A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Forests, mountains, and deserts are home to a quiet and elusive animal: the cougar. Often overlooked and frequently misunderstood, this powerful predator plays a vital role in North America’s ecosystems. 



On National Cougar Day, June 12, 2025, we take a closer look at the importance of this remarkable species - and the challenges it faces.



National Cougar Day isn’t just about appreciation - it’s a reminder that coexistence matters. It calls on us to learn, adapt, and do our part to protect the wild places and species that still survive alongside us.



As habitat loss and biodiversity decline continue, cougars have become a symbol of resilience. Their ability to survive in changing landscapes highlights the delicate balance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cougars-hunt-smaller-prey-to-avoid-conflict-with-other-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> - and the critical role top predators play in keeping that balance intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cougar-s-place-in-nature">The cougar’s place in nature</h2>



Cougars, also known as mountain lions or pumas, are the most widely distributed wild cats in the Western Hemisphere. From the Canadian Yukon to the Andes Mountains of South America, these animals traverse grasslands, deserts, forests, and mountains. 



Despite their wide range, they remain elusive, mostly avoiding humans while maintaining an essential role in local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-cougar-day-the-crucial-ecological-role-of-cougars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



As apex predators, cougars help control prey populations, especially deer. This influences vegetation growth and benefits many other species. A balanced food chain reduces overgrazing, supports plant diversity, and stabilizes the broader environment. 



Cougars act as nature’s regulators, making sure that no species overwhelms the rest. Their role is subtle but foundational.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-national-cougar-day-was-created">Why National Cougar Day was created</h2>



National Cougar Day was established in 2019 to celebrate the ecological importance of cougars and draw attention to the threats they face.



Despite their broad range, cougars face habitat loss, human encroachment, road mortality, and lethal management policies in several states. These pressures grow stronger each year.



National Cougar Day seeks to change perceptions. It replaces fear with understanding, myth with science, and confrontation with coexistence. 



Conservation groups use the occasion to spread awareness, share research, and advocate for laws that protect cougars and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apex-predators-can-help-restore-ecosystems-but-not-immediately/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> they support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clear-focus-in-2025">A clear focus in 2025</h2>



National Cougar Day 2025 echoes a clear message across conservation <a href="https://mountainlion.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a>: coexistence. 



This year, many wildlife groups are focusing on practical ways to help humans and cougars share space safely. Instead of pushing them out or hunting them down, experts are encouraging informed policies and education.



This focus matters. Urban expansion enters cougar territory more each year, increasing the chance of conflict. Without education, these encounters often lead to tragic outcomes. Most often, it is the cougar that pays the price. 



Understanding how to prevent conflict can change this trend. Learning to interpret cougar behavior and create safe environments helps both humans and animals.



Coexistence includes wildlife corridors, community education, and responsible livestock management. These strategies already show positive results in some regions. They could provide the foundation for broader, lasting harmony between people and wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-threats-to-cougars">Growing threats to cougars</h2>



Cougars are not globally endangered, but their numbers decline in certain regions. Expanding human development slices through their migration paths. Roads, fences, and housing projects isolate populations. This leads to genetic bottlenecks and weakens long-term survival.



Some U.S. states continue to allow cougar hunting under wildlife management plans. While intended to regulate populations, studies show that this often creates instability. When dominant adult cougars are killed, young males take over, leading to more unpredictable behavior and increased human conflict.



The cougar’s greatest threat is human misunderstanding. For decades, stories and media shaped a fearful image. National Cougar Day invites us to look again. Science-based policies can ensure a future where cougars and people thrive together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-forward-with-intention">Moving forward with intention</h2>



National Cougar Day 2025 comes during a time of growing environmental awareness. Climate change, habitat loss, and biodiversity decline dominate global conversations. 



In that context, the cougar’s story offers something different. It offers hope. Unlike many species in crisis, cougars still roam across vast areas. We still have time to act wisely.



This day invites thoughtful action. Watching a documentary, reading wildlife science, or supporting a <a href="https://cougarconservancy.org/save-la-cougars" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation campaign</a> can all help. Better awareness leads to smarter policies. Informed communities become protectors, not opponents.



By standing up for cougars, we stand up for healthy landscapes. Their survival means the ecosystem is still working. Their absence would show a system in collapse. 



When we protect cougars, we also protect every creature that depends on the balance they maintain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-national-cougar-day">Significance of National Cougar Day </h2>



National Cougar Day is an opportunity to recognize an animal that often goes unnoticed but plays a vital role in the natural world. 



Cougars don’t demand attention - they survive quietly, shaping ecosystems simply by being part of them. But today, they face growing threats, and their future depends on our awareness and action. 



June 12 is a chance to learn, to speak up, and to support efforts that keep wild places wild - with cougars still a part of them.



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National Cougar Day 2025: Peacefully coexisting with wildlife

Forests, mountains, and deserts are home to a quiet and...

About 45,000 years ago, something unusual happened in Ice Age Europe. A new wave of modern humans wandered in from the southeast and found a continent already home to a very different kind of human: the Neanderthals. 



These early modern people looked a lot like us, but they weren’t alone. For around 5,000 years, the two species shared this chilly landscape - and occasionally, shared genes.



That ancestry is still <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-dna-is-more-common-in-people-with-autism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">written into our DNA</a>. If your family roots lie outside Africa, about 2–3% of your genes probably came from Neanderthals. The legacy of that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-influence-the-development-of-modern-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient interaction lives on</a> in almost everyone alive today.



But until recently, scientists didn’t know much about those early human groups who first set foot in Europe. A new study is now shedding light on their lives, their tools, and their surprising family connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bones-from-a-german-cave">Bones from a German cave</h2>



Deep in a German cave called Ranis, scientists unearthed a collection of tiny, fragile bones. 



The bones, which date to between 42,000 and 49,000 years ago, came from at least six individuals - men, women, and even infants. Some were closely related - one pair was a mother and her daughter.



Across the border in Czechia, a skull was found at a site called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01443-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zlatý kůň</a>. The skull came from a woman who lived around the same time as the people in Ranis. At first, the team didn’t know if the two sites were connected.



After extracting DNA from these ancient remains, researchers made a startling discovery. The woman from Czechia and two individuals from Ranis were fifth- or sixth-degree relatives. 



This is the level of connection you might share with a distant cousin. It meant these people were not isolated wanderers but part of a larger, extended community of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Europeans</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-or-human-tools">Neanderthal or human tools?</h2>



The Ranis cave is known for a particular style of ancient tools called LRJ tools, short for <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10849966/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician</a>. 



For years, archaeologists debated whether these finely made stone tools were crafted by Neanderthals or modern humans. Now there’s a clear answer.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ancient-genomes_oldest-dna_LRJ-tools_Ranis-Germany_Josephine-Schubert_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ancient-genomes_oldest-dna_LRJ-tools_Ranis-Germany_Josephine-Schubert_1s.webp" alt="Stone tools from the LRJ at Ranis. 1) partial bifacial blade point characteristic of the LRJ; 2) at Ranis the LRJ also contains finely made bifacial leaf points. Credit: Josephine Schubert" class="wp-image-1973352"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Stone tools from the LRJ at Ranis. 1) partial bifacial blade point characteristic of the LRJ; 2) at Ranis the LRJ also contains finely made bifacial leaf points. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Josephine Schubert</figcaption></figure>



Because the tools and bones were found side by side, and the DNA shows the bones came from modern humans, it's now confirmed that early modern humans shaped these tools.



This also connects Zlatý kůň to the same culture. Even though her skull was found without tools nearby, her genetic link to the Ranis group suggests she likely used - or at least knew - LRJ tools as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-short-lived-family-tree">A short-lived family tree</h2>



The team from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> recovered the oldest high-quality modern human genomes ever sequenced. 



One specimen from Ranis, nicknamed Ranis13, had DNA so well preserved that researchers could reconstruct his entire genome with incredible detail.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ancient-genomes_oldest-dna_ranis-germany_skull-fossil_zlaty-kun_Credit-Max-Planck_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ancient-genomes_oldest-dna_ranis-germany_skull-fossil_zlaty-kun_Credit-Max-Planck_1s.webp" alt="A skull found in Zlatý kůň in the Czech Republic contains DNA that linked the woman to the Ranis individuals. It shows the skull of an ancient human called Zlatý kůň, originally discovered in the Koněprusy caves of the Czech Republic. Credit: Marek Jantač/National Museum, Prague" class="wp-image-1973349"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A skull found in Zlatý kůň in the Czech Republic contains DNA that linked the woman to the Ranis individuals. It shows the skull of an ancient human called Zlatý kůň, originally discovered in the Koněprusy caves of the Czech Republic. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Marek Jantač/National Museum, Prague</figcaption></figure>



But what they found added a layer of mystery. These early Europeans, including Ranis13 and the woman from Zlatý kůň, don’t seem to have left any descendants in today’s world. Their genetic line disappeared.



That’s not to say they didn’t matter. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-inject-40000-year-old-neanderthal-dna-gli3-gene-into-mice-with-incredible-results/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Their DNA</a> still carries traces of a much older encounter with Neanderthals. This likely happened once, between 45,000 and 49,000 years ago, before the group fully moved into Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-human-group-and-neanderthals">Mystery human group and Neanderthals</h2>



Other ancient humans found in Europe and Asia show signs of much more recent Neanderthal ancestry. 



In some cases, Neanderthal ancestors were just 10 to 20 generations back. That’s like having a great-great-great-grandparent who was Neanderthal.



But the Ranis and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Actual-state-of-the-Zlaty-kun-skull-with-separate-fragments-Zygomatic-bones-and-maxilla_fig3_327334499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zlatý kůň individuals</a> didn’t show any signs of those recent mixes. Their Neanderthal DNA came from the same event that all non-African people share. No recent overlap. No second wave.



This difference suggests something curious: maybe this early group entered Europe a different way. Or maybe they simply didn’t cross paths with many Neanderthals during their stay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-big-was-the-group">How big was the group?</h2>



Looking at shared DNA chunks in the Ranis and Zlatý kůň genomes, scientists estimated the group’s size. They think only a few hundred people made up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-fossils-reveal-signs-of-a-population-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">this entire population</a>, spread across a broad area.



It’s a tiny number. It hints at how precarious life must have been at the edge of the Ice Age, in an unfamiliar land, with harsh winters and tough competition from Neanderthals who had called the region home for far longer.



What did these ancient cousins look like? 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ancient-genomes_oldest-dna_ranis-germany_early-human-family-illustration_Credit-Max-Planck_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ancient-genomes_oldest-dna_ranis-germany_early-human-family-illustration_Credit-Max-Planck_1s.webp" alt="An illustration provided by Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology depicts an artist’s illustration of ancient humans from Ranis, Germany and the Czech Republic traveling together 45,000 years ago. Credit: Tom Björklund/Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology" class="wp-image-1973347"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An illustration provided by Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology depicts an artist’s illustration of ancient humans from Ranis, Germany and the Czech Republic traveling together 45,000 years ago. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tom Björklund/Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</figcaption></figure>



By examining specific genes tied to physical traits, the researchers found that they likely had dark skin, dark hair, and brown eyes. This matches what we’d expect from people with recent African origins, which they certainly had.



They were among the first to leave Africa and step into Europe’s frozen frontier. They may not have survived the long term, but they were part of the same species that would one day build cities, write symphonies, and send satellites into orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-fleeting-presence-a-lasting-story">A fleeting presence, a lasting story</h2>



“These results provide us with a deeper understanding of the earliest pioneers that settled in Europe,” said Johannes Krause, senior author of the study. 



“They also indicate that any modern human remains found outside Africa that are older than 50,000 years could not have been part of the common non-African population that interbred with Neanderthals and is now found across much of the world.”



Their time was brief and their lineage didn’t last - but the Ranis and Zlatý kůň people left behind a story buried in bone and stone.



A story about movement, connection, and the unpredictability of survival. They didn’t become our ancestors. But they were still a part of us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08420-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Oldest human DNA ever found comes from a still-unknown relative from Neanderthal times

About 45,000 years ago, something unusual happened in Ice Age...

Best known for their role in cleaning the ocean floor, sea cucumbers may also hold the key to slowing the progression of cancer.



A new study has found that a sugar compound derived from these marine creatures can block an enzyme linked to cancer growth - without the side effects of current treatments.



The findings come from a research team led by the <a href="https://olemiss.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Mississippi</a> (UM) in collaboration with <a href="https://www.georgetown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgetown University</a>. 



By examining the biochemistry of a specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-cucumbers-protect-coral-reefs-from-disease-and-death/">sea cucumber</a> species, scientists uncovered a natural compound that targets Sulf-2, an enzyme known to promote cancer development and spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-sugars-with-powerful-effects"><a></a>Unique sugars with powerful effects</h2>



Marwa Farrag is a fourth-year doctoral candidate in the UM Department of BioMolecular Sciences.



“Marine life produces compounds with unique structures that are often rare or not found in terrestrial vertebrates,” she said. “The sugar compounds in sea cucumbers are unique. They aren’t commonly seen in other organisms. That’s why they’re worth studying.”



Farrag led the cancer study, which focused on a molecule called fucosylated chondroitin sulfate, extracted from Holothuria floridana, a species of sea cucumber. 



Through lab testing and computer modeling, the team showed that this compound can successfully inhibit Sulf-2, the enzyme that cancer cells often manipulate to help them spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-the-progression-of-cancer">Slowing the progression of cancer</h2>



Our cells are coated in complex sugar structures called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/researchers-successfully-restore-sugar-in-the-brains-sweet-layer-and-recover-memory/">glycans,</a> which help regulate immunity, communication, and the detection of foreign threats. In cancer cells, Sulf-2 enzyme patterns change, creating glycan structures that aid disease progression.



“The cells in our body are essentially covered in ‘forests’ of glycans,” said senior author Vitor Pomin, an associate professor of pharmacognosy at UM. 



“Enzymes change the function of this forest - essentially prunes the leaves of that forest. If we can inhibit that enzyme, theoretically, we are fighting against the spread of cancer.”



The team’s experiments showed that the sea cucumber compound effectively blocks Sulf-2 activity. Notably, these results aligned with what their computer simulations had predicted.



“We were able to compare what we generated experimentally with what the simulation predicted, and they were consistent,” said co-author Robert Doerksen, a professor of medicinal chemistry at UM. “That gives us more confidence in the results.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-safer-cancer-therapy">A safer cancer therapy</h2>



One of the most promising aspects of the sea cucumber compound is its safety. Many existing treatments that inhibit Sulf-2 also interfere with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-erythritol-sugar-substitute-linked-to-blood-clots-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood clotting</a> - a serious risk for cancer patients.



“If you are treating a patient with a molecule that inhibits blood coagulation, then one of the adverse effects that can be pretty devastating is uncontrolled bleeding,” said co-author Joshua Sharp, a UM associate professor of pharmacology. 



“So, it’s very promising that this particular molecule that we’re working with doesn’t have that effect.”



The research suggests that a marine-based drug like this could be both safer and more feasible to produce than animal-based alternatives.



“Some of these drugs we have been using for 100 years, but we’re still isolating them from pigs because chemically synthesizing it would be very, very difficult and very expensive,” Sharp said. “That’s why a natural source is really a preferred way to get at these carbohydrate-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-scientist-discovers-that-common-non-cancer-drugs-when-combined-can-kill-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drugs</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clean-efficient-drug-sources">Clean, efficient drug sources</h2>



Harvesting compounds from marine life also carries fewer health risks than obtaining them from land animals, especially when it comes to viral contamination.



“It’s a more beneficial and cleaner resource,” Pomin said. “The marine environment has many advantages compared to more traditional sources.”



Still, some people in parts of Asia consider sea cucumbers a delicacy, so they aren’t a limitless resource. Harvesting large numbers for pharmaceutical use would be impractical and environmentally damaging.



“One of the problems in developing this as a drug would be the low yield, because you can’t get tons and tons of sea cucumbers,” Pomin said. “We have to have a chemical route, and when we’ve developed that, we can begin applying this to animal models.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-research-collaboration">Cancer research collaboration</h2>



The study brought together specialists in chemistry, pharmacology, computational biology, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/">marine science</a>. It highlights how tackling cancer demands expertise from many different fields.



“This research took multiple expertise - mass spectrometry, biochemistry, enzyme inhibition, computation,” Pomin said. “It’s the effort of the whole team.”



Though still in early stages, this research could pave the way for a new class of cancer therapies derived from the ocean.



These treatments may be both effective and safe. With further development, the strange-looking sea cucumber may soon play an unexpected role in cancer, one of medicine’s biggest battles.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/glycob/article-abstract/35/6/cwaf025/8122264?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glycobiology</a>.



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How sea cucumbers could help slow the spread of cancer

Best known for their role in cleaning the ocean floor,...

Volcanoes don’t always play by the rules. Most of the time, scientists can predict an eruption using early signs like ground swelling or a series of small earthquakes. These warnings happen when underground chambers fill with magma and gas, causing pressure to build. 



But not all volcanoes are as transparent. Some remain eerily quiet, showing no signs before erupting. These are known as “stealthy” volcanoes.



One such volcano is Veniaminof, a glacier-covered peak in Alaska’s Aleutian Arc. Researchers from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> have taken a closer look at its behavior. They’ve developed a model that helps explain why Veniaminof - and volcanoes like it - can erupt without any obvious warning.



“Despite major advances in monitoring, some volcanoes erupt with little or no detectable precursors, significantly increasing the risk to nearby populations,” said Dr. Yuyu Li, lead author of the study. 



“Some of these volcanoes are located near major air routes or close to communities: examples include Popocatépetl and Colima in Mexico, Merapi in Indonesia, Galeras in Colombia, and Stromboli in Italy.



“Our work helps explain how this happens, by identifying the key internal conditions - such as low magma supply and warm host rock - that make eruptions stealthy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sleeping-giant-in-alaska">A sleeping giant in Alaska</h2>



Veniaminof isn’t just any volcano. Since 1993, it has erupted 13 times, but only twice did it show enough warning signs for scientists to catch it in advance. One eruption in 2021 wasn’t detected until three days after it began.



“Veniaminof is a case study in how a volcano can appear quiet while still being primed to erupt,” said Li. “It is one of the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drone-images-help-experts-monitor-active-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">active volcanoes</a> in Alaska."



Li confirmed that, in recent decades, this volcano has produced several VEI 3 eruptions. These are moderately sized explosive events that can send ash up to nine miles high, disrupt air traffic, and pose regional hazards to nearby communities and infrastructure, often without any clear warning signs.



To better understand this behavior, the scientists focused on the time leading up to Veniaminof’s 2018 eruption, which was another stealthy one. 



The team gathered data from three summer seasons before the eruption and built computer models to simulate different volcanic conditions.



These models tested various scenarios. They changed the size and shape of the underground magma chamber, the depth at which it sat, and how quickly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-explosive-magmas-hidden-under-tame-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magma</a> flowed into it. 



The goal was to match the models with what actually happened in order to understand which conditions cause eruptions in stealthy volcanoes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-numbers-revealed">What the numbers revealed</h2>



The simulations uncovered some patterns. A high flow of magma into a large chamber often causes the ground to swell, which is a visible warning. 



If magma rushes into a small chamber, it can trigger an eruption with clear signs like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquakes</a> or deformation. But when the flow of magma is slow and the chamber is relatively small, an eruption can sneak by with little to no warning.



In Veniaminof’s case, the data suggested that it has a small magma chamber and a slow magma flow. These factors work together to hide typical signs of an impending eruption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-signs-of-stealthy-volcanoes">The signs of stealthy volcanoes </h2>



The model also explored how the shape and depth of the magma chamber affect what warnings we might see. Large, flat chambers might lead to quiet earthquakes. Long, narrow chambers might produce only subtle ground changes. 



However, stealthy eruptions only happen when everything lines up just right - from magma flow to chamber dimensions. 



Next, the researchers added one more factor: temperature. They found that when magma sticks around long enough, it warms the rock that surrounds the chamber. That heat changes everything.



Warm rock is less likely to crack or shift as magma fills the chamber. That means fewer earthquakes and less ground movement - both key signs that scientists look for. In warm rock, an eruption can be all but silent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-stealthy-volcanoes">Monitoring stealthy volcanoes</h2>



"To mitigate the impact of these potential surprise eruptions, we need to integrate high-precision instruments like borehole tiltmeters and strainmeters and fiber optic sensing, as well as newer approaches such as infrasound and gas emission monitoring,” said Li.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-may-help-with-earlier-tsunami-detection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Machine learning</a> has also shown promise in detecting subtle changes in volcanic behavior, especially in earthquake signal picking.”



At Veniaminof, installing more tiltmeters and strainmeters could help fill the gaps in current monitoring. Improved satellite coverage could also catch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruptions</a> sooner.



Most importantly, scientists now know what kinds of volcanoes are more likely to erupt without warning. They’re the ones with small, warm magma reservoirs and slow-moving magma.



“Combining these models with real-time observations represents a promising direction for improving volcano forecasting,” said Li. 



“In the future, this approach can enable improved monitoring for these stealthy systems, ultimately leading to more effective responses to protect nearby communities.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1535083/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>.



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Scientists discover why stealthy volcanoes erupt without warning

Volcanoes don’t always play by the rules. Most of the...

Over the last few generations, the idea of celebrating a 100th birthday has moved from fairy-tale territory to neighborhood reality. Centenarians are now the fastest-growing age group.



Their ranks have doubled roughly every ten years since 1950, and projections point to a fivefold jump between 2022 and 2050.



Those soaring numbers spark a simple question: why do some bodies last so much longer than others? 



Researchers keep circling back to the familiar duet of genetics and daily habits - food, activity, stress management - but the details are still fuzzy enough to make any doctor shrug.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-common-threads">Looking for common threads</h2>



That puzzle motivated a team at <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>, writing in GeroScience, to follow 44,000 Swedes aged 64–99 whose blood had been tested decades ago in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28158674/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMORIS cohort</a>. 



Among them, 1,224 - about 2.7 percent - lived to 100, and a striking 85 percent of that group were women.



Long before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-anti-aging-drug-interleukin-11-boosts-lifespan-prevents-cancer-gray-hair/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gray hair</a> and walking sticks, these future centenarians were already standing out. Hospital stays were rarer, memory stayed sharper, and routine lab work hinted at bodies aging at a slower clip. 



Exceptional longevity, it turns out, often traces back to midlife, not just the final lap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-blood-biomarkers">Sharing blood biomarkers</h2>



Doctors lean on “biomarkers” - chemical snapshots that reveal how hard organs are working. Inflammation markers often climb with age; in one Japanese study, people with the lowest inflammation were more likely to reach 100. 



Similar patterns keep popping up for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-power-of-fish-oil-in-combating-high-cholesterol/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cholesterol</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-cellular-switch-mitochondria-that-could-reverse-type-2-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insulin</a>, and kidney-related proteins.



