A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Earth leaks roughly 47 terawatts of heat into space, a trickle compared with the Sun’s input yet vital for plate tectonics, volcanoes, and the magnetic field. This outward flow is usually thought to rise slowly through mantle convection, like steam seeping through thick soup. 



A new study proposes that some of the heat takes express lanes known as mantle plume columns, a concept first drawn by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/230042a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">W. Jason Morgan</a> in 1971.



Now researchers report the first “ghost plume” with no evidence of surface volcanism, hiding beneath Oman’s eastern deserts. Lead author <a href="https://cpg.kfupm.edu.sa/bio/dr-simone-pilia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simone Pilia</a> of King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals analyzed thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mega-tsunamis-triggered-by-earthquakes-could-wipe-part-of-us-off-the-map/">earthquake</a> signals and named the buried column the Dani plume after his son.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oman-s-mantle-plume-rises-but-does-not-erupt">Oman’s mantle plume rises but does not erupt</h2>



Typical plumes reach the surface and build features like Hawaii or Yellowstone, but Oman shows no fresh lava fields. That absence makes the Dani plume a ghost: hot enough to soften rock, not hot enough to punch through a thick continental lid.



“The more we gathered evidence, the more we were convinced that it is a plume,” said Pilia. His team traced the column to a depth of at least 410 miles (660 kilometers), where seismic waves slowed in a neat cylinder about 125 miles (200 kilometers) wide.&nbsp;



Independent checks found the mantle transition zone warped downward at a depth of 255 miles (410 kilometers) and lifted again at 410 miles (660 kilometers), giving a classic thermal fingerprint of rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-heat-and-earthquake-activity-is-there-a-connection/">material</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthquake-waves-reveal-hidden-mantle-plume">Earthquake waves reveal hidden mantle plume</h2>



The hunt relied on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031920103001560?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic tomography</a>, Earth’s version of a CT scan, which turns quake vibrations into 3‑D velocity maps. A temperature rise of about 200 °F (93 °C) can drop shear‑wave speeds by roughly three percent.



In Oman, shear speeds fell by that amount inside the column, implying an excess temperature of roughly 200–500 °F (93–260 °C). That is warm enough to soften peridotite yet still below the melting threshold under 130‑mile‑thick (209-kilometer-thick) <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-activity-will-increase-due-to-glacial-retreat/">lithosphere</a>.



Saskia Goes of <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>, who was not involved in the work, reviewed the data and called the detection “plausible,” noting that narrow columns are notoriously hard to image.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oman-s-land-lifts-without-any-volcano">Oman’s land lifts without any volcano</h2>



Even without lava, surface clues do exist. Eastern Oman’s <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356429226_The_Salma_Plateau_-post-mid-Eocene_to_Quaternary_uplift_and_karstification_eastern_Oman_Geological_Society_of_Oman_Field_Trip_A_Geological_Society_of_Oman_GSO_fieldtrip_November_12th_2021" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salma Plateau</a> is puzzlingly high, topping 6,500 feet (1,980 meters), despite little crustal shortening.



GPS and shoreline studies show the coast is still inching upward at under 0.04 inches (0.1 centimeters) per year. Dynamic support from hot, buoyant mantle at depth offers the simplest explanation for this.



Similar uplift blankets the <a href="https://cmes.utah.edu/news/deeperyellowstonemagma.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellowstone</a> area, where the well‑known plume feeds long‑lived volcanic and hydrothermal activity in the American West. Oman’s quieter rise suggests plumes can lift crust even when they stay bottled deep below solid rock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-plume-may-have-shifted-india-s-path">Hidden plume may have shifted India’s path</h2>



Geological reconstructions hint that the Dani plume slid under the Indian Plate about 40 million years ago, coinciding with a subtle eastward bend in India’s path. Pilia’s group argues that viscous drag from the plume’s flow nudged the plate like a hidden hand.



Torque calculations in the study show that a conduit around 125 miles (201 kilometers) wide, moving a few cubic miles of hot rock per year, could supply the needed force. No other nearby tectonic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-dangerous-part-of-this-west-coast-earthquake-fault-cascadia-subduction-zone/">event</a> explains the timing as neatly.



If a single, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195120300020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amagmatic</a> plume can steer continents, multiple hidden plumes may have quietly shaped plate motions through Earth’s past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hidden-plumes-matter">Why hidden plumes matter</h2>



The Dani plume also carries implications for Earth’s heat budget. If many columns like it bypass slow mantle convection, more heat than expected streams straight from the core, potentially shortening estimates of how long the inner dynamo can continue to run.



