Insects are small, easy to hide, and less likely to attract attention. 



Law enforcement rarely prioritizes insect trafficking, leading to few arrests and seizures. As a result, the true scale of the problem remains unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anathema-ant-a-species-in-danger">Anathema ant: A species in danger</h2>



Some insects do get protection – at least on paper. The anathema ant, for instance, sits on the <a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> red list as an endangered species. Under international law, no one can capture, kill, or disturb it.



But enforcing these protections is another story. Identifying insects is tricky. Thousands of species look similar. When customs officials intercept a box of ants, how do they tell if they’re dealing with endangered anathema ants or a common garden variety?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-trafficking-and-organized-crime">Insect trafficking and organized crime</h2>



Wildlife trafficking isn’t just the work of lone poachers. Organized crime syndicates have noticed the potential in insects. They’re small, easy to conceal, and cheap to transport.



At Los Angeles International Airport, customs agents discovered 37 rhino beetles stuffed into snack packets. They found them mixed with crisps and sweets, hidden in plain sight.



Why bother with beetles? The answer is simple: demand. Collectors pay top dollar for rare, exotic insects. Crime networks see an opportunity - and they seize it.



Wildlife crimes often sit low on law enforcement’s priority list. Officers focus on drugs, weapons, and human trafficking. Insect smuggling hardly registers.



Even when officials seize insects, prosecution can be difficult. Identifying a rare beetle or ant requires expertise. Misidentifications happen. Cases get dismissed. Traffickers walk free.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-species-an-unseen-consequence">Invasive species: An unseen consequence</h2>



Insect trafficking doesn’t just harm the smuggled insects. It threatens entire ecosystems. Smuggled insects can escape or get released. They breed, spread, and sometimes dominate.



In Hawaii, authorities spend millions each year battling the coconut rhinoceros beetle. It tears through crops, devastates local plants, and leaves economic ruin in its wake. 



Invasive species can cause irreversible damage, and trafficking is the door that lets them in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-ignoring-insect-trafficking">Cost of ignoring insect trafficking </h2>



Failing to address insect trafficking costs more than just money. It risks entire ecosystems. It drives endangered species closer to extinction. It helps organized crime networks thrive.



But change is possible. Raising awareness can shine a light on the hidden trade in insects. Stronger enforcement can close the loopholes traffickers exploit. And if more people start to care, the ants, beetles, and butterflies might stand a fighting chance.



Wildlife trafficking isn’t just about rhinos and tigers. It’s about ants in test tubes, beetles in crisp packets, and butterflies smuggled across borders. Insects might not get the spotlight, but they’re part of this story too. 



And unless action is taken, they will remain easy targets in a world where profit trumps preservation.



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Insect trafficking is a destructive trade that's been overlooked

Wildlife trafficking is a crime that extends far beyond the...

Coral reefs are some of the most colorful and diverse ecosystems on Earth. Much of this beauty comes from the tiny algae that live inside coral tissues. But the story doesn’t end there. 



The water surrounding coral reefs is filled with invisible life - bacteria, archaea, and other microscopic organisms. These microbes don’t just float around unnoticed; they react to changes in the environment and can tell us a lot about the health of coral reefs.



In a recent study by scientists from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) and <a href="https://www.gmu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Mason University</a>, researchers make the case for using these microbes as a valuable tool in coral reef monitoring and conservation.



The findings offer new hope for helping reefs recover from the increasing threats of climate change, pollution, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-important-reef-building-coral-habitats-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat destruction</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-coral-reef-health">New insights into coral reef health</h2>



Amy Apprill is an associate scientist in Marine Chemistry &amp; Geochemistry at WHOI and lead author of the study.



“Factoring in microbes is very helpful to understand more about overall reef health,” said Apprill. "My team has produced over a dozen detailed datasets that demonstrate these connections."



"Our goal with this new paper is to make this knowledge accessible to the programs and people interested in using microbes to diagnose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-can-mislead-scientists-about-reef-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef health</a> and ocean conditions.”



Traditionally, coral reef monitoring depends on what people can see - changes in coral color, signs of bleaching, or physical damage.



However, microbial sampling offers a different kind of insight. It can provide more immediate feedback and a clearer picture of what’s happening beneath the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-coral-reef-conservation">Improving coral reef conservation </h2>



These techniques aren’t just for scientists. The study explains how park managers, conservation groups, restoration teams, and policy makers can all benefit. 



Water samples can be collected without harming the reef. Analyzing the samples can be as simple as using a microscope or as complex as genetic sequencing. Costs and technical requirements vary, but that’s part of the appeal - this method can be adapted to many situations.



Study co-author Jennifer L. Salerno is a marine biologist and associate professor in the Department of Environmental Science and Policy at George Mason University.



“The utility of using microbes as meaningful indicators is increasing as our understanding of their roles in maintaining or destabilizing health and ecosystem function is growing,” explained Salemo.



“I think we have the science and accessible technology to take a more nuanced approach to coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef conservation</a>, management, and policy decisions by deploying diagnostic tools like this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-microbes-tell-us">What microbes tell us</h2>



Microbes respond to all sorts of environmental cues - nutrients, oxygen levels, temperature, pH, and light.



For example, the presence of E. coli in reef water typically signals contamination from human or animal waste, which is bad news for the reef. On the flip side, certain photosynthetic microbes may suggest a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy ecosystem</a>.



This kind of data is more than just interesting. It can guide decision-making about where and when to intervene, and even how to design better reef restoration projects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-microbial-monitoring">Benefits of microbial monitoring </h2>



One strength of this approach is that it doesn’t require a one-size-fits-all solution. Some tools are inexpensive and easy to use, while others offer deeper insights but require more resources.



The authors of the study also urge the coral reef community to develop standard methods and share their findings.



“Because of the decline of coral reefs and the increased attention towards interventions such as restoration or rebuilding of a reef, it is important to bring all the relevant tools to the table to help restore, manage, and conserve reef ecosystems,” noted Aprill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-reefs-from-emerging-threats">Protecting reefs from emerging threats</h2>



With regular sampling, we can track how a reef’s microbial community changes over time. That opens the door to larger-scale monitoring efforts. 



Eventually, scientists hope to build open databases of microbial data from reefs around the world. These databases could be used with machine learning tools to predict reef health and create a kind of microbial health index for coral ecosystems.



“As coral reef scientists, we are very good at monitoring change and sometimes determining the root causes of the changes we are seeing on the reef,” Salerno said. 



“We aren't as well versed in mitigation and coordinated responses to emerging threats, but I would say as a community, we are improving." 



"If we can become better at predicting emerging threats through the use of diagnostic tools, perhaps we can also become better at preventing them from impacting reefs in the first place."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-coral-reef-bleaching-crisis">The coral reef bleaching crisis</h2>



Recent years have brought some of the worst <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-coral-bleaching-event-prompts-emergency-un-session/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral bleaching events</a> on record. This happens when corals lose their symbiotic algae due to heat stress or pollution. 



As oceans keep warming due to climate change, these events are becoming more frequent and severe. The researchers emphasize that we need every tool we can get to help coral reefs survive.



“We need to provide as much practical and accessible information as we can to the people making decisions,” Apprill said. “I think these microbes can enhance our knowledge of the ecosystem and elevate our framework for decision making." 



"I want people to get excited about this idea, and for current coral reef monitoring programs and management agencies to understand how this can make a difference to their programs.”



By listening to the tiniest voices in reef waters, we may be able to protect some of the ocean’s most vital ecosystems before it’s too late.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2949790625000990" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports Sustainability</a>.



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Microbes offer new ways to monitor coral reef health

Coral reefs are some of the most colorful and diverse...

In social animal groups, decisions often emerge without a leader. A tiny minority can influence a much larger group. Fire ants do this too. They show how a small subset of workers can reshape an entire colony’s structure.



Haolin Zeng, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Georgia (<a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UGA</a>), decided to study this power of the few. His findings appear in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 



Zeng and his team uncovered how a minority of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> carrying a genetic variant can flip a colony’s structure from single-queen to multiple-queen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-driven-by-genetics">Power driven by genetics</h2>



Fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> colonies come in two flavors: single-queen and multiple-queen. The difference is genetic. 



Single-queen colonies reject any other queen. They protect their reigning monarch with fierce loyalty. New queens are unwelcome. The workers will kill them.



Multiple-queen colonies? Different story. They carry a genetic variant that makes them open to sharing power. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> nurture additional queens, allowing multiple monarchs to coexist. This social setup stems from a specific gene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-order-of-the-ant-colony">Social order of the ant colony</h2>



Zeng wanted to know if a small group of multiple-queen workers could sway a single-queen colony. The answer? Yes.



"When a certain portion of the workers carry this gene, somehow the colony switches to behave as a multiple-queen colony. The workers will happily accept any additional queen, but only ones that carry this genetic element," Zeng said.



Surprisingly, only 10% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> needs to carry this gene for the shift to occur. That’s a tiny fraction of the population. Yet, it’s enough to nudge the entire colony toward a new social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ant-introduction-process">The ant introduction process</h2>



You can’t just throw these two groups of ants together. Chaos would erupt. Zeng’s team had to be careful.



First, they introduced 300 single-queen ants and 100 multiple-queen ants through a fine mesh barrier. The mesh allowed them to sense each other’s presence without direct contact. This acclimation period lasted a full day.



Why the mesh? Without it, the ants would have fought immediately. The gradual introduction prevented lethal combat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-change-in-ant-colonies">Social change in ant colonies</h2>



For over 100 hours, researchers watched the ants interact. Would the genetic minority assert its influence? Yes. Slowly, the multiple-queen workers began altering the behavior of their single-queen counterparts.



Workers that once rejected additional queens started accepting them. But not just any queen. They only embraced queens carrying the genetic element. The minority had spoken, and the majority listened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pheromones-as-invisible-messengers">Pheromones as invisible messengers</h2>



Could the ants be using chemical signals to send messages? Zeng wanted to find out.



The researchers introduced dead multiple-queen ants to the single-queen colony. Some corpses were washed clean of pheromones. Others remained unwashed.



The reaction? The ants responded to the unwashed corpses, suggesting that chemical signals were at play. 



To confirm this, the team coated glass beads in pheromones and placed them in the colony. The ants reacted just as they did to the live workers, proving the power of these invisible messages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-pheromones-and-social-order">Genes, pheromones, and social order</h2>



Zeng’s findings highlight a fascinating dynamic: genetic traits can ripple through a group without direct contact. Pheromones bridge the gap.



"The idea that behavior is impacted not only by your own genes, but by the genes of nestmates or the folks you interact with is important," Zeng said.



This kind of indirect genetic effect isn’t unique to ants. Social mammals, birds, and even fish display similar dynamics. One individual’s genetic makeup can subtly alter the behavior of others around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-crops-to-ants">From crops to ants</h2>



Zeng didn’t start with ants. He began his academic journey studying crop sciences at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Then, in 2016, he switched gears and joined the entomology department at the University of Georgia.



"When I started to study insects, I asked, what are the most interesting system insects to study, ecologically and evolutionarily? That's got to be social insects. They are everywhere and super successful. There are so many questions to ask and behaviors yet to understand," he said.



Now, as a postdoc at UGA’s Odum School of Ecology, Zeng continues his fire ant research, digging deeper into how small groups can change entire colonies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-influence-beyond-ant-colonies">Social influence beyond ant colonies</h2>



Zeng’s study carries implications beyond ants. It suggests that even in seemingly rigid social structures, a small minority can exert a profound influence. Understanding this dynamic could reshape how we view social power, not just in ants but in all animal societies.



The study’s co-authors include Kenneth G. Ross of the UGA CAES Department of Entomology and Takao Sasaki from the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a>.



The paper, titled "Conversion of social organization in fire ants induced by few colony members: unmasking indirect genetic effects," serves as a reminder that sometimes, the few can change the many.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501740122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Just a few ants can change an entire colony's social structure

In social animal groups, decisions often emerge without a leader....

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a stir among paleontologists worldwide. These tracks suggest reptiles roamed Earth far earlier than anyone suspected. 



Researchers uncovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a>-like footprints in northern Victoria, Australia, and matched them to the era that started around 359 million years ago.



According to Professor John Long from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, these imprints challenge the traditional view of reptile evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



According to the experts, the tracks suggest that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> may have appeared roughly 350 million years ago. That date pushes them back to 40 million years earlier than what was previously recorded.



One set of partial prints had distinct claw marks, hinting that these creatures were true reptiles rather than amphibians. Another set showed a smaller front foot and a larger hind foot, which is typical of land-walking vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-origins-in-gondwana">Reptile origins in Gondwana</h2>



Scientists have long studied the southern supercontinent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/41714/chapter-abstract/353976691?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, where many early tetrapods left behind their skeletons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracks</a>. This find in Victoria adds weight to the idea that pivotal evolutionary steps began in these territories.



At the time, Australia formed a central piece of this landmass. Warmer climates may have played a role in encouraging new adaptations among reptile forerunners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-timeline-of-reptile-evolution">New timeline of reptile evolution</h2>



Paleontologists analyze footprints to piece together how ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> moved. A set of clawed toes can reveal whether a creature was an amphibian or a reptile.