Timing matters. Snapshots taken at a single clinic visit, known as a “cross-sectional study,” can’t untangle cause from consequence. 



Are good numbers protecting you, or are they simply the fingerprint of slower aging? Longitudinal records are needed to see which comes first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invaluable-data-from-sweden">Invaluable data from Sweden</h2>



Because AMORIS records stretched back 35 years, the Karolinska group could watch trends instead of single frames. 



They combed through twelve blood-based indicators tied to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-metabolism-has-evolved-to-become-energetically-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, liver and kidney function, nutrition, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inflammation</a>, and <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20351360" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemia</a>.



Future centenarians cruised through their sixties with lower glucose, creatinine, and uric acid. 



Extreme readings were rare: almost none logged a glucose level above 6.5 mmol/L or a creatinine value over 125 µmol/L. In plain terms, sugar control and kidney metrics stayed firmly in the middle lane.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-numbers-big-weight">Small numbers, big weight</h2>



When participants were sorted into five groups for each biomarker, patterns starting popping out. Folks in the lowest bracket for total cholesterol and iron were less likely to hit 100 than those sitting midrange or higher. 



Meanwhile, creeping levels of biomarkers like glucose, creatinine, uric acid, and several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brushing-your-teeth-regularly-can-prevent-deadly-liver-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liver enzymes</a> quietly clipped the odds of joining the century club.



<a href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003476.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uric acid</a> told perhaps the clearest story. In the group with the most modest readings, 4 percent reached triple digits; in the highest group, only 1.5 percent did. 



A gap of 2.5 percentage points may look small, yet across whole populations it translates to thousands of extra birthdays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-paths-to-the-same-biomarkers">Different paths to the same biomarkers</h2>



Studies from Italy, Denmark, and Germany underline that not every centenarian walks the same path. 



Some arrive at their milestone spry enough to garden all morning; others are frailer and juggling multiple health problems. 



The Swedish team now hopes to see whether those divergent futures were already written in the early bloodwork.



Understanding the split is more than academic. Public-health planners need to know how many elders will require intensive care versus those likely to stay independent, and families want clearer hints about what to expect in their own later chapters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-lifestyle-luck">Genes, lifestyle, luck</h2>



The study cannot pin tidy lab values on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-benefits-of-the-mediterranean-diet-can-be-boosted-with-more-greens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kale salads</a> or rare stretches of DNA. It does, however, underline that metabolism and organ health matter long before retirement parties. 



Family traits, food choices, alcohol habits, exercise, and plain chance all swirl together to shape those lab slips.



Observations from so-called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-zone-diets-reduce-the-risk-of-severe-covid-19/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blue Zones</a> - pockets such as Okinawa and Sardinia where nonagenarians crowd the village square - echo the Swedish findings: modest meals, steady activity, and low chronic inflammation often travel together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biomarkers-and-longevity-science">Biomarkers and longevity science</h2>



Researchers are gearing up to layer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-the-pangenome-the-clearest-snapshot-ever-taken-of-human-genomic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic sequencing</a> on top of old blood records, hunting for variants that might keep organs humming. 



Machine learning models, trained on decades of biomarker data, could soon flag people at risk of a rougher aging course while there’s still plenty of time to act.



Big picture, the goal is to shift medicine’s focus from chasing disease to stretching healthspan. 



If early lab signs can predict who will thrive into their nineties, doctors could use the information to tweak treatment targets decades ahead of time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-start-building-biomarkers-now">Start building biomarkers now</h2>



No blood test guarantees a telegram from the White House, yet keeping tabs on kidney and liver enzymes, fasting glucose, and uric acid as the years roll by can offer early warning lights. 



Small tweaks - longer walks, fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugary-drinks-linked-to-millions-of-diabetes-and-heart-disease-cases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sugary drinks</a>, varied protein, mindful stress relief - nudge those numbers toward the safer middle.



Should you find yourself blowing out 100 candles one June evening, remember that the path likely started long before AARP mailers first hit the doorstep. 



Balanced metrics in midlife appear to set the stage for a longer, healthier encore that keeps both brain and body in the game.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11357-023-00936-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GeroScience</a>.



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Long-lived people share very crucial blood biomarkers, giving scientists anti-aging hints

Over the last few generations, the idea of celebrating a...

When you ask Americans how to reduce carbon emissions, you’ll likely hear answers like “switch to LED light bulbs” or “recycle more.” These are familiar habits, but they’re not the most effective ways to shrink your carbon footprint.



A new study from researchers at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> and <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a> shows just how far off public perception is.



People tend to overestimate the impact of small, visible actions and underestimate the power of major lifestyle changes - like cutting back on flying or eating less beef.



“People are very misinformed around how their actions can translate into actual impact in terms of reducing carbon,” said study senior author Madalina Vlasceanu. 



“We think, ‘I have to <a href="http://earth.com/search-results/?search=recycle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recycle</a> this and it will help the planet.’ It’s less likely you will hear that if you fly less, that’s the best you can possibly do, lifestyle-wise.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-knowledge-about-carbon-footprints">Knowledge about carbon footprints</h2>



The study included nearly 4,000 U.S. participants who completed an online survey. They were divided into three groups. One group actively rated 21 common behaviors - like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-are-a-big-source-of-microplastics-pollution-but-what-about-mountain-bikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biking</a> to work or using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biden-moves-to-phase-out-energy-inefficient-light-bulbs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy-efficient</a> appliances - on how much they thought each reduced emissions. 



After submitting their guesses, the individuals received feedback comparing each action’s impact.



“We compared the actions to each other - not tons of carbon. That’s something nobody understands. It’s so abstract, you’ll forget it immediately,” Vlasceanu said.



Another group passively received the same information without first guessing. A third group received no information at all.



Then, all participants were asked about their willingness to adopt the same 21 behaviors, as well as five larger system-level actions, such as voting for climate-focused politicians or attending a protest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-informed-but-disengaged">Informed but disengaged?</h2>



After the exercise, many participants showed a shift in thinking. They expressed stronger intentions to take meaningful steps, like choosing lower-carbon meats. Poultry, for example, has a far smaller climate impact than beef.



“Participants found this can be really easy to do, and has one of the highest impacts that has been actually documented,” Vlasceanu said.



Those who had the biggest gaps between perception and reality showed the most change. The clearer the feedback, the more likely they were to say they would make high-impact changes.



But there was an unexpected downside. When the study focused only on personal actions, participants were less inclined to support collective efforts - like voting or joining demonstrations. 



Even with better understanding, they became less likely to engage in actions that drive systemic change.



“These interventions also decreased commitment to collective action, where you’re really trying to influence some sort of policy, and this is a problem,” Vlasceanu said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-personal-vs-political-dilemma">The personal vs. political dilemma</h2>



This finding highlights a key challenge in climate communication: encouraging individuals to act without making them forget the power of public pressure and policy change.



“Now we have to go back and understand how we would better design these interventions so we don’t have those negative spillovers,” Vlasceanu said.



Individual actions are easier to measure. For instance, skipping one long flight can significantly cut your personal carbon emissions. But broader actions - like voting - may be harder to quantify even though they’re incredibly powerful.



One previous analysis found that a single vote in a Canadian national election was over 20 times more effective than skipping a long flight, in terms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-impact-labeling-has-a-strong-influence-on-food-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate impact</a>.



“If you extrapolate from that, you can conclude that all the collective actions are way more effective than all the lifestyle changes you can do, although this still remains to be empirically quantified,” Vlasceanu said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-carbon-choices-we-make">The carbon choices we make</h2>



The study also revealed a deeper truth regarding how people make decisions about their lifestyle choices and carbon footprint.



“People will engage in lifestyle changes when they think it’s easy to do. It’s less important to them if it’s effective,” Vlasceanu said. “For collective action, it is more important to people that the action they engage in will actually result in a meaningful change.”



The research included a broad political spectrum: about half of participants identified as Democrats, 22% as Republicans, and 26% as independents or others.



“Democrats were more sensitive to incorporating what they learned into their behaviors compared to Republicans,” Vlasceanu said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-tools-to-change-human-behavior">Simple tools to change human behavior </h2>



The researchers weren’t trying to push an agenda. Their goal was to learn more about how people think and how simple tools might help change behavior.



“Our job as academics is not to be activists or fight for a particular cause,” Vlasceanu said. “These are research questions we scientifically care about that uncover essential processes about the human mind.”



This work is part of a larger research effort looking at how low-cost, scalable interventions can influence people’s choices. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-power-of-imagination-in-climate-change-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> presents a perfect test case.



“We pick the context in which we apply these investigations such that they are societally relevant,” Vlasceanu said.



“If we understand how the mind works in this context, then we can document ways in which practitioners, policymakers - people whose job it is to address this crisis - can most effectively address it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-changes-and-carbon-footprints">Lifestyle changes and carbon footprints</h2>



Future studies might explore other ways to boost both personal and public engagement - such as using stories or emotional messages instead of facts alone.



“In order to meaningfully address climate change, experts have agreed that we will need lifestyle change and collective action,” Vlasceanu said. “This is a critical part of the pathway to net zero.”



Understanding how people perceive carbon impact isn't just about correcting facts. It's about shaping better conversations.



When education focuses on both personal habits and collective responsibility, it can build a more balanced response to climate change.



Getting carbon literacy right could be one of the most powerful tools we have - not just for reducing emissions, but for encouraging meaningful action on every level.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf191/8159053" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">

</blockquote>

Most Americans greatly underestimate their carbon footprint

When you ask Americans how to reduce carbon emissions, you’ll...

The Karoo stretches across more than 150,000 square miles of semi-arid South Africa, a place where sun-bleached soil keeps secrets older than dinosaurs. Wander its stony flats and you’ll see ridges of exposed rock that look like the pages of a giant book. 



The “chapters” span hundreds of millions of years, each one packed with fossilized bone and impressions of vanished forests. For anyone fascinated by life’s backstory, the Karoo is irresistible.



Long before geology students arrived with measuring tapes and plaster, Indigenous families lived among those same outcrops. 



The San, sometimes called the /Xam, camped at waterholes, painted hunting scenes on sandstone walls, and passed down tales of shape-shifting serpents that brewed thunderstorms. 



Their art survives in shallow caves and overhangs, capturing the everyday and the uncanny with equal care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dicynodont-art-painted-in-caves">Dicynodont art painted in caves</h2>



The Karoo’s fossil fame rests on creatures named dicynodonts - chunky plant-eaters about the size of pigs, sporting a beak and two downward-pointing tusks. 



They ruled the Permian Period more than 250 million years ago, well before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first dinosaur hatched</a>. 



Because the region is dry and wind-scoured, dicynodont skulls often erode straight out of hillsides; a passerby can spot the ivory-colored bone from yards away. 



It’s not hard to imagine early herders stumbling upon those skulls and weaving them into local lore.



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_people" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The San</a> also left thousands of charcoal and ochre paintings. Some show antelope and giraffes, others depict trance dances where healers slip into the spirit world. 



Among the most intriguing images appears on a wall known as the Horned Serpent panel, created between 1821 and 1835. 



One painted figure stretches like a slender <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> but displays a pair of tusks that bend toward the ground - no living African animal matches that appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tusks-on-the-rock-wall">Tusks on the rock wall</h2>



When researchers first cataloged the panel, they guessed the creature might be a rain-making spirit. That interpretation fit San cosmology, where serpents often control clouds. 



Yet even a mythic animal usually borrows details from reality: hoof shapes, horn curls, or in this case, tusks. The puzzle lingered for decades.



A fresh investigation recently took a different angle. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cave-art_south-africa_1800s_dicynodont-extinct_credit-Julien-Benoit_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cave-art_south-africa_1800s_dicynodont-extinct_credit-Julien-Benoit_1s.webp" alt="Painting of the dicynodont made by the San in the early 1800s. Credit: Julien Benoit" class="wp-image-1973469"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Painting of the dicynodont made by the San in the early 1800s. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Julien Benoit</figcaption></figure>



After carefully comparing the painted outline with dozens of Karoo fossils, a paleontologist noticed striking overlap - head shape, tusk angle, and body proportions mirrored those of a typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dicynodont skeleton</a>. 



The artist seems to have sketched what looks like a fossil skull still embedded in rock, then fused it with a serpent’s sinuous torso.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-answers">Searching for answers</h2>



The idea gains strength from archaeology. Dig sites near San shelters have yielded chipped stone tools alongside fossil fragments carried from distant outcrops. 



That means people collected ancient bones, perhaps as curios or ritual objects. 



Oral traditions recorded in the late 1800s even speak of colossal beasts that once walked the land before “the ground dried and cracked.” Those tales echo the fossil record’s story of extinction during the end-Permian mass die-off.



If the cave art painting really captures a dicynodont, it predates formal paleontology. Western science first named a species in 1845, yet the Horned Serpent panel was finished no later than 1835. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cave-art_south-africa_1800s_dicynodont_horned-serpent-panel_credit-Julien-Benoit_1s.webp" alt="The Horned Serpent panel. A, general view of the Horned Serpent panel photographed in 2024 by the author. B, close up of the section figured in Stow and Bleek's plate 39. C, close up of the tusked animal. D, close up of the warriors painted below the Horned Serpent panel. E, close up of the warriors painted to the right of the panel. Credit: Julien Benoit, 2024, PLOS ONE" class="wp-image-1973466"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Horned Serpent panel. A, general view of the Horned Serpent panel photographed in 2024 by the author. B, close up of the section figured in Stow and Bleek's plate 39. C, close up of the tusked animal. D, close up of the warriors painted below the Horned Serpent panel. E, close up of the warriors painted to the right of the panel. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Julien Benoit, 2024, PLOS ONE</figcaption></figure>



“The painting was made in 1835 at the latest, which means this dicynodont was depicted at least ten years before the western scientific discovery and naming of the first dicynodont by Richard Owen in 1845," noted Julien Benoit of the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a>, author of this study. 



"This work supports [the fact] that the first inhabitants of southern Africa, the San hunter-gatherers, discovered fossils, interpreted them and integrated them in their rock art and belief system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-dicynodont-art">Deciphering the dicynodont art</h2>



Benoit and colleagues photographed the panel under varying light, traced outlines digitally, and matched them with museum specimens. 



The correlation, they argue, is too tight to be chance. Their work joins a handful of cases worldwide - China, Australia, North America - where Indigenous art may double as the earliest depiction of extinct animals.



The research also nudges scientists to widen their lens. Fossil discovery stories often center on explorers in pith helmets, but communities living alongside outcrops have noticed, collected, and wondered about old bones for millennia. 



Recognizing that legacy broadens the history of paleontology and honors knowledge systems that predate universities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Beyond scholarly credit, the find invites fresh partnerships. Rock art sites need protection from erosion, vandalism, and mining. 



By linking paintings to fossils, heritage managers can argue for preserving whole landscapes rather than isolated walls. That approach safeguards both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-played-a-spiritual-role-in-prehistoric-cave-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural memory</a> and the deep-time record locked in nearby strata.



The study also sparks questions for educators. Imagine guiding school groups to a shelter where a dicynodont skull rests at the foot of a painted serpent. 



Students could trace a line from 250-million-year-old mud to a 19th-century brushstroke, then to modern CT scans revealing bone microstructure. 



Such encounters make earth science tangible and show that curiosity about ancient life is a shared human trait, not an imported discipline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-is-this-dicynodont-art-possible">How is this dicynodont art possible?</h2>



Evidence that the San looked at fossils and painted what they saw does more than solve an art mystery. It stitches together culture, geology, and memory across staggering spans of time. 



In the Karoo, one can touch Triassic bone, read a 19th-century pigment trail, and hear present-day scholars debating both. Each element enriches the others. 



The Horned Serpent panel stands as a quiet reminder that the urge to understand our planet’s past didn’t begin in lecture halls - it began wherever someone knelt beside a curious rock and started to wonder.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0309908" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Cave art discovery depicts an animal that went extinct 280-million-years ago, baffling researchers

The Karoo stretches across more than 150,000 square miles of...

The,Child,Examines,The,Water,With,A,Magnifying,Glass,In

Until about ten years ago, the idea that tiny microplastic fragments lurk in every glass of tap water poured from our home faucets sounded like a plot twist better suited to a dystopian novel than a kitchen conversation. 



Yet tests across the globe report tens to thousands of these flecks - known as nano- and microplastics - floating invisibly in container we fill.



Their impact on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-in-human-brains-may-affect-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human body</a> remains under intense investigation, but nobody invites plastic to dinner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-it-really-be-this-easy">Could it really be this easy?</h2>



Chemists Zhanjun Li and Eddy Zeng, working with colleagues in Guangzhou, China, found that pairing heat with minerals already present in hard water removes up to ninety percent of microplastics before the kettle reaches the boiling point.



Apparently, boiling tap water, the same step families take to brew coffee or mix baby formula, can strip away a large share of those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounding-the-alarm-microplastics-are-disrupting-photosynthesis-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invisible invaders</a>.



The discovery grew from a study that set out to see whether everyday habits might blunt a problem framed as too large for individuals to tackle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-and-boiling-water">Microplastics and boiling water</h2>



When water rich in calcium heats past 212°F, minerals begin to crystallize into flakes of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562303/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calcium carbonate</a>. The process produces the same chalky scale that lines well-used kettles. 



In the experiment, those newborn flakes drifted through the swirling water and latched onto free-floating plastic, wrapping each shard until it sank and knitted itself into the growing crust at the bottom of the pot.



Tests on three common resins - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/filter-feeders-transform-microplastics-into-a-bigger-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene</a> - showed that at least four-fifths of these particles wound up trapped after a five-minute boil and a short cool-down. 



That figure climbed near ninety percent when the water held about 300 milligrams of calcium carbonate per liter, a level typical of hard-water regions from San Antonio to Indianapolis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-minerals-matter">Why minerals matter</h2>



Water chemistry varies wildly across the United States. In soft water, where dissolved calcium dips below roughly 60 milligrams per liter, the Guangzhou group still recorded a twenty-five percent plastic drop. That is helpful but leaves most debris adrift. 



Hard water, by contrast, supplies more building blocks for limescale. The higher the mineral load, the more surfaces form for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kitchen-germs-are-an-underestimated-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic to cling to</a>, so the removal rate rises quickly.



Because the flakes grow fast, they can be rinsed or brushed away from cookware, taking the microplastics with them. 



Any fragments that stay suspended can be caught in a paper coffee filter - an item already parked next to many kitchen sinks. 



The method costs pennies, requires no electricity beyond the burner, and fits households that lack space or funds for advanced filtration systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-outside-the-lab">Evidence outside the lab</h2>



The idea that everyday heat can curb<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-widespread-in-the-seafood-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> invisible plastics</a> meshes with recent field studies. 



In 2025, scientists sampling bottled and tap water across Europe tallied anywhere from 19 to 1,154 particles per liter, with the highest counts of microplastics found in municipal supplies drawn from mineral-rich aquifers. 



By targeting the same minerals, the boiling trick offers a stopgap while policymakers debate stricter water standards.



Health agencies such as the <a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> state that current data are too thin to draw firm links between microplastic intake and disease, yet they encourage cutting exposure where practical. 



<a href="https://www.usgs.gov/programs/environmental-health-program" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The U.S. Geological Survey</a>, in its strategic blueprint on environmental health, echoes that stance and calls for simple interventions people can adopt today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-the-kitchen">Tips for the kitchen</h2>



If your kettle already furs up between cleanings, you likely benefit most. Bring the water to a rolling boil for five minutes; let it stand until steam subsides, then pour slowly, leaving the whitish crust behind. 



Give the kettle a periodic scrub to wash the captured plastics down the drain - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-escaping-from-water-treatment-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">municipal treatment plants</a> are better equipped to trap larger, bonded particles than loose nanoscale ones.



Residents in soft-water zones can still gain a modest cut by adding food-grade calcium, such as a pinch of pharmaceutical lime, before heating. 



The research team cautions that mineral additives should stay within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (<a href="https://www.epa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPA</a>) secondary limit of 120 milligrams per liter for calcium to avoid taste issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boiling-water-vs-microplastics">Boiling water vs. microplastics</h2>



Boiling is no silver bullet. Engineers are experimenting with bio-based filters that trap plastic shreds in wastewater plants, while chemists <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-process-converts-microplastics-into-valuable-graphene-wonder-material/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">explore enzymes</a> that nibble bottles back into harmless molecules. 



Still, the Guangzhou study shows how an old-school practice can chip away at a modern pollutant without fancy gear. 



Pairing stovetop heat with a cheap paper filter slashes the largest doses that reach our mugs, even as science hunts for long-term fixes upstream.



Plastic pollution will not vanish overnight, yet this research reminds us that progress sometimes hides in plain sight.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.estlett.4c00081" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science and Technology Letters</a>.



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Chemists find a surprisingly simple way to remove microplastics from your tap water

Until about ten years ago, the idea that tiny microplastic...

When adults use baby talk to infants, it often sounds sweeter, slower, and more melodic. This special kind of communication has fascinated researchers for decades. It’s more than just cooing and playful tones - it may actually help babies begin to understand language.



One feature of baby talk, known formally as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infant-directed speech</a> (IDS), is the way vowel sounds are stretched or exaggerated. Some researchers believe this exaggeration helps babies pick up on word boundaries and speech sounds more clearly. 



Others suggest the effect may simply be the result of smiling or emotional expression. So, is vowel exaggeration in baby talk truly real?



A team of scientists led by the International Research Center for Neurointelligence (WPI-IRCN) at <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Tokyo</a> set out to answer this question.



The experts analyzed decades of research to investigate whether adults really do exaggerate vowels when talking to babies - and what that might mean for early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-can-naturally-learn-multiple-languages-from-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language learning</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-messages-from-baby-talk-studies">Mixed messages from baby talk studies</h2>



Earlier studies offered mixed results. Some showed that adults often emphasize vowels like “a,” “i,” and “u” when speaking to babies, possibly making them easier to understand. 



Others found no consistent exaggeration, raising questions about whether baby talk’s clarity was just a side effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-and-diverse-experiences-spark-positive-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">positive emotion</a> rather than a deliberate pattern.



“We decided to conduct a meta-analysis on all studies done on this topic to understand if vowel exaggeration is a feature of speech directed to babies and, if so, which factors lead to it and to the observed differences in existing research,” explained study lead author Irena Lovčević, a postdoctoral researcher at WPI-IRCN.



The team analyzed 20 studies that followed similar methods and another 35 that used a broader range of approaches. By combining data from these studies, they increased the power and reliability of their results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-talk-does-stretch-vowels">Baby talk does stretch vowels</h2>



The study offered clear support for a long-held idea about how adults speak to babies. "Our meta-analysis confirms that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-can-use-singing-to-engage-with-infants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mothers</a> exaggerate vowels in speech directed to babies in at least 10 languages," said Lovčević. 