Future arrays of ocean‑bottom seismometers and satellite gravity missions could uncover other silent plumes under thick cratons or old ocean basins, refining models that tie deep‑Earth processes to surface hazards and resource formation.



The new findings suggest the Dani plume may trace its roots to the same deep reservoir as the Afar plume, which is located beneath the Horn of Africa. 



Seismic imaging from the DETOX‑P3 global tomography model reveals that both plumes could be branches of a broader low‑velocity structure at the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/core-mantle-boundary" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">core‑mantle boundary</a>, which stretches thousands of miles across the lower mantle.



This tree‑like formation supports growing theories that mantle plumes may not rise as isolated columns but as parts of interconnected <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1348" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superplume networks</a>. 



If so, hotspots like Afar, Yellowstone, and now Oman might share common origins, linking surface activity across continents to single, deep‑Earth sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-reveal-hidden-mantle-plumes">New tools reveal hidden mantle plumes</h2>



Traditional methods for detecting mantle plumes rely heavily on surface volcanism, which may overlook features hidden under thick continental crust. 



The Dani plume shows that relying on lava flows and volcanic rocks alone can miss major drivers of Earth’s internal dynamics.



Instead, combining seismic tomography, plate motion analysis, and topographic signals opens new paths for identifying ghost plumes. 



This interdisciplinary approach could help researchers locate more hidden structures in places that were once thought plume-free, thus reshaping how we map the heat flow from Earth's core to its surface.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X25002663?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Planetary Science Letters</a>.



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Earth has a 'ghost plume' rising from deep within the planet's mantle up to the surface

Earth leaks roughly 47 terawatts of heat into space, a...

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been discovered by scientists at East Tennessee State University. 



Millions of years ago, this 16-inch salamander with a powerful bite threaded its way through the soft earth of what is now northeastern Tennessee.



The salamander tunnels criss-crossed ancient forests, and its appetite likely shaped the mix of smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-amphibians-wildlife-tunnels-prevent-road-deaths/">amphibians</a> in the surrounding ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-may-explain-salamander-diversity">Fossil may explain salamander diversity </h2>



Today, the fossil of this new species may help explain how the region's salamanders became so diverse. The specimen surfaced at the Gray Fossil Site &amp; Museum, a dig next door to <a href="https://www.etsu.edu/ehome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Tennessee State University</a> (ETSU).



After careful study, researchers described the animal - Dynamognathus robertsoni - in a publication in the journal Historical Biology.



The work comes from a team that includes assistant collections manager Davis Gunnin, professor of geosciences Dr. Blaine Schubert, head curator Dr. Joshua Samuels, museum specialist Keila Bredehoeft, and assistant collections manager Shay Maden.



“Our researchers are not only uncovering ancient life, they are modeling the kind of collaboration and curiosity that define ETSU,” said Dr. Joe Bidwell, dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. 



“This exciting find underscores the vital role our university plays in preserving and exploring Appalachia’s deep natural history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-named-for-its-powerful-jaw">Species named for its powerful jaw</h2>



Dynamognathus robertsoni ranks among the largest of the lungless salamanders from the family Plethodontidae. It exchanged gases through its skin and the lining of its mouth, rather than by means of lungs. 



The jaw anatomy of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salamanders-can-adapt-better-to-climate-change-than-previously-thought/">ancient salamander</a> suggests a striking bite force, which would have made it a formidable predator.



“This group of salamanders has unusual cranial anatomy that gives them a strong bite force, so the genus name, Dynamognathus – Greek for ‘powerful jaw,’ is given to highlight the great size and power of the salamander compared to its living relatives,” explained Maden.



The species name honors Wayne Robertson, a longtime volunteer who spotted the first bone and has sifted through more than 50 tons of sediment since 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appalachia-s-surprising-salamander-legacy">Appalachia’s surprising salamander legacy</h2>



Today, the Southern Appalachian forests host more than 50 salamander species - about one-eighth of all known salamanders on Earth. 



Many of them are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/plethodontidae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plethodonts</a> like the new fossil species. Scientists have long wondered how so many species could have arisen in this small corner of the world.



“Finding something that looks like a Red Hills salamander here in East Tennessee was a bit of a surprise,” Gunnin said. 