“This pushes back the likely origin of crown-group amniotes by at least 35-40 million years,” said Professor John Long. The research highlights how vital footprints can be for revealing new timelines.



Reptiles are part of the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amniota.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amniote</a> group, which includes birds and mammals. The discovery of claw marks in these fossil tracks implies full independence from watery environments, which is a characteristic of reptiles.



Many scientists once assumed that amniotes emerged in the Northern Hemisphere. These footprints raise questions about when and where some of the earliest reptiles spread across ancient landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-landscapes-and-animal-diversity">Shifting landscapes and animal diversity</h2>



Researchers plan to explore other parts of Victoria for more trace fossils that could fill gaps in the record. They hope future finds will clarify how these animals became adapted for dry land.



Unearthing additional trackways may add to our understanding of how reptiles branched off from amphibians. Each new print can reveal details about posture, movement, and survival tactics.



The Carboniferous Period stretched from about 359 million to 299 million years ago. It featured vast swampy forests, giant insects, and a rise in atmospheric oxygen levels.



Land masses were arranged differently than they are today. Some scientists believe shifting coastlines created niches that spurred new adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats-of-reptile-ancestors">Habitats of reptile ancestors</h2>



Some reptile ancestors likely ventured onto stable ground while others stayed near water. Traces of this transition remain scarce, so every fossil footprint matters.



Even a single impression can show scientists how early amniotes balanced their weight or held their tails. The shape, depth, and spacing can reveal clues about speed or range of motion.



A single fossil slab from Victoria has opened up this debate about reptile origins. Researchers suggest it is significant to re-check older formations in case more reptile evidence has been overlooked.



Professor Long and his team emphasize the need for more fieldwork to confirm whether reptiles appeared across multiple regions at around the same time. They believe this discovery highlights how a single trackway can reshape our ideas about early amniotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-more-reptile-footprints">Seeking more reptile footprints</h2>



Future excavations may uncover more footprints from the early stages of reptile evolution. That could bring clarity to how quickly these animals adapted to life away from water.



Technological advancements like high-resolution scans can make it easier to analyze the details of each print. Insights like these help paleontologists reconstruct entire ecosystems from a few traces left in stone.



Footprint analysis often involves laser scanning to capture 3D shapes. These scans can highlight fine ridges that point to muscle strength or toe flexibility.



Traces of skin patterns, though rare, can also indicate the texture of scales. Each layer of mud or sand holds hints about local conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-land-adaptation-of-reptiles">Early land adaptation of reptiles </h2>



Before amniotes, vertebrates such as fish and amphibians still needed water for reproduction. Over time, eggs with protective membranes evolved and these allowed animals such as reptiles to venture inland.



That transition set the stage for reptiles, birds, and mammals to diversify into countless forms. These footprints mark a link in that long chain.



Researchers compare new prints to known trackways from synapsids and early amphibians. Key distinctions include toe curvature and the presence of claws.



Synapsids, which later led to mammals, often left broader footprints with different digit spacing. Reptile-like tracks, on the other hand, typically show sharper claw impressions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Ancient footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



These ancient footprints connect modern wildlife to ancestors that once explored muddy banks. Each imprint brings a sense of wonder about how life took shape on land.



Understanding those steps may also shed light on broader evolutionary processes. After all, reptile success paved the way for the future rise of dinosaurs and beyond.



Scientists emphasize that no single discovery stands alone. Footprints, bones, and environmental data must all be pieced together to form a coherent story.



Though incomplete, this record keeps expanding thanks to fresh finds in unexpected places. Each new track offers a glimpse into a time of rapid evolutionary change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Reptile ancestors appeared 40 million years earlier than we thought

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a...

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western Amazon. This small creature, which belongs to the poison dart frog family, stands out with unusual copper accents on its limbs and an overall eye-catching look.



Dr. Evan D. Koch, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nm.cz/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of the Czech Republic</a>, helped document the new species in an underexplored region near the Juruá River.



The team first encountered the frog in March 2023, although its official recognition as a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-tree-frog-origins-back-55-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> was only documented on May 14, 2025.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-blue-poison-dart-frog">Striking blue poison dart frog</h2>



The new species of frog bears light blue stripes set against a darker upper body. Its metallic-hued legs are patterned with irregular brown spots, making the species a definite standout. 



Experts have formally named it <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ranitomeya aetherea</a>, referencing its sky-like tones that bring to mind something almost beyond this world.



Early observations suggest it inhabits lowland Amazonian forests, roughly 443 ft (135 meters) above sea level. Individuals often perch on broad-leafed plants within these humid, palm-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-colors-and-potential-toxicity">Unusual colors and potential toxicity</h2>



Members of the broader family, Dendrobatidae, are well known for their potent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a>, though each species has its own chemical profile.



Many rely on <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2133521100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic coloration</a> to warn potential predators that making a meal of it would be a bad idea. Even though researchers have only examined a handful of R. aetherea specimens, they suspect that the frog’s bright patches hint at toxic defenses, much like in its colorful cousins.



For locals, the presence of vibrant frogs is nothing new, but the copper and pale stripes on this one are not something they typically see. Field teams were quick to note that the frog’s underside shares this light-blue tone, and is spotted with dark blotches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-of-the-blue-frog">Characteristics of the blue frog</h2>



Study participants noted that these frogs stay near water-filled compartments in certain broad-leaf flora. The watery pockets, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytotelmata" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytotelmata</a>, cradle single R. aetherea tadpoles at various stages of development.



Each juvenile has a tinted tail and a small oval mouth. Once they reach more advanced stages, faint stripes start to appear on the tiny bodies.



According to field notes, adults seem most active in the early morning or late afternoon. Males will climb small plants, typically a few feet off the ground, to call out in a series of fast, chirping notes. 



Observers say that solitary males can gather within the same area without obvious conflict, though they appear to react strongly to call playbacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-vocal-patterns">Unique vocal patterns </h2>



Calling sessions last under a second and carry a quick flurry of distinct, tonal notes. That pattern sets it apart from a few other relatives whose calls have fewer notes or run at a different pitch. 



In one instance, a male produced a longer series when a female approached, suggesting there may be a special “courtship call.”



That same male was spotted leading the curious female toward a hidden leaf base with water trapped inside. This behavior offers a peek into how they might bond or share parental tasks. 



Previous <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/650727" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on other species in this group have documented complex childrearing steps, and the research team suspects that R. aetherea may have similar habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strict-habitat-requirements">Strict habitat requirements </h2>



Across South America, frogs of the genus Ranitomeya often occupy extremely specific habitats. It has been over ten years since a new species in this genus was named, which makes this a significant find for biologists who are keen on amphibian diversity.



Some of its relatives, like Ranitomeya imitator, feature more greens and spots, while others go for bolder oranges or reds. R. aetherea’s softly tinted copper legs represent a separate thread in the group’s evolutionary tree.



Further genetic work suggests it clusters close to other species from the southwestern Amazon, yet it holds its own distinct lineage.



Investigators suspect that these frogs may have strict habitat requirements and boundaries around their living space, which means they may potentially have very limited range sizes.



Such a focus on exact territory often makes each species vulnerable to land-use changes or deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-blue-frog-discovery">Significance of the blue frog discovery</h2>



Local communities were aware of various frogs in their forest, but the scientific world had no formal record of frogs with this patterning until now.



Its presence highlights that the southwestern Amazon, with patches that are still difficult to reach, can house animal groups that slip under the radar. Additional exploration may uncover other new amphibians, especially within pockets that share similar vegetation or water sources.



Researchers plan to keep monitoring these populations over the coming years. This effort is essential for tracking any environmental threats that could place these frogs at risk. 



Given the increasing human activities in this region, timely observation may help shape protective measures in the near future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



Image Credit: Koch et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0



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Blue frog with copper legs discovered in the Amazon rainforest

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western...

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey flee. Herds eat and sleep together. It all feels spontaneous -each creature responding to its needs in the moment.



But new research suggests there may be a hidden order to all this movement. And it’s not just found in one place or species. It appears across continents, in animals living very different lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-movement-across-the-globe">Animal movement across the globe</h2>



The study involved animals from three dramatically different environments. In the dry heat of the Kalahari Desert, meerkats dig through the sand. In Panama’s rainforests, coatis nap high in the trees. On the Kenyan savannah, spotted hyenas roam the grasslands. 



These species differ in body size, diet, and behavior. But researchers found something they all had in common - how they moved from one activity to the next.



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior tracked these wild animals using accelerometers, the same sensors found in smartphones and fitness watches. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-pattern-in-animal-behavior">Unexpected pattern in animal behavior </h2>



The devices recorded tiny shifts in body movement, many times per second, and for days at a time.



“This approach allowed us to capture detailed behavioral sequences over days and even weeks from multiple individuals across three distinct species,” said Ariana Strandburg-Peshkin, group leader at the institute and senior author on the study.



Using machine learning, the data were sorted into different behavioral categories: lying, walking, foraging, and more. 



A meerkat might lie still for a while, scan the area, then dig for food. A coati might spend time climbing, resting, or eating. These changing states, tracked over time, revealed an unexpected pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-behavior-that-sticks">Animal behavior that sticks</h2>



Across all three species, one rule seemed to apply: the longer an animal stays in one behavior, the less likely it is to change. 



“We assumed there would be differences,” said Pranav Minasandra, a postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study. “But we found common patterns in how animals switch between behaviors, regardless of what species and which individual. It's as if their behavior was built on the same hidden algorithm.”



The finding goes against what many might expect. Imagine a hyena that’s been walking for 10 minutes. Most people would assume it’s more likely to stop soon. The researchers thought so too. 



“We originally thought the probability of switching behaviors would increase over time, as we assumed it would not be optimal to lock-in to any behavior,” explained Minasandra.



Instead, the opposite was true. Animals became more committed to the behavior the longer they stayed in it. This effect - known as a “decreasing hazard function” - appeared across all three species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-what-comes-next">Predicting what comes next</h2>



The researchers also examined a concept they call “predictivity decay.” This refers to how well current behavior can predict future behavior. 



As time goes on, it gets harder to make accurate predictions because of random shifts and outside influences.



Still, even this unpredictability showed a consistent pattern. “We found that the pattern of predictivity decay was remarkably consistent across all animals studied, implying a shared architecture beneath the surface,” the researchers said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-these-patterns-exist">Why do these patterns exist?</h2>



The study points to two possible explanations. One is simple: positive feedback. The longer an animal stays in a behavior - like lying down - the more reasons there are to continue. 



Maybe it’s comfortable, feels safe, or is simply copying what its group is doing. In any case, staying becomes easier than switching.



The second theory involves decision-making over multiple timescales. Animals are constantly processing cues from different sources: hunger, danger, weather, and social cues. 



Each signal operates on its own rhythm. The way these rhythms overlap might explain why behavior unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-ahead">More questions ahead</h2>



There’s still a lot to explore. Do these patterns apply to animals that live alone? What about animals at different stages of life, or under stress? Could these long-behavior states help save energy, improve attention, or coordinate group movement?



“What this study suggests is that real animals, be they hunting, hiding, or resting, are guided by hidden structures that seem to echo across life’s branches,” noted Meg Crofoot, Director of the Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies.



Animal behavior may seem unpredictable. But this research suggests that, deep down, many species are following a similar rhythm. One that links creatures as different as hyenas, coatis, and meerkats in a quiet, shared structure of movement.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503962122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Animals share hidden behavior patterns across continents

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey...

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long timeline. Every chip of flint or shard of bone builds a narrative of how early humans used tools to feed themselves, cooperated, and thought about the places they called home. 



Fresh finds from two sites just northeast of today’s Tel Aviv - Jaljulia and Qesem Cave - add an eye-opening chapter to that story. 



They point to a moment, roughly 400,000 years ago, when hunters in the Levant not only pivoted to new prey but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tools-in-south-africa-reveal-early-human-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redesigned their tools</a> and, perhaps, their beliefs.



The discoveries revolve around a specialized flint implement known as a Quina scraper. 



At first glance the artifact looks modest - smaller than a modern smartphone. Its scalloped edge, though, is razor-sharp, built for slicing through muscle and hide with an efficiency that would have impressed any butcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flint-tools-and-shifting-appetites">Flint tools and shifting appetites</h2>



For nearly a million years, large game dominated dinner menus here - especially elephants that roamed plains stretching from Africa into Eurasia. 



When those giants dwindled, hunting parties had to recalibrate. 



The speedier, leaner fallow deer offered far less meat per kill, so hunters needed to process many more carcasses to match the calories once supplied by a single elephant. That change forced a rethink of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategy and gear</a>.



Fallow deer thrived in mixed woodlands along what are now the Samarian highlands. Their bones fill layers in Jaljulia and Qesem Cave, signaling a dietary shift that mirrors broader environmental turnover during the late Lower Paleolithic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-carved-with-flint-for-venison">Tools carved with flint for venison</h2>



Enter the Quina scraper. Unlike earlier, more rudimentary scrapers, this one features a stepped, scale-like working edge that holds a keen bevel. 