However, she pointed out that the results also highlight the diversity of methods used in the existing research.



"Hence, we want the readers, especially speech acquisition researchers, to carefully consider and document the methodological decisions in their research and avoid the generalization from one language to another or one method to another."



The research also pointed out a key problem: many of the existing studies had small sample sizes, especially for lesser-studied languages. This makes it difficult to fully understand how consistent vowel exaggeration is across cultures and language groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-study-method-matters">Why the study method matters</h2>



Another important takeaway from the research is that the way in which scientists measure vowel exaggeration matters. 



Different studies use different scales, like Hertz or Mel, to quantify sound. These technical differences can affect how vowel stretching shows up in the results - and whether it’s detected at all.



Because of this, the researchers encourage others studying speech and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-babies-in-parentese-boosts-their-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language development</a> to document their methods carefully and avoid overgeneralizing from one study to another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-vowels-how-babies-learn">Beyond vowels: How babies learn</h2>



Now that there's strong evidence supporting vowel exaggeration in baby talk, the team wants to go further. They’re interested in looking at other aspects of language acquisition in babies, especially those that parents and caregivers can influence.



“The next step is further examination of different factors influencing language development in babies, with special focus on modifiable factors from babies’ immediate environment, such as the amount of speech that babies are exposed to and the qualities of vocal caregiver-baby interactions," said Lovčević. 



She added that it remains a big puzzle how babies learn to speak, without much effort. Her goal is to contribute to unraveling this puzzle. 



The research highlights how even the simplest forms of interaction, like talking to a baby, can shape a child’s ability to learn language. 



And while much remains to be discovered, understanding these early influences brings us a little closer to solving one of the big questions of human development.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fbul0000479" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychological Bulletin</a>.



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What baby talk reveals about infant learning

When adults use baby talk to infants, it often sounds...

Pigs stand out among domestic animals for their intelligence, social behavior, and ability to adapt to various environments. But their historical journey from wild creatures to companions in early agricultural societies is just as compelling.



Across centuries, they have played vital roles in food systems, cultural traditions, and even scientific research. Their domestication marks not only a biological transformation but also a deepening relationship between humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



A new study, led by researchers from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth</a>, offers fresh insight into that transformation. The findings trace the origins of pig domestication back nearly 8,000 years, placing the earliest known human-pig interactions in South China. 



This discovery does more than date an evolutionary milestone. It adds depth to our understanding of how early agricultural communities shaped - and were shaped by - the animals around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-first-domesticated-pigs">Tracing the first domesticated pigs</h2>



For years, scholars believed China might be one of the centers where pigs were first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-domestic-horses-have-ancestors-in-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domesticated</a>. However, evidence remained scattered and incomplete. This new research bridges that gap. 



The study shows that pigs living near humans began to eat leftover cooked food and scavenge waste during the early Neolithic period, around 8,000 years ago. 



This was the time in which humans shifted from foraging to farming and made their earliest attempts at domestication. Among the species they tried to domesticate were wild boars - large, fierce creatures with big heads and strong teeth.



"While most wild boars are naturally aggressive, some are more friendly and less afraid of people, which are the ones that may live alongside humans," explained lead author Jiajing Wang. 



"Living with humans gave them easy access to food, so they no longer needed to maintain their robust physiques."



As a consequence, their characteristics underwent changes. "Over time, their bodies became smaller, and their brains also became smaller by about one-third," Wang said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pig-teeth-reveal-early-signs-of-domestication">Pig teeth reveal early signs of domestication</h2>



Traditionally, archaeologists examine bones to detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sheep-have-been-intertwined-with-humans-for-over-11000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication</a>. But this method can miss early behavioral changes. "What probably came first were behavioral changes, like becoming less aggressive and more tolerant of humans," noted Wang.



So the team used a different approach. They analyzed dental calculus - plaque buildup - on 32 pig teeth. These came from ancient sites in the Lower Yangtze River region: Jingtoushan and Kuahuqiao.



Waterlogged conditions helped preserve the organic material. Researchers recovered 240 starch granules from the plaque deposits. These showed that the pigs had eaten cooked rice, yams, an unknown tuber, acorns, and grasses.



"These are plants that were present in the environment at that time and were found in human settlements," said Wang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pigs-lived-closely-with-humans">Pigs lived closely with humans</h2>



The researchers found another sign of pig-human intimacy: parasite eggs. Specifically, whipworm eggs. These eggs can grow inside human intestines. They showed up in 16 pig specimens and represent the earliest archaeological evidence of human whipworm in East Asia.



"Pigs are known for their habit of eating human waste, so that is additional evidence that these pigs were probably living with humans or having a very close relationship with them," noted Wang.



Wang also added that pigs do not cook food for themselves, so were probably being fed scraps from human food, or possibly scavenging the scraps from waste sites. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pig-domestication-and-scavenging">Pig domestication and scavenging</h2>



The team also studied tooth sizes. Some pigs had teeth like today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-domestication-humans-timeline-silk-road-evidence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestic</a> pigs. This supports the idea that some were already under human care .



"Wild boars were probably attracted to human settlements as people started settling down and began growing their own food," said Wang. 



"These settlements created a large amount of waste, and that waste attracts scavengers for food, which in turn fosters selection mechanisms that favored animals willing to live alongside humans."



This supports the “commensal pathway” theory - animals first came for food, not because humans wanted to tame them. But Wang’s team also saw signs of the “prey pathway,” where people began managing pigs directly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-today">Why this matters today</h2>



"Our study shows that some wild boars took the first step towards domestication by scavenging human waste," concluded Wang.



This study also highlights a key issue: living close to animals can spread diseases. Parasite transfer likely began early in human settlements.



The research involved several scholars: Yiyi Tang, Yunfei Zheng, Leping Jiang, Guoping Sun, Xiaolin Ma, and Yanfeng Hou. Their work brings us closer to understanding the long, messy, and fascinating journey of pig domestication.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2507123122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Biologists finally unravel the surprising story of how humans domesticated pigs

Pigs stand out among domestic animals for their intelligence, social...

Climate change is already making itself felt through record-breaking wildfires, worsening floods, and rising global temperatures.



In this context, the question arises: can we afford to keep opening new oil and gas fields? According to a new report, the answer is a firm no - especially when it comes to the North Sea.



The scientists behind the report are from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, with expertise across the UCL Energy Institute, UCL Department of Political Science, and UCL Policy Lab. The team argues that new North Sea oil and gas licenses directly contradict the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impact-of-oil-and-gas-fields">Climate impact of oil and gas fields</h2>



The report calls on the UK Government to stop issuing new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-leaks-in-us-oil-and-gas-hit-10-billion-in-economic-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> exploration licenses. It also urges denying development consent for fields that are already licensed. 



That includes major projects like Rosebank and Jackdaw. Both fields had previously received approval, but a Scottish court overturned those approvals in January.



The court ruled that the climate impacts of burning the extracted oil and gas were not fully considered in environmental impact assessments.



The study comes at a pivotal time. The UK Government is currently weighing two key decisions: whether to re-approve the development of Rosebank and Jackdaw. It is also considering how to move forward with its policy of ending new licensing altogether.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-new-oil-licenses">No new oil licenses</h2>



These decisions come in the context of a two-step process typically used in the UK. First, companies receive a license to explore an area for oil and gas. If they discover a viable field, they can then apply for development consent to begin extraction.



The researchers recommend halting this process entirely. They advise the government to stop awarding new licenses and to refuse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-diversity-takes-a-hard-hit-near-offshore-platforms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extraction</a> approvals for fields already explored but not yet developed.



“Climate impacts are already threatening people’s homes, our farming, and our economy, so reducing emissions is now urgent,” said lead author Greg Muttitt.



“We’ve brought together the peer-reviewed scientific literature on oil and gas, which sends a clear message: there’s no room for new fields to be opened. When you’re in a hole, you have to stop digging.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-targets-already-at-risk">Climate targets already at risk</h2>



To build their case, the researchers examined a large body of climate science, including studies published in leading scientific journals. 



The results of the analysis are stark. Even burning oil and gas from currently operating or developing fields would push global temperatures past the 1.5°C limit.



Current estimates place the world’s “committed emissions” - those that will come from already existing oil and gas operations - at about 469 gigatons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>. That’s around three times the amount that would push the Earth past the 1.5°C threshold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legal-and-political-momentum">Legal and political momentum</h2>



With Rosebank and Jackdaw pending decisions, the UK Government faces pressure to fully consider their climate impacts.



Dr. Fergus Green is an associate professor in the UCL Department of Political Science. "Our report lays out the evidential basis for rejecting new field development consents on climate grounds," he said. 



“This is a real chance for the UK Government to show world leadership in an important aspect of climate action."



"Ending new licenses and consents for oil and gas exploration and production would send a powerful signal to the rest of the world about the need to stop expanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fuel-pollution-is-causing-disease-disaster-and-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuel</a> production.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economy-meets-climate-action">Economy meets climate action</h2>



The UCL team also emphasized that continuing to invest in new oil and gas fields is risky - not just for the planet, but also financially.



As the world shifts toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-must-be-doubled-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a>, fossil fuel investments may become “stranded assets,” delivering poor returns or even becoming worthless.



“The planet has a limited remaining carbon budget and oil and gas production from existing fields is already likely to exceed this limit,” said Professor Steve Pye from the UCL Energy Institute.



“It’s critical that in order to meet climate goals under the Paris Agreement, no new oil and gas fields should be permitted."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-paris-target-matters">Why the Paris target matters</h2>



The Paris Climate Agreement, signed by nearly 200 nations in 2015, outlines a target to keep global warming “well below” 2°C, with a push to limit it to 1.5°C. That half-degree may not seem like much, but it marks the difference between manageable and catastrophic climate disruption.



The 1.5°C threshold is widely seen as the limit beyond which the risks of irreversible damage - like more extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and crop failures - become much more dangerous.



The message from the researchers is clear: expanding oil and gas extraction isn't just unwise - it’s incompatible with climate goals we’ve already committed to.



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Expanding oil and gas fields threaten global climate goals

Climate change is already making itself felt through record-breaking wildfires,...

Baking while listening to music or toggling between emails can seem like everyday behavior. Many people assume multitasking is a universal ability that applies to every situation in the same way.



A recent analysis suggests that this skill may be more layered than we realize. Instead of a single capacity, new research indicates that multitasking relies on both broad problem-solving traits and specialized tools unique to certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brains-learn-new-skills-much-faster-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activities</a>.



The study was led by Dr. Alan Wong, an expert in the School of Psychology at the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Surrey</a>. He collaborated with Dr. Yetta Kwailing Wong to examine how people manage more than one task at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-multitasking">The challenge of multitasking</h2>



For the study, 224 university students were asked to tackle nine distinct tasks. Each activity fell under <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661303000287" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">task switching</a>, concurrent performance, or more elaborate sessions that required prioritization.



"These findings show that multitasking is not a one-size-fits-all skill. To understand and improve multitasking, we need to consider both the broad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infants-show-creativity-skills-even-before-they-can-talk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capabilities</a> that apply across tasks and the specialized skills needed for specific situations," said Dr. Alan Wong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastering-multitasking-skills">Mastering multitasking skills</h2>



The researchers discovered that some aspects of multitasking, such as quick shifts between tasks, spring from a general mental capacity. 



At the same time, concurrent multitasking and more intricate challenges rely on distinct components that seem tied to each setting.



This layered approach may explain why certain individuals excel at switching from one email to another yet struggle when responsibilities overlap. 



No single trait covers every scenario; therefore performance varies depending on the demands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-depend-on-tasks">Results depend on tasks</h2>



Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6693743/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a> suggested that women performed better when tested on swift <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-it-comes-to-practice-and-learning-variety-is-key/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">task</a> transitions, while other work hinted men were better at side-by-side tasks. 



Researchers say those differences might have appeared because each study measured a distinct variety of multitasking.



Conflicting outcomes may arise when scholars focus on just one angle of multitasking. Since this ability is not uniform, the findings may shift depending on the exact type of activity involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-memory">The role of memory</h2>



Complex task juggling often hinges on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn1201" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">working memory capacity</a>, the brain's ability to temporarily store and manipulate information. 



Those who handle overlapping demands typically show a stronger aptitude for monitoring details and reorganizing tasks on short notice.



A higher working memory capacity can lighten the cognitive load by allowing multiple pieces of information to stay active. This supports better decision-making and faster responses under pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multitasking-in-everyday-life">Multitasking in everyday life</h2>



Multitasking appears in everyday life, whether someone is checking texts while preparing a meal or browsing social media during a video chat. Balancing these actions may feel second nature, but each scenario taps into a different cluster of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skills</a>.



The study suggests that sharpening these abilities involves training more than just a single repetitive task. Mixing different types of challenges strengthens broader mental agility as well as the finer skills needed for specific situations.



"Training to improve multitasking abilities shouldn't focus on just one type of task. Instead, a variety of challenges is required to build both general multitasking ability and specific skills needed for particular scenarios," said Dr. Yetta Kwailing Wong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-and-design-use">Tech and design use</h2>



Digital platforms, such as productivity tools and gaming environments, could benefit from this multitasking model. 



By recognizing the difference between general and specific skills, developers might tailor software features that train or support one without overwhelming the other.



Game designers, for instance, might design challenges that isolate task switching to strengthen cognitive flexibility. 



Meanwhile, educational software could gradually blend in complex multitasking layers that train prioritization and memory without causing user fatigue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-what-drives-success">Pinpointing what drives success</h2>



Experts recommend that workplaces and educators include exercises that involve shifting back and forth between projects, as well as simultaneously managing two duties. That way, people can refine a wide-ranging set of talents and also polish those unique to each context.



This broader perspective may spark new tools for evaluating how individuals perform under various loads. Embracing multiple training methods could alleviate stress for those juggling hectic routines.



Researchers see potential in tests that measure both shared and distinct elements of multitasking. These approaches might guide creators of educational apps and productivity platforms toward more effective features.



Understanding the nuances of multitasking might also reduce confusion about who excels and why. Pinpointing what drives success in each category could lead to fairer evaluations in both academic and professional settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-how-we-multitask">Improving how we multitask</h2>



The research opens doors for more inclusive discussions about how people split their time and attention. 



Tailored solutions might emerge that help individuals excel in specific contexts without feeling pressured by one-size-fits-all standards.



Further work could investigate creative ways to measure and improve these different forms of multitasking. This may prompt people to adopt more targeted strategies when tackling multiple demands.



The study is published in the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fxhp0001332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance</a>.



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Why multitasking feels easy at times - and impossible at others

Baking while listening to music or toggling between emails can...

When ships travel to the ends of the Earth, their anchors leave more than temporary marks - they create lasting scars on fragile marine life and ecosystems. 



From tourism vessels to research ships, maritime traffic is growing even in the far reaches of Antarctica. And with every anchor dropped, the seafloor is at risk.



Undersea cables, pipelines, and sensitive wildlife habitats can all be damaged by this simple act. Yet, anchoring remains almost completely unregulated in polar waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anchors-leave-their-mark-in-antarctica">Anchors leave their mark in Antarctica</h2>



Scientists have recorded new underwater footage that reveals the impact of ship anchoring in Antarctica’s remote marine environments. Their findings offer a rare look into an underreported environmental issue that’s hidden from view.



“This is the first time the impacts of ship anchoring and chain damage are documented in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-antarctic-waters-are-cooling-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic waters</a>," explained Matthew Mulrennan, a marine scientist and founder of KOLOSSAL, an ocean exploration and conservation nonprofit in California.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_undisturbed_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_undisturbed_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1s.webp" alt="Directly adjacent to the anchoring sites, marine life flourished. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL." class="wp-image-1973330"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Directly adjacent to the anchoring sites, marine life flourished. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL.</figcaption></figure>



"Activities in Antarctica have a lot of strict rules around conservation, yet ship anchoring is almost completely unregulated."



Study co-author Dr. Sally Watson, a marine geophysicist from New Zealand’s National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, emphasized the urgency of the situation.



"Documentation is way overdue, given the importance of these ecosystems and the protections we place on them. Anchoring impacts are understudied and underestimated globally. It’s so important to recognize and mitigate the impacts across all industries and limit planned anchoring,” said Dr. Watson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-cameras-revealed">What the cameras revealed</h2>



During the austral summer of 2022-23, researchers recorded underwater footage across 36 sites near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-in-tasman-sea-is-melting-the-antarctic-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Peninsula</a> and South Georgia Island. 



Cameras were positioned at various depths - close to the surface, midwater, and just one meter above the seabed. What they captured was alarming.



In areas where ships had dropped anchor, the ocean floor was visibly disturbed. Grooves and striations crisscrossed the seabed, and patches of mud covered the habitat. 



At these sites, marine life was sparse or entirely absent. Sponge colonies were crushed, and overall benthic biomass was nearly nonexistent. Yet, just meters away, life thrived - showing that the destruction was highly localized and recent.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_crushed-stars-sponges_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_crushed-stars-sponges_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1s.webp" alt="Striations, grooves, and mud deposits from anchor retrieval were visible in the substrate of the ocean floor. The researchers observed crushed sponge colonies. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL" class="wp-image-1973333"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Striations, grooves, and mud deposits from anchor retrieval were visible in the substrate of the ocean floor. The researchers observed crushed sponge colonies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL</figcaption></figure>



“The observed damage was a near miss to three giant volcano <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sponges-are-mysteriously-moving-across-the-arctic-seafloor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sponges</a>, believed to be the oldest animals on the planet, which may live up to 15,000 years,” said Mulrennan.



The team also observed other species at risk, including Antarctic sun stars, giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-cold-adaptations-in-nervous-system-of-antarctic-octopus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic octopuses</a>, sea spiders, and various fish, all of which dwell at depths that make them vulnerable to anchoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chain-reaction-across-ecosystems">Chain reaction across ecosystems</h2>



According to the researchers, the impacts of ship anchors to marine life extend beyond individual species.



“The weird and wonderful animals that are impacted, like sponges, are important for filtering water, carbon sequestration, and providing shelter, food, and complex habitats which benefit the whole marine ecosystem, including penguins and seals - the animals tourists come to see,” noted Mulrennan.



This ripple effect could alter the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-is-transforming-the-marine-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food web</a>, and affect iconic Antarctic wildlife that draws attention and resources for conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-recovery-in-cold-waters">Slow recovery in cold waters</h2>



Life in Antarctica is tough, slow, and highly adapted. That makes it especially vulnerable to disruption. Many organisms in anchor zones are slow-growing and can’t relocate. Recovery could take decades - or more.



“We know that anchor impacts in tropical reefs can last a decade. In muddy sediment the scours can still be visible over a decade later,” said Dr. Watson.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_Antarctic-sun-stars_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_Antarctic-sun-stars_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1s.webp" alt="The researchers recorded giant volcano sponges, Antarctic sun stars, giant Antarctic octopus, sea spiders, and a variety of fish at anchorable depths. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL" class="wp-image-1973328"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The researchers recorded giant volcano sponges, Antarctic sun stars, giant Antarctic octopus, sea spiders, and a variety of fish at anchorable depths. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL</figcaption></figure>



“Ecological recovery is really site specific. Things in cold waters are much slower growing than in warmer temperatures so I expect that recovery would take longer the higher the latitude.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anchor-impacts-on-marine-life">Anchor impacts on marine life</h2>



The researchers say more work is needed. Studies should examine both short- and long-term effects of anchoring, recovery timelines, and how broader ecological functions are disrupted. 



But a major hurdle remains: there is no global database tracking where and how often ships anchor in polar regions.



“Anchoring is likely the most overlooked ocean conservation issue in terms of global seafloor disruption; it is on par with the damages from bottom trawling,” Mulrennan concluded. “It’s a pressing environmental issue, but it’s out of sight, out of mind.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2025.1500652/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



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Ship anchors are doing great harm to protected ocean life on the Antarctic seafloor

When ships travel to the ends of the Earth, their...

Fossilized plant fragments preserved inside the belly of an Australian sauropod dinosaur have given researchers the first complete snapshot of what these long-necked giants actually ate. The evidence firmly backs the long-held view that they were voracious herbivores.



The findings are based on a subadult specimen of Diamantinasaurus matildae that roamed what is now Queensland between 94 and 101 million years ago. Its last meals reveal a mixed, unchewed salad of conifer foliage, seed-fern fruiting bodies, and flowering-plant leaves.



The dinosaur broke off these plant fragments instead of chewing them, leaving the gut microbes to do the hard work of digestion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-dinosaur-discovery">Unique dinosaur discovery</h2>



“No genuine sauropod gut contents had ever been found anywhere before, despite sauropods being known from fossils found on every continent” said lead author Stephen Poropat, a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a>.



Until now, scientists pieced together sauropod menus indirectly - examining tooth scratches, jaw mechanics, and neck reach. 



The new discovery provides something more definitive: a preserved cololite, or fossil gut content. Scientists can analyze this down to the species of plant it contains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-discovery-in-australia">Big discovery in Australia</h2>



The breakthrough came during the 2017 field season at the <a href="https://www.australianageofdinosaurs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum</a>. Volunteers preparing the Diamantinasaurus skeleton noticed a fractured, oddly packed slab of sediment lodged among the ribs.



Careful extraction revealed dozens of delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant fossils</a>: scales from conifer needles, seed-fern pods. The researchers also found tender angiosperm leaves and even tiny shoots and bracts.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-guts_fossilized_australia_credit-Stephen-Poropat_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-guts_fossilized_australia_credit-Stephen-Poropat_1s.webp" alt="Australian Age of Dinosaurs Collection Manager Mackenzie Enchelmaier holds up sauropod gut content fossil. Credit: Stephen Poropat" class="wp-image-1973337"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Australian Age of Dinosaurs Collection Manager Mackenzie Enchelmaier holds up sauropod gut content fossil. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Stephen Poropat</figcaption></figure>



Chemical analyses later detected biomarkers of both angiosperms and gymnosperms, confirming the findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-sauropod-feeding">New insights into sauropod feeding</h2>



Microscopic inspection revealed that the sauropod had snapped, not shredded, most plant fragments.



“The plants within show evidence of having been severed, possibly bitten, but have not been chewed, supporting the hypothesis of bulk feeding in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauropods</a>,” noted Poropat.



The conclusion matches anatomical expectations: sauropod teeth evolved for nipping vegetation rather than grinding it. 



Instead, these dinosaurs likely swallowed mouthfuls whole, letting fermentation chambers and resident microbes break down the cellulose.



Chemical signatures in the cololite point to an “eat what’s within reach” strategy rather than selective browsing.



“This implies that at least some sauropods were not selective feeders, instead eating whatever plants they could reach and safely process,” Poropat explained.