“Today they’re only found in a few counties in southern Alabama, and researchers thought of them as a highly specialized dead-end lineage, not particularly relevant to the evolution of the dusky salamanders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-salamander-communities">Evolution of salamander communities </h2>



The discovery of Dynamognathus robertsoni in Southern Appalachia indicates that this type of relatively large, burrowing salamander was once more widespread in eastern North America, explained Gunnin.



He noted that this may have had a profound impact on the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-black-bellied-salamanders-were-hidden-in-plain-sight/">Appalachian</a> salamander communities.



Modern dusky salamanders max out at about seven inches (18 centimeters) - less than half the length of the fossil giant. The research team suspects that predators like D. robertsoni drove smaller stream-dwellers to diversify rapidly, setting the stage for today’s variety.



“The warmer climate in Tennessee 5 million years ago, followed by cooling during the Pleistocene <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">Ice Ages</a>, may have restricted large, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-backed-salamanders-will-struggle-to-adapt-to-climate-warming/">burrowing salamanders</a> to lower latitudes, like southern Alabama, where the Red Hills salamander lives today,” said Samuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-salamander-fossil">Significance of the salamander fossil</h2>



“The latest salamander publication is a testament to this teamwork and search for answers,” said Schubert. 



“When Davis Gunnin, the lead author, began volunteering at the museum as a teenager with an interest in fossil salamanders, I was thrilled because this region is known for its salamander diversity today, and we know so little about their fossil record."



From high-school volunteers to seasoned faculty, the Gray Fossil Site team keeps uncovering stories buried beneath Appalachian soil.



The stories explain why a walk through a modern Tennessee stream still reveals more salamander shapes and colors than almost anywhere else on Earth.



This shared effort blends curiosity, dedication, and local pride in a way that brings science to life. With each new find, the team adds another piece to the puzzle of Appalachia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/">ancient ecosystems</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2025.2501332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Giant salamander fossil reveals deep roots of Appalachian diversity

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been...

Scientists discovered human footprints preserved in ancient mud at White Sands, New Mexico. These footprints appear to date back to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) - a period during the last Ice Age roughly 23,000 years ago when glaciers were at their largest.



This finding sparked a lot of interest because it suggested that humans were in North America much earlier than previously believed. However, some experts questioned the accuracy of the dating methods. 



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7586" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The original study</a> used radiocarbon dating on plant seeds and pollen, which some argued might not have been reliable enough.



A few years later, the same research team returned to the White Sands footprints and obtained new dates from highly reliable sources. 



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh5007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Those results</a> showed the same timeline of 20,000 to 23,000 years ago, reconfirming that humans were present far south of the ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-human-arrival-in-north-america">Confirming human arrival in North America</h2>



Back in 2012, Vance Holliday, an archaeologist and geologist at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, got a rare chance to study one of the most unusual landscapes in America - the otherworldly dunes of White Sands, New Mexico.



Now, Holliday is back again with new research that offers fresh evidence to settle the debate, once and for all. This time, the team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radiocarbon-could-be-key-in-predicting-earths-future/">radiocarbon dating</a> on ancient mud found with the footprints. An independent lab handled the analysis.



The results? The mud dated between 20,700 and 22,400 years old - lining up with the original footprint age range. That makes three different materials (seeds, pollen, and now mud) dated by three different labs, all telling the same story.



"It's a remarkably consistent record," said Holliday, also a professor emeritus in the School of Anthropology and the Department of Geosciences, who has spent nearly five decades studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-discovered-ancient-footprints-that-rewrite-the-story-of-humans-in-america/">early human migration</a> across the Great Plains and the American Southwest.



"You get to the point where it's really hard to explain all this away,” he added. “As I say in the paper, it would be serendipity in the extreme to have all these dates giving you a consistent picture that's in error."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-life-in-the-americas">Human life in the Americas </h2>



For decades, the story of how humans first arrived in America centered on the Clovis culture. Named after artifacts found near Clovis, New Mexico in the 1930s, this group was long believed to represent the earliest known humans to set foot on the continent. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-americans-relied-on-mammoths-for-food-and-survival/">Clovis people</a> were thought to have crossed from Siberia into Alaska via the Bering Land Bridge around 13,000 years ago, then spread southward into the rest of North America.



This timeline shaped textbooks, museum exhibits, and generations of archaeological research. It set a clear point of origin for human life in the Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-migration-timeline">Shifting migration timeline</h2>



But the White Sands discovery challenges that foundation. If humans were already walking across the region 23,000 years ago - well before the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">last Ice Age</a> - then the Clovis-first model no longer holds up.