Microscopic wear marks reveal repeated motions suited to neatly removing skin and sinew. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool design</a> likely spared hunters valuable time at the kill site, reducing exposure to scavengers and rival predators that could steal a hard-won carcass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2s.webp" alt="A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020)" class="wp-image-1970089"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Modern experiments with replicas confirm that the tool excels at producing long, clean strips of hide - ideal for lashing shelters, wrapping meat, or even tailoring early garments. 



A single scraper could be resharpened several times, making it a portable workhorse on multi-day forays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-from-sacred-hills">Stone from sacred hills</h2>



The most unexpected twist lies not in the tool’s shape but in its raw material. Quina scrapers at both sites were made of flint hauled roughly 12.4 miles from the western slopes of the Samarian mountains, bypassing closer outcrops. 



That same upland served as a calving ground for fallow deer. Hunters, then, were linking an essential resource - flint - to the very landscape that provided their new staple food.



The study’s lead authors - Vlad Litov and Prof. Ran Barkai of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> - spell out what that pairing means. 



"In this study we tried to understand why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools changed</a> during prehistoric times, with a focus on a technological change in scrapers in the Lower Paleolithic, about 400,000 years ago," Litov explained. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forced-to-hunt-smaller-animals">Forced to hunt smaller animals</h2>



We found a dramatic change in the human diet during this period, probably resulting from a change in the available fauna: the large game, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particularly elephants</a>, had disappeared, and humans were forced to hunt smaller animals, especially fallow deer.



Clearly, butchering a large elephant is one thing, and processing a much smaller and more delicate fallow deer is quite a different challenge. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e)" class="wp-image-1970087"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Systematic processing of numerous fallow deer to compensate for a single elephant was a complex and demanding task that required the development of new implements. 



"Consequently, we see the emergence of the new Quina scrapers, with a better-shaped, sharper, more uniform working edge compared to the simple scrapers used previously," Litov added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-advancement-shown-in-flint-tools">Tech advancement shown in flint tools</h2>



Prof. Barkai explains that the study reveals “links between technological developments and changes in the fauna hunted and consumed by early humans.” 



While previous theories credited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advancements in stone tools</a> to biological evolution, he and his team suggest a “double connection, both practical and perceptual.”



Practically, tool sophistication evolved to meet the demands of hunting smaller, faster prey. Perceptually, Barkai points to a symbolic association between specific locations and resources. 



“We found a connection between the plentiful source of fallow deer and the source of flint used to butcher them,” he notes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prehistoric hunters</a> seemed to favor flint from the same region where the deer roamed - Mounts Ebal and Gerizim - suggesting a deep-rooted awareness of the landscape and its significance.



“This behavior,” he adds, “is familiar from many other places worldwide and is still widely practiced by native hunter-gatherer communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



According to Litov, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mountains of Samaria</a> held deep significance for prehistoric people living at Qesem Cave and Jaljulia. 



“We believe that the Mountains of Samaria were sacred to the prehistoric people… because that’s where the fallow deer came from,” he says.



As elephant populations declined, early humans in the region shifted their focus to fallow deer. Tools made from a variety of local stones have been found at Jaljulia, but something unique occurred when they began sourcing both their prey and tool-making materials from the Samarian highlands.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3s.webp" alt="A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1970091"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



“Identifying the deer's plentiful source, they began to develop the unique scrapers in the same place,” Litov explains. 



These specialized tools - first appearing in Jaljulia around 500,000 years ago - later spread more broadly, showing up at Qesem Cave between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago.



Archaeological evidence, including fallow deer bones from Mount Gerizim and other sites, suggests that the area supported deer populations well into the Holocene. 



“Apparently, the Mountains of Samaria gained a prominent or even sacred status as early as the Paleolithic period,” Litov concludes, “and retained their unique cultural position for hundreds of thousands of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-man-was-smarter-than-we-thought">Prehistoric man was smarter than we thought</h2>



Pairing a resource with a place crops up again and again in human history, from obsidian quarries in the American Southwest to jade rivers in ancient China. 



The Jaljulia and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qesem_cave" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qesem Cave</a> findings push that behavior deep into the past, showing that meaning and material were already intertwined long before written lore. Technology did not change in a vacuum; it mirrored environmental stress and social imagination.



Understanding how early communities adapted to shrinking megafauna offers a cautionary parallel for modern ecosystems losing key species. Innovation can soften the blow, but it also reshapes culture in ways that echo far beyond survival. 



A humble flint scraper, carried miles across rugged ground, reminds us that tools are never just tools. They are signatures of what people value, where they find sustenance, and how they make sense of their world.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11759-024-09493-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeologies</a>.



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Stone tools created 400,000 years show technological advancement of early humans

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long...

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost the invisible shield that keeps its surface hospitable. Earth's magnetic field, generated by whirling molten iron deep below our feet, faded until it was so weak it was barely detectable.



At the same moment, oxygen flooded the oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, and curious soft-bodied creatures began sliding across the seafloor. The coincidence has fascinated geologists and biologists for decades.



Fresh measurements from ancient crystals now reveal just how close Earth came to a magnetic stall. They also strengthen the suspicion that a waning field set the stage for the rise of complex life. 



The new data trace a dramatic drop in magnetic intensity and help explain why the field later rebounded, saving Earth from becoming a dry, radiation-blasted rock like Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-ancient-magnetic-field">Earth's ancient magnetic field</h2>



To read the planet’s magnetic diary, researchers collected grains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroxenite and gabbro</a> from South Africa, Brazil, and Canada.



Each mineral contains microscopic iron needles that froze in alignment with the ambient field when the rocks cooled. 



By reheating single crystals in a carefully shielded furnace, the team coaxed out tiny magnetic signals that record field strength at the time of eruption.



After analyzing hundreds of crystals, <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> geophysicist John Tarduno and colleagues saw a clear pattern. 



“In general, the field is protective. If we had not had a field early in Earth history, water would have been stripped from the planet by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> (a stream of energized particles flowing from the Sun toward Earth),” Tarduno explained.



“But in the Ediacaran, we had a fascinating period in the development of the deep Earth when processes creating the magnetic field … had become so inefficient after billions of years that the field almost completely collapsed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-very-weak-magnetic-field">Very weak magnetic field</h2>



Crystals dated to 591 million years ago indicate a magnetic field about 30 times weaker than today - the most feeble long-term value ever measured. 



Follow-up samples show the enfeebled state persisted for at least 26 million years.



Before and after that window, rocks more than 2 billion years old and younger than 565 million years record a field as sturdy as the modern one, revealing just how exceptional the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran lull</a> was.



During the low-field stretch, solar wind could punch far deeper into the atmosphere. Charged particles stripped away lightweight hydrogen, a process that left relatively heavy oxygen behind. 



The timing lines up with multiple geochemical markers that show a sharp increase in oxygen levels, supporting the idea that the weakened shield helped push Earth past a threshold needed for the development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large, mobile animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinner-armor-richer-air">Thinner armor, richer air</h2>



The atmospheric link also finds support from geobiologist Shuhai Xiao of <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere shields the Earth</a> from solar wind, thus holding the atmosphere to the Earth. Thus, a weaker magnetosphere means that lighter gases such as hydrogen would be lost from the Earth’s atmosphere,” Xiao explained to CNN.



As hydrogen escaped, oxygen concentrations rose, allowing metabolism-hungry organisms to branch out.



Tarduno agrees that other processes - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-no-photosynthesis-baffles-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic microbes</a> - were certainly at work.



“We do not challenge that one or more of these processes were happening concurrently. But the weak field may have allowed oxygenation to cross a threshold, aiding animal radiation (evolution),” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-and-earth-s-core">Magnetic field and Earth's core</h2>



Rock records also solve a puzzle about when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s inner core</a> began to form. Once field strength hit its nadir, it bounced back quickly.



“The observations appear to support the claim that the inner core first nucleated soon after this time, pushing the geodynamo (the mechanism that creates the magnetic field) from a weak, unstable state into a strong, stable dipolar field,” noted Peter Driscoll of the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>. 



A solid seed at the center released extra heat, turbocharging convection in the outer core and restoring the magnetic screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-seafloor-pioneers">Strange seafloor pioneers</h2>



While the field flickered, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran seas</a> hosted life forms unlike anything alive today.



Disk-shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dickinsonia</a> spread as wide as 4.6 feet (1.4 meters) across the mud; quilted fronds waved gently in the currents; and slug-like Kimberella scraped microbial mats for food.



These pioneers vanished before the Cambrian period began, around 539 million years ago, but their brief reign proved that multicellular bodies could flourish once oxygen climbed to breathable levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-if-it-happens-again">What if it happens again?</h2>



Not every expert is convinced the magnetic dip directly influenced the course of evolution.



“It is hard for me to evaluate the veracity of this claim because the influence that planetary magnetic fields might have on climate is not very well understood,” Driscoll cautioned. 



Untangling all the variables - solar activity, mantle chemistry, biological innovation - will take years of careful detective work.



For now, the crystal record points to a simple narrative: Earth’s shield weakened, gases escaped, oxygen levels increased, and life took a bold new turn.



By tracing that chain of events, scientists gain insight into how planets and biospheres interact, a lesson that will guide the search for living worlds far beyond our own.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications, Earth and Environment</a>.



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Complex life emerged on Earth 591 million years ago, scientists think they finally know how and why

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost...

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures about four feet was recently spotted at a mining facility on a small island off Papua New Guinea’s southeastern coast. Its sleek color and large black eyes stopped researchers in their tracks, and inspired a closer.



This newly identified reptile, named Dendrelaphis atra, belongs to a group of tree-dwelling snakes with a history of murky classification. 



It was described by Fred Kraus from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan Ann Arbor</a> after he spent time surveying the local serpent population for a broader research project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unusual-snake-discovery">An unusual snake discovery</h2>



One specimen slithered along old building structures and well-trodden terrain, making the moment feel like a real needle in a haystack. Its strong yet subtle features hinted at a species that is different from the rest of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-coral-snakes-caught-in-rare-food-fight-over-caecilian/">relatives</a>.



These snakes appear quite dark when older, a trait linked to ontogenetic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/melanization" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanization</a>, where color deepens over time.



A smaller, younger version displayed muted shades, revealing the striking contrast between juveniles and adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-setting-and-snake-biodiversity">The setting and snake biodiversity</h2>



<a href="https://www.undp.org/papua-new-guinea/environment-and-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papua New Guinea</a> sits in the heart of a region that supports a vast range of unique endemic plants and animals. 



The land and offshore islands host incredible numbers of reptiles, as well as other species that have yet to be fully cataloged. The presence of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259869057_A_Guide_to_the_Snakes_of_Papua_New_Guinea_The_first_comprehensive_guide_to_the_snake_fauna_of_Papua_New_Guinea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 80 known snake species</a> in this country speaks to its natural abundance.



“Herein I examine the taxonomic status of Dendrelaphis specimens from outlying large islands in Milne Bay Province,” said Kraus, who authored the study. 



The Milne Bay province, located in the southeastern tip of the country, consists of many scattered islands. Each major island has unique ecosystems that shelter creatures found nowhere else on Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-snake-stands-out">Why this snake stands out</h2>



Many members of this genus show lighter tones or distinct patterns. This one shows an almost uniform midnight color, especially as it matures. That difference sets it apart from its close relatives in the D. punctulatus group.



Scientists often rely on scale arrangement, body shape, and even snake genitalia to establish taxonomic differences. 



This approach helped confirm that D. atra is a separate entity. The species takes its name from the Latin word for black, which reflects its appearance in adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-hidden-snake-treasures">Other hidden snake treasures</h2>



This black tree snake was not alone in being an unexpected find. Researchers who surveyed nearby islands in the Milne Bay province realized that each large island in the region seems to have its own native Dendrelaphis species. That pattern shows how island isolation can give rise to new and distinct lifeforms.



Kraus also turned up three other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-coffee-snake-discovered-in-the-cloud-forests-of-ecuador/">serpents</a> - each inhabiting a different island. Experts say it is a reminder that scattered landmasses create pockets of biodiversity that evolve in relative seclusion.



Much about these newly documented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-brains-have-evolved-to-rapidly-detect-snakes/">reptiles</a> remains unknown, leaving room for fresh insights in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-shaped-habitat">Human-shaped habitat</h2>



It is intriguing that the black tree snake first appeared in a degraded setting on a mining island. The site’s developed landscape had buildings, pathways, and other signs of heavy human activity. 



Snakes often prefer wilder spots, yet this species was found thriving in altered environments as well.



Papua New Guinea’s island topography makes it tricky for outsiders to conduct wildlife surveys. Rugged terrain, dense vegetation, and unpredictable weather can limit reliable fieldwork. 



These factors emphasize the importance of any documented sighting, especially when it leads to the classification of an entirely new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



“The Milne Bay province has the richest habitat for endemic reptiles and amphibians on the planet,” Kraus said. 



Multiple researchers have suggested that this corner of the Pacific holds many more undiscovered reptiles and amphibians. 



That richness shows up in the form of unusual snakes, frogs, and lizards that can surprise even seasoned experts.