That indiscriminate appetite would have amplified the ecological influence of sauropods. It allowed their vast bodies to recycle nutrients across entire landscapes during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprise-serving-of-flowers">A surprise serving of flowers</h2>



The team expected to find conifer and seed-fern remains, but the presence of flowering-plant foliage caught them off-guard.



“Angiosperms became approximately as diverse as conifers in Australia around 100 to 95 million years ago, when this sauropod was alive,” Poropat said.



“This suggests that sauropods had successfully adapted to eat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowering-plants-appeared-two-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> within 40 million years of the first evidence of the presence of these plants in the fossil record.”



The finding suggests these dinosaurs quickly incorporated new plant types as they emerged in Mesozoic ecosystems.



Because the specimen was a subadult, the researchers infer it could graze both low and mid-story vegetation. Hatchlings grazed only on groundcover, while fully-grown adults could strip branches from treetops.



The abundance of soft shoots and seed pods suggests that younger Diamantinasaurus individuals targeted nutrient-rich new growth, which ferments more easily than woody tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-stomach-many-questions"><a></a>One stomach, many questions</h2>



Poropat stresses that the study offers “a single data point.” The snapshot captures only the last few meals of one individual and may not represent typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-poop-reveals-the-diet-of-dinosaurs-200-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a>, seasonal shifts, or adult feeding habits.



Even a single case shows that gut-content fossils, though rare, can confirm hypotheses and refine our view of dinosaur ecology.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-dinosaur_Diamantinasaurus-matildae_illustration_credit-Travis-Tischler_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-dinosaur_Diamantinasaurus-matildae_illustration_credit-Travis-Tischler_1s.webp" alt="Artist impression of Diamantinasaurus matildae feeding. Credit: Travis Tischler" class="wp-image-1973335"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist impression of Diamantinasaurus matildae feeding. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Travis Tischler</figcaption></figure>



The team hopes further excavations in the Winton Formation and other Cretaceous sites will yield additional cololites to broaden the picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-for-giants">Feeding for giants</h2>



Taken together, the findings bolster the idea that “indiscriminate bulk feeding” underpinned sauropod dominance for roughly 130 million years.



By gulping vast quantities of whatever greenery was available and outsourcing digestion to microbial partners, these giants could fuel bodies the size of whales on land.



As Poropat and colleagues point out, understanding that strategy not only illuminates dinosaur biology but also helps reconstruct the plant communities and nutrient cycles of ancient Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225005500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Fossilized guts reveal the eating habits of sauropod dinosaurs

Fossilized plant fragments preserved inside the belly of an Australian...

Springtime in the Arctic is a spectacular show of life, as millions of birds gather to nest and raise their young under the midnight sun. Remarkably, this annual ritual traces its roots back much further than previously believed - 73 million years ago. 



That’s the conclusion of a recently published study that identifies the oldest known evidence of birds nesting in the polar regions.



The discovery was made in northern Alaska’s Prince Creek Formation. It reveals that several types of birds were already breeding in the Arctic during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/late-cretaceous-dinosaur-was-sluggish-and-nearly-deaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Cretaceous</a> period, when dinosaurs still ruled the land.



These findings challenge previous assumptions about where and when ancient birds reproduced - and expand the timeline of avian life in Earth’s most extreme environments by more than 25 million years.



“For half of the time they have existed, they have been nesting in the Arctic,” said Lauren Wilson, the study’s lead author and a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>. Wilson completed her master’s degree at the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> (UAF), where the research began.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-fossils-rewrite-history">Bird fossils rewrite history</h2>



Using a collection of over 50 fossilized bird bones and teeth excavated from Alaska’s North Slope, Wilson and her team made an important discovery. They identified several species of birds that appear to have nested in the region.



These included diving birds similar to modern loons, gull-like species, and various duck- and goose-like waterfowl. 



The bones representing juveniles - some likely still nest-bound - offer strong evidence that these birds were not merely passing through but breeding in the Arctic.



“Finding bird bones from the Cretaceous is already a very rare thing,” Wilson said. “To find baby bird bones is almost unheard of. That is why these fossils are significant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-fragile-fossil-evidence">Saving fragile fossil evidence</h2>



The mere existence of such delicate remains is extraordinary. Bird bones are lightweight and fragile by design, and juvenile bones are even more prone to destruction over time.



Yet, thanks to meticulous excavation efforts, researchers were able to recover and identify these fossilized traces of ancient avian life.



The fossils were found in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018218306667" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prince Creek Formation</a>, a remote site along the Colville River renowned for its Cretaceous dinosaur remains.



Until recently, the area was not known for yielding fossil birds. This changed recently, thanks in part to the excavation strategy used by the UAF Museum of the North’s research team.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-bones-from-arctic-bird-fossils">Tiny bones from Arctic bird fossils</h2>



Traditional vertebrate paleontology often focuses on recovering large, visible bones - those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, for example. But the team working at Prince Creek takes a more comprehensive approach.



Alongside the big finds, they also gather large volumes of sediment and screen them for microscopic remains. Researchers then carefully examine these samples under microscopes back at the lab, revealing a world of small, often-overlooked fossils.



“We put Alaska on the map for fossil birds,” said Pat Druckenmiller, the paper’s senior author and director of the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Museum of the North</a>. “It wasn’t on anyone’s radar.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_bird-beak-fossil_credit-Pat-Druckenmiller_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_bird-beak-fossil_credit-Pat-Druckenmiller_1s.webp" alt="The tip of a hatchling bird beak sits on the end of a finger. Credit: Pat Druckenmiller" class="wp-image-1973308"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tip of a hatchling bird beak sits on the end of a finger. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Pat Druckenmiller</figcaption></figure>



Druckenmiller credits the fine-grained approach with revealing new insights into Cretaceous Arctic ecosystems. The same methods have also led to the discovery of new dinosaur and mammal species in the region.



“In terms of information content, these little bones and teeth are fascinating and provide an incredible depth of understanding of the animals of this time,” Druckenmiller said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-arctic-bird-nursery">Ancient Arctic bird nursery</h2>



The findings show that birds have been using the Arctic as a breeding ground far longer than previously thought.



Earlier evidence of polar bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tangled-twigs-the-secrets-of-sturdy-bird-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nesting</a> dated to around 47 million years ago - well after the mass extinction event that wiped out most of Earth’s species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



The new discovery pushes that timeline back by 25 to 30 million years, deep into the age of dinosaurs.



“The Arctic is considered the nursery for modern birds,” Druckenmiller said. “It’s kind of cool when you go to Creamer’s Field [a well-known stopover for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a> in Fairbanks], to know that they have been doing this for 73 million years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-origins-of-modern-birds">The origins of modern birds</h2>



Beyond expanding the record of avian life in the polar regions, the fossils raise intriguing questions about the origins of modern birds.



Some of the bones appear to belong to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neornithes</a> - the group that includes all living birds. These fossils show skeletal traits exclusive to modern birds. Some even lacked teeth, a feature seen in today’s avian species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_with-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_with-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="An illustration of Cretaceous Period birds with other dinosaurs from the same time period in the background. A paper in the journal Science documents the earliest-known example of birds nesting in the polar regions. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1973310"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An illustration of Cretaceous Period birds with other dinosaurs from the same time period in the background. A paper in the journal Science documents the earliest-known example of birds nesting in the polar regions. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



“If they are part of the modern bird group, they would be the oldest such fossils ever found,” Druckenmiller said. 



At present, the oldest known Neornithes fossils date to around 69 million years ago. “But it would take us finding a partial or full skeleton to say for sure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The implications of the study go beyond the Arctic. They suggest that ancient birds - despite their small size and delicate physiology - were able to thrive in high-latitude environments long before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-polar-regions-changing-fundamental-alarming-ways/">polar climates</a> we know today fully developed.



During the Cretaceous, the Arctic was warmer but still experienced seasonal extremes of light and darkness, posing significant challenges for any nesting animals.



That these birds not only survived but reproduced successfully hints at a more complex evolutionary history than previously assumed. It also suggests modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-geese-adapt-by-finding-a-new-migratory-route/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory waterfowl</a> echo ancient patterns by returning to northern wetlands each spring to raise their young.



As researchers continue to study the Colville River fossils, they hope to uncover additional material that can confirm the identity and relationships of these Arctic avian pioneers.



For now, the Prince Creek Formation stands as one of the world’s most important sites for understanding the early history of birds. It shows what can be found when scientists search for both big and small bones.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt5189" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: &nbsp;Gabriel Ugueto



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Scientists find proof that birds nested in the Arctic alongside dinosaurs

Springtime in the Arctic is a spectacular show of life,...

Two notorious hybrid termite species have found a surprising way to become even more destructive. Researchers in Florida report that these wood-eating insects are forming hybrids that might spread into many parts of the world.



Both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-play-an-unexpected-role-in-rainforest-revival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are known for their ability to damage timber and invade new places with ease. The research was led by Thomas Chouvenc at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-termites-may-survive-in-more-places">Hybrid termites may survive in more places</h2>



Invasive termites have already caused massive economic losses, with <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100634" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimated</a> worldwide damage of $40 billion each year.



This figure covers structural repairs, preventive treatments, and other costs tied to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. Experts worry that combining two invasive species might produce termites that thrive in more environments than either parent.



These interbreeding pests are believed to hail from <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN278" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coptotermes formosanus</a> (the Formosan subterranean termite) and <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coptotermes gestroi</a> (the Asian subterranean termite).



Hybrids could open doors to new areas if they tolerate different climates better than either <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-desert-structure-termite-mound-built-by-insects-can-be-seen-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-traits-from-both-parent-termites">Hybrid traits from both parent termites</h2>



Some hybrid termites have been found to carry traits from both parent species, including the ability to tolerate a wider range of temperatures.



Edouard Duquesne at the Free University of Brussels in Belgium, who was not involved with the research, elaborated on the significance of the study.



“The findings are interesting and alarming. Viable hybrids of these two species would likely lead to a super-invasive termite that could potentially have a huge suitable range worldwide, and that could do important damages,” said Duquesne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-termites-could-spread-through-boats">Hybrid termites could spread through boats</h2>



Hybrid termites are not just concerning because of what they are, but because of how easily they could travel. With both parent species already established in southern Florida, opportunities for hybridization increase every year.



“It’s just a matter of time before they get a chance to hybridise,” said Chouvenc. Ships and leisure boats might carry them from infested areas to new coastal regions, making Florida’s global boat traffic a major risk factor for future outbreaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-this-hybrid-unique">What makes this hybrid unique</h2>



The hybrid termites don't just survive - they reproduce. The researchers confirmed that hybrid females can mate with either parent species, forming second-generation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a>.



This genetic flexibility may allow the hybrids to evolve quickly and adapt to new challenges. Early studies show that while some of these colonies struggle, others can grow and mature over time.



In one case, a second-generation colony reached over a thousand workers in under three years, showing surprising resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-florida-the-perfect-launchpad">Florida: The perfect launchpad</h2>



Florida isn’t just a mixing zone for these two termite species, it’s a global hub for their spread. With nearly a million privately owned leisure boats <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1155988/us-recreational-boating-vessels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">registered</a> in the state, the potential for unnoticed transport is sky-high.



The first confirmed hybrid colony was found just over half a mile from a dense marina district. That proximity makes it likely that flying <a href="https://www.orkin.com/pests/termites/colony/termite-alates" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alates</a> could settle onto boats and travel to distant coastlines without ever being detected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-for-pest-control">Problems for pest control</h2>



Most termite treatments are tailored to specific species. Pest management companies often adjust their methods depending on whether they’re dealing with C. formosanus or C. gestroi.



But hybrids could blur that line. Their mixed traits might respond unpredictably to current treatments, making control efforts more complicated and potentially less effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-early-detection-matters">Why early detection matters</h2>



Spotting these hybrids early could prevent bigger problems later. The longer they go unnoticed, the more likely they are to spread through infested wood, soil, or boats.



Unfortunately, identification isn’t always straightforward. Some hybrid termites show features that fall between the two parent species, making them hard to classify without genetic testing or detailed knowledge of termite morphology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-steps-ahead">Practical steps ahead</h2>



In some cases, local authorities try to prevent termite travel by inspecting cargo, but private vessels often escape such checks. Researchers advise owners of docked vessels to inspect wooden parts carefully and seek professional help if they find signs of infestation.



Public agencies might focus more resources on monitoring, because identifying hybrids early could be key to containment. Yet the process of telling these insects apart can be tricky, since their features can blend.



Early identification often involves a close inspection of alates (the winged caste) that appear in warmer months. Scientists note that hybrid alates can show subtle differences in body color or size.



By staying vigilant, communities may slow the spread of these insects to new regions. Many hope that targeted strategies will limit hybrid termite expansions before they become unstoppable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-risks-for-ecosystems">Long-term risks for ecosystems</h2>



The hybrid termites don’t just threaten buildings - they could also affect forests and natural habitats. Their ability to feed on a wide range of wood sources makes them a potential danger to native trees and vegetation.



As they spread, they may disrupt local ecosystems by outcompeting native decomposer species. Over time, this could affect nutrient cycles in the soil and alter the balance of natural communities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0413" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Hybrid termites could spread worldwide from Florida boats

Two notorious hybrid termite species have found a surprising way...

In the forests of Madagascar, small lizards do more than sunbathe on rocks or snap at insects. In fact, they may be shaping the future of Madagascar’s forests, one seed at a time.



Madagascar has long fascinated scientists, naturalists, and explorers alike. This large Indian Ocean island is home to some of the world’s rarest species. More than 80% of its wildlife can’t be found anywhere else. Lemurs leap through treetops. Baobabs rise like ancient towers. Orchids bloom in forests untouched for centuries. The island is a living archive of evolution’s creativity.



Its uniqueness stems from a deep, ancient break. Around 88 million years ago, Madagascar drifted away from India. Once separated, its ecosystems evolved in isolation. As generations passed, this seclusion led to extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. But amid all the celebrated species and stories, silent helpers have gone unnoticed for too long: the lizards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-lizards-spread-seeds-in-forests">How lizards spread seeds in forests</h2>



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-forests-that-benefit-people-also-shelter-endangered-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> don’t just drop seeds nearby. They depend on animals to move them across the land. This natural process, called endozoochory, involves an animal eating fruit or seeds. Later, those seeds get expelled in the animal’s droppings. Carried far from the parent plant, the seeds land in fresh ground, ready to sprout.



Most of what we know about endozoochory comes from studying mammals and birds. Lemurs, for example, are known for their role in this cycle in Madagascar. Birds also help, flying great distances and spreading seeds with every flight. But reptiles, particularly lizards, haven’t received the same attention.



That’s a mistake, say researchers at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>. They argue that lizards have an important part to play too. These animals may not be classic fruit-lovers, but a few species do consume fruits and other plant parts. Their habits, movement, and resilience may allow them to serve as crucial seed dispersers in ways we’ve only just begun to understand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lizards-matter-in-forest-ecosystems">Why lizards matter in forest ecosystems</h2>



Unlike lemurs or fruit bats, most lizards don’t depend on fruit. Less than 10% of lizard species are considered frugivores. Yet those that do eat fruit may influence plant life in ways researchers are only now beginning to measure. Some species even serve as primary seed dispersers for specific plants, especially in areas where larger animals have disappeared.



"Lizards are under-appreciated as seed dispersers in many forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>, but we hypothesized that they may play a more important role across a broader range of regions than previously recognized," said corresponding author Ryobu Fukuyama.



To test this idea, Fukuyama and his colleagues designed a study focused on three lizard species in Madagascar. These were the Malagasy Giant Chameleon, Cuvier's Madagascar Swift, and the Western Girdled Lizard. 



All three species are omnivorous and known to eat fruit occasionally. However, their potential as seed spreaders had never been seriously evaluated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-lizard-behavior">Observing lizard behavior</h2>



The team set up camp in a tropical dry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> in Madagascar. They watched the lizards carefully, recorded their feeding behavior, and collected fecal samples. 



They also ran germination tests to see if the seeds could still grow after passing through a lizard’s gut. This detailed approach helped them track not just what lizards eat, but what they contribute to the ecosystem.



Their findings surprised them. The lizards consumed fruits from more than 20 different plant species. Even more interesting, these plants were often not the same ones favored by lemurs. This suggested that lizards might not just support the same trees as other animals. They might help expand the forest’s botanical diversity.



Fecal analyses confirmed that many seeds remained viable. The lizards were not just accidental consumers. They acted as functioning carriers in the seed cycle, allowing new plants to take root away from their original source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-lizards-help-forests-recover">How lizards help forests recover</h2>



Madagascar’s forests face serious threats. Logging, slash-and-burn farming, and habitat destruction have left scars across the landscape. As forests shrink, large fruit-eaters like lemurs lose their homes. When they vanish, the trees that rely on them struggle to reproduce.



But lizards are survivors. They adapt to disturbed environments. Where lemurs falter, these reptiles often continue to thrive. That adaptability may give them a vital role in the regrowth of damaged forests. As long as they keep consuming fruit and dispersing seeds, they could help heal the land.



Their contributions might not replace larger animals completely. But they offer hope for certain plant species that would otherwise vanish. In places where biodiversity is already under pressure, every small helper matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-still-don-t-know">What we still don’t know</h2>



The Kyoto University team views this study as only the beginning. They’ve revealed that lizards do eat fruit and spread seeds. But many questions remain. How far do these lizards travel? Do they prefer certain plants over others? Can they truly support forest restoration over time?



"Although lizards in Madagascar consume fruits from many plant species, other aspects of their role as seed dispersers, such as dispersal distances, remain poorly understood," commented Fukuyama.



Future research will explore these unknowns. Understanding dispersal distance, for instance, will help determine how effective lizards really are in forest regeneration. Scientists also want to study whether lizard seed dispersal supports tree diversity, or whether it favors only a few resilient species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-look-at-old-forests">A new way to look at old forests</h2>



Madagascar’s ecological story is still unfolding. Its forests, once dense and vibrant, now face an uncertain future. Conservation efforts often focus on charismatic animals, the ones we notice first. Lemurs, chameleons, and rare orchids get headlines. But the lizards, often silent and unnoticed, may be doing more than we imagined.



They offer us a chance to rethink how forests work. Even in the most unexpected corners of nature, there are creatures playing vital roles. By understanding them better, we can protect not only individual species but the living systems that keep our planet healthy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/btp.70052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotropica</a>.



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How lizards help keep Madagascar's forests alive

In the forests of Madagascar, small lizards do more than...

Somewhere in what is now northern Cameroon, a single stride pressed into wet river mud - three clawed toes, each the length of a hand. Minutes later, the water receded, silt drifted over the mark, and the print was saved for posterity. 



Fast-forward 120 million years, and that fossilized step helps rewrite the map of an ancient world.



Back in the Early Cretaceous, Cameroon was stitched to the elbow of northeastern Brazil. There was no Atlantic Ocean, only a low, swampy plain linking the two landmasses. 



Long-necked plant-eaters lumbered through reed beds, sharp-toothed hunters trailed them, and every footfall wrote a record in clay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-tracks-pre-atlantic-ocean">Dinosaur tracks pre-Atlantic Ocean</h2>



Geologists call that vanished landscape <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/gondwana" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, the southern supercontinent that had only recently split from Pangea. 



Around 140 million years ago, tectonic forces tugged at its seams, opening rifts that would become the South Atlantic. 



Even as magma welled up offshore, rivers still braided across the future ocean floor, allowing wildlife to wander freely between the continents. 



Those paths are now exposed in two places more than 3,700 miles apart: the Koum Basin of Cameroon and the Borborema region of Brazil.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_ornithopod_Passagem-das-Pedra_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_ornithopod_Passagem-das-Pedra_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="A long ornithopod trackway at Passagem das Pedra, Sousa Basin preserved in floodplain deposits of Lower Cretaceous. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho." class="wp-image-1973174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A long ornithopod trackway at Passagem das Pedra, Sousa Basin preserved in floodplain deposits of Lower Cretaceous. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho.</figcaption></figure>



The connection comes into sharp relief thanks to a study led by paleontologist <a href="https://www.smu.edu/dedman/academics/departments/earth-sciences/people/emeriti/l-jacobs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Louis L. Jacobs</a> of Southern Methodist University (<a href="https://www.smu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMU</a>). 



His international team catalogued more than 260 dinosaur tracks in both basins across the Atlantic Ocean and showed that “in terms of age, these footprints were similar,” Jacobs said. 



“In their geological and plate tectonic contexts, they were also similar. In terms of their shapes, they are almost identical.” 



The twin sites, once side by side, preserve what researchers now call the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Late-Cretaceous-dispersal-of-dinosaurs-across-marine-barriers-1-Titanosauria-South_fig12_346582740" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaur Dispersal Corridor</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-tracks-tell-pre-atlantic-dinosaur-tales">Stone tracks tell pre-Atlantic dinosaur tales</h2>



Most of the footprints belong to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-toed theropods</a>, the fleet carnivores of their day. A handful of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauropod</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-million-year-old-dinosaur-eggs-show-glimpses-of-life-in-jurassic-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithopod</a> impressions round out the roster, hinting at herds of plant-eaters trudging through the same wetlands. 



Sediments alongside the tracks contain pollen that also dates to about 120 million years ago, reinforcing the match between both sides of the Atlantic rift.



“One of the youngest and narrowest geological connections between Africa and South America was the elbow of northeastern Brazil nestled against what is now the coast of Cameroon along the Gulf of Guinea,” Jacobs explained. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Sousa-Basin_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Sousa-Basin_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="Theropod footprint from Sousa Basin, Lower Cretaceous of northeastern Brazil. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho" class="wp-image-1973179"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Theropod footprint from Sousa Basin, Lower Cretaceous of northeastern Brazil. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho</figcaption></figure>



“The two continents were continuous along that narrow stretch, so that animals on either side of that connection could potentially move across it.” 



The footprints freeze that moment when the land bridge was still open yet fragile, a snapshot just before the continents drifted apart for good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-along-the-dispersal-corridor">Life along the dispersal corridor</h2>



River valleys served as natural highways. Their floodplains offered water, sheltering vegetation, and soft ground ideal for capturing prints. 



“Rivers flowed and lakes formed in the basins. Plants fed the herbivores and supported a food chain," Jacobs continued. 



"Muddy sediments left by the rivers and lakes contain dinosaur footprints, including those of meat-eaters, documenting that these river valleys could provide specific avenues for life to travel across the continents 120 million years ago.” 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_gondwana_map-path-walked_credit-NMSU_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_gondwana_map-path-walked_credit-NMSU_1s.webp" alt="Paleogeographic reconstruction of the South Atlantic during the earliest Aptian (120 Ma). Red stars represent the Borborema region of Brazil (left red star) and Northern Cameroon footprint-bearing localities (right red star). The Borborema/ Benin-Nigeria Structural Provinces (as shown by Matos et al., 2021a, fig. 1) can be imagined as an ovoid shape with the narrower end just west of the left red star, and the wider end looped beyond the right red star. (Modified from Scotese, 2021)." class="wp-image-1973172"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Paleogeographic reconstruction of the South Atlantic during the earliest Aptian (120 Ma). Red stars represent the Borborema region of Brazil (left red star) and Northern Cameroon footprint-bearing localities (right red star). The Borborema/ Benin-Nigeria Structural Provinces can be imagined as an ovoid shape with the narrower end just west of the left red star, and the wider end looped beyond the right red star. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SMU</figcaption></figure>



With every rainy season, new tracks overlapped the old, building a layered story of migration.