It suggests people reached the continent thousands of years earlier, potentially by different routes or under very different conditions.



That changes not just when we think people arrived in America, but how they lived, moved, and adapted. It opens new questions about migration patterns, technology, and survival in prehistoric landscapes that looked nothing like the ones we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-story-of-human-arrival-in-america">New story of human arrival in America </h2>



Thousands of years ago, the White Sands region was a series of lakes. As the lakes dried, the wind sculpted gypsum into dunes. The footprints were found in the bed of an ancient stream that once fed into one of those lakes.



"The wind erosion destroyed part of the story, so that part is just gone," Holliday said. "The rest is buried under the world's biggest pile of gypsum sand."



To get a closer look, the University of Arizona team returned in 2022 and 2023. They dug fresh trenches through the lake beds.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/first-human-footprints_white-sands-new-mexico_Alkali-Fat-basin-map_UWisconsin_1s.webp" alt="The northern Tularosa Basin showing the area of the White Sands (“Gypsum Sand Dunes”), the Alkali Fat deflation basin, modern Lake Lucero, and present-day Lost River, which drains southwest across the distal piedmont until it is buried by the gypsum dunes (see also fig. S4). The 1204-m contour line approximates the proposed extent of paleolake Otero (15). It was likely more extensive given the &gt;4 m of lake beds at “G.” The two field areas (red dots) are as follows: “G” is the area of Gypsum Overlook, the Central study area, and WHSA Locality 2; “Loc 1” is a stratigraphic section along the west margin of Alkali Flat. The brown pattern at G is the area of exposures of deposits linked to paleolake Otero and overlain by truncated Holocene dunes (31). The inset shows the location of the White Sands and the Tularosa Basin within New Mexico [based on figure 1 in (31)]. Image credit: X. Gong and A. Cowart, University of Wisconsin Cartography Lab." class="wp-image-1974696"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The northern Tularosa Basin showing the area of the White Sands (“Gypsum Sand Dunes”), the Alkali Fat deflation basin, modern Lake Lucero, and present-day Lost River, which drains southwest across the distal piedmont until it is buried by the gypsum dunes. The 1204-m contour line approximates the proposed extent of paleolake Otero. It was likely more extensive given the >4 m of lake beds at “G.” The two field areas (red dots) are as follows: “G” is the area of Gypsum Overlook, the Central study area, and WHSA Locality 2; “Loc 1” is a stratigraphic section along the west margin of Alkali Flat. The brown pattern at G is the area of exposures of deposits linked to paleolake Otero and overlain by truncated Holocene dunes. The inset shows the location of the White Sands and the Tularosa Basin within New Mexico. Click image to enlarge. Credit: X. Gong and A. Cowart, University of Wisconsin Cartography Lab.</figcaption></figure>



Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate in environmental science, had previously worked in the area as a consulting geoarchaeologist and agreed to join the project.



"It's a strange feeling when you go out there and look at the footprints and see them in person," Windingstad said. "You realize that it basically contradicts everything that you've been taught about the peopling of North America."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-missing-artifacts">The missing artifacts</h2>



Of course, one big question still hangs in the air: where are the tools, shelters, or other remains you’d expect from ancient people? It's a fair concern, the researchers admit.



Some of the footprints were part of quick trackways - paths that could’ve been walked in just a few seconds. That short window of time may explain the lack of material left behind.



"These people live by their artifacts, and they were far away from where they can get replacement material. They're not just randomly dropping artifacts," Holliday said. "It's not logical to me that you're going to see a debris field."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-human-arrival-in-north-america">Early human arrival in North America </h2>



While he always believed the 2021 results were solid, he says it’s good to have new data that reinforces them.



"I really had no doubt from the outset because the dating we had was already consistent," Holliday said. "We have direct data from the field – and a lot of it now."



This additional evidence strongly supports the idea that the footprints were made during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-the-ice-age-can-tell-us-about-future-el-nino-events/">Last Glacial Maximum</a>. It gives scientists greater confidence that humans were present in North America much earlier than most theories had assumed.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv4951" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Footprints rewrite the timeline of human arrival in North America

Scientists discovered human footprints preserved in ancient mud at White...

Artificial intelligence (AI) is no longer a futuristic dream. It’s already shaping how people learn, work, communicate, and make decisions. 