Biodiversity in this area supports local communities, influences the ecology, and expands our overall scientific understanding. 



Each new species provides a clue about the evolutionary paths and environmental conditions that shape life in remote locales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-things-go-next">Where things go next</h2>



The specifics of D. atra’s diet, reproduction, and daily habits still remain to be established. Scientists usually piece together such details by observing the animals across seasons, and collecting data that confirm patterns in the wild. 



For now, the presence of multiple, island-exclusive <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/26637-Dendrelaphis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendrelaphis snakes</a> highlights the hidden variety waiting to be described.



Ongoing studies may reveal how these reptiles adapt to changes in their environment. Further findings might guide conservation strategies to ensure that future generations can appreciate the region’s diverse wildlife. 



Fresh research could also spark collaboration with local groups that have long been aware of the extraordinary creatures in their midst.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5618.4.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New species of tree snakes with completely black eyes is discovered

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures...

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face precarious conditions. They live in a narrow sliver of high-elevation rainforest, and experts fear even one large disturbance may push them toward extinction.



Professor Michael Mahony from the <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Newcastle</a> has studied these amphibians and their limited habitats. Each population ekes out a living in cool, moist spots that are shrinking because of shifting weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isolated-existence-in-upland-forest">Isolated existence in upland forest</h2>



The Eungella Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-eungellensis">Litoria eungellensis</a>) persists in fewer than eight square miles (21 square kilometers) of upland <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5584.3.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland forest</a>. It tolerates a cooler environment than most other tree frogs in the area, but shifting temperatures and rainfall patterns will present new challenges.



The Atherton Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-corbeni">Litoria corbeni</a>) occupies a separate section of the tropics, in northern Queensland, but also at higher elevations. Like its relative, it seems unable to adjust to warmer, drier conditions, which has conservationists concerned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sudden-threats-could-be-devastating">Sudden threats could be devastating</h2>



“One catastrophic event could wipe them out entirely,” said Luke Price, a researcher at the South Australian Museum. 



These amphibians remain vulnerable to quick and catastrophic events. With habitats so restricted, any disaster in these cool enclaves could have devastating results.



Researchers note that increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall might reduce the moist habitats on which these frogs depend. When water sources dwindle, the animals face an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">existential crisis</a> that they may not survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-traits-of-the-forest-frogs">Distinct traits of the forest frogs</h2>



Each species emits a distinct call that sets it apart from more common frogs in eastern Australia. Slight contrasts in vocalizations, combined with deeper genetic evidence, helped scientists recognize them as separate species.



Their coloring ranges from mustard-like hues to flashes of red on the hind legs. These markings help camouflage them among leaves and tree bark, but they offer no protection against heat waves or wildfires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-past-climates-matter">Why past climates matter</h2>



The discovery of these frogs also sheds light on Australia’s ancient climate history. 



According to Price, their presence in isolated highland pockets suggests they once occupied a much larger range of connected wet forests during cooler, wetter periods.



This wider historical distribution supports the idea that climate shifts tied to continental drift and global circulation changes - not just modern greenhouse gas emissions - have shaped where species live today. 



The frogs’ survival may depend on understanding both ancient trends and present-day pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-worries-for-small-forest-frogs">Big worries for small forest frogs</h2>



Low numbers and narrow territories qualify both frogs as highly threatened under the guidelines set by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN</a>). 



Not only do they have minimal resilience to sudden habitat changes, but they also have no opportunities to migrate.



“The mantra of ‘adapt or perish’ doesn’t equally apply across species,” said Mahony. He pointed out that these highland frogs cannot move to cooler terrains any farther upslope.



In remote regions of Queensland, regular surveys are tough to coordinate. Gathering more data on frog numbers and breeding success takes time and resources, yet experts say such efforts are necessary for any hope of long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-mother-nature-have-rights-a-tiny-frog-has-joined-the-fight/">preservation</a>.



Fire management is especially difficult in mountainous rainforest. A wildfire in a unique gully or hillside might eliminate water sources and destroy frog refuges in one sweep, leaving no survivors to repopulate those areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-these-forest-frogs-apart">What sets these forest frogs apart</h2>



Unlike many widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-mating-calls-teach-bats-which-prey-to-avoid/">amphibians</a>, these whirring frogs show no signs of behavioral or ecological flexibility. 



They are tightly tied to specific humidity levels, elevation zones, and vegetation types that can be lost quickly with even mild environmental shifts.



Researchers emphasize that while other species may bounce back or shift territory, these frogs lack both the numbers and the landscape corridors to do so. 



That makes them much more vulnerable than most frogs in Australia’s lower altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-take-time-to-adapt">Frogs take time to adapt</h2>



Some amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">populations</a> in other parts of the world have adapted to minor temperature shifts over thousands of years. However, rapid changes may prove too much for small groups that are isolated in tiny zones.



Scientists believe targeted protection of montane areas, along with active measures to maintain moisture levels, could buy these frogs more time. If reserves are created and carefully monitored, that might lessen the risk of sudden habitat loss.



Smaller species can vanish with little notice if they lack escape routes. Because these frogs can’t handle fluctuations in temperature or humidity, the strain of hotter days could tip the balance toward local extinctions.



Habitat restoration efforts and close watching by field biologists might help, but the situation remains tense. Their continued existence depends on coordinated steps that acknowledge the narrow margins in which they live.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zoobank.org/References/C07BE8E9-713C-42E5-9D3F-5F6166C44C5A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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'Whistling' forest frogs recently discovered may be wiped out before we learn about them

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face...

A newly identified dinosaur has stirred attention among paleontologists worldwide. It lived about 94 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous epoch and has been hailed as the earliest known member of its family.



The fresh discovery is named <a href="https://dinoanimals.com/dinosaurdatabase/cienciargentina-sanchezi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cienciargentina sanchezi</a>, and it breaks previous records for the oldest known specimen of the rebbachisaurid group of plant-eating dinosaurs. 



The announcement was described by <a href="https://unrn.academia.edu/leonardosalgado" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leonardo Salgado</a> from the Universidad Nacional de Río Negro-Conicet, in association with his colleague <a href="https://independent.academia.edu/Mar%C3%ADaEdithSim%C3%B3n" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">María Edith Simón</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-a-sauropod-surprise">Uncovering a sauropod surprise</h2>



The team uncovered fossilized bones in the <a href="https://www.argentina.travel/en/pr/neuquen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuquén province</a> in Argentina, at the base of the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340720799_New_vertebrate_remains_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Cenomanian-Turonian_Upper_Cretaceous_in_Rio_Negro_Argentina" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Huincul Formation</a>, which is an area famous for other dinosaur remains. 



The remains suggested a dinosaur with a distinctive shape and size, and hinted at a creature that likely stood out among its neighbors.



They recognized that diplodocoid traits set this animal apart. Sauropods in this branch often present specialized vertebrae and unique skeletal structures, which are well-preserved in the remains found at the site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-family-tree">Tracing the family tree</h2>



<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123475" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> see rebbachisaurids as a fascinating cluster of long-necked giants. They have turned up on multiple continents and show features not seen in other sauropods, especially in their teeth and vertebrae. In some species, those teeth formed tooth batteries, a trait more common in other dinosaur groups.



“This new species is added to the list of rebbachisaurid sauropods documented in the Huincul Formation,” said Salgado. He and Simón identified key skeletal features that confirm the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/research-ship-finds-palau-nautilus-sea-creature-untouched-since-dinosaur-times/">dinosaur’s</a> status as an early form of these long-necked herbivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-rebbachisaurid-traits">Early rebbachisaurid traits</h2>



Researchers say the neck vertebrae suggest a structure that could have supported a long, flexible neck. The hind legs likely bore a significant amount of weight, which is typical for giants in this lineage. 



Tiny details in the bones gave away this creature’s identity as a close relative of other known rebbachisaurids.



The sheer size probably helped in warding off predators. Plant-based diets would have been abundant near streams and floodplains, and the environment would have been favored by many sauropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-rebbachisaurid-find-matters">Why the rebbachisaurid find matters</h2>



Paleontologists are often eager to fill gaps in dinosaur family trees, and an early rebbachisaurid is especially important. Each discovery shines a light on how these creatures evolved their body structures and feeding habits.



The findings help paint a broader picture of sauropod evolution in South America. 



Researchers gain a clearer look at how different dinosaur groups adapted and survived in changing environments as the Cretaceous Period progressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-short-quote-from-the-past">One short quote from the past</h2>



“The first South American rebbachisaurid sauropods were recognized upon the basis of materials from the surroundings of Villa El Chocón, from the Candeleros and Huincul Formations,” said Salgado. Those early signs opened the door to later breakthroughs in identifying new species.



Cervical vertebrae in this new find lack the typical epipophyses seen in close relatives. 



The dorsal vertebrae show amphicoelous to slightly opisthocoelous centers, a configuration that indicates how older rebbachisaurids may have branched off from later ones.



Spinal shapes also reflect a sturdier frame compared to certain younger species. Collectively, these traits confirm a pivotal spot for this dinosaur in the broader diplodocoid lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-work-in-argentina">Ongoing work in Argentina</h2>



Argentina is no stranger to major fossil revelations. Researchers keep combing sites for the next big puzzle piece that can clarify how giant herbivores roamed. Methods continue to evolve, allowing more precise dating of fossils.



Better technology also helps with reconstructions. Digital modeling can reveal how muscles attached to skeletons and how these animals may have moved about their ancient habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-changing-worlds">Clues about changing worlds</h2>



Experts think the shift from earlier diplodocoid forms to other sauropod families signals environmental pressures that shaped survival strategies. Some lines thrived in broad, open areas, while others adapted to different landscapes. The presence of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/">dinosaur</a> suggests transitions may have been more varied than once assumed.



These transitions illuminate broader ecological processes. Changes in climate, vegetation, and terrain likely steered dinosaur evolution in complex ways that are only now being pieced together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-more-answers">Hope for more answers</h2>



Fossils like these keep researchers on their toes. They also draw everyday folks into the excitement of uncovering vanished worlds. 



Salgado and Simón see this as a cue for continued exploration, with the possibility that more early forms could still be out there.



Some experts think we’ve only seen the tip of the iceberg in areas like the Neuquén province. New technology, fresh expeditions, and collaborations all pave the way for further discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-links-no-more">Missing links no more</h2>



Cienciargentina sanchezi connects dots in rebbachisaurid history by sharing traits with both older and younger relatives. These insights will likely fuel future debates on how diplodocoids spread across ancient landmasses. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/">dinosaur’s</a> existence adds depth to our understanding of the Late Cretaceous. Each detail - whether from bones or footprints - challenges our assumptions about how these animals looked and behaved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-for-the-community">Significance for the community</h2>



Scientists collaborate across countries and institutions to analyze and verify these fossils. That teamwork helps ensure accurate identifications. It also makes it easier to compare new specimens with old finds from around the world.



These global partnerships are crucial in paleontology, where a single bone can trigger fresh perspectives on evolution. The story of cienciargentina sanchezi is yet another reminder that fresh insights come from all corners of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-final-note">The final note</h2>



The importance of this 94-million-year-old sauropod lies in its status as a missing piece that enriches our knowledge of an entire family of dinosaurs. It also points to the significance of exploring less examined layers of rock, where new wonders may lie.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667125000606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous Research</a>.



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The oldest known rebbachisaur has been found, dating back 94 million years

A newly identified dinosaur has stirred attention among paleontologists worldwide....

Language is often considered the hallmark of human intelligence, a complex system that enables us to share thoughts, express emotions, and convey intricate messages.



For years, scientists believed that recursion - the ability to nest phrases within phrases - was a defining characteristic of human language. However, new research challenges this view, suggesting that wild orangutans also use recursive communication.



This discovery offers a glimpse into the evolutionary origins of human language, potentially dating back millions of years. By studying Sumatran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutan-mothers-have-unique-parenting-styles-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, researchers have found evidence of structured vocal patterns previously thought to be exclusive to humans. 



This breakthrough not only reshapes our understanding of primate communication but also provides critical insights into how complex language structures may have developed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-roots-of-human-language">The roots of human language</h2>



Language thrives on repetition. Imagine a chain of events like this: “This is the house that Jack built, that sheltered the cat, that chased the mouse, that stole the cheese.”



Each segment builds on the one before, stacking phrases to form a layered, connected structure. This pattern is called recursion.



The pattern stacks phrases like Russian nesting dolls. Each layer connects to the next, creating a complex yet understandable message. Humans use it all the time, embedding clauses within sentences to convey rich and detailed thoughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-use-recursion-too">Orangutans use recursion too</h2>



For years, scientists believed that only humans could use such layered communication. But researchers from <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Warwick</a> have uncovered a startling discovery. Sumatran orangutans, it turns out, use the same pattern.



“When analyzing the vocal data of alarm calls from female Sumatran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, we found that the rhythmic structure of orangutans’ sounds made were self-embedded across three levels - an impressive third-order recursion,” noted Dr. Chiara De Gregorio, who led the study.