Beyond tracks, bones tell of a thriving ecosystem. 



Fossils from nearby basins include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/benggwigwishingasuchus-eremicarminis-new-triassic-crocodile-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodilians</a>, turtles, fish, and even early mammals such as Abelodon abeli, a curious tooth-shaped animal that hints at the deep roots of modern mammal lineages. 



Each discovery fills gaps in the puzzle of how life adapted while the ground beneath it slowly tore apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-meet-fossils">Footprints meet fossils</h2>



<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024JAfES.20905129N/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Koum</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-of-the-Babouri-Figuil-Basin-as-well-as-the-main-hydrographic-network-of-the_fig1_357405559" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Babouri-Figuil</a> basins are half-graben structures - troughs formed when crust stretches and drops along faults. Similar basins pepper both coasts of the South Atlantic, but few are as rich in terrestrial fossils. 



That makes northern Cameroon a focal point for anyone tracing dinosaur journeys across Gondwana. The first finds came to light in the 1980s during the multinational <a href="https://www.appluslaboratories.com/global/en/about-us/innovation/pireco-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIRCAOC project</a>, and newer digs still turn up surprise specimens despite the region’s remote location.



In Brazil, the matching tracks lie within red siltstones that once lined ancient lagoons. Their fine grain preserves claw imprints and skin traces in remarkable detail. 



Together, the African and South American sites confirm that dinosaurs strolled across a contiguous landmass long after <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangea</a> began unraveling, using the same river corridors that would later drown beneath the Atlantic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-tracks-matter-today">Why these tracks matter today</h2>



Studying the dispersed footprints sharpens computer models that reconstruct continental drift, improving predictions of where oil, minerals, or groundwater might reside today. 



They also highlight how living routes shift as climates and coastlines change, offering lessons for wildlife facing modern habitat fragmentation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Koum-Basin_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Koum-Basin_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="Two representative theropod tracks from the Koum Basin in northern Cameroon. Credit: SMU" class="wp-image-1973177"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two representative theropod tracks from the Koum Basin in northern Cameroon. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SMU</figcaption></figure>



Visitors can now follow marked trails to view several of the Cameroonian prints, stepping where theropods once hunted. Local guides say the site feels like “a story written in stone.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-tracks-reunited-across-the-atlantic">Dinosaur tracks reunited across the Atlantic</h2>



That story is still unfolding as researchers scan, map, and compare each trackway. Future excavations may uncover additional corridors, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric migration</a> was as complex and wide-ranging as journeys undertaken by animals in the present day.



The tracks remind us that continents move at a snail’s pace, yet over millions of years that pace is enough to reshape oceans, climates, and the paths available to life. 



By reading the mudstone diaries of Cameroon and Brazil, scientists glimpse how creatures responded to those changes - walking, feeding, and multiplying across a supercontinent that no longer exists, but whose memory endures beneath our feet.



The full study was <a href="https://smu.box.com/s/e2ghm8ycjb1zf6hu9pooypdl4sosylbn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in print by New Mexico Museum of Natural History &amp; Science



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How did dinosaurs migrate to live in every part of the world? Scientists think they know

Somewhere in what is now northern Cameroon, a single stride...

Bumble bees are among the planet’s most valuable pollinators. Their colonies power ecosystems and agriculture alike. But few people know how much pressure rests on a single queen during the earliest stage of colony life. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have found that bumble bee queens deliberately pause and take breaks from egg laying. These pauses are not random - they follow a rhythm, possibly tied to the future success of the colony.



This discovery challenges our understanding of eusocial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-affect-bumble-bee-health-in-complex-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect behavior</a>. It shows that even in nature’s most cooperative systems, rest and recovery have a place. The queen bee’s pause might be one of the most important strategies in her survival playbook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-queen-starts-alone-then-takes-a-pause">Queen starts alone, then takes a pause</h2>



At the start, the queen does everything. She builds the nest, collects food, warms the brood using her wing muscles, and lays eggs. 



But researchers noticed a pattern: queens lay eggs in bursts, then pause for several days. This pause seems universal and isn’t caused by stress or lab conditions.



“I saw these pauses early on, just by taking daily photos of the nests,” said Blanca Peto, the study’s lead author. “It wasn’t something I expected. I wanted to know what was happening during those breaks.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-queen-s-pause-supports-brood-timing">Queen’s pause supports brood timing</h2>



In a controlled experiment with 62 Bombus impatiens queens, every queen paused egg-laying after an initial burst. 



On average, the pause began around 4 days after the first eggs and lasted 7 to 8 days. These breaks were not random. They matched brood development stages.



Additional tests showed that when researchers added pupae or older larvae to nests, queens resumed egg-laying sooner. With no brood, queens took 12.5 days to restart. With pupae, they resumed in just 1.5 days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-of-the-queen-pause">Purpose of the queen pause</h2>



“There’s something about the presence of pupae that signals it’s safe or necessary to start producing again,” Peto explained. 



This suggests that queens are responding to the developmental status of their brood. The pause may allow queens to avoid producing more eggs than they can support.



Older larvae and pupae in the brood act as signals that help is coming. Once these brood members mature, they become workers and take over care duties. This frees the queen to focus on egg-laying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-and-social-cues">Biological and social cues</h2>



Ovarian resorption adds another layer. During the pause, queens not only stop laying eggs, they also resorb oocytes, redirecting resources away from reproduction. This likely helps the queen focus on caring for the existing brood.



After the pause, oocyte production increases again, especially when late-stage brood or workers are present.



Even when well-fed in lab conditions, queens paused. That suggests an internal biological or social cue, not environmental stress, drives the behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaks-seen-in-other-species-too">Breaks seen in other species too</h2>



The research did not stop at one species. Queens from three other bumble bee species (B. vosnesenskii, B. mckayi, and B. frigidus) also paused during early nest founding. That hints at a common strategy across solitary-founding eusocial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebee-queens-have-an-odd-preference-for-contaminated-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>.



The researchers propose that this pause represents a life history strategy. It allows queens to time egg-laying with the emergence of helpers. This helps them balance care for current brood with future colony expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-workers-keep-the-momentum-going">Workers keep the momentum going</h2>



The study also found that workers are critical to keeping queens productive. In experiments where newly emerged workers were removed, queens laid fewer eggs than those with workers present. Egg cup numbers and total brood size dropped significantly in nests without workers.



This shows that queen egg-laying isn’t only internally controlled. It is also socially regulated. Once workers appear, they relieve the queen of caregiving, which enables her to focus on reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



With bumble bee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> in decline due to pesticide use, habitat loss, and climate change, understanding queen behavior becomes crucial. 



Conservation efforts that support queens during the vulnerable solo-founding phase may boost colony survival.



“Without queens, there’s no colony. And without colonies, we lose essential pollinators,” said Peto. “These breaks may be the very reason colonies succeed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colonies-depend-on-flexible-queen-pauses">Colonies depend on flexible queen pauses</h2>



This study challenges the long-standing belief that social insect queens are constantly reproductive. For bumble bees, at least, reproduction is more flexible. Queens adjust their output based on nest conditions, brood development, and social signals.



By focusing on the solitary nest founding stage, this work offers fresh insight into how social structures shape reproductive strategies. And it all starts with a queen bee taking a pause.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-025-02364-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Bumble bee queens take strategic 'breaks' while forming their colonies

Bumble bees are among the planet’s most valuable pollinators. Their...

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured out. Animals like lizards and snakes, they said, relied mostly on their senses of sight and smell, while their inner ears handled balance and little else. 



That tidy picture just got a shake-up - literally. Fresh research finds that a gecko’s balance organ also acts as a sensitive microphone for ground-borne vibrations, giving the animal a stealthy extra sense.



That discovery matters because it rewrites part of the evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-hawks-evolved-super-hearing-abilities-to-locate-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">story of hearing</a>. It hints that an ancient vibration pathway never vanished when vertebrates crawled onto land; it merely slipped below the scientific radar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-tokay-gecko">Studying the tokay gecko</h2>



The new study zeroed in on the tokay gecko, a hardy lizard famous for its loud bark. Deep inside its skull sits the saccule, a fluid-filled pouch long tagged as a balance sensor. 



Researchers gently recorded nerve signals while delivering low-frequency shakes - think deep rumbles between 50 and 200 Hz. The saccule lit up. 



Those frequencies fall well below the range the gecko’s eardrum usually detects, showing that the animal runs two parallel sound channels: one for airborne squeaks, one for tremors underfoot.



“The ear, as we know it, hears airborne sound. But this ancient inner pathway, which is typically linked to balance, helps geckos detect vibrations that travel through media such as ground or water,” explained study co-author Catherine Carr, a Distinguished University Professor of Biology at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>. 



“This pathway exists in amphibians and fish, and now it has been proven to be preserved in lizards as well. Our findings shed light on how the auditory system evolved from what you see in fish to what you see in land animals including humans.”



Carr and her colleagues published their findings in Current Biology, under the title “Auditory pathway for detection of vibration in the tokay gecko.” Leading the bench work was postdoctoral researcher Dawei Han, who first explored the idea during his graduate studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-some-animals-sense-vibrations">How some animals sense vibrations</h2>



Electrical traces told only part of the story. The team also mapped the gecko brain and found a relay station called the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39368471/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nucleus vestibularis ovalis</a>. 



This pocket receives input solely from the saccule, then forwards the information to higher auditory centers. It behaves like a dedicated vibration highway, separate from the regular hearing roadbed. 



Similar brain nuclei turned up in snakes and the ancient New Zealand reptile Sphenodon, hinting at a shared blueprint across the reptile family tree.



“Many snakes and lizards were thought to be ‘mute’ or ‘deaf’ in the sense that they do not vocalize or hear sounds well,” Han explained. 



“But it turns out they could potentially be communicating via <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treehoppers-secretly-communicate-by-making-plants-vibrate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vibrational signals</a> using this sensory pathway instead, which really changes the way scientists have thought about animal perception overall.” 



Desert sand-diving snakes, burrowing skinks, and even turtle hatchlings thumping inside their nests may all trade information by shaking their surroundings rather than shouting through the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-this-new-animal-sense">Evolution of this new animal sense</h2>



Fish rely on inner-ear organs to feel pressure waves in water, while amphibians straddle both water and land. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geckos-can-recognize-their-own-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gecko</a> work suggests that early tetrapods carried a vibration sense ashore and kept it alongside eardrum-based hearing. 



Over millions of years, some lineages dialed it down, but others - like the tokay - held on. That persistence reminds biologists that evolution often repurposes old tools instead of discarding them.



“Think about when you’re at a live rock concert. It’s so loud that you can feel your whole head and body vibrate in the sound field. You can feel the music, rather than just hearing it," Carr continued.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1s.webp" alt="University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Credit: Duncan Leitch" class="wp-image-1973168"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Duncan Leitch</figcaption></figure>



"That feeling suggests that the human vestibular system may be stimulated during those loud concerts, meaning our senses of hearing and balance may also be closely linked.” 



Her point: our own balance organs might pitch in when sounds get strong enough, blurring the line between feeling and hearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“The implications of this research extend beyond the world of reptiles,” Han said. “As we uncover these hidden mechanisms, we’re also gaining a richer and more nuanced picture of how animals perceive and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-has-its-own-internet-and-were-only-beginning-to-understand-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with their environments</a> - and potentially, new insights into our own sensory experiences.” 



If the vestibular system partners with the cochlea at extreme volumes, it could influence therapies for balance disorders or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicadas-deafening-noise-can-cause-ear-ringing-worsen-tinnitus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tinnitus</a>. 



Engineers designing earthquake sensors or underwater microphones might also borrow tricks from the saccule’s elegant hair cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-never-ceases-to-amaze">Nature never ceases to amaze</h2>



Geckos clinging to cave walls are now known to sense the faint shiver of approaching footsteps. Snakes gliding through leaf litter likely feel the scurry of prey. And humans, rocking out in packed arenas, might engage an ancient inner circuit we rarely acknowledge. 



The new research opens a wider conversation about how vertebrates keep tabs on their world - through both ears and bones.



By tuning into the quiet language of vibrations, scientists are uncovering a sensory mosaic that stretches back hundreds of millions of years.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01227-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Animals found to have a 'sixth sense,' changing some evolutionary theories

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured...

Power is not just about strength. Sometimes, it’s about who dares to act fast. In New Zealand’s coastal waters, the spotty wrasse (Notolabrus celidotus) demonstrates this with an almost cinematic twist. This small fish, capable of rapid sex change, has become the center of a remarkable scientific discovery.



New research from <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/about/our-identity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ōtākou Whakaihu Waka</a> has revealed that when social order among these fish collapses, biology and behavior shift almost instantly. 



The study, published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, examines what happens when the top fish in the hierarchy disappears. What unfolds is a fascinating sequence of behavioral dominance and brain transformation that begins within minutes.



The findings offer fresh insight into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living creatures</a> manage power, identity, and sex. And in the case of the spotty wrasse, these things are deeply connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-size-drives-sex-change">Fish size drives sex change</h2>



The spotty wrasse is a protogynous species. This means that younger individuals are female and they become males as they grow larger. 



The study tracked how this transition is linked to changes in dominance rank. Larger fish quickly climbed to the top and began behaving more aggressively.



“In many of the tanks, second-ranked fish increased their aggression within just a few minutes after removal of the dominant fish,” noted lead author Haylee Quertermous.



The study confirmed a key prediction of the size-advantage model. Size and dominance are tightly linked. Bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-use-the-moon-cycle-to-manipulate-their-offsprings-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> showed more aggressive behaviors and had higher dominance scores. Smaller ones showed submissive behaviors and avoided confrontations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-second-in-line-fish-take-charge">Second-in-line fish take charge </h2>



The researchers formed 11 groups of five female-looking initial phase (IP) fish. They ranked them by watching behaviors like "rushing" (aggression) and "escaping" (submission). 



After 11 days, the experts removed the top-ranked fish from some groups and observed the fallout. The second-in-line often stepped up immediately. Their aggression spiked, while submission dropped. 



This shift took less than 30 minutes. The removed fish in control groups were reintroduced right away. In those tanks, behavior remained mostly stable, except for slight agitation in the dominant fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-sex-change-starts-internally">Fish sex change starts internally</h2>



In seven of the 11 experimental tanks, the researchers found that the dominant fish had already begun the internal process of changing sex from female to male.



Although these individuals still appeared female on the outside, closer examination through histological analysis revealed that their gonads were undergoing masculinization. 



This internal shift in reproductive tissue occurred even before any visible signs of sex change had emerged.



The findings strongly suggest that the fish’s behavior and brain activity begin transforming well before the body outwardly reflects the transition. 



In other words, the social and neurological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-corals-have-sex-new-secrets-of-spawning-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> that initiate sex change are set in motion early, preceding the physical transformation that follows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-reacts-fast">The brain reacts fast</h2>



The researchers studied brain activity using pS6 immunostaining. This technique highlights recent neural activity. 



The experts found that 9 out of 10 brain regions involved in social behavior were more active in the newly dominant fish (rank 2) compared to lower-ranked ones.



These brain areas included the preoptic area (POA), periaqueductal gray (PAG), and parts of the telencephalon. 



The only region that showed reduced activity in dominant fish was the anterior tuberal nucleus (aTn). This could reflect reduced defensive behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-signals-and-power-shift">Brain signals and power shift</h2>



Principal component analysis showed a strong link between behavioral changes and neural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>. 



Aggression increased in tandem with higher brain activation, especially in the social behavior network. The aTn, in contrast, had strong negative correlations with most other brain areas.



Rank 2 fish formed a distinct group in brain-behavior plots. This cluster separated them from both lower-ranked fish and their former selves before dominance. 



The researchers suggest this rapid shift in brain activity helps kick-start the complex process of sex change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fish-sex-change-matters">Why fish sex change matters</h2>



This study offers rare insights into how social disruption influences sex and power. Quertermous and her colleagues demonstrate that the brain’s decision-making circuits adapt almost instantly to social change.



“They also highlight the importance of social context in shaping individual behavior… even humans,” noted Dr. Kaj Kamstra.



These insights may help manage fisheries with sex-changing species. In New Zealand, for instance, the blue cod fishery could benefit from understanding how fish social structures respond to environmental changes.



Spotty wrasse do not just switch sex over weeks. They start rewiring their brains and shifting behavior within minutes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Sex changing fish waste no time claiming top spot in hierarchy

Power is not just about strength. Sometimes, it’s about who...

Humpback whales are famous for their long migrations from icy Antarctic waters to warm tropical seas, where they are known to breed and give birth. But new findings suggest these epic journeys may not be as necessary as once thought - at least when it comes to calving.



It turns out that humpback whales are giving birth much farther south than previously documented, with sightings as far south as Tasmania and New Zealand.



The research team, based at the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New South Wales</a>, studied sightings, strandings, and surveys to piece together a new picture of where young humpback whales are being born.



The findings challenge old assumptions and point to a need for broader conservation measures along the migration path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-humpback-whale-birthplaces">Surprising humpback whale birthplaces</h2>



"Hundreds of humpback calves were born well outside the established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-sing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding grounds</a>," said Dr. Tracey Rogers of the University of New South Wales, senior author of the study.



These calves weren’t just found drifting a bit off course. Some were spotted in areas full of human activity. 



"In July 2023, during a whale-watching tour, I encountered a mom and calf at the mouth of Newcastle Harbor - the busiest shipping port in Eastern Australia," said Jane McPhee-Frew, a Ph.D. candidate at the University of New South Wales. 



"The calf was tiny, obviously brand new. What were they doing there? But none of my tourism colleagues seemed surprised." This encounter sparked a deeper look into calving locations. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-of-humpback-whale-births">Records of humpback whale births</h2>



The researchers compiled data from a wide range of sources, including citizen science sightings, government surveys, and whale stranding records dating back to 1991. 



The team also utilized data from New Zealand’s Department of Conservation Cook Strait Whale Project and Australian wildlife authorities.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whale_baby_birth-insights_credit-Vanessa-Risku_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whale_baby_birth-insights_credit-Vanessa-Risku_1s.webp" alt="A mother and baby whale swim at Kiama, New South Wales, Australia. Credit: Vanessa Risku - Instagram: droning_my_sorrows" class="wp-image-1973052"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A mother and baby whale swim at Kiama, New South Wales, Australia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Vanessa Risku - Instagram: droning_my_sorrows</figcaption></figure>



In total, the team identified 209 records involving newborn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-struggles-of-pregnant-humpback-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback calves</a>. The records included 11 confirmed births, 41 strandings, and 168 sightings of live calves - at least 169 individuals in all.



For many of these humpback whales, the direction of travel was known, and 118 were continuing their journey north even after giving birth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extensive-long-distance-migrations">Extensive long-distance migrations</h2>



"Humpback whale populations undertake extensive long-distance migrations from the Southern Ocean to breeding grounds in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropics</a>," said Dr. Adelaide Dedden of Australia’s National Parks and Wildlife Service. 



"They rely heavily on body reserves from an enormous amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-krill-keep-time-in-a-world-of-endless-days-or-nights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic krill</a> to support the physiological costs of the journey and reproduction."



One of the southernmost calves was recorded in Port Arthur, Tasmania - 1,500 kilometers farther south than scientists thought humpbacks could calve. Another was found slightly farther north in Kaikoura, New Zealand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlooked-behavior-of-humpback-whales">Overlooked behavior of humpback whales </h2>



Interestingly, most of these observations are from recent years. About two-thirds occurred in 2023 or 2024. 



Still, this behavior may not be new. The researchers believe it may have gone unnoticed before due to the dramatic decrease in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whale-populations-continue-to-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale populations</a> during the era of commercial whaling.



"I think it's very likely that this pattern has always existed, but the low number of whales obscured it from view," said McPhee-Frew. "The Eastern Australia humpback population narrowly escaped extinction, but now there are 30, 40, or 50,000 in this population alone."



"It doesn't happen overnight, but the recovery of humpback whales, and the return of their full range of behaviors and distribution, just goes to show that with good policies built on good science we can have excellent outcomes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-migrate-at-all">Why migrate at all?</h2>



If humpbacks can give birth so far south, why do they bother migrating at all? That question remains unanswered. 



One theory is that while births can happen anywhere along the migration route, the benefits of tropical calving grounds - warmer waters and lower risks from predators - still outweigh the risks of staying south.



In some areas, like Flinders Bay in Western Australia, the researchers found potential nursery zones. While most calves still seem to be born in the tropics, the new data shows that births outside of these regions are more common than once believed.



The team emphasized that this isn’t just a curiosity - it has real conservation implications. Some of the calves seen outside of the usual zones were injured. That suggests greater vulnerability, especially in areas with heavy human traffic, like shipping lanes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-calves-on-the-move">Protecting calves on the move</h2>



As whale numbers rise and sightings increase, the need for broader protection becomes clearer. Researchers are calling for more awareness of calving outside traditional breeding zones. That means rethinking how we define critical whale habitats.



"This study was based on opportunistic observations," noted McPhee-Frew. "This data is excellent for answering questions like, 'are there newborn whales here?' But we can't stretch the interpretations too far."



"It might appear that we see more calves the further north we go, or that we have seen more over time. But it could be that there are more people whale-watching in the north, or more cameras and social media sharing in recent years."



"We can only document what we see," added Dr. Vanessa Pirotta of Macquarie University. "Perhaps there are things happening in our ocean that we are yet to find out."



For now, this discovery expands our view of where humpback whales are giving birth. As populations of these gentle giants continue to recover, further research is needed to protect them wherever they go.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1545526/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Humpback whales are giving birth where we least expected

Humpback whales are famous for their long migrations from icy...

Whales are known to be intelligent. They use complex sounds, travel in social groups, and show strong memory. But what happens when they do something not tied to feeding or mating? Could they interact in a creative and playful way using bubble rings?



For the first time, researchers from the <a href="https://www.seti.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a> and the University of California at Davis (<a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>) have documented humpback whales producing bubble rings during friendly encounters with humans.



These bubble rings differ from the bubble nets used in hunting. They appear like spinning smoke donuts, rising gently from the deep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-insights-into-nonhuman-creativity">Rare insights into nonhuman creativity</h2>



The scientists from <a href="https://bmccowanlab.com/current-research/humpback-whale-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WhaleSETI</a> recorded 39 bubble rings from 11 whales across 12 episodes. These were observed in Hawai'i, the Dominican Republic, Mo’orea, and off the U.S. Atlantic coast.