From virtual assistants and advertising to grading exams and diagnosing diseases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-ai-can-balance-climate-goals-and-economic-progress/">artifical intelligence</a> is everywhere. With each breakthrough, the future of the workplace evolves in ways many people never imagined.



As AI takes on more complex roles, many jobs that humans do today may disappear. This reality creates both a challenge and an opportunity. Governments and schools now face the question: How can they prepare people for a future dominated by AI?



New research from the University of Georgia (<a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UGA</a>) offers answers. It explores how 50 countries are dealing with this shift, especially in education and workforce development. 



The study's findings show a wide range of strategies and priorities, offering a glimpse into what the future of work might look like worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-will-replace-jobs-and-create-jobs">AI will replace jobs and create jobs</h2>



The fear that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-brain-thinks-differently-than-ai/">machines</a> will replace humans has existed for centuries. But this time, it's not just physical labor at risk. White-collar and creative roles are also under pressure. 



Previous research estimates that nearly half of today’s jobs could disappear within the next 20 years.



Still, this change is not entirely negative. Researchers also believe that 65% of today’s elementary school students will work in careers that don’t yet exist. 



Most of these new roles will require deep knowledge of AI tools, systems, and logic. That means the real risk lies not in losing jobs but in failing to prepare for the jobs of the future.



The human element remains essential. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/">Machines</a> may learn patterns, but they lack emotional intelligence and intuition. These traits will continue to set people apart.



"Human soft skills, such as creativity, collaboration and communication cannot be replaced by AI," noted Lehong Shi from the College of Education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-countries-are-planning-for-ai-jobs">How countries are planning for AI jobs</h2>



The UGA study, led by Lehong Shi, reviewed national <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-ai-has-free-will-whos-responsible-when-things-go-wrong/">artificial intelligence</a> strategies from 50 countries. It looked closely at how each nation planned to educate its citizens and train workers in AI-related areas. 



Shi examined six indicators to rank these efforts: the strategy’s goals, methods of implementation, examples of projects, success metrics, support structures, and timelines.



Based on this analysis, countries were grouped into three categories: high, medium, or low priority for developing an AI-ready workforce. Only 13 countries earned a high-priority status. Eleven of them were European, with Mexico and Australia rounding out the group.



This shows that some nations are already thinking long-term. According to Shi, European countries often benefit from strong educational systems and cultures that support lifelong learning. These factors make it easier for them to act quickly and plan deeply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-united-states-stands">Where the United States stands</h2>



The U.S. did not make the high-priority list. It was among 23 countries that placed medium importance on preparing for AI. This means its national AI strategy lacks the same level of detail found in more committed countries.



That doesn’t mean nothing is happening. American universities are building AI labs, and companies are offering training. But without a coordinated national effort, the U.S. risks falling behind. 



Nations that make bigger investments now may have a stronger and more flexible workforce in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-ai-programs-for-students">Expanding AI programs for students</h2>



Despite their differences, countries often shared certain priorities. Nearly every nation aimed to expand AI programs in universities. Many also wanted to include AI in primary and secondary education, preparing students from an early age.



More than half of the countries focused on using AI for on-the-job training. These efforts ranged from formal internships to custom programs for industries like healthcare, finance, or manufacturing. 



While these steps are helpful, the study found a lack of focus on vulnerable groups. Older adults, unemployed people, and those with limited education were often left out of national strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-priorities-for-the-use-of-ai">National priorities for the use of AI</h2>



Some countries focused their efforts in other directions. For instance, several Asian countries prioritized AI for defense and healthcare instead of education. Shi emphasized that these choices reflect national priorities and don’t mean AI is being ignored.



A few countries stood out for their unique approaches. Germany, for example, chose to build a culture around AI awareness. The goal is to promote long-term interest in AI, rather than just offering training. 



Spain took a different but equally impressive route. It started teaching AI-related skills to children in preschool. These examples show that preparing for AI does not begin in adulthood. 



Building curiosity and confidence from an early age helps children adapt easily to future careers. It also reduces fear and builds resilience in the face of rapid change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-countries-lack-a-key-strategy">Many countries lack a key strategy</h2>



Yet, even among countries with strong strategies to prepare for the age of AI, one key area was often ignored. 



"Human soft skills, such as creativity, collaboration and communication cannot be replaced by AI," Shi said. "And they were only mentioned by a few countries."



This is a critical oversight. Machines can analyze data and solve technical problems, but they can’t brainstorm like humans. 