In other words, orangutans aren’t just making noise. They’re stacking vocal sounds, creating layers that echo the structure of human language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-patterns-in-orangutan-calls">Language patterns in orangutan calls</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-orangutan-treats-his-facial-wound-with-a-healing-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>’ calls didn’t follow a single, simple rhythm. Instead, they built three distinct layers. 



First, they strung together small sounds, forming short sequences. Next, they combined these sequences into longer, more complex bouts. Finally, they arranged those bouts into extended, rhythmic series.



Each level nested within the next, forming a layered structure. And it wasn’t random. The rhythm changed based on the type of threat the orangutans faced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-use-rhythm-as-a-tool">Orangutans use rhythm as a tool</h2>



Picture a tiger lurking nearby. The orangutan’s calls grow rapid, urgent, and insistent. Now, imagine a less direct threat - a piece of cloth with bright spots. The calls slow down, becoming irregular, almost hesitant.



This adaptability is no accident. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orangutans</a> use rhythm as a tool, adjusting their vocal patterns to fit the situation. 



Dr. De Gregorio and her team noticed these shifts, hinting that orangutans are communicating specific information about their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-the-past">A glimpse into the past</h2>



If recursion exists in orangutan calls, what does that mean for us? Dr. De Gregorio sees it as a glimpse into our evolutionary past.



“This discovery shows that the roots of one of the most distinctive features of human language - recursion - was already present in our evolutionary past,” she noted.



In other words, recursion might not be a human invention. It could be a skill we inherited from ancient ancestors - a skill that orangutans still use today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutan-connection-to-human-language">Orangutan connection to human language</h2>



Language didn’t appear overnight. It evolved, layer by layer, like the vocal sequences of the orangutans. The researchers believe that studying these calls could help us understand how human language began.



Orangutans, with their recursive vocal structures, may hold clues to how our ancestors communicated. Perhaps they, too, stacked sounds, building rhythms to convey complex ideas. 



Over time, these rhythms could have evolved into more structured language systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Why does any of this matter? Because if recursion isn’t uniquely human, then neither is the complexity of thought it enables. 



Orangutans are showing us that the seeds of language run deeper than we thought, stretching back millions of years.



By preserving these animals and their habitats, we’re not just protecting a species. We are safeguarding a link to our own evolutionary history - a history told through layers of sound, rhythm, and meaning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-research-in-primates">Language research in primates</h2>



Dr. De Gregorio and her team have opened a door to new questions. How widespread is recursion among non-human primates? Do other species use similar vocal structures?



For now, the calls of Sumatran orangutans echo through the forest, carrying a message that’s both ancient and new. And in those layered rhythms, we might just hear the distant roots of our own language, reverberating through time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/nyas.15373" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Orangutans use complex vocal patterns found in human language

Language is often considered the hallmark of human intelligence, a...

An octopus taking a piggyback ride on a shark might sound like a tall tale. Yet a surprising video from the waters near New Zealand has given ocean-watchers cause to scratch their heads.



Marine biology professor <a href="https://profiles.auckland.ac.nz/r-constantine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rochelle Constantine</a> from the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a> was on hand to document this unusual sight. 



She spotted a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-ringed-octopus-a-master-of-deception-inspires-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright octopus</a> clinging to a powerful <a href="https://oceana.org/marine-life/shortfin-mako-shark/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shortfin mako</a> shark, the fastest of its kind in open ocean waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-octopuses-aren-t-typically-friends">Sharks and octopuses aren't typically friends</h2>



This get-together was no mild meeting of acquaintances. The shark was swimming along without appearing bothered by its unusual passenger, while the octopus held on with all of its eight arms.



"The ocean is filled with unexpected things," stated Constantine, in a <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2025/03/11/sharks-.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> shared after the research trip. Reports suggest the creature stuck close to the shark’s dorsal area.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-helped-catch-the-octopus-ride">Technology helped catch the octopus ride</h2>



Without modern tools, this strange event would’ve gone unnoticed. The research team launched a drone and used a GoPro to get a clear view of what was really on the shark’s back.



Drones and waterproof cameras have become essential equipment for marine science. They let researchers monitor wildlife safely and document rare behaviors without disturbing the animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shortfin-mako-s-swift-reputation">Shortfin mako’s swift reputation</h2>



Many people find the shortfin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-global-photos-of-killer-whales-attacking-the-enigmatic-prickly-shark/">mako</a> shark intriguing. It holds the title for the highest speed among all sharks, clocking more than 40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour.



These sharks grow to impressive sizes, often stretching nearly 12 feet (3.7 meters). Their streamlined bodies and aerodynamic fins help them chase swift prey like tuna and even other sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-octopus-got-on-the-shark">How the octopus got on the shark</h2>



While sharks command plenty of attention, the octopus is no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turquets-octopus-dna-tells-scientists-that-west-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse-is-close/">minor figure</a>. Octopuses are known for their flexible bodies, color-changing abilities, and knack for staying out of harm’s way.



Scientists believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses sense vibrations</a> through the water, making them skilled at evading predators. 



Their soft tissues allow them to slip through narrow spaces, which raises questions about how one ended up on the back of a large shark.



Encounter stories like these usually come from hidden pockets of the ocean. This unexpected duo popped up near the northern coast of New Zealand’s North Island.



"Incredible moments like this remind us there is more we don’t know than we do," remarked Constantine. She and her team observed the hitchhiking octopus for a short while before it continued onward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-might-the-octopus-be-thinking">What might the octopus be thinking?</h2>



Octopuses have been seen using tools, escaping tight spots, and even unscrewing the lids of jars from the inside. 



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8499036/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> believe they have short-term memory and a basic sense of planning, which might suggest that this hitchhiking event wasn’t purely accidental.



Could the octopus have been hiding from a predator, or trying to explore a new environment? Researchers don’t yet know. 



But holding tight to a moving shark might have offered camouflage, faster travel, or just a brief break from danger in open waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Shortfin mako sharks face threats from commercial fishing and the global fin trade. They are listed as <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/39341/2903170" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.



Although efforts to regulate shark fishing exist, bycatch remains a major concern. Mako sharks reproduce slowly, so their numbers can’t easily recover after heavy fishing pressure.



Odd encounters can teach scientists new things about predator-prey behaviors. Sharks usually swim near the surface, while octopuses often stick to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/">seafloor</a>, which makes the partnership puzzling.



Data on these interspecies moments can hint at changes in ocean conditions, habitats, or species movements. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-seas-impair-octopus-vision-to-a-critical-extent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spotting an octopus</a> in open water might be a signal about local currents or unusual feeding patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-octopuses-grab-attention">Sharks and octopuses grab attention</h2>



When species behave in ways that don’t match typical patterns, it forces scientists to recheck assumptions. 



An octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-dropped-to-record-low-in-2024/">riding</a> a shark may seem like a one-off event, but it raises deeper questions about movement, interaction, and adaptability in marine life.



Unusual pairings like this one can highlight stressors in the ecosystem, such as food scarcity, habitat shifts, or climate-related disruption. 



Even a short encounter, captured by chance, might help piece together a larger puzzle about how animals are adjusting to human-altered oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



People sometimes label sharks as dangerous. Videos showing a calm mako might reshape how some view these agile hunters.



Similarly, an octopus is no simple <a href="https://videos.fisheries.noaa.gov/detail/videos/b-roll-packages---all/video/5231307735001/b-roll:-octopus-giant-pacific-research-in-alaska">creature</a>. Researchers have found them to be quite intelligent, capable of short-term problem-solving and playful exploration.



There is still much to learn about how often such hitchhikes happen or why they occur. Marine experts encourage curious minds to support healthy ecosystems by reducing pollution and changing harmful fishing methods.



"One of the best things about being a marine scientist is that you never know what you might see next in the sea," wrote Constantine. When wild animals surprise us, it can spark fresh interest in protecting them and their homes.



Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/3cYlBarkmDY?si=-NlGKY3j2HeJieCC" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch the video of an octopus riding a shark...</a>



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Octopus caught riding on the back of the world's fastest shark in the open ocean

An octopus taking a piggyback ride on a shark might...

Orange cats are everywhere, from the iconic character Garfield to the independent tabby lounging in the sun. But what gives orange cats their signature color? For decades, the answer remained a mystery to scientists.



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.med.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Medicine</a> and <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a> have cracked the code. The answer lies in a gene called Arhgap36. This gene behaves strangely in orange cats, turning their fur a vivid shade of orange.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-orange-cats-are-rare">Why orange cats are rare</h2>



Scientists have known for years that the orange trait in cats is linked to the X chromosome. Male cats, with their single X chromosome, only need one copy of the gene to flaunt their ginger fur. 



Females, however, require two copies to be completely orange. Otherwise, they become calicos or tortoiseshells, their fur a patchwork of orange, black, and white.



“In a number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bengal-cats-wild-appearance-is-surprisingly-tied-to-domestic-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that have yellow or orange pigment, those mutations almost exclusively occur in one of two genes, and neither of those genes are sex-linked,” explained Christopher Kaelin, a senior scientist in genetics and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-mystery-of-cat-colors">Genetic mystery of cat colors</h2>



Kaelin and his team had a hunch the answer was related to the X chromosome. But which gene? They collected DNA samples from spay and neuter clinics, comparing orange cats to non-orange cats. 



After analyzing the genomes, the researchers found 51 genetic variants that could explain the orange trait. They narrowed it down to three. 



One stood out: Arhgap36. A tiny deletion in this gene cranked up its activity in pigment cells. Normally, Arhgap36 keeps a low profile, mainly operating in nerve tissues and cancer cells. But in orange cats, it’s louder than a kitten demanding breakfast.



“Arhgap36 is not expressed in mouse pigment cells, in human pigment cells or in cat pigment cells from non-orange cats,” Kaelin said. 



“The mutation in orange cats seems to turn on Arhgap36 expression in a cell type, the pigment cell, where it’s not normally expressed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orange-cats-are-usually-male">Orange cats are usually male</h2>



Orange cats are predominantly male, and it all comes down to the X chromosome. Males have one X and one Y chromosome. If that X carries the orange gene, they’re entirely orange. 



Females, with two X chromosomes, need the orange <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> on both to sport a solid ginger coat. If a female inherits only one copy, she becomes a mosaic of orange and black.



This randomness creates the striking tortoiseshell and calico patterns. Some cells activate the orange gene, while others activate the black gene. The result? A coat that’s as unpredictable as a cat’s mood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-genetic-breakthrough">A shared genetic breakthrough</h2>



While Stanford scientists zeroed in on Arhgap36, researchers at Kyushu University pursued a parallel investigation. Professor Hiroyuki Sasaki and his team examined DNA from 18 cats including 10 that were orange. The findings matched those at Stanford.



“This was such strong evidence that even at this stage, we were confident that Arhgap36 was the orange gene,” said Sasaki.



The researchers expanded their study, analyzing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-dna-damage-requires-constant-repair-by-cells-to-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> from 49 more cats, and the same pattern emerged. The Arhgap36 deletion consistently appeared in orange cats but not in others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-orange-fur">Origins of orange fur</h2>



Where did this mutation come from? Kaelin believes it emerged early in domestication. Ancient paintings dating back to the 12th century depict calico cats, suggesting the mutation is centuries old.



“This is something that arose in the domestic cat, probably early on in the domestication process,” Kaelin said.



Sasaki wants to dig deeper. He plans to study ancient Egyptian cat mummies, searching for the orange gene. The goal? To pinpoint when and where the mutation first appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-gene-beyond-fur">Looking at the gene beyond fur</h2>



Arhgap36 isn’t just about orange fur. In other animals, it’s linked to cancer and nerve development. Could it affect more than just a cat’s coat? Sasaki thinks so.



“For example, many cat owners swear by the idea that different coat colors and patterns are linked with different personalities,” he said. “There’s no scientific evidence for this yet, but it’s an intriguing idea and one I’d love to explore further.”



The gene could also impact brain and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-holds-the-keys-to-both-your-heart-and-your-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hormone</a> function. Sasaki’s team found the gene active in several tissues, not just skin cells. Whether this activity alters behavior or health is still a mystery.



The discovery of Arhgap36 as the orange gene is just the beginning. Sasaki and Kaelin plan to investigate how the gene influences pigment production. 



The experts are also exploring its role in cancer and skin conditions, hoping to uncover broader implications for both cats and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orange-cat-mystery-solved">Orange cat mystery solved</h2>



For over a century, the orange gene remained a mystery, hiding in plain sight. Now, with the discovery of Arhgap36, scientists are one step closer to understanding how cats get their colors. But the story isn’t over.



Sasaki’s ultimate goal is to recreate the mutation in cat cell cultures, observing its effects in real time. Meanwhile, Kaelin wants to map out the entire molecular pathway, tracing how a simple gene deletion transforms a basic pigment cell into a beacon of orange fur.



From the dusty streets of ancient Egypt to the modern lab, orange cats have carried this genetic quirk for centuries. And as researchers continue to peel back the layers of DNA, the secrets of these fiery felines may prove to be more profound than anyone imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00391-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Why are some cats orange? Scientists have finally found the answer

Orange cats are everywhere, from the iconic character Garfield to...