The study offers rare insights into nonhuman creativity, and suggests that ring creation could reflect play, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a>, or curiosity.



At least one whale was seen making a ring using only one nostril. This detail, revealed through frame-by-frame analysis, hints at fine motor control in these large mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-whales-create-bubble-rings">Why do whales create bubble rings?</h2>



“Because of current limitations on technology, an important assumption of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence is that extraterrestrial intelligence and life will be interested in making contact and so target human receivers,” said <a href="https://www.seti.org/our-scientists/laurance-doyle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Laurance Doyle</a>, SETI Institute scientist and co-author on the paper.



“This important assumption is certainly supported by the independent evolution of curious behavior in humpback <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-predicts-whale-movements-to-reduce-deadly-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>.”



Bubble rings were not released in the presence of prey or during fights. Instead, whales appeared relaxed and moved slowly. 



They often approached boats or swimmers before making a ring. In nine episodes labeled inquisitive, the whales ignored other whales and focused on nearby humans or vessels.



Seven of eight ring blowers swam close - within one body length - of boats or swimmers. In one case, a whale’s ring partially surrounded a swimmer at the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-play-or-signal-the-debate-continues">Play or signal? The debate continues</h2>



“Humpback whales live in complex societies, are acoustically diverse, use bubble tools and assist other species being harassed by predators,” said co-lead author Dr. Fred Sharpe. 



“Now, akin to a candidate signal, we show they are blowing bubble rings in our direction in an apparent attempt to playfully interact, observe our response, and/or engage in some form of communication.”



While bubble rings have been seen in dolphins and beluga whales, this is the first well-documented case in baleen whales. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whales_bubble-smoke-rings_human-communication_montage_WhaleSETI_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/humpback-whales_bubble-smoke-rings_human-communication_montage_WhaleSETI_1s.webp" alt="Composite image of at least one bubble ring from each episode. Photo attributions are as follows: (a) D. Knaub, (b) F. Nicklen, (c) D. Perrine, (d) W. Davis, (e) G. Flipse, (f) A. Henry, (g) M. Gaughan, (h) H. Romanchik, (i) D. Patton, (j) D. Perrine, (k) S. Istrup, (l) S. Hilbourne." class="wp-image-1973059"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Composite image of at least one bubble ring from each episode. Photo attributions are as follows: (a) D. Knaub, (b) F. Nicklen, (c) D. Perrine, (d) W. Davis, (e) G. Flipse, (f) A. Henry, (g) M. Gaughan, (h) H. Romanchik, (i) D. Patton, (j) D. Perrine, (k) S. Istrup, (l) S. Hilbourne. Click image to enlarge. Credit: WhaleSETI</figcaption></figure>



Earlier drone surveys covering thousands of hours in Hawai'i, Alaska, Antarctica, and Bermuda found no rings when humans were absent. This suggests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-in-hot-water-will-climate-change-disrupt-their-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpbacks</a> may direct these displays at us, either playfully or communicatively.



According to the researchers, the bubble rings often came with slow rolling, head lifts, or spy-hopping. These playful actions support the idea that ring-blowing is not accidental. One whale even played with seaweed before producing a ring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-alien-intelligence">Searching for alien intelligence</h2>



“Humpback whales often exhibit inquisitive, friendly behavior towards boats and human swimmers,” said co-lead author Jodi Frediani. 



“We’ve now located a dozen whales from populations around the world, the majority of which have voluntarily approached boats and swimmers blowing bubble rings during these episodes of curious behavior.”



Most rings were generated using the blowhole, with no dramatic pre-ring gestures. Unlike dolphins that prepare visibly before blowing a ring, whales give no warning. The action appears smooth and sudden, with no body jerks or O-shaped naris.



The team suggests that humpbacks may be engaging in “play with a purpose.” Play could serve as a flexible behavior for testing environments, objects, and responses. It may also allow interspecies connection, much like a dolphin lifting a swimmer or a whale inspecting a human.



As with early efforts to classify alien signals, recognizing play and curiosity in other species teaches us how to listen. 



The WhaleSETI team believes behaviors like ring-blowing may serve as training data to improve algorithms for decoding unknown signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-whale-bubble-rings-nbsp">Significance of whale bubble rings&nbsp;</h2>



The whales showed no signs of fear, annoyance, or aggression during these events. Many lingered after producing the ring, possibly watching our reactions. One whale made 11 rings in a single episode, suggesting intentional repetition.



Patterns of bubbles - rings, plumes, bursts - may form a continuum. Some bubbles might be failed rings. Others may convey intent or social cues. Documenting these actions and their contexts can improve how we understand other minds.



The researchers urge whale watchers, swimmers, and boaters to report such sightings. Include location, behavior, and if possible, visual proof. These citizen reports help build a richer picture of whale behavior and potentially interspecies connection.



Karen Pryor, a renowned animal trainer, noted that patterns of bubble production in cetaceans constitute a mode of communication not available to terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-patterns-in-whale-songs-predict-ecosystem-shifts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>.



If whales try to communicate with us through bubble rings, even playfully, we should be listening.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mms.70026" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Mammal Science</a>.



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Scientists photograph whales blowing 'bubble smoke rings' to communicate with humans

Whales are known to be intelligent. They use complex sounds,...

The world’s oceans are home to some of the most iconic marine megafauna, including sharks, whales, turtles, and seals. These ocean giants sit at the top of ocean food webs, playing critical roles in keeping marine ecosystems healthy. 



But they face mounting threats as human pressures reshape the oceans they call home.



A major new study has tracked the movements of over 100 marine megafaunal species to pinpoint the most important areas in our oceans for urgent conservation.



The research, conducted by a global team including scientists from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>) and The Australian National University (<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANU</a>), highlights where protective efforts must focus.



The study is part of the UN-endorsed MegaMove project, a massive collaboration involving nearly 400 scientists from more than 50 countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-marine-megafauna-the-basics">Understanding marine megafauna - the basics</h2>



Marine megafauna are the giants of the ocean - large animals like whales, dolphins, sharks, sea turtles, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-are-now-habitats-for-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant rays</a>. These creatures play critical roles in maintaining the health of marine ecosystems. 



For example, whales help circulate nutrients by diving deep and then surfacing to breathe, effectively stirring the ocean layers. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea turtles</a> keep seagrass beds healthy by grazing, while sharks regulate the food web by preying on the sick and weak. 



These species aren't just beautiful and fascinating - they're essential. Their presence supports biodiversity and helps oceans function as stable, resilient systems.



Despite their importance, marine megafauna face mounting threats from human activity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-face-severe-destruction-from-bottom-trawling/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Overfishing</a>, ship strikes, entanglement in plastic waste, noise pollution, and habitat loss all take a toll. 



Climate change compounds these challenges by warming waters and disrupting migration and breeding patterns. Many of these animals are long-lived and slow to reproduce, so their populations can't bounce back quickly once harmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-highways-of-marine-megafauna">Hidden highways of marine megafauna</h2>



Currently, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine protected areas</a> (MPAs) cover just eight percent of the world’s oceans. However, the UN High Seas Treaty aims to expand that coverage to 30 percent. This new study shows that while the 30 percent goal is important, it may not be enough.



“The impacts of a changing ocean on marine megafauna are already evident,” said Camrin Braun, assistant scientist and ocean ecologist at WHOI. 



“Our recent work tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine predators</a>, including an earlier WHOI-led study, indicates changes in the ocean are expected to fundamentally alter the status quo for where these species are and how they live.”



The research team tracked animal movements to find areas critical for feeding, breeding, and migration.



“We found that the areas used by these animals overlap significantly with threats like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tuna-fishing-gear-is-harming-oceans-more-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a>, shipping, warming temperatures, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-changing-the-entire-earth-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a>,” said Ana Sequeira, marine ecologist at ANU and the study’s lead author. 



“The 30 percent protection goal is seen as helpful but insufficient to protect all important areas, meaning that additional mitigation strategies are needed to alleviate pressures beyond areas that will be protected.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-effort-to-protect-marine-megafauna">Global effort to protect marine megafauna</h2>



The MegaMove project, launched by Sequeira in 2020, aims to unite the marine movement ecology community to confront the urgent challenges facing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cascading-oxygen-loss-could-endanger-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean life</a>.



“MegaMove brings together an international network of researchers to provide innovative research to advance the global conservation of marine megafauna,” Sequeira said.



The team emphasizes that while expanding protected areas is crucial, it’s equally important to tackle threats outside those zones.



“Our research shows that, in addition to protected areas, implementing mitigation strategies like changing fishing gear, using different lights in nets, and traffic schemes for ships will be key to alleviating current human pressure on these species,” Sequeira explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ranking-oceans-for-conservation">Ranking oceans for conservation</h2>



Study co-lead author Dr. Jorge Rodríguez, from Instituto de Física Interdisciplinar y Sistemas Complejos, shared new insights on how the team identified priority areas for marine megafaunal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-conservation-credit-system-could-reduce-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a>.



“We’ve outlined the top areas for 30 percent protection, ranking them based on their use by marine megafaunal species,” Rodríguez said.



“Our analysis identifies which areas in the global ocean these species are using as residencies or migratory corridors. We specifically focused on ranking higher those areas used for these important behaviors by the largest number of species.”



According to Sequeira, even if the whole 30 percent protection were selected in key areas used by marine megafauna, it would still not be enough to conserve them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-changing-ocean">Preparing for a changing ocean</h2>



Braun emphasized the need for flexibility in conservation strategies as ocean conditions continue to evolve.



“Adaptive management approaches, and stronger mitigation strategies are critical components of the coordinated international approach necessary to conserve these species into the future,” Braun said. 



“We need all the tools we can get if we are going to successfully balance conservation goals with human uses in a changing ocean.”



The study connects closely with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 14, which focuses on life below water.



By combining large-scale tracking data and coordinated international efforts, this research offers a clear path forward - a future where marine megafauna continue to thrive alongside a growing human presence on the seas.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl0239" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Marine megafauna face growing threats - despite global protections

The world’s oceans are home to some of the most...

Scientists and conservation groups are pushing for stronger safeguards for seamounts, which are underwater peaks that support sea life in astonishing ways. 



These submerged elevations can be pivotal feeding stations for marine animals, but they are at risk from a fishing practice known as bottom trawling, which involves scraping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-new-underwater-map-reveals-nearly-100000-hidden-ocean-mountains-seamounts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> floor with heavy nets.



Leading marine researchers have emphasized these concerns at the <a href="https://ocean-climate.org/en/unoc2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Third United Nations Ocean Conference</a> in Nice. 



Dr. Lissette Victorero of the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition (DSCC) explained that the clock is ticking to protect these environments before irreparable harm is done.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-seamounts-support-sea-life">How seamounts support sea life</h2>



Seamounts play a role in supplying shelter and resources for everything from coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a> to whales. They also help certain fish species that rely on the gentle currents flowing around these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater</a> cliffs for breeding grounds and essential nutrients.



“These underwater mountains are biodiversity powerhouses, home to unique communities and vital habitats that are often older than our most ancient forests,” said Dr. Lance Morgan, president of the Marine Conservation Institute.



Scientists say losing these habitats would be a devastating blow, not only for <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> but for local economies that rely on sustainable fishing.&nbsp;



Seamounts are classified by the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations</a> as part of vulnerable marine ecosystems (<a href="https://www.fao.org/in-action/vulnerable-marine-ecosystems/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VMEs</a>), which means special attention is needed. Their fragile coral and sponge populations do not recover quickly once damaged, and bottom trawling can crush them in an instant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-concerns-about-carbon-emissions">Urgent concerns about carbon emissions</h2>



A new <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> published January 17, 2024, found that bottom trawling is responsible for releasing an estimated 370 million metric tons of <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/carbon-dioxide/?intent=121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> into the atmosphere each year. 



Carbon stored in sediments for hundreds of years can be disturbed by the plowing effect of the trawls, sending a portion into surface waters.



“Global warming is like death by a thousand cuts. It’s lots of different sources producing CO2 emissions,” said Enric Sala, following a 2021 <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> he led.



The <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/5301/2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023 Global Carbon Budget</a> shows the planet is already under pressure from rising CO2, so scientists argue that any additional source of emissions is too large to ignore.



<a href="https://usa.oceana.org/bottom-trawling/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seafloor nets</a> that are used by some operators can weigh over 11,000 pounds (nearly 5,000 kg). These nets have heavy chains that drag across the bottom of the ocean, stirring up sediments and releasing gases that might otherwise remain trapped for centuries. 



The disturbance is not limited to one location, as currents can carry sediments far away and spread the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-underwater-mountains-impact-ocean-circulation-climate-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-suggestions-to-protect-deep-sea-life">Suggestions to protect deep-sea life</h2>



Several groups, including the International Programme on the State of the Ocean (<a href="https://stateoftheocean.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPSO</a>), see marine protected areas as a practical solution for curtailing the worst effects. 



Protecting critical sections of the deep ocean may allow key habitats to stay intact while also limiting extra carbon in the air.



A <a href="https://marine-conservation.org/on-the-tide/tracking-bottom-fishing-in-eu-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> from the Marine Conservation Institute outlines that sustainable fishing approaches can keep local food supplies robust without flattening the seabed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shielding-vulnerable-marine-ecosystems">Shielding vulnerable marine ecosystems </h2>



Some nations already ban bottom trawling in certain coastal areas and are studying whether to expand these restrictions.



“Never before have we known so much about seamounts and their importance for biodiversity, their vulnerability, and their essential role in keeping our ocean healthy,” said Dr. Victorero.&nbsp;



Conservationists mention that nations agreed in 2006 to shield vulnerable marine ecosystems from harmful fishing, yet the implementation has been scattered. 



The 2006 resolution aimed to protect vital seafloor terrains, but oversight varies from region to region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-seamounts-from-trawling">Protecting seamounts from trawling </h2>



Calls for immediate action have also been stirred by the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions (BBNJ) <a href="https://www.thegef.org/what-we-do/topics/biodiversity-beyond-national-jurisdiction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agreement</a>. 



The treaty seeks to close governance gaps for ocean areas that lie outside any single nation’s boundaries, yet final ratification may take time.



Groups such as the DSCC and IPSO encourage policymakers to block destructive fishing practices on seamounts now rather than wait for lengthy legal processes. This safeguard would complement efforts to reduce emissions from other sectors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-trawling-and-seamount-damage">Heavy trawling and seamount damage</h2>



“Bottom trawling is the most damaging way to obtain food from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-satellite-is-rewriting-what-we-know-about-ocean-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. We know the ecological impacts are disastrous,” said Sala. 



Consumers sometimes feel obligated to avoid fish caught using trawls, though some experts see a policy-based route as more efficient.&nbsp;



International cooperation and local enforcement appear to be key. Countries with heavy trawling must collaborate with those whose waters receive these drifting sediments. 



The Marine Conservation Institute, established in 1996, highlights the value of well-managed marine protected areas for maintaining a balance between food supply and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-governments-fail-to-protect-seamounts">Governments fail to protect seamounts</h2>



“This letter is a call to action from the scientific community. States have the tools required to stop this destruction,” said Dr. Victorero.



Fishing councils in certain regions already restrict bottom gear usage in huge sections of the ocean floor. But many seamounts, trenches, and ridges remain open to industrial vessels, risking long-term damage for short-term catches.&nbsp;



Some scientists believe properly designed no-trawl zones around major seamount clusters would preserve essential habitats. The DSCC started in 2004 with more than 130 organizations determined to halt destructive fishing in the deep. 



Localized bans on bottom trawling in parts of the United States and Europe have served as test grounds, and have shown partial success in preserving important fish stocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulatory-shifts-to-save-seamounts">Regulatory shifts to save seamounts </h2>



Scientists also point to the possibility of more advanced gear that floats off the seafloor. But until research funding and industry support align, the simplest way to protect sensitive areas is often a firm ban. 



Observers note that the next few years will likely reveal whether these appeals spur significant regulatory shifts or remain pledges on paper.



Time is short for life that relies on these underwater structures. The DSCC, IPSO, and the Marine Conservation Institute encourage the international community to follow through on previous pledges and add new ones if needed. 



The goal is to eliminate the severe threat trawling poses to seamounts before irreversible damage is done.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1125137/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Seamounts face severe destruction from bottom trawling

Scientists and conservation groups are pushing for stronger safeguards for...

Mosquito,On,Kids,Skin.,Little,Boy,Attacked,By,Mosquitoes,In

Mosquito swarms may sound like chaos, but male mosquitoes are incredible listeners. Despite the noise, they can hear the faint sounds made by female wingbeats.



A new study from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> uncovers how male mosquitoes hear across a wider range of frequencies than females, helping them locate mates in buzzing clouds while evading human defenses. These insights offer a fresh path toward smarter mosquito control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-use-complex-acoustic-cues">Mosquitoes use complex acoustic cues </h2>



Scientists have long used sound traps to catch male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a>. These traps mimic female wingbeat sounds to lure in males and then sterilize them. But in real-world settings, most of these traps underperform. 



Sound traps often catch only a few insects each day because they don’t match the complex acoustic cues that male mosquitoes truly seek.



The recent study has revealed that males don't just listen for one frequency. Their hearing is tuned to a wide and nuanced range of sounds.



These sounds include not only female wingbeats but also blended frequencies that are made when male and female wingbeats mix. The research could explain why simple traps fail to hold their attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-male-mosquitoes-process-sound">How male mosquitoes process sound</h2>



The researchers used calcium imaging to study brain activity in male and female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-could-make-insect-repellents-less-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquitoes</a>. They examined responses in the <a href="https://www.virtualflybrain.org/term/antennal-mechanosensory-and-motor-center-ammc-bb4-neuron-fbbt_00111484/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMMC</a> (antennal mechanosensory and motor center), a key hearing region in the mosquito brain.



“We found that male brains showed responses not only to the same frequencies of sound as female brains, but also to much higher frequencies,” noted Professor Matthew Su. 



“This finding shows the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex information processing</a> required for males to identify the location of females.”



In males, the AMMC showed activity across 150 to 500 Hz. Females mostly responded between 100 to 200 Hz. 



Males also showed four unique patterns of sound responses, whereas females showed two unique patterns and one shared with males. These clusters suggest that males process sound in more diverse ways than females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-mosquito-sounds-and-human-traps">Female mosquito sounds and human traps</h2>



Strikingly, some male neurons showed negative responses. They reduced activity at 150 Hz. This pattern may help males tune out distractions or adjust sensitivity to specific tones. 



Another brain cluster responded to low-frequency sounds in both sexes. Researchers suggest this may help mosquitoes detect predators, like dragonflies. 



So, even as males evolved fine-tuned mating tools, both sexes may still use sound to stay safe.



To understand why male hearing is so sharp, the team examined the base of the antennae. 



They found males express more genes linked to cilia, which are tiny hairs that detect vibration. These include dynein genes that are already known to affect hearing in other insects.



“Cilia are thought to function to increase receptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-people-are-mosquito-magnets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitivity to certain sounds</a>,” explained Professor Azusa Kamikouchi. “This sound processing mechanism may be a specialized and sophisticated mechanism that is not found in other insects.”



A <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/fgfr3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene called fd3f</a>, which is known to guide cilia development, was also more active in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-bite-more-often-during-droughts-to-stay-hydrated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">males</a>. This suggests males are genetically wired for better hearing. 



Proteins from these genes were also found in greater amounts in males, strengthening the evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-better-sound-traps">Designing better sound traps</h2>



“Male mosquitoes rely on the sound of female wings to find mates. Therefore, mosquito hearing is a promising target for preventing the reproduction of mosquitoes,” noted Professor Kamikouchi.



With this deep understanding of how male mosquitoes hear, scientists could redesign traps that mimic the real complexity of female wingbeats. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mosquitoes_males_find-females_avoid-traps_illustration_credit-Issey-Takahashi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mosquitoes_males_find-females_avoid-traps_illustration_credit-Issey-Takahashi_1s.webp" alt="How Male Mosquitoes Target Females—and Avoid Traps. Credit: Issey Takahashi" class="wp-image-1973044"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">How Male Mosquitoes Target Females—and Avoid Traps. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Issey Takahashi</figcaption></figure>



By copying not just one sound but many, perhaps even distortion products, these tools could catch more males and limit mosquito breeding more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprisingly-complex-auditory-system">Surprisingly complex auditory system </h2>



This study significantly broadens and deepens how we think about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-listen-for-a-specific-buzz-to-find-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> hearing. It goes beyond simply identifying differences between male and female mosquitoes. 



The research uncovers a highly specialized and surprisingly complex auditory system in males - one that appears to have evolved specifically to improve the chances of finding a mate in noisy environments.



Rather than relying on a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mating-secrets-of-mosquitoes-may-help-us-gain-control-of-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating cue</a>, male mosquitoes interpret a rich variety of sound frequencies, including blended signals that form when male and female wingbeats overlap.



This suggests their hearing has been shaped by strong evolutionary pressure to succeed in mating within dense and chaotic swarms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sound-as-a-survival-tool">Using sound as a survival tool</h2>



The study also revealed that certain parts of the mosquito’s hearing response are shared between males and females. These shared responses likely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mosquitoes-find-tasty-humans-from-hundreds-of-meters-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved long ago</a>, before mating behavior became so specialized.



For example, both sexes respond to low-frequency sounds that mimic the wingbeats of dragonflies, one of their natural predators. 



This implies that parts of the mosquito’s hearing system originally developed as a survival tool to allow them to detect and escape from danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mosquitoes-sound-and-human-frustration">Mosquitoes, sound, and human frustration</h2>



While male mosquitoes have acquired new, advanced hearing abilities for mating, they still retain these older sensory features that help them stay alive.



The researchers believe that by fully understanding this dual function - mating and predator detection - we might find new ways to disrupt the mosquito life cycle.



If we can mimic or interfere with the sounds that mosquitoes depend on, we could reduce their ability to reproduce or survive. 



In doing so, we might finally quiet the constant buzz of mosquito swarms in places where they pose the greatest threat to human health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads2689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Scientists learn how mosquitoes outsmart and evade human defenses

Mosquito swarms may sound like chaos, but male mosquitoes are...

Chimpanzees have new companions in the world of yawning: androids. Researchers have discovered that chimpanzees not only yawn in response to a humanoid android’s yawn, but also exhibit restful behaviors like lying down.



The findings, published in the journal Scientific Reports, suggest a deeper behavioral and social link than mere imitation. This is the first real-time evidence of contagious yawning triggered by an inanimate humanoid model.