Soft skills support teamwork, leadership, and customer service. Without them, even the most technically skilled worker may struggle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-an-ai-ready-future">Looking toward an AI-ready future</h2>



The study has a clear conclusion. Some countries are charging ahead with AI workforce plans. Others are still testing the waters. A few focus mostly on education and training. Others lean into AI <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neuromorphic-computing-where-ai-meets-human-brain/">technology</a> for healthcare, security, or economics.



The routes vary, but the finish line looks the same. To keep up, people need real skills - not just tech know-how, but the ability to think clearly, lead with confidence, and connect with others. 



Some countries begin this work early, ohers drag their feet, and a few cast a wide net. Too many still leave entire groups behind.



What happens next isn’t about machines. It’s about the decisions we make now. The countries that keep learning, stay flexible, and bring everyone along will handle the AI wave better than the rest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15344843251332360" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Resource Development Review</a>.



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AI is disrupting jobs, but countries are learning to adapt

Artificial intelligence (AI) is no longer a futuristic dream. It’s...

Watching babies babble, play, or interact with others may offer surprising insights into how their thinking skills will develop and function decades later.



That’s the central finding of a study showing that even at 7 months old, some of a baby's cognitive behaviors can hint at their thinking skills as 30-year-old adults. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infancy-shapes-thinking-skills-for-life">Infancy shapes thinking skills for life</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> studied more than 1,000 twins over the span of 30 years. Their research shows that early-life assessments of cognitive function can help predict performance on cognitive tests at age 30. 



The findings also suggest that an infant’s environment plays a more important role in shaping life-long thinking ability than previously believed. According to the researchers, it could even affect a person’s risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/">dementia</a> later in life.



“Our findings highlight the enduring consequences of the very early childhood environment on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/">cognitive ability</a> and suggest that early life is a critical developmental period that we should be paying attention to,” said Daniel Gustavson, assistant research professor at the Institute for Behavioral Genetics (IBG).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-few-studies-of-infant-thinking-skills">Few studies of infant thinking skills</h2>



General cognitive ability, or GCA, is a broad measure of a person’s ability to learn, reason, understand, and solve problems. It’s similar to the more familiar term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hormones-during-pregnancy-may-affect-child-iq/">IQ</a>, though GCA is a composite of several cognitive factors.



Previous research has shown that a large portion of GCA is already set during childhood. For instance, if you test an 8-year-old’s cognitive skills, the result will likely resemble their score at age 30. 



In fact, intelligence scores at age 20 are highly correlated with scores at age 62. IQ doesn’t change much between ages 11 and 90.



But until now, very few studies have explored whether signals from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caregiver-speech-shapes-infant-language-development/">infancy</a> - long before school starts - can tell us anything meaningful about future thinking ability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessments-of-thinking-skills-began-early">Assessments of thinking skills began early</h2>



To answer this question, Gustavson and senior author Chandra Reynolds analyzed data from 1,098 individuals enrolled in the Colorado Longitudinal Twin Study. 



The IBG began the project in 1985 by enrolling baby twins from Colorado’s Front Range to study how genetic and environmental factors influence development over time.



Since then, researchers have collected large amounts of data through lab samples, home visits, interviews, surveys, and behavioral testing.



“We have co-authors on this paper who have been involved since the start and watched these twins grow up,” said Gustavson.



At 7 months old, each infant completed assessments of seven cognitive skills. These included vocalization, task persistence, and what researchers called “novelty preference” - whether the baby chose a new toy over a familiar one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-twin-studies-continue-for-decades">Twin studies continue for decades</h2>



So far, participants have completed cognitive testing at five different ages throughout their lives.



The study found that early thinking skills could explain about 13% of the variation in cognitive performance at age 30. Two infant traits, namely task orientation and novelty preference, were especially strong predictors. Though modest, the researchers found this link notable.



“We certainly do not want to imply that cognition is somehow fixed by seven months old,” Gustavson said. “But the idea that a very simple test in infancy can help predict the results of a very complicated cognitive test taken 30 years later is exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinking-skills-affected-by-nature-and-nurture">Thinking skills affected by nature and nurture</h2>



To understand the extent to which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifespan-is-influenced-more-by-lifestyle-than-genetics/">genetics</a> (nature) and environment (nurture) each contribute to cognition, the researchers looked at differences in GCA scores between identical twins, who share all of their genes, and fraternal twins, who share about half. 