Every third Friday of May, we pause to recognize the fragile existence of endangered species. We share the planet with countless animals, plants, and insects. Yet, many of them are vanishing right before our eyes. National Endangered Species Day urges us to take action before it’s too late.



The day was established in 2006 by the U.S. Congress to raise awareness about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> at risk of extinction. But the issue goes back decades. Laws to protect endangered species have been around for over 40 years.



Today, the urgency remains the same. Species are still disappearing, and their habitats are under threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-species-endangered">What makes a species endangered?</h2>



When the last of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> vanishes, it’s gone forever. Endangered species hover dangerously close to that fate. Their numbers are so low that every birth counts, every death matters. Some hover in the thousands, others in the hundreds, and a few are down to mere tens.



Why do species disappear? The reasons are many. Habitat loss drives some to extinction. Climate change alters their environment, making it uninhabitable. Poaching and illegal trade push animals like rhinos and elephants to the brink.



Pollution seeps into ecosystems, poisoning marine life and birds. And sometimes, humans disrupt delicate ecosystems without realizing the consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ripple-effect-of-extinction">The ripple effect of extinction</h2>



When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> vanishes, it doesn’t go quietly. The loss ripples through ecosystems. A predator disappears, and prey populations explode. Plants die off, and animals lose their food source. The web of life is fragile, and every species has a role.



Take pollinators, for instance. Bees, butterflies, and bats help plants reproduce. If they disappear, crops fail, and food chains collapse. The same goes for apex predators. 



When wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone, they restored balance by controlling deer populations. When keystone species vanish, chaos follows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-past">Learning from the past</h2>



In the early 1970s, the Endangered Species Act set strict guidelines for protecting at-risk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-the-largest-threat-to-u-s-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in the United States. It prohibited activities that could harm these animals and their habitats. It also laid the groundwork for conservation efforts worldwide.



Since then, thousands of species have been added to endangered lists. Some, like the bald eagle, have made remarkable recoveries. Others, like the vaquita porpoise, remain on the brink.



Today, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) tracks endangered species globally. Its Red List reveals a grim reality. Over 41,000 species face extinction. That includes more than a quarter of all mammals, one in eight birds, and a staggering 40% of amphibians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-action-on-endangered-species-day">Taking action on Endangered Species Day</h2>



National Endangered Species Day isn’t just about learning facts and figures. It’s about taking action. Conservation organizations host events, workshops, and fundraisers. Many zoos and nature centers offer guided tours, showing visitors how they care for endangered animals.



Some activities are simple yet impactful. Share photos of endangered species on social media. Spread the word about why these creatures matter. Support local conservation projects. 



Even small actions, like planting native flowers for bees or reducing plastic waste, can help protect fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-endangered-species-with-tech">Exploring endangered species with tech</h2>



Technology brings endangered species closer to home. Apps like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a> engage people in documenting local wildlife, creating snapshots of biodiversity in real time.



With EarthSnap, users can photograph plants and animals to identify species, contributing to a growing database of endangered life forms. This information becomes valuable data for conservationists tracking population changes and habitat loss. 



Meanwhile, virtual reality experiences transport people to remote habitats, offering immersive glimpses of endangered ecosystems. By bringing these distant worlds closer, technology fosters connection and urgency - reminding us of what’s at stake if species continue to vanish.



Online databases like the IUCN Red List provide up-to-date information on endangered species. They reveal how many individuals remain, what threats they face, and what’s being done to save them. The goal is to make people aware - and inspire them to act.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-global-conservation-efforts">Supporting global conservation efforts</h2>



Conservation requires resources, time, and unwavering commitment. Organizations like the World Wildlife Federation and the <a href="https://janegoodall.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Goodall Institute</a> work tirelessly to protect endangered species. They fund anti-poaching efforts, rehabilitate injured animals, and restore habitats.



Individuals can help too. Donate to wildlife organizations. Volunteer at local conservation centers. Adopt sustainable habits such as using less plastic or buying sustainably sourced products. Every choice, no matter how small, can make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-worth-protecting">A future worth protecting</h2>



National Endangered Species Day reminds us that time is running out for many species. The fate of these animals, plants, and insects isn’t set in stone. We have the power to change their stories.



Saving endangered species isn’t just about protecting animals. It’s about preserving ecosystems, supporting biodiversity, and ensuring a balanced, thriving planet for future generations. And that future starts with us.



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National Endangered Species Day: Protecting life on the brink

Every third Friday of May, we pause to recognize the...

The discovery of a fossilized femur belonging to a cerapodan dinosaur has caused a stir, mainly because of its great age. The discovery team credits the fossilized partial left femur for rewriting the timeline of cerapodan evolution. 



Many dinosaur fans have heard of Tyrannosaurus, Velociraptor, and the famed Triceratops. Few people, however, know about the <a href="https://www.dinochecker.com/dinosaurfaqs/what-is-cerapoda" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cerapoda</a>, a group of plant-eating dinosaurs that once included creatures as varied as duck-billed hadrosaurs and horned ceratopsians. The new fossil find from Morocco may change that.



<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/people/susannah-maidment.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Susannah Maidment</a>, a paleontologist with the Natural History Museum, London, and the University of Birmingham, contributed to the analysis and presented an in-depth look at the significance of this dinosaur fossil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-a-hidden-dinosaur-chapter">Uncovering a hidden dinosaur chapter</h2>



Scientists have known cerapodans existed during the Late Jurassic Period and beyond, but older specimens were scarce. 



This new partial femur is about 165 million years old, making it the earliest body fossil of a cerapodan ever documented.



Paleontologists spotted unique features on the femur that matched traits seen only in cerapodans. They identified its distinct femoral head and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1017/S1477201907002271" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trochanter arrangement</a>, which suggests this dinosaur belongs in the same lineage as hadrosaurs and ceratopsians.&nbsp;



“Cerapoda is a diverse clade of ornithischian dinosaurs with a global distribution,” said Dr. Maidment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



Some of the footprints left in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234025996_Dinosaur_Distribution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middle Jurassic</a> rocks belong to cerapodans, indicating that they existed at that time. 



Yet the dinosaur fossils have mostly remained elusive. Now, a well-dated femur supports the idea that these dinosaurs had branched out sooner than once believed.



This single bone is important for another reason. It could fill in gaps about early cerapodan adaptations such as stance, limb structure, and herbivorous feeding strategies, which shaped the success of later forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-fossil-femur-s-age">Confirming the fossil femur's age</h2>



Scientists examined the rock layers from the region. They used established geological markers to link the deposit to the Middle Jurassic, specifically around 165 million years ago. 



They then compared that data with previous knowledge of dinosaur-bearing rock layers, worldwide, to confirm the femur’s antiquity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_cerapode_femur_worlds-oldest_credit_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_ornithischian_small-herbivorous_fossil-bones_credit-Royal-Society_1s-1.webp" alt="The proximal femur of a cerapodan dinosaur from the El Mers III Formation of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Image credit: Maidment et al." class="wp-image-1969937"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The proximal femur of a cerapodan dinosaur from the El Mers III Formation of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Click image to enlarge. Image credit: Maidment et al.</figcaption></figure>



Paleontologists also matched the bone’s shape to known cerapodan traits. They ruled out earlier, or more primitive, ornithischians by analyzing the femoral head and trochanteric region. 



Their results support this dinosaur's place among the cerapodans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hoping-for-more-dinosaur-fossil-finds">Hoping for more dinosaur fossil finds</h2>



Experts suggest this find may be just the start. As field teams continue to search underexplored strata in Morocco, more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collagen-discovered-in-70-million-year-old-dinosaur-fossil/">remnants</a> of dinosaurs from the same era may emerge.



Hopes run high that better-preserved fossils will be discovered. Then scientists can figure out how these dinosaurs evolved from lean, bipedal ancestors into large-bodied herbivores with remarkable jaw structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots">Connecting the dots</h2>



<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/ornithischia/ornithischia.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithischian</a> dinosaurs, which include cerapodans, are recognized for having a hip structure distinct from other dinosaur groups. Their broad distribution hints at early adaptability in numerous environments worldwide.



But many segments of cerapodan history remain poorly understood. 



Each fossil from the Middle Jurassic helps scientists piece together their branching family tree, and bridges the gap between smaller, older ornithischians and the famous giants that came later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-insights-on-dinosaur-diversity">Fresh insights on dinosaur diversity</h2>



The Moroccan femur gives a rare glimpse into dinosaurs that laid groundwork for entire herds of plant-eaters in the Cretaceous. 



Researchers see these early cerapodans as nimble browsers that paved the way for the robust quadrupeds of later ages.



The new evidence also suggests multiple herbivorous lineages diversified simultaneously. That might explain why cerapodans, alongside other plant-eating groups, grew so common in certain ancient ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-fossil-femur">Beyond the fossil femur</h2>



Paleontologists note how a single fossil can answer questions about dinosaur dispersal. North Africa likely served as a corridor for many species, showing how some lineages reached global prominence by the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270692144_Paleobiology_of_Herbivorous_Dinosaurs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Jurassic</a>.



Though naming a new species from one fragment is impossible, the fossil stands as a teaser. Further excavations could reveal a fossilized skeleton with jaws, spine, or limb bones that clarify how these dinosaurs thrived in shifting environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-evolutionary-gaps">Bridging evolutionary gaps</h2>



This earliest-known cerapodan challenges assumptions about the tempo of dinosaur evolution. Until recently, the group’s best-dated fossils were usually found in younger rocks. 



The gap between the earliest cerapodans and their later, more famous relatives had proved a mystery.



A femur alone does not tell the whole story. Yet it indicates that cerapodan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/">dinosaurs</a> were expanding long before the Late Jurassic, and it pushes their known origins far deeper back in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-behavior-and-biology">Dinosaur behavior and biology</h2>



Cerapodans likely shared early traits like bipedal posture. Some later subgroups became quadrupeds, and evolved specialized jaws for processing tough vegetation. 



How they shifted their limb posture and feeding methods remains one of paleontology’s key puzzles.



Continued study of limb bones could reveal transitional features. It might even show how rapidly cerapodans increased in size compared with their ancestors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture-of-jurassic-ecosystems">Bigger picture of Jurassic ecosystems</h2>



Each new fossil offers a snapshot of environments that existed roughly 165 million years ago. This cerapodan bone indicates that certain ecological niches were already available to specialized plant-eaters at that time.



Paleontologists see the Middle Jurassic as a stage of experimentation among dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah-belong-to-multiple-species/">lineages</a>. The Moroccan femur provides evidence that these animals were more widespread and varied than previously thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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World's oldest ceropode has been found: A 165-million-year-old femur

The discovery of a fossilized femur belonging to a cerapodan...

Bees don’t just huddle together and hope for the best in winter - they constantly prepare. Bees rely on the right kind of food to keep them going, but it’s not just about how much pollen they store. It’s about how many different plants that pollen comes from.



Researchers at Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (<a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JMU</a>) have been digging into this idea. They’ve been looking at how pollen variety affects honeybee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a> when the temperature drops.



The study, part of the <a href="https://www.ictagrifood.eu/sites/default/files/BeeConnected%20-%20Project%20Seminar%202024%20presentation.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BeeConnected project</a>, reveals something surprising - more diverse pollen can mean the difference between life and death for bees in the winter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-pollen-as-a-lifeline-for-bees">Diverse pollen as a lifeline for bees</h2>



Think bees just eat anything sweet? Think again. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bees</a> need a balanced diet just like we do - proteins, vitamins, fats, and minerals. Pollen is packed with these nutrients, but not all pollen is the same.



“A rich and balanced diet not only ensures successful brood development, but it also promotes the overall health of the bee colony - and healthy bees are more resistant to stressors,” says Giulia Mainardi, a PhD student at JMU.



Bees in the study that feasted on a wide range of pollen in spring and autumn? They had a better shot at surviving the winter. It wasn’t just how much they ate - it was what they ate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-winter-bees-survive-harsh-months">How winter bees survive harsh months</h2>



Not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> are built for the cold. Summer bees live fast and die young. Winter bees are tough. They emerge in autumn, store more fat, and last through the cold months. But they need the right nutrition to develop strong bodies.



The researchers found that bees with access to diverse pollen sources before winter had stronger, healthier winter bees. 



These bees were more likely to keep the hive warm and resist diseases. It’s like a bee training camp - and the more diverse the diet, the better the soldiers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-blooming-and-where">What’s blooming and where?</h2>



The researchers didn’t just look at pollen. They looked at where it was coming from - farms, forests, cities. They tracked pollen collection in Germany, France, and Greece. They wanted to see how landscapes shaped pollen diversity.



In autumn, agricultural areas shined. Farmers planting flower strips, cover crops, and using organic methods provided a surprising variety of pollen.



“We found that areas with high agricultural use provide bees with a higher diversity of pollen in autumn. This is probably also due to agro-environmental measures such as organic farming, flower strips and intercropping,” said Mainardi.



But in summer, the story flipped. Semi-natural areas, full of wild plants, had the edge. Bees foraging in these zones found a richer mix of pollen. Agricultural lands, by then, were tapped out - fields harvested, flowers gone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollen-diversity-matters-for-bees">Why pollen diversity matters for bees</h2>



It wasn’t all about pollen, though. The researchers also looked at weather. Could more foraging days in warmer weather boost survival? Not as much as they thought.