The study strengthens the idea that yawning can carry social meaning beyond automatic reflexes - even across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-mix-vocal-calls-to-create-new-meanings-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and material boundaries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-watched-a-robot-with-facial-motions">Chimps watched a robot with facial motions</h2>



Fourteen adult chimpanzees between 10 and 33 years old took part in the study. The chimps lived at the Fundació Mona Primate Sanctuary in Spain, and had been rescued from the entertainment and pet trades.



The researchers used a life-like android head, built with 33 servo motors, and capable of three facial conditions: yawning (mouth fully open to 5.5 cm or 2.17 inches), gaping (partially open to 1.5 cm or 0.59 inches), and closed-mouth neutrality.



Each condition lasted five minutes and was presented in a randomized order. The android performed each movement between 15 and 20 times. 



Meanwhile, cameras recorded the chimpanzees’ reactions. The team also measured how much time the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> spent looking at the android and lying down after each display.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robots-can-make-chimpanzees-yawn">Robots can make chimpanzees yawn</h2>



Yawning frequency surged only during and after the yawning condition. Chimps yawned 22 times during android yawns and 23 times in the post-yawn phase. That totaled 45 yawns - three times more than for any other facial condition. 



No yawns occurred during the gaping or closed-mouth presentations. Only a handful of yawns were seen during baseline and post-close periods.



The response also extended to behavior. More chimps lay down after the android yawned, compared to after gape or closed-mouth conditions. They even gathered bedding materials - actions that were rarely seen during other conditions. 



The results suggest that yawns from the android didn’t just mimic biology. They served as contextual cues for rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yawns-as-social-signals">Yawns as social signals</h2>



“Our findings show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-genetically-adapted-to-thrive-in-their-local-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> exhibit yawn contagion when triggered by a non-biological inanimate agent, a humanoid android, that looks as if it is yawning,” said lead author Dr. Ramiro Joly-Mascheroni.



“Despite its elusive primary functions - we still don’t know exactly why we yawn, let alone why yawning is contagious - yawning may still have an evolutionarily old, non-verbal communicative role, and its contagious aspect may help us find out more about how humans and animals developed ways of communication and social interaction.”



This extends earlier findings about contagious yawning in dogs, bonobos, and elephants. It implies that even without familiarity or biological cues, chimpanzees pick up and respond to socially meaningful movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-androids-can-help-us-study-empathy">Androids can help us study empathy</h2>



“Exploring the yawning responses of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-constantly-mastering-new-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> towards an artificial agent helps us to understand the mechanism of social cognition and interactions beyond humans," said Professor Calvo-Merino.



"This interdisciplinary research enhances the collaboration of disciplines such as psychology, robotics and zoology."



One interesting idea is that yawning may activate an embodied, perception-action coupling. The chimpanzees could be reacting automatically or making a deeper association - such as recognizing the android's yawn as a signal to rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-instinctive-yawn-responses-of-chimps">Instinctive yawn responses of chimps</h2>



The findings suggest that a living, biological presence is not essential to trigger yawning in chimpanzees. An artificial agent - a robot with human-like features - can produce the same contagious effect. 



This challenges long-held assumptions that only animals or humans can evoke such deeply social and instinctive responses.



By showing that non-living entities can activate behaviors linked to empathy and relaxation, the study broadens the tools available for behavioral science. 



Researchers can now design more controlled experiments without needing a live yawn source. This helps isolate which visual or motion cues are truly responsible for triggering social responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-research">Implications of the research </h2>



The implications of the research extend beyond the yawning behavior of chimpanzees. Future studies might explore whether robotic agents can also provoke other reactions like mimicry, play gestures, or even emotional expressions. 



Understanding which cues matter most could improve our knowledge of social cognition in both humans and animals.



Ultimately, the study shows that chimpanzees do not need skin, muscle, or familiar faces in order to respond. A plastic android, with carefully programmed movements, can be enough to signal rest. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-98639-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Chimpanzees catch yawns from robots - and lie down to rest

Chimpanzees have new companions in the world of yawning: androids....

Hollywood once spun a wild yarn about “Cocaine Bear,” a hapless black bear that gorged itself on lost narcotics. It turns out the plot has a saltwater sequel. In coastal Brazil, “cocaine sharks” - petite Brazilian sharpnose sharks - are cruising through drug-laden surf, minding their own business - and absorbing far more than sunshine.



The tale sounds like clickbait, yet it is anchored in hard numbers. Seawater sampled near the crowded <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Santos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Port of Santos</a> - Latin America’s busiest harbor - contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-help-us-understand-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine concentrations</a> on par with caffeine. 



Those waters eventually lap against popular beaches only a few miles away. Juvenile sharks captured for study later returned chemical readings that would make any toxicologist wince. 



Sharks on cocaine? Believe it!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cocaine-small-sharks-big-questions">Cocaine, small sharks, big questions</h2>



Barely 20 inches from snout to tail, <a href="https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/2694" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhizoprionodon lalandii</a> hardly fits the image of a fearsome predator. These nimble hunters weigh less than a quart of milk yet punch above their size in local food webs. 



They became the focus of marine toxicologist Gabriel de Farias Araujo and ecotoxicologist Enrico Mendes Saggioro at Brazil’s <a href="https://www.ioc.fiocruz.br/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oswaldo Cruz Institute</a> after a late-night brainstorming session about invisible pollutants and overlooked species.



The researchers spent weeks prowling estuaries in small boats, setting gill nets at dawn and dusk when sharpnoses patrol the shallows. Thirteen juvenile and young adult sharks were taken back to the lab, packed in ice.



Chromatography showed every fish carried cocaine plus hefty doses of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzoylecgonine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benzoylecgonine</a>, the drug’s chief metabolite. 



Levels dwarfed those seen in most aquatic surveys, pointing to chronic exposure rather than a one-off snort from floating contraband.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-drugs-pollute-ocean-waters">How drugs pollute ocean waters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pharmaceutical-pollution-changes-the-behavior-of-atlantic-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pharmaceutical pollution</a> is a worldwide headache, but Brazil faces an outsized share because it is a major transit hub for cocaine. 



Much of the drug winds up in wastewater after human use, slipping past treatment plants that were never designed to neutralize narcotics. In hot, crowded cities, a single facility may discharge millions of gallons of partially treated effluent each day.



Add in discarded bales tossed overboard by smugglers and residue from clandestine labs hidden along rivers, and the result is a steady trickle of cocaine into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-can-quickly-recover-carbon-lost-to-climate-extremes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangroves and estuaries</a>. 



Tidal mixing and mangrove roots slow water flow, allowing chemicals to linger. By the time currents, wind, and rain have done their spreading, fish, crustaceans, and filter feeders are marinating in a diluted yet persistent cocktail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-cocaine-does-underwater">What cocaine does underwater</h2>



Exactly how cocaine tweaks a shark’s physiology remains an open question, but parallel studies on other species offer troubling clues. 



Zebrafish embryos exposed to tiny doses show reduced cell vitality and greater DNA fragmentation, hinting at developmental risks. 



In European eels, swimming through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-cocaine-tricks-and-hijacks-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine-tainted</a> water alters muscle performance and accelerates exhaustion, making long migrations harder.



Sharks may experience similar stress. Even subtle interference with neurotransmitters such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dopamine and serotonin</a> could blunt the electroreception they use to find prey. 



Over time, that handicap translates into slower growth and lower survival, eroding populations already pressured by overfishing and habitat loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loading-the-food-chain">Loading the food chain</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-use-detected-in-the-brains-of-17th-century-mummies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cocaine</a> is not picky about hosts. Once it slips into the water, it is readily absorbed by plankton and small invertebrates hovering at the base of the food web. 



Brazilian sharpnose sharks, prowling for sardines and shrimp, take in a double dose: the drug dissolved in seawater and the bolus stored in their prey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/cocaine-shark_benzoylecgonine_brazil-waters_infographic_credit-SOTE_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/cocaine-shark_benzoylecgonine_brazil-waters_infographic_credit-SOTE_1s.webp" alt="How Brazil's sharpnose sharks, High seas: The surprising but true tale of Brazil’s ‘cocaine sharks’ - Rhizoprionodon lalandii, ingest cocaine. Credit: Oswaldo Cruz Institute" class="wp-image-1972758"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">How Brazil's sharpnose sharks, High seas: The surprising but true tale of Brazil’s ‘cocaine sharks’ - Rhizoprionodon lalandii, ingest cocaine. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Oswaldo Cruz Institute</figcaption></figure>



The study recorded tissue concentrations up to one hundred times higher than levels measured in other marine organisms. 



Such biomagnification means that apex predators - larger sharks, dolphins, even seabirds - could be accumulating unexpected pharmaceutical payloads without leaving obvious forensic clues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wider-pollution-picture">The wider pollution picture</h2>



Cocaine is only one piece of a sprawling chemical mosaic. Researchers have spotted antidepressants in Great Lakes perch, epilepsy drugs in British river otters, and methamphetamines in Czech trout. 



Each compound nudges behavior and metabolism in its own way, yet they mingle in the same waterways and sometimes interact.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-ocean-warming-in-2024-is-a-warning-for-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer seas</a> driven by climate change add another wrinkle by speeding biochemical reactions and altering currents. 



Altered predator-prey dynamics, skewed reproductive cycles, and shifts in migration routes can ripple outward, reshaping entire ecosystems faster than regulators can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-cocaine-away-from-sharks">Keeping cocaine away from sharks</h2>



Araujo and Saggioro argue that sharper monitoring is the first step toward relief. 



Upgrading wastewater plants with activated carbon filters, cracking down on illegal dumping, and tracing pollution hot spots with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-dna-can-track-wildlife-diseases-and-even-drugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> surveys would help tighten the tap before drugs reach the open ocean.



Roughly one-third of shark and ray species already teeter on the edge because of overfishing. Pharmaceutical runoff piles on yet another hurdle. 



Curbing drug pollution is less about finger-wagging at individual users and more about safeguarding coral nurseries, fisheries, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-flooding-is-happening-far-more-often-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal communities</a> that depend on them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-ocean-shared-responsibility">One ocean, shared responsibility</h2>



The presence of cocaine in Brazilian sharpnose sharks is more than a catchy headline. It is a plain reminder that human habits seep into the sea in ways we seldom notice. 



Cleaning up after ourselves should never be looked at as just a charitable act of kindness for wildlife. 



Not only is it our responsibility as the dominant species on the planet, it's an investment in the stability of ecosystems, biodiversity, and global food chains that humans ultimately rely on. The ocean does not recognize national borders, so every watershed matters.



Solving the problem will take cooperation from chemists, wastewater engineers, legislators, and everyday citizens. 



Until then, the next time a ripple of seawater brushes your ankles, keep in mind the curious little shark beneath the surface - and the silent stimulant drifting alongside it.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724049477" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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"Cocaine sharks" found off the coast of Brazil - strange but true tale of ocean pollution consequences

Hollywood once spun a wild yarn about “Cocaine Bear,” a...

For years before the world knew COVID-19, viruses were already moving from humans to wild animals. Among those affected were chimpanzees, who suffered quietly as diseases crossed species lines.



The issue became urgent on December 31, 2016. At Ngogo, a research site in Uganda’s Kibale National Park, a viral outbreak struck a large chimpanzee community. 



The virus, which originated from humans, killed 25 out of nearly 200 chimps. Scientists had been studying these chimps for three decades, making the loss even more devastating.



In a study from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, researchers offer clear evidence that basic safety measures - like masks, distancing, and quarantine - work. 



These steps, now familiar because of the pandemic, can protect chimpanzees and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apes</a> not only at research sites like Ngogo but also at tourist destinations where humans and animals interact daily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-chimpanzees-remain-at-risk">Why chimpanzees remain at risk</h2>



Jacob Negrey is an assistant professor of anthropology in the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences and the study's lead author.



"We have really good reasons to think that chimpanzees that are visited regularly by tourists are at even greater risk of this sort of transmission because they're exposed to a wider range of people on a daily basis," said Negrey.



"The kind of trends we're documenting here are really relevant to all of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-chimpanzee interactions</a>, not just ones related to research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-health-of-chimpanzees">Tracking the health of chimpanzees </h2>



Ngogo is no ordinary site. Research started there in 1994, and the location’s dense rainforest and large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recent-genetic-connectivity-found-among-chimpanzee-subspecies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee population</a> have made it a top site for primate studies. It's even featured in Netflix’s documentary series Chimp Empire, released in 2023.



Negrey has spent more than a decade at Ngogo, tracking the health of these chimps. His typical day begins before dawn, setting out from a forest campsite to observe chimp behavior and collect biological samples.



"You can be wandering through the forest and then there's rustling and you realize you've almost walked into a herd of elephants," he said. "You have to really love the chimps and love the work that you're doing because there's a good chance you're going to be peed on."



Samples collected in the field are later analyzed in laboratories, providing essential data on the chimps’ health over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-diseases-in-chimpanzees">Human diseases in chimpanzees </h2>



The risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leprosy-has-been-found-in-wild-chimpanzees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human diseases crossing to chimps</a> has worried researchers for years. Even before the 2016 outbreak, the Ngogo team followed recommendations from the International Union for Conservation of Nature. 



The researchers kept a 15-foot distance from chimps, buried any human waste, and stayed away from the forest when sick.



"But there was never any systematic study showing that they were effective," Negrey explained. "There was just such an urgency to this problem that it was like the solution needed to be put out before we even had evidence of its efficacy."



After the 2017 outbreak, they toughened the rules. Anyone with symptoms could not enter the forest. Healthy researchers had to keep a distance of about 20 feet - preferably 30. They wore masks, sanitized their hands, and used separate clothing for forest work and camp life. 



By 2020, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-if-humans-are-spreading-covid-19-to-other-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> prompted even stricter rules: researchers arriving from abroad quarantined for a week before entering the forest. Today, these safety measures to protect chimpanzees from human diseases remain firmly in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safety-protocols-are-working">Safety protocols are working</h2>



The researchers analyzed nearly 70 samples of chimpanzee waste collected between 2015 and 2019. They compared samples from before, during, and after the 2016-2017 outbreak. 



The experts found viral DNA from humans in the chimps’ samples - but saw a clear drop in virus presence once strict protocols began.



Coughing patterns of the chimpanzees also changed. Before the new rules, chimps coughed about 1.73% of the time. After the rules, that number dropped to 0.356%. By 2022, after adding the quarantine rule, it fell even further to 0.075%.



"We're really excited about this study because it actually does show - for the first time, as far as I'm aware - that these protocols work," Negrey said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-chimps-for-future-generations">Protecting chimps for future generations </h2>



Professor Negrey, who joined the University of Arizona in 2023, found his passion for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> as a child fascinated by gorillas at the zoo. Initially majoring in journalism at Miami University in Ohio, a chance meeting with a primatologist steered him toward anthropology.



Today, Negrey focuses on the health of chimpanzees, especially how they are impacted by diseases and aging. As some of our closest living relatives, chimpanzees offer critical insights into our own species.



"They're so special, they're so weird, and they're really unlike anything else on the planet," said Negrey. "It's to our great benefit to protect them for future generations so we can continue to be awed by them and continue to learn from them."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320725002629?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



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Human diseases threaten chimpanzees - but we can protect them

For years before the world knew COVID-19, viruses were already...

Where do fish go for a deep clean? Coral reefs. These underwater hubs host bustling stations where small fish perform hygiene services for their larger neighbors. 



Cleaner fish dart around bigger "clients," even entering mouths to remove parasites and bacteria. Some even offer what looks like a massage.



But are these fish spas just about grooming? Or could they affect the entire microbial network of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a>?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-fish-help-microbes-travel">Cleaner fish help microbes travel</h2>



A study published in the journal Marine Ecology Progress Series explores this hidden layer of reef life. The research was led by experts at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a> and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>).



The team set out to investigate whether cleaner stations help spread harmful pathogens or helpful microbes. 



If microbes move easily around a reef, they may influence coral bleaching or disease resistance. Understanding these interactions could inform coral restoration strategies.



“How pathogens or microbes are moving around a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-populations-are-boosted-by-ocean-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> could be critically important to understanding how individuals will be affected,” said lead author Anya Brown, an assistant professor with the UC Davis Bodega Marine Laboratory and a National Geographic Explorer. 



“We know microbes play a role in coral bleaching, for example. This study really lays a foundation for using cleaner fish stations as a way to study movement of microbes around the reef environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-gobies-and-fish-visits">Cleaner gobies and fish visits </h2>



The scientists chose to study the cleaning goby, a tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-jaws-twist-to-feed-more-effectively-on-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> known for its services on Caribbean reefs. Despite its small size, the goby plays a key role in reef life. It has a striped body and is about the size of a human pinky finger.



In June 2021, the researchers removed these gobies from some cleaning stations on reefs in Puerto Rico and St. Croix. They wanted to see what would happen when these little cleaners were taken out of the picture. 



The team analyzed changes in water quality, shifts in the kinds of microbes in the water, and how other fish, especially damselfish, responded. Damselfish often visit gobies to get cleaned.



The results were revealing. Places that still had gobies attracted more fish. These active cleaning spots seemed to influence the tiny life forms in the water too. But each reef reacted differently, showing that microbial shifts depend on local reef conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-beyond-parasite-removal">Impacts beyond parasite removal</h2>



Cleaner fish do more than just remove parasites from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>. Their cleaning activity may also change the types and amounts of microbes in the reef.



By interacting closely with many fish, cleaner fish might help spread certain microbes or reduce harmful ones. This can affect not only the health of individual fish but also the balance of microscopic life across the reef. So, their impact extends beyond visible cleaning - it reaches the invisible microbial world that supports the whole ecosystem.



Study co-author Paul Sikkel is a research professor at the Rosenstiel School’s Department of Marine Biology and Ecology.



“While larger organisms on coral reefs attract the most attention, the study underscores the huge impact tiny organisms such as these fish can have and how important they are to helping healthy reef ecosystems function,” said Sikkel.



“While cleaner fish are well-known for their role in consuming parasites and reducing stress in other fish, this is the first field study to quantify their effects on microbes of other fish and the surrounding coral reef environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-collaboration-and-next-steps">Global collaboration and next steps</h2>



Scientists from several institutions collaborated on the research, including Amy Apprill and Jeanne Bloomberg from WHOI, and Gina Hendrick and Matthew Nicholson from the <a href="https://www.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a>. Marta Soares and Raquel Xavier joined from the <a href="https://www.up.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Porto</a> in Portugal. 



The study was supported by major science organizations. Funding came from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, WHOI, and <a href="https://www.fct.pt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Portugal’s Foundation for Science and Technology</a>. 



Even though cleaner fish are tiny, they can influence entire ecosystems. Researchers are just beginning to understand how these fish help control the movement of microbes and maintain reef balance. The study opens new questions about the deeper connections shaping ocean life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v761/meps14851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.



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Cleaner fish may spread helpful microbes across coral reefs

Where do fish go for a deep clean? Coral reefs....

Long believed to be confined to the lab, the bizarre and cooperative behavior of "worm towers” has now been documented in nature.



An international team of researchers has recorded the first direct evidence of nematodes forming vertical, living structures in decaying fruit in German orchards. It's a phenomenon once thought to be mythical. 



These living towers, built from worm bodies, act as a collective vehicle to reach new environments and improve survival under stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worm-towers-step-into-nature">Worm towers step into nature</h2>



For years, scientists suspected that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nematodes-use-chemistry-to-survive-and-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nematodes</a> might build these structures in the wild, but evidence was lacking.



Although seen in labs and chambers, no one had documented them in the wild - until now. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) and the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> have changed that.



“I was ecstatic when I saw these natural towers for the first time,” said Serena Ding, senior author and group leader at MPI-AB, recalling the moment a colleague shared video footage from the field.



“For so long natural worm towers existed only in our imaginations. But with the right equipment and lots of curiosity, we found them hiding in plain sight.”



Ryan Greenway, a technical assistant at MPI-AB, spent months scouring rotting apples and pears with a digital microscope in local orchards near the University of Konstanz. His patience paid off.



In several cases, he observed the worms forming elaborate, upright clusters. When the team brought some into the lab for study, they made a surprising discovery. Despite many nematode species, the towers were made only from one kind, in a tough, immobile “dauer” larval state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-a-pile-of-worms"><a></a>More than a pile of worms</h2>



“A nematode tower is not just a pile of worms,” said first author Daniela Perez, a postdoctoral researcher at MPI-AB. “It’s a coordinated structure, a superorganism in motion.”



In the wild, individual dauer-stage nematodes stand on their tails to latch onto passing animals, hitching rides to new environments. But this study revealed that entire towers - dozens of worms high - can perform the same trick collectively.



The towers responded to touch, detached from surfaces, and even managed to cling en masse to insects like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-help-us-understand-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a>. It’s group movement on a microscopic scale.



To test the behavior under controlled conditions, Perez created worm towers in the lab. She used Caenorhabditis elegans, a commonly studied nematode species.



By placing starved worms on food-free agar with a bristle, she saw them build towers within two hours. These structures remained stable for over 12 hours, sometimes forming exploratory “arms” that extended into the surrounding space or bridged gaps to reach new surfaces.



“The towers are actively sensing and growing,” Perez said. “When we touched them, they responded immediately, growing toward the stimulus and attaching to it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-together-as-one">Climbing together as one</h2>



In the wild, only dauer-stage worms built towers, but in the lab, Perez saw adults and other larval stages also built them. This suggests the behavior may be more common and versatile than previously believed. 



Despite their impressive structure, the towers showed no evidence of specialization. Worms at the base were just as mobile and fertile as those at the top.



“C. elegans is a clonal culture and so it makes sense there is no differentiation within the tower,” the authors explained. “In natural towers, we might see separate genetic compositions and roles, which prompts fascinating questions about who cooperates and who cheats.”



This kind of egalitarian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-single-cells-to-complex-life-was-cooperation-the-first-step/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooperation</a> - where no individual appears to dominate or be sacrificed - raises new questions about how group behaviors evolve and how individual actions contribute to collective success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worm-towers-inspire-models">Worm towers inspire models </h2>



These findings place nematodes in a very exclusive group. Until now, only a few animals - like slime molds, fire ants, and spider mites - were known to use body-linking for collective motion.



The discovery that nematodes, Earth’s most abundant animals, do the same in nature opens vast research possibilities.



“Our study opens up a whole new system for exploring how and why animals move together,” Ding said. “By harnessing the genetic tools available for C. elegans, we now have a powerful model to study the evolution of collective dispersal.”



As scientists continue to explore how cooperative behaviors arise in everything from insect colonies to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrating birds</a>, the humble worm tower may now rise - literally and figuratively - as a new cornerstone in the study of group movement.



What was once a lab oddity has become a natural wonder, twisting upward in decaying fruit, silently revealing how animals - even the tiniest - can work together to reach for better places.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00601-3?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225006013%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Worm towers: Nematodes build living structures that puzzle scientists

Long believed to be confined to the lab, the bizarre...