When identical twins show more similar outcomes than fraternal twins, this points to a stronger genetic influence. The team also examined DNA samples collected from blood or saliva.



As expected, genetics played a significant role. By age 7, inherited traits accounted for roughly half of the variation in cognitive scores measured at age 30. Still, environmental factors in early life also left a meaningful and lasting mark.



"One of the most exciting findings was that 10% of the variability in adult cognitive ability was explained by environmental influences before year one or two,” elaborated Gustavson. “This suggests that even the pre-preschool environment matters," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-years-matter-for-cognitive-ability">Baby years matter for cognitive ability</h2>



Chandra Reynolds, a co-author of the research paper who studies dementia risk, sees a bigger picture.



“Cognitive aging is a life-long process, not just something that begins in mid-life,” said Reynolds. 



“It could be that certain interventions, like strong educational foundations in early life could help maximize what people are capable of and help them keep that cognitive gas in the tank for as long as possible.”



Good childcare, stimulating play, and stable living conditions might help preserve brain power into old age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-genes-impact-thinking-skills">Many genes impact thinking skills</h2>



The study also showed that polygenic scores are a valuable tool for estimating cognitive ability.



These scores combine the effects of many individual genetic variants into a single number, offering an estimate of a person’s genetic likelihood for a trait - such as intelligence.



“There are thousands of genes that influence intelligence, so you are never going to find an ‘intelligence gene,' but we have found many with tiny effects that, when put together, can have an impact,” Gustavson said.



“Studies like ours show us that both family-based and genomic-based datasets are valuable in answering questions about how genetic and environmental influences change across the lifespan"



Together, these findings reinforce the idea that what happens in babyhood doesn’t just fade - it shapes thinking for a lifetime.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2426531122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Adult thinking skills may be forged during our early infancy

Watching babies babble, play, or interact with others may offer...

The pandemic didn’t just bring masks and lockdowns. It brought science into living rooms. One term stood out - mRNA vaccines. These shots rolled out fast and saved lives. But the excitement faded when vaccine-driven immune protection wore off too soon.



A few months after the jab, people lined up again for boosters. The world wanted immunity that stuck around. Scientists started asking: Can we make mRNA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-vaccine-strategy-paid-off-and-its-still-saving-lives/">vaccines</a> last longer without piling on more doses?



Turns out, maybe we can. A group of researchers may have figured out how.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vaccine-looks-like-a-virus">The vaccine looks like a virus</h2>



Researchers from the University of Copenhagen and biotech firm AdaptVac gave the mRNA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-failure-patients-may-live-longer-with-covid-19-vaccination/">vaccine</a> a new outfit. They disguised it as a virus.



“Our study combines two technologies: mRNA vaccines and what we call virus-like particles," said lead author Cyrielle Fougeroux, senior scientist at AdaptVac. 



"By engineering the mRNA vaccine to produce virus-like particles, we trick the immune system into thinking it’s encountering a real virus."



"This triggers a much stronger and more durable immune response in mice, which is exactly what we want."



So what does this actually mean? They added a second piece of genetic code. One part builds the usual spike protein. 



The new part builds a virus-like shell. Together, these parts form something that looks like a threat. The immune system doesn’t hesitate - it charges in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-vaccine-stronger-immune-response">Less vaccine, stronger immune response</h2>



The body reacts stronger and remembers longer. That’s the goal. The mice in the study showed exactly that. Fewer doses still created a lasting response.



Less vaccine, more immunity. That changes everything - fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-ai-algorithm-can-predict-a-persons-attitude-towards-vaccines/">jabs</a>, fewer side effects, less strain on healthcare.



Adam Sander, the study's senior author, is a professor at the University of Copenhagen and scientific director at AdaptVac.



“We believe this discovery represents a significant improvement to current mRNA technology and could play a major role in the development of next-generation vaccines,” said Sander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-outbreaks">Preparing for future outbreaks</h2>



Pandemics don’t wait and scientists know this. They’re already racing to beat the next one. Nipah virus, for example, could be a serious threat. It spreads from animals, kills fast, and has no approved vaccine.



At the University of Copenhagen, Sander’s team is using the same technology to build a Nipah vaccine. Human trials could begin in a few years. Timing matters and so does durability.



“mRNA technology is a powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-misconceptions-are-spreading-rapidly/">tool</a> against a wide range of diseases, but its short-lived effect in humans is a major challenge," Sander said.