The real game changer was pollen diversity. Even when the weather was harsh, bees with access to varied pollen survived better than those without.



“Our results underpin that the survival of colonies during winter depends not only on parasites like the Varroa mite and bad weather conditions but also on the quality of food resources,” said Steffan-Dewenter.



Warm winters might seem like a good thing. But for bees, it can be a double-edged sword. More mild days mean more foraging - but also more food burned through. Bees need enough pollen stored to handle those extra days of activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-can-provide-essential-pollen">Farms can provide essential pollen</h2>



When people think of farms, they don’t always think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator</a> havens. But the study found something surprising - farms can actually help bees, especially in autumn.



In agricultural landscapes, diverse flowering plants provided crucial late-season pollen. Organic farms, cover crops, and flower strips acted like a bee buffet, serving up a mix of nutrient-rich pollen just when bees needed it most.



But summer told a different story. Bees in semi-natural areas had the upper hand, with wild plants blooming after crops had finished flowering. It was a stark reminder - what works in one season may not work in another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-pollen-benefits-beyond-bees">Diverse pollen benefits beyond bees</h2>



Honeybees aren’t the only ones that benefit from diverse pollen. Other pollinators - bumblebees, butterflies, and solitary bees - need varied food sources too. Diverse landscapes feed them all, keeping pollinator populations strong.



Farmers stand to gain, too. Pollinators are essential for crops. No bees, no fruit. No bees, fewer seeds. Ensuring a steady supply of diverse pollen keeps bees healthy and helps farmers harvest better crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-it-and-they-will-thrive">Plant it and they will thrive</h2>



So, what now? The researchers’ advice is simple - plant more flowers, and plant more kinds of them. Not just in spring, not just in summer - bees need variety all year long.



Beekeepers should choose locations with diverse floral landscapes. Farmers can add cover crops and flower strips. For conservationists, protecting wild habitats can boost plant diversity.



Winter survival is more than just weathering the cold. It’s about what bees eat before the snow falls. And the more variety they get, the better their chances of seeing spring.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>. 



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Bee survival depends on more than just pollen abundance

Bees don’t just huddle together and hope for the best...

Ancient fossils are challenging what we thought we knew about the evolution of tree frogs in the Southern Hemisphere. The tiny creature, unearthed from southeastern Queensland, is changing the estimated timeline by tens of millions of years.



Scientists at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a> have identified Litoria tylerantiqua as Australia’s earliest known tree frog, pushing the family’s history back to around 55 million years ago.



This is far earlier than the previously accepted date of 33 million years for when Australian and South American tree frogs were believed to have split on the evolutionary tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-tree-frog-history">Rewriting tree frog history</h2>



Back when Litoria tylerantiqua was alive, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were still connected by the remnants of the ancient supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>. The world was warmer. Forests stretched between continents, giving animals room to spread across vast, green corridors.



Until now, the earliest known Australian tree frogs came from the Late Oligocene (about 26 million years ago) and the Early Miocene (around 23 million years ago). 



Fossils found at Kangaroo Well in the Northern Territory, Lake Palankarinna in South Australia, and the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in Queensland supported this timeline.



But the Murgon fossils - discovered on the traditional lands of the Waka Waka people - tell a different story. They show that these frogs were hopping around Australia 30 million years earlier than previously thought.



“Our research indicates that that date is at least 22 million years too young,” said Dr. Roy Farman. 



“While molecular studies are important for understanding the evolutionary relationships of different groups of animals, these studies should be calibrated using knowledge from the fossil record and in this case the fossil record provides a more accurate time for separation of the southern world’s tree frogs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-tree-frog-with-honor">Naming the tree frog with honor</h2>



The new species was named Litoria tylerantiqua to honor the late Michael Tyler, one of the first experts to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/color-evolution-ginger-pigment-found-in-10-million-year-old-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog fossils</a> in the country.



“It is only fitting to name Australia’s earliest tree frog in honor of a man who was a giant in Australian frog research and in particular the first to explore the fossil record for Australian frogs,” said Dr. Farman.



To figure out where this ancient frog fits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, the researchers had to overcome a major hurdle. The frog’s pelvic bones, key to identifying species, were not visible in preserved specimens.



“We had a real problem at the start of this study because the pelvic bones of most living frogs were invisible inside whole pickled frogs rather than available for study as skeletons,” noted Dr. Farman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-models-of-museum-specimens">Models of museum specimens</h2>



Most museums want to keep specimens intact for DNA studies, which meant the team couldn’t just remove and study the bones. Instead, they turned to technology. 



Using CT scans, the experts created 3D models of museum specimens, revealing hidden skeletons without harming the frogs.



“Using these cutting-edge investigative methods, we were able to determine from the shape of the fossil ilia - one of three bones that make up each side of the pelvis - that this new Murgon species of frog is more closely related to the Australian tree frogs (pelodryadids) than the South American tree frogs (phyllomedusids),” said Dr. Farman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-past">Lessons from the past</h2>



Litoria tylerantiqua now joins Platyplectrum casca (formerly Lechriodus casca), another Murgon fossil, as one of the oldest frogs ever found in Australia. Both have modern relatives still living today in Australia and New Guinea.



“Despite their delicate nature, frogs have been surprisingly successful at surviving several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass extinction</a> events since their origins about 250 million years ago, including the mass extinction 66 million years ago that took out the non-flying dinosaurs,” said Dr. Farman.



Today, many frogs face serious threats. Climate change, habitat loss, and diseases like chytrid fungus are wiping out populations. But understanding how frogs adapted and survived in the past might help scientists protect them now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-trees-frogs-survived">Understanding how trees frogs survived</h2>



“Although global extinction events triggered by human activities - such as rapid climate change and the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chytrid fungus</a> - may be among the worst challenges frogs have had to face, the fossil record could reveal how some frog groups overcame previous challenges, perhaps by adapting to new, less-threatening habitats," said Dr. Farman. 



"This could provide clues about how we might be able to help by translocating some threatened frogs into more future-secure habitats."



One example is the southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australians-are-unaware-of-their-most-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corroboree frog</a>, now struggling in its current environment. If fossil records show similar frogs once thrived in different settings, scientists may be able to relocate modern frogs to safer places.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Fossil discovery pushes tree frog origins back 55 million years

Ancient fossils are challenging what we thought we knew about...

In Uganda’s Budongo Forest, chimpanzees are doing more than just surviving. They’re treating their wounds with plants, cleaning each other’s injuries, and pulling snares off their companions’ limbs. 



These behaviors, documented in a new study, hint at something profound. Perhaps the roots of human medicine run deeper than we thought.



Elodie Freymann, a researcher from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the study’s lead author, believes these findings offer a fresh perspective on how our ancestors might have first learned to care for wounds. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-mix-vocal-calls-to-create-new-meanings-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a> are helping each other out. They’re capable of identifying others in need and then addressing those specific needs,” Freymann said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-treat-wounds">How chimpanzees treat wounds</h2>



For eight months, researchers watched two chimpanzee communities in Budongo - Sonso and Waibira. Injuries were common, from bites and scratches to deadly snares left by humans.



In Sonso alone, nearly 40% of the chimps bore snare scars. Freymann and her team saw twelve injuries in Sonso and five in Waibira during the study period. The injured chimps weren’t just tending to their own wounds. They were also helping each other.



A male chimp named KT managed to pull a nylon snare off his wrist. Another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee</a>, HW, licked the wound of a female after she had been attacked. 



In yet another case, a juvenile female chewed leaves, dabbed them onto her mother’s wounds, then licked her fingers and pressed them onto the injured area. This behavior wasn’t isolated to relatives. In four instances, chimps helped others unrelated to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-recognize-medicinal-plants">Chimpanzees recognize medicinal plants </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-wild-chimpanzees-can-teach-us-about-parenting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a> don’t just grab any leaf when they get hurt. They seem to know which plants help wounds heal. 



Freymann’s team documented several plant species used in wound care. Acalypha sp., for example, is known for its antimicrobial properties. Pseudospondias microcarpa has a reputation for soothing pain and reducing inflammation.



One chimp chewed Acalypha leaves, then pressed the pulp onto a cut. Another used Lasiodiscus pervillei leaves to wipe away dirt and blood. 



A juvenile male named KO even mashed the stem bark of Argomuellera macrophylla and rubbed it into a wound on his leg. The behavior mirrored traditional African medicine, where these plants treat everything from skin infections to digestive issues.



“It’s likely that our shared common ancestor also would have been capable of these care behaviors as well,” Freymann noted. If chimps know which plants heal wounds, maybe early humans learned from them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-social-side-of-care">The social side of care</h2>



Prosocial care - helping others - is rare among non-human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. But Budongo’s chimps are doing it. During the study, researchers documented seven cases of one chimp helping another. In three of these instances, the caregiver and the injured chimp were unrelated.



A male chimp named ZG licked the blood off a female’s wound after she was attacked by other chimps. In another case, NT, a juvenile female, watched her mother chew leaves and press them onto a wound. NT then did the same, imitating her mother’s technique.



Freymann sees this as evidence that chimps aren’t just mimicking; they’re actively learning. 



“Our research helps illuminate the evolutionary roots of human medicine and healthcare systems,” said Freymann. “By documenting how chimpanzees identify and utilize medicinal plants and provide care to others, we gain insight into the cognitive and social foundations of human healthcare behaviors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-chimpanzee-healthcare">Threats to chimpanzee healthcare</h2>



Chimpanzees in Budongo face a constant threat from human snares. Nearly 40% of the Sonso chimps bear scars from these traps. 



Freymann’s team observed multiple instances of snare removal, some self-directed and others involving help from group members. But the danger remains.



The findings also suggest that chimpanzees in Budongo, Gabon, and other regions might share similar care behaviors. This could mean that these practices are widespread, not isolated. But there’s still much to learn.



For Freymann, the implications extend beyond chimpanzees and their use of plants. Observing how these primates use plants for healing might provide clues for new medicinal compounds. 



“If we want to hone in on these amazing medicinal resources, watching and learning from the animals is an incredibly effective way to do it if it’s done ethically and responsibly,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-plant-medicine-from-chimpanzees">Learning plant medicine from chimpanzees</h2>



The study doesn’t just document chimpanzee healthcare. It challenges how we think about the origins of medicine. Watching chimps chew leaves and press them onto wounds, it’s easy to imagine early humans doing the same. Maybe they learned from the chimps. Maybe they figured it out together.



Budongo’s chimpanzees aren’t doctors, but they are healers. And in their actions, we might find the echoes of our own ancient medical traditions.



Freymann’s work reminds us that medicine is not just a human invention. It might be a shared legacy, passed down from ancestors who walked the forests long before us.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2025.1540922/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Evolution and Ecology</a>.



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Chimpanzees know which plants to use for healing wounds

In Uganda’s Budongo Forest, chimpanzees are doing more than just...

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved Darwin right - it links today’s birds to ancient dinosaurs. Even though the first specimen was discovered over 160 years ago, this iconic fossil continues to offer fresh insights into how birds came to fly.



One of the most revealing specimens yet, the “Chicago Archaeopteryx,” was recently studied by researchers from the Field Museum. 



Their findings, published in the journal Nature, were made possible thanks to remarkable preservation and advanced technology.



The fossil was put on public display in 2024 at the Field Museum, giving both scientists and the public a close look at one of the most complete Archaeopteryx fossils found to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smallest-archaeopteryx-fossil-ever-found">Smallest Archaeopteryx fossil ever found</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx was discovered in the Solnhofen limestone of Germany, a site well known for yielding all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx specimens</a>.



This particular fossil had been in private hands since before 1990. In 2022, it arrived at the Field Museum through a collective effort from fossil enthusiasts and supporters.



“When we first got our Archaeopteryx, I was like, this is very, very, very cool, and I was beyond excited," enthused Jingmai O’Connor, the Field Museum’s associate curator of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nothosaur-polar-sea-reptile-fossil-oldest-ever-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil reptiles</a> and lead author of the paper. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Credit: Michael Rothman" class="wp-image-1970311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Michael Rothman</figcaption></figure>



"But at the same time, Archaeopteryx has been known for over 160 years, so I wasn’t sure what new things we would be able to learn. Our specimen is so well-preserved and so well-prepared that we’re actually learning a ton of new information, from the tip of its snout to the tip of its tail.”



This specimen is the smallest known Archaeopteryx, being only about the size of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-so-dim-witted-pigeons-have-their-own-version-of-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pigeon</a>. Its tiny bones are embedded in extremely hard limestone, making extraction especially tricky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-the-archaeopteryx-fossil">Preparing the Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



Because the bones and soft tissues are nearly the same color as the surrounding rock, even identifying where the fossil ended and stone began was a major challenge. Preparing it took over a year. 



The Field Museum’s fossil prep team worked under UV light to avoid damaging delicate soft tissues and used CT scans to guide their work.