Marine ecosystems supply an enormous variety of fish that meet the nutritional needs of communities across the globe. Overfishing has put intense strain on these resources, prompting urgent questions about sustainable seafood choices.



Biodiversity is more than just a word; it is the foundation of a balanced and flexible approach to using marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> for human nourishment. This principle has taken center stage in a recent study led by Cornell University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fish-provide-more-nutrition">Small fish provide more nutrition</h2>



Sustainability <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9804230/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> around the world have long highlighted the value of smaller fish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that grow quickly and reproduce at higher rates. 



This concept gained new momentum thanks to the efforts of Sebastian Heilpern, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, who recently explored how diverse fish portfolios can boost nutrition while easing harvest pressure.



Heilpern's team examined how varying species can provide up to 60 percent more nutrients than relying on a single fish. They tapped into existing databases to determine which fish thrive in different regions, seeking an optimal selection that meets dietary needs with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40196308/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minimal biomass</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-species-help-ecosystems-recover">Small species help ecosystems recover</h2>



Many smaller species have an advantage because they occupy lower levels on the food chain. Their swift reproduction rates allow them to replenish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-thought-extinct-for-85-years-reappears-in-himalayan-river-chel-snakehead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> more rapidly than bigger species.



<a href="https://blog.sintef.com/ocean/why-low-trophic-marine-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lower trophic positions</a> also translate to fewer accumulated contaminants, making some smaller fish safer for consumption. These factors combine to place sardines and anchovies near the top of the list of ecologically resilient choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-best-mix-of-species">Best mix of species</h2>



The researchers fed nutrient data and biomass information into sophisticated models to pinpoint the best mix of species for each region. They evaluated fish populations across continents, weaving together data from hundreds of sources.



“We can then ask, out of all these combinations of potential options of species, which ones could we select and how much of each, in a way that would provide us with sufficient nutrition to meet a person’s diet needs with the lowest amount of fish biomass,” said Heilpern. 



This approach underscores how strategic variety can supply enough protein, vitamins, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-removes-key-nutrients-from-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minerals</a> for communities without exhausting the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-biodiversity">Importance of biodiversity</h2>



<a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodiversity</a> involves preserving different forms of life so species can complement each other. This interplay can help address multiple nutritional gaps with smaller portions.



The new findings hint that a few carefully chosen fish can bring more vitamins, minerals, and proteins than a single nutrient-dense but larger species. 



This synergy also promotes an adaptable fishery system that remains steady if one species declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-patterns-of-eating-fish">Global patterns of eating fish</h2>



Tropical coastal regions tend to exhibit abundant fish life, which could offer people a broader menu. Countries along the <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/10index/background/biodiversity/biodiversity.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Triangle</a>, as well as areas in the Amazon, stand out for their high variety of fish species.



Meanwhile, the United States has a reasonable degree of diversity yet consistently consumes only a narrow <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/foss/f?p=215:25:16158701237164:::::" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selection</a>. 



Around 10 species make up the bulk of what Americans eat, pointing to untapped potential in local waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fish-are-resilient">Small fish are resilient</h2>



Water temperature fluctuations have less impact on some small fish, making them more resistant to severe weather events. They cope with changing conditions by reproducing quickly and requiring fewer resources.



This resilience helps maintain a stable seafood supply even as the environment shifts. It also offers a safety net to communities that rely on fish for essential nutrition.



Harvesting smaller fish can also lessen the burden on heavily fished species higher up the food chain. This strategy balances human needs with ecological considerations, easing overexploitation.



Individuals can enjoy adequate nutrition from smaller portions if they choose fish wisely. This concept assists in lowering overall fishing pressure while still delivering vital nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-and-moral-responsibility">Biodiversity and moral responsibility</h2>



“This research hopefully highlights the importance of biodiversity, not just because of a moral quandary that we’re causing a mass extinction on Earth, but also because biodiversity can lead to better outcomes for fishery sustainability,” said Heilpern. 



Ensuring fish variety grants communities the chance to preserve ecological balance. It also speaks to our sense of stewardship over aquatic habitats.



Policymakers may wish to broaden guidance on recommended fish consumption to highlight small species that flourish under sustainable management. Such adjustments could align public health goals with ecological realities.



Governments might also rethink catch limits to give small, prolific species more room to thrive. Making small changes in fish market preferences could spark larger shifts in how resources are used.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selectively-harvesting-small-fish-species">Selectively harvesting small fish species</h2>



Coastal communities are often the first to see the impact of overfishing. Their experiences can offer lessons in how to adapt and explore a wider range of local species.



Collaborative efforts between fishers and scientists can spark ideas for selective harvesting. In some regions, these partnerships already guide more balanced approaches to keep fish populations healthy.



Small fish pack a punch when it comes to proteins, vitamins, and minerals. This advantage lessens the need for huge quantities, ensuring that diets remain balanced and nutritious.



Eating a mix of nutrient-dense fish also reduces dependency on processed supplements for addressing deficiencies. It builds a more direct path between natural resources and good health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-efficient-use-of-fish-diversity">Efficient use of fish diversity </h2>



Scientists continue to investigate how climate patterns and fishing methods intersect with species composition. They aim to refine models for even more accurate predictions of fisheries outcomes in changing environments.



More data on specific vitamins or micronutrients could further fine-tune dietary guidelines based on local fish availability. Such progress would help ensure that communities have reliable access to essential nutrients.



Efficient use of fish diversity can support robust marine systems and lasting sources of food. By spreading demand across multiple species, we reduce the pressure on vulnerable stocks.



Consumers can also play a role by exploring varieties beyond the usual favorites. This step can support fishers who harvest responsibly and seek to maintain healthy waters.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01577-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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Small fish provide climate-resilient nutrition for a warming world

Marine ecosystems supply an enormous variety of fish that meet...

Each year on June 11, the world turns its attention to a quiet predator. International Lynx Day celebrates the mysterious and solitary lynx, one of the forest’s most skilled hunters. 



In 2025, the event serves as both a tribute and a call to action. The lynx may seem invisible in the wild, but their presence shapes entire ecosystems.



This day reminds us of the delicate balance between nature and human development. It invites reflection, education, and renewed commitment to preserving the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-lynx-habitat-in-a-shifting-landscape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. As pressures on forests intensify, the lynx remains a symbol of resilience, solitude, and environmental health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-the-lynx-family">A closer look at the lynx family</h2>



The lynx belongs to a small but mighty group within the cat family. There are four distinct species: the Eurasian lynx, the Canada lynx, the Iberian lynx, and the bobcat. 



All share tufted ears, large paws, and a taste for stealth. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-iberian-lynx-how-humans-rescued-this-rare-feline-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> live across varied landscapes, from snowy boreal forests to rugged Mediterranean terrain.



The Eurasian lynx is the largest, thriving in pockets across Europe and Asia. The Canada lynx, adapted for deep snow, follows the snowshoe hare's cycle. 



The Iberian lynx, once the most endangered feline in the world, roams the Iberian Peninsula. The bobcat, North America’s smallest lynx species, is widespread but often misunderstood.



Each lynx plays a vital ecological role. They keep prey populations in check, maintain healthy forests, and support biodiversity. However, despite their adaptability, these animals face rising threats that challenge their survival across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-recovery-of-the-iberian-lynx">Dramatic recovery of the Iberian lynx</h2>



Of all the lynx <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canada-lynxs-historic-range-points-to-a-promising-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the Iberian lynx’s comeback is the most dramatic. In the early 2000s, fewer than 100 individuals remained in the wild. Conservationists feared extinction. Then came a surge of action: breeding programs, habitat protection, and public awareness campaigns.



Today, there are over 2,000 Iberian lynx roaming free. The species has moved from "Critically Endangered" to "Endangered" on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>. “This is one of the greatest conservation success stories of the 21st century,” said Miguel Ángel Simón, a leading lynx conservationist in Spain.



Despite this progress, dangers persist. Lynx often fall victim to vehicle collisions. Encroaching development fragments their habitat. 



Conservation groups warn that if momentum slows, the population could stall or reverse. Continued protection, monitoring, and expansion of territory remain critical for the Iberian lynx to thrive long term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-fragmentation-a-shared-threat">Habitat fragmentation: A shared threat</h2>



All lynx <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canada-lynx-survival-linked-to-life-cycle-of-snowshoe-hares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> depend on large, connected forests. When these habitats become isolated, their survival grows uncertain. Roads, farms, and fences block their natural movement. This not only leads to accidents but also weakens genetic diversity through inbreeding.



In Europe, rewilding efforts have reintroduced lynx to places like the Alps, Jura Mountains, and parts of the Balkans. These animals show strong adaptability when given the space. Yet gaps remain. Connectivity between territories is often poor.



In North America, especially Canada, logging and climate change impact the snowshoe hare. With their main prey in decline, lynx populations also suffer. Meanwhile, bobcats, though more resilient, struggle with suburban expansion and reduced prey.



Conservationists argue that saving lynx means more than protecting forest patches. It requires landscape-scale planning and collaboration across borders and communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-international-lynx-day">Honoring International Lynx Day </h2>



This year’s International Lynx Day pushes for deeper thinking about conservation. It emphasizes both physical and emotional ties. Forests must be reconnected through wildlife corridors. But people also need to reconnect with nature and with each other.



Wildlife crossings such as green bridges and tunnels are gaining popularity. These help lynx cross busy roads without risk. Forest buffers between farms and wild zones also create safe paths. Some regions in Germany and Switzerland have already seen benefits from such solutions.



Public engagement forms the heart of these efforts. Many communities hold nature walks, host talks, and run school programs during International Lynx Day. Young people, in particular, are seen as crucial allies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-perception-and-coexistence">Public perception and coexistence </h2>



Living alongside lynx is not always easy. In some regions, livestock predation fuels resentment. Hunters sometimes see lynx as competition. But research shows that these conflicts often come from misunderstanding.



Lynx are shy and rarely seen. They prefer deer or hares to sheep or goats. Many attacks on livestock are wrongly blamed on them. 



Education and compensation schemes have helped reduce these tensions. In Portugal and Spain, coexistence training has made local farmers more willing to support lynx programs.



Art, film, and storytelling also help reshape public perception. The cultural approaches, when combined with scientific ones, create lasting change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-international-lynx-day">Take action on International Lynx Day </h2>



The lynx does not demand loud attention. It walks quietly, blends in, and keeps to itself. But its survival depends on our willingness to act. International Lynx Day challenges individuals and governments alike.



You do not need to see a lynx in the wild to help. By protecting forests, supporting conservation groups, and spreading awareness, you contribute to their survival. Every tree preserved, every corridor built, and every child educated brings the lynx closer to safety



Let this year’s celebration be more than symbolic. Let it be a turning point where connection becomes action and the silent footsteps of the lynx continue to echo through the forests for generations to come.



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International Lynx Day 2025: Protecting the silent hunters of the forest

Each year on June 11, the world turns its attention...

Each year, more than two trillion wild and farmed fish are killed to feed humanity. Their deaths often go unnoticed. Yet beneath the surface is a simple biological fact: fish can suffer.



Rainbow trout, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> farmed and consumed across the globe, experience not just death - but a prolonged and intense form of distress when killed by air asphyxiation. 



A new study published in the journal Scientific Reports shines a light on this pain and offers a pathway to reduce it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-pain-needs-better-measurement">Fish pain needs better measurement</h2>



Unlike environmental impact or public health, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crabs-lobsters-crustaceans-feel-pain-calls-for-immediate-ban-on-boiling-them-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal suffering lacks a universal metric</a>. There are no equivalents to carbon footprints or life years lost. To address this, scientists developed the Welfare Footprint Framework (WFF).



This tool measures pain in minutes, allowing researchers to compare welfare outcomes across species and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. The research team applied this method to trout slaughter, where air exposure is still a widely used technique.



Fish, when pulled from water, begin a slow and stressful decline. Their gills collapse. They gasp in panic. Their blood chemistry spirals. Oxygen disappears while carbon dioxide builds. 



These biological reactions unfold as the fish continues to move, gasp, and suffer - sometimes for as long as 25 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-suffer-up-to-25-minutes">Fish suffer up to 25 minutes </h2>



The researchers divided the trout's suffering into four time segments. These range from alarm at removal to the final depression of brain activity before unconsciousness. 



Through behavioral, neurological, and pharmacological evidence, the team estimated that the average trout endures about ten minutes of pain that qualifies as hurtful, disabling, or excruciating. 



In some conditions, this could stretch beyond 20 minutes. When adjusted by weight, that translates to 24 minutes of such pain per kilogram (about 11 minutes per pound) of fish killed.



The team used neurophysiological data like EEG signals and reflex loss to identify unconsciousness. They reviewed how fish respond to CO₂, pH imbalance, muscle exhaustion, and fear-inducing stimuli. Each pain level had specific criteria, ranging from annoyance to total disruption of basic functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-methods-cause-painful-deaths">Current methods cause painful deaths</h2>



Air asphyxiation is still legal and common in many parts of the world. But it is neither quick nor painless. Chilling in ice or using ice slurry might sound gentler, yet for cold-adapted species like trout, this method just slows down metabolism. 



This can delay loss of consciousness even further, compounding the suffering. Ice exposure also risks tissue damage, thermal shock, and prolonged fear.



The research shows that suffering does not always begin at the point of slaughter. It often starts well before. 



Crowding, transport, and handling all add to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-thought-extinct-for-85-years-reappears-in-himalayan-river-chel-snakehead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>’s cumulative pain. These pre-slaughter stressors can cause physical injury and hours of distress. Yet, regulations usually overlook them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stunning-can-help-fish-suffer-less">Stunning can help fish suffer less </h2>



The study evaluated two types of stunning: electrical and percussive. Electrical stunning, if properly used, could spare 60 to 1,200 minutes of suffering for every dollar spent. This makes it one of the most cost-effective welfare interventions known. 



But implementation remains inconsistent. In many commercial settings, electrical stunning fails to reliably render fish unconscious. Poor placement of electrodes, inadequate voltage, or faulty machines may undermine the potential benefits.



Percussive stunning - a physical blow to the head - has shown better consistency in lab settings. But it's difficult to scale. Fish vary in size. Equipment must be precisely calibrated. Worker fatigue also reduces effectiveness. Any slip means the fish remains conscious while bleeding out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-language-for-animal-pain">A new language for animal pain</h2>



What makes the Welfare Footprint Framework powerful is its transparency. Instead of assigning a fixed label to pain, it works with probabilities. If scientists believe there's a 40% chance the pain is disabling and a 40% chance it is excruciating, the framework includes both.



This makes the model flexible and more reflective of real-world uncertainty. Pain, like emotion, varies between individuals. Some fish may suffer more than others, even under identical conditions.



"The Welfare Footprint Framework provides a rigorous and transparent evidence-based approach to measuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> welfare, and enables informed decisions about where to allocate resources for the greatest impact," noted Dr. Wladimir Alonso from <a href="https://welfarefootprint.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Welfare Footprint Institute</a>.



This approach mirrors models used in public health or environmental science. Just like life years lost to disease, we can now talk about minutes of suffering saved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-policies-and-people">Implications for policies and people</h2>



Fish slaughter occupies only minutes in an animal’s life - but these minutes can be extremely painful. Compared to long-term reforms on farms, slaughter improvements are easier to implement and affect billions of lives. 



The study's authors argue that investing in better stunning tools and training workers can provide enormous welfare gains.



For policy makers, this research offers a scientific foundation to reform outdated practices. Certification schemes can set minimum stunning effectiveness based on real pain data. 



Governments can use this to guide humane slaughter laws. For consumers, it gives a new way to think about what ends up on their plate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-fish-suffer-too">Other fish suffer too</h2>



Though this study focused on rainbow trout, the underlying stress pathways - oxygen deprivation, acidosis, metabolic failure - are common across fish species. That means the Welfare Footprint Framework can be adapted. 



Salmon, catfish, seabass, tilapia - they all may suffer in similar ways during air exposure. However, each species will need specific data. 



Some tolerate low oxygen better. Others may react more strongly to ice. Future research must expand to include this diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-turning-point-for-aquatic-welfare">A turning point for aquatic welfare</h2>



The world is just beginning to reckon with the sentience of fish. For decades, their pain was denied or ignored. But science no longer allows that. 



With trillions of fish slaughtered every year, even small improvements can have vast impact.



The WFF doesn’t just measure pain. It opens a language of empathy grounded in evidence. It lets regulators, producers, and consumers weigh the cost of change. 



And perhaps, most importantly, the framework acknowledges what fish have felt all along - suffering that deserves to be seen and reduced.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-04272-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Scientists prove fish suffer "intense pain" for at least 10 minutes after catch, calls made for reforms

Each year, more than two trillion wild and farmed fish...

Beautiful,Black-browed,Albatross,,Falkland,Islands,,South,Atlantic,Ocean

Marion Island, a speck of volcanic rock about 1,243 miles southeast of Cape Town, hardly looks like the setting for a horror story. Yet on this windy, treeless outpost, an invasion of house mice is turning a haven for seabirds into a crime scene. 



Night after night, the rodents swarm across the nests of wandering albatrosses and other ocean-roaming birds, gnawing at eggs - and, more recently, at the birds themselves.



The attacks are easy to miss if you picture mice as timid scavengers. On Marion, milder winters have stretched their breeding season, ballooning their numbers. 



With plants and insects picked clean, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rodents</a> have discovered an easier, protein-rich target that can’t flee: birds that never evolved defenses against land predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-mice-wreaking-havoc">Invasive mice wreaking havoc</h2>



House mice first arrived on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/205064b0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marion Island</a> in the early 1800s, stowed away on sealing vessels. For most of the next century, they nibbled seeds and invertebrates. 



Warming temperatures, though, gave them extra breeding cycles each year. The population boom pushed the mice to experiment, and birds - stationary, trusting, and plentiful - proved irresistible.



Visitors now report grisly scenes at dawn. Adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-make-it-difficult-for-albatrosses-to-feed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">albatrosses</a> sit tight on nests, unblinking, while scores of mice chew away at feathers, skin, and muscle. 



Lacking any instinct to fight back, the birds endure the assault until sheer blood loss or infection finishes the job.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mice-can-displace-seabirds">How mice can displace seabirds</h2>



Marion shelters roughly one-quarter of the world’s wandering albatrosses, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/albatrosses-use-infrasound-for-long-distance-navigation-study-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legendary fliers</a> whose wings can stretch 11 feet tip to tip. In all, 29 seabird species breed on the island, yet 19 now face local extinction. 



Climate change adds another layer of trouble: warmer seas push fish farther south or deeper, forcing parent birds to travel longer for food and return to nests depleted.



Chicks miss meals; adults miss breeding windows. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-have-different-strategies-to-survive-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extreme storms</a>, whipped up by hotter oceans, wash away nest sites perched on exposed tussock slopes. Combined with the mouse attacks, these pressures make every breeding season a roll of the dice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kill-the-mice-save-the-seabirds">Kill the mice, save the seabirds</h2>



“These mice, for the first time last year, were found to be feeding on adult Wandering Albatrosses,” stated Anderson, who also serves as the CEO of <a href="https://www.birdlife.org.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdLife South Africa</a>. His team’s camera traps record the slow-motion assaults in heartbreaking detail.



“Mice just climb onto them and slowly eat them until they succumb,” said Anderson. The sad, slow process of dying can take days for a bird. “We are losing hundreds of thousands of seabirds every year through the mice.”



Enter the <a href="https://mousefreemarion.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mouse-Free Marion Project</a>, an operation every bit as ambitious as it sounds. 



The blueprint involves loading helicopters with 600 tons of cereal pellets laced with rodenticide and spreading them across the island’s 15.5-mile length and 10.6-mile width. 



Of the $29 million price tag, about a quarter is already in the bank.



“We have to get rid of every last mouse,” emphasized Anderson. “If there were a male and female remaining, they could breed and eventually get back to where we are now.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-a-previous-fiasco">Lessons from a previous fiasco</h2>



Conservationists have tried drastic fixes here before. In the 1940s, cats were introduced to curb the rodents; instead, the felines multiplied and devoured roughly 450,000 birds each year. 



A massive trapping campaign finally removed the last cat in 1991, but the mice inherited an island free of natural enemies.



That cautionary tale hangs over today’s planning sessions. Project leaders stress that baiting must be swift and island-wide - no gaps, no second chances. 



Precision GPS flight lines and winter timing, when most summer-nesting birds are offshore, aim to protect non-target wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-is-everything">Timing is everything</h2>



Winter 2027 is the chosen window, when food is scarce for mice yet most seabirds have migrated north. Helicopters, weather permitting, will crisscross Marion in overlapping swaths to rain down pellets. 



Comparable missions on <a href="https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/south-georgia-mainland-islands-islets-and-stacks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Georgia</a> and New Zealand’s <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/southland/places/subantarctic-islands/antipodes-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antipodes Islands</a> wiped out rats and mice in recent years, showing the blueprint can work even in harsh sub-Antarctic weather.



Logisticians still face headaches: sudden katabatic winds, hidden lava domes, and thick coastal fog that can ground aircraft for days. Even so, a successful first pass is cheaper and kinder than chasing survivors for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-mice-and-invasive-species">Seabirds, mice, and invasive species</h2>



The Marion saga isn’t an isolated oddity. Islands make up barely two percent of Earth’s land, yet they hold an outsize share of endangered species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive predators</a> - rats, cats, pigs, and now even mice - have driven 75 percent of recorded bird, mammal, and reptile extinctions on islands worldwide. 



Climate change intensifies that pressure, allowing hardy generalists to outcompete specialists already living on the edge.



Protecting seabird strongholds pays off far beyond the shoreline. Albatrosses and petrels fertilize oceans with guano rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-are-key-players-in-carbon-cycle-regulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boosting plankton</a> and fish that feed coastal communities. 



Lose the birds, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-hijack-ocean-plants-to-control-marine-food-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine food webs</a> feel the pinch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Funding gaps still loom, and the clock keeps ticking. Yet every dollar pledged brings the Mouse-Free Marion Project closer to takeoff. 



If helicopters lift off in 2027 and every pellet lands where it should, Marion could echo with healthy albatross calls again within a decade. That would free the conservationists to tackle other invaded islands before more birds vanish.



For now, researchers keep watch through wind-lashed winters, counting nests and documenting each fresh wound. 



The task is grim, but the payoff - restoring one of the world’s greatest seabird nurseries - would be well worth the sleepless nights. 



Should the plan succeed, Marion Island might one day be known not for its tragedy, but for showing how persistence, good science, and a bit of grit can tip the balance back in favor of the wild.



<a href="https://www.birdlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Visit BirdLife International</a> for more information on this and other topics.



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Officials plan to literally “bomb” invasive mice that are eating seabirds alive

Marion Island, a speck of volcanic rock about 1,243 miles...

species in Cetoconchidae

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