"If we can use virus-like particles to achieve a stronger and potentially longer-lasting immune response, we’ve made a meaningful improvement to the technology - one that could have a major impact during a pandemic.” 



That stronger punch means one thing: a vaccine that builds stronger and longer immune protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mrna-needed-a-boost">Why mRNA needed a boost</h2>



Before 2020, vaccines came slowly. Grow virus, kill it, inject it. When COVID-19 hit, mRNA changed the game. Instead of injecting bits of virus, scientists sent instructions. The body did the building. Fast, flexible, and safer.



But that clever design had a weak spot. The body often forgot. That’s why boosters came so soon.



Here’s where the new method shines. It still uses mRNA, but the added code makes the body build a virus-like shell too. It’s fake, but it looks real. The immune system thinks it’s under attack. And that, surprisingly, makes all the difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-boosting-vaccine-on-the-horizon">Immune-boosting vaccine on the horizon</h2>



However, the results so far only come from experiments on mice. That means it’s too early to say whether the same strong immune response will happen in humans. 



Still, the concept is bold and promising. The immune system often needs a strong trigger to react fully. By creating virus-like particles, the vaccine may give the immune system a reason to take notice and respond more powerfully.



If this method works in humans, it could lead to vaccines that not only act fast but also keep the immune system protected for much longer. That could make future vaccines more effective and reduce the need for frequent booster shots.



The study is published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology. It’s a team effort between the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> and <a href="https://www.adaptvac.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AdaptVac</a>. Both groups share ownership of the results.



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Scientists trick immune system into stronger vaccine response

The pandemic didn’t just bring masks and lockdowns. It brought...

As climate change continues to reshape the environment, new research reveals that global food systems face serious long-term risks, with global crop yields likely to shrink even if farmers adapt. 



The findings suggest that every additional degree of warming could significantly reduce how much food the world can produce.



A new study estimates that for every 1°C increase in global temperatures, the average person’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-food-supply-transforming-co2-into-protein/">food supply</a> could drop by 120 calories per day - roughly 4.4% of daily consumption.



“If the climate warms by three degrees, that’s basically like everyone on the planet giving up breakfast,” said co-author Solomon Hsiang, a professor of environmental social sciences at the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



With more than 800 million people already suffering from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-insecurity-can-lead-to-heart-problems-later-in-life/">food insecurity</a>. The prospect of widespread food declines due to climate change is raising alarms among policymakers and humanitarian agencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-corn-belt-in-jeopardy"><a></a>The Corn Belt in jeopardy</h2>



The study points to the United States - particularly the Midwest - as one of the regions that could be hardest hit.



Andrew Hultgren is one of the lead authors of the study and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>. 



“Places in the Midwest that are really well-suited for present-day corn and soybean production just get hammered under a high warming future,” he said. "You do start to wonder if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-u-s-corn-belt-influences-its-own-weather/">Corn Belt</a> is going to be the Corn Belt in the future.”



“This is basically like sending our agricultural profits overseas. We will be sending benefits to producers in Canada, Russia, China. Those are the winners, and we in the U.S. are the losers,” Hsiang added. “The longer we wait to reduce emissions, the more money we lose.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-fixes-only-go-so-far">Farming fixes only go so far</h2>



One of the study’s innovations is its realistic approach to adaptation. Rather than assuming farmers will either do nothing or respond perfectly to changes, the research team analyzed actual behavior in 12,000 regions across 55 countries.



They looked at yields and costs for six major staple crops: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/">wheat</a>, corn, rice, soybeans, barley, and cassava.



In many areas, farmers already adjust practices - like planting dates, crop varieties, or fertilizer use - to cope with climate change. These changes help, but only to a point. “Any level of warming, even when accounting for adaptation, results in global output losses from agriculture,” Hultgren said.



The impacts are likely to be most severe for the world’s agricultural powerhouses and its poorest communities. Yield losses from staple crops could average 41% in the wealthiest regions and 28% in the lowest-income areas by the end of the century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-picks-food-winners">Climate change picks food winners</h2>



One key finding is that climate change impacts crops differently. The study predicts a 50% chance that rice yields will rise, largely because rice benefits from warmer nights. However, the odds of decline by 2100 range from 70% to 90% for other major staples.



With the Earth already 1.5°C warmer than pre-industrial levels, the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">climate change</a> are no longer theoretical. Farmers are reporting erratic weather, longer droughts, and extreme heat, even in