“A CT scanner is essentially a machine that takes a series of X-rays, which it uses to build a three-dimensional image, based on differences in density. It lets you see inside things,” explained O’Connor.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CT scanning</a> was very important for our preparation process - it let us know things like, the bone is exactly 3.2 millimeters (0.1 inches) below the surface of the rock, which let us know exactly how far we could go before we would hit the bone."



This is the first time a complete Archaeopteryx has been CT scanned and the data made available.



The UV lighting was equally important. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Previous studies</a> have shown that there’s something in the chemical composition of Solnhofen fossils that makes the soft tissues fluoresce, or glow under UV light,” said O’Connor.



“So, our amazing prep team utilized UV light periodically through the preparation process to make sure that they weren't accidentally removing any soft tissues that you can’t see with the naked eye.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-detail-in-this-archaeopteryx-fossil">Unprecedented detail in this Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



The result is a specimen that reveals more fine detail than any previous Archaeopteryx fossil.



“We’re lucky in that this specimen happens to be extremely well-preserved, but we can also see features that probably were preserved in other specimens, but which didn’t make it through cruder preparation processes in the past,” said O’Connor. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum." class="wp-image-1970309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Click image to enlarge. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum.</figcaption></figure>



“Having the preparation of this specimen done by scientists whose goal was to preserve as much tissue and bone as possible made a huge difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The new fossil has helped answer questions about several parts of Archaeopteryx anatomy - its skull, hands, feet, and wings.



“The bones in the roof of the mouth help us learn about the evolution of something called cranial kinesis - a feature in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern birds</a> that lets the beak move independently from the braincase," explained O'Connor.



She added that, although this may not sound exciting to the average person, to those who study bird evolution it is an important thing. 



It's been hypothesized that having <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialized skulls</a> for different ecological niches might have helped birds evolve into the more than 11,000 species present today.



Preserved soft tissues in the feet and hands suggest that this animal walked on the ground and possibly even climbed trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-archaeopteryx-took-flight">How Archaeopteryx took flight</h2>



One of the most debated topics in paleontology is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how flight evolved</a> in dinosaurs.



Archaeopteryx wasn’t the first feathered dinosaur, nor the first with wing-like structures, but it may have been the earliest to truly take flight. 



“We think it’s the earliest known dinosaur that was able to use its feathers to fly,” said O’Connor, who highlighted this as her favorite finding in the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Credit: Delaney Drummond" class="wp-image-1970313"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Delaney Drummond</figcaption></figure>



The key to its aerial ability may lie in a set of upper arm feathers known as tertials. Archaeopteryx had an unusually long upper arm bone, which could have created a disruptive gap in the wing's surface - problematic for flight. 



“If air passes through that gap, that disrupts the lift you’re generating, and you can’t fly,” O’Connor explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-modern-birds">Differences in modern birds</h2>



Modern birds evolved shorter upper arm bones and specialized tertial feathers to close this gap. 



Remarkably, the Chicago specimen of Archaeopteryx shows it had long tertial feathers too - something unseen in its flightless dinosaur relatives. 



“Our specimen is the first Archaeopteryx that was preserved and prepared in such a way that we can see its long tertial feathers,” she noted.



These feathers, absent in closely related non-avian dinosaurs, suggest those creatures couldn’t fly. 



“That tells us... Archaeopteryx could,” O’Connor added. “This also adds to evidence that suggests dinosaurs evolved flight more than once - which I think is super exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-more-to-learn-160-years-later">Still more to learn, 160 years later</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx has already helped scientists answer long-standing questions. But this study is only the start.



“We're learning something exciting and new from just about every part of the body that we have preserved. And this paper is really just the tip of the iceberg,” remarked O’Connor.



After 160 years, it’s clear that Archaeopteryx still has plenty to teach us. Thanks to the care and tools used in preparing this fossil, we’re seeing it in ways that past generations of scientists could only imagine.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08912-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Archaeopteryx fossil discovered with preserved soft tissue proves Darwin was right all along

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved...

Mountain environments have captured our imagination for centuries. They offer striking landscapes, distinctive habitats, and a sense of calm that many species find comforting.



A recent analysis suggests that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> may cope with rising temperatures better than people once thought. 



This new research, led by I-Ching Chen from the American Association for the Advancement of Science (<a href="https://www.aaas.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AAAS</a>), challenges the idea that all mountain species are on a one-way trip toward extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-warming-affects-mountain-species">How warming affects mountain species</h2>



Scientists have long examined how warming affects animal and plant ranges. One <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group</a> found that alpine regions are experiencing temperature changes faster than many lower areas. This has prompted questions about how quickly species move to stay in suitable conditions.



Traditional theories point to a simple path: as warmth creeps higher, species must scramble upslope or vanish. 



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-wetlands-are-turning-into-mercury-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountain</a> creatures do climb to cooler elevations, but a new dataset of thousands of historical and modern range records suggests that most are managing shifts without the sweeping extinctions many feared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-predictions-may-be-overstated">Extinction predictions may be overstated</h2>



The widely recognized <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1817416115" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">escalator to extinction</a> concept predicts that steep terrain restricts movement. Higher elevations leave little room for escape, so species get stuck and face extinction. 



However, the researchers found no solid evidence of mass disappearances linked directly to this idea. "Observed changes largely fell within random expectations, accounting for geometric constraints,” noted Chen. 



The team used a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43586-020-00001-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bayesian modeling approach</a>, a probabilistic method that helps analyze data under uncertain conditions, to track changes in where species live.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-species-with-limited-ranges">Mountain species with limited ranges</h2>



Some species occupy narrow ranges and were predicted to vanish first when forced to new territory. Many have expanded to higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-plants-are-not-safe-from-rapid-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground</a>, but they did not always abandon lower limits.



The study’s findings suggest that tight mountain boundaries are not immediately sealing any fate. Instead, these expansions reflect a flexible response that might help these specialized creatures endure ongoing temperature shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-species-adapt-to-warming">How species adapt to warming</h2>



Not all species respond to warming by moving up. Some adjust by shifting their activity times, altering diets, or evolving faster reproduction cycles to cope with heat.



A <a href="https://academic.oup.com/conphys/article/4/1/cow035/2951699" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in the Rocky Mountains found certain butterflies adapted by changing when they emerged each season rather than climbing higher elevations. These shifts show that elevation isn’t the only axis of climate response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-blurs-species-boundaries">Climate change blurs species boundaries</h2>



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016953470300288X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotic homogenization</a> is a process where different communities start to look more alike. Lowland species gradually move upslope, and unique mountain specialists mix with newcomers. Over time, these once-distinct groups blend.



Homogenization can reduce diversity of traits that once set each area apart. One <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1219033" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> in the European Alps found increasing plant diversity at higher elevations, but it also showed a trend toward more generalist species over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-future-for-mountain-species">Uncertain future for mountain species</h2>



Some scientists warn that the study only reflects current trends, not long-term outcomes. Species might still face delayed consequences known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534709001918" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction debt</a>, where loss happens years after the initial environmental change.



Climate disruptions can also affect reproduction, migration timing, and food chains in ways that take time to appear in range maps. Without ongoing monitoring, early warning signs might be missed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-long-term-effects-of-warming">Potential long-term effects of warming</h2>



Some researchers point out that warming may accelerate, so any delay in extinctions could be temporary. Mountains might be resilient now, but conditions may shift faster than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-rising-mountains-give-birth-to-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> can handle in coming decades.



Others emphasize that different regions vary in elevation spread, terrain complexity, and existing conservation measures. Local factors may play a big role in determining which mountain areas remain robust and which slip into trouble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-mountain-ecosystems">Protecting mountain ecosystems </h2>



Scientists note that mountain ecosystems connect with rivers, valleys, and forests. When one part of the chain changes, the surrounding zones feel the impact. 



Some of the study’s authors caution that future ecological interactions may look different as more generalist species move upslope.



Conservation efforts in these regions will likely require new ways to track ongoing shifts. Observing subtle changes in how species occupy space across mountain slopes can help protect vulnerable spots before problems escalate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-on-mountain-species">New insights on mountain species</h2>



Though the picture is more optimistic than predicted for some high-elevation creatures, it raises new concerns about shrinking distinctions between once-separate communities. 



The immediate threat may not be widespread die-offs, but a quiet rearrangement of biodiversity.



Skeptics advise monitoring these patterns closely. Conditions are always changing, and caution remains wise where habitats and their inhabitants are so intimately tied to unique geographic features.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq9512" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Most mountain species are actually adapting to warming instead of flirting with extinction

Mountain environments have captured our imagination for centuries. They offer...

Butterflies sometimes appear to zigzag and drift when they hover. Their bodies may look jerky from a distance, yet these movements help them stay aloft in ways few people expect.



Yanlai Zhang from <a href="http://ev.buaa.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beihang University</a> recently contributed to a study that examines how body angle allows butterflies to maintain stable flight in place. 



The research explores a unique aspect of hovering that might spur fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robobee-mimicking-nature-with-insect-inspired-microrobots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> for small aerial robots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-tilt-helps-a-butterfly-hover">Body tilt helps a butterfly hover</h2>



Butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-birds-lose-the-ability-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight</a> usually looks chaotic. Many experts note that quick shifts and uneven wing beats are actually precise motions that allow them to avoid predators.



These graceful insects rely on flexible wing structures to keep their balance. Some experts suspect there is a fine interplay between wing movement and body alignment that helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> manage their lift.



Scientists have found that the body pitch angle is a major factor in supporting a butterfly’s weight in midair. This angle aligns forces to counteract gravity.



Hovering stability often depends on how insects tilt their bodies. By changing these angles, each wing stroke can steer the butterfly’s overall direction without wasting energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-airflow-in-butterfly-hovering">The role of airflow in butterfly hovering</h2>



Observers have long wondered why <a href="https://horticulture.oregonstate.edu/oregon-vegetables/cabbage-white-butterfly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white cabbage butterflies</a> flutter with frequent stops and starts. It appears they are fine-tuning their body positions while hovering.



Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adjustments</a> let them tap into beneficial air currents around their wings. This slight tilt is just enough to balance the forces that hold them up.



“Hovering serves as an essential survival mechanism for critical behaviors, including flower visitation and predator evasion,” said Zhang. Scientists continue to explore how individual flight strokes contribute to upward thrust.



They track the flight paths using high-speed video, then compare these recordings with computations. Doing so uncovers how subtle wing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golden-eagles-go-to-flight-school-to-master-soaring-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a> can produce enough lift to hover without drifting too far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-flight-informs-drone-design">Butterfly flight informs drone design</h2>



Groups studying <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/micro-air-vehicle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro aerial vehicles</a> see possibilities in these findings. Lightweight, flapping devices might copy butterflies’ low-frequency wing beats for increased hovering efficiency.



Small robots that hover quietly could someday perform delicate tasks. By adopting the body tilt approach, designers may reduce power demands and extend flight times.



Sound pollution is a concern with many drones. Low-frequency flapping could help reduce noise.



“We are particularly excited about deploying such silent hover-capable MAVs for noninvasive wildlife observation, where their biomimetic appearance and quiet operation would minimize disturbance to natural behaviors,” said Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drones-that-can-monitor-wildlife-silently">Drones that can monitor wildlife silently</h2>



Engineers see value in a slow, quiet platform that can capture tiny details without spooking creatures. That capability could help study pollination and other ecological processes.



Such miniature flappers might even be useful in cramped or sensitive environments. Controlled hovering, guided by the body pitch technique, might be the key to stable flight in tight spaces.



During each wingbeat, airflow changes quickly around the butterfly’s wings. Researchers highlight how forewings and hindwings create separate patterns of circulation.



Vortices form, strengthen, and then shed in brief intervals. This dynamic <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9317473/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interplay</a> ensures reliable lift while the butterfly hovers in one spot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-small-flying-robots">Designing small flying robots</h2>



Scientists use computational fluid analysis to piece together these quick movements. High-speed cameras and advanced models allow for precise measurements of wing tilt.



Each shift in angle contributes to a balanced force system. Tracking these details reveals that the butterfly’s body angle is the linchpin of its hovering routine.



Engineers looking at nature’s <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269045583_Development_of_the_Nano_Hummingbird_A_Tailless_Flapping_Wing_Micro_Air_Vehicle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blueprints</a> often find surprising solutions for mechanical problems. Designing smaller, more versatile aerial devices takes on new meaning when we see how well butterflies control their flight.



By factoring in body pitch, researchers aim to replicate a butterfly’s agility. Such adaptive maneuvers could help robots move with more stability and less vibration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-next-steps">Challenges and next steps</h2>



Developers need to ensure enough lift without adding too much weight. Materials that flex like butterfly wings might offer options for more lifelike motion.



Some of these designs may also require refined sensors. Precise control of angles, wing flaps, and position data is crucial for stable hovering in rough conditions.



This investigation hints at new ways to blend biology with technology. Aerodynamics inspired by butterfly hovering might boost scientific progress on miniature flying robots.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article-abstract/37/5/051904/3346692/The-roles-of-body-and-wing-pitching-angles-in?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of Fluids</a>.



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Butterfly hovering technique could revolutionize drone design

Butterflies sometimes appear to zigzag and drift when they hover....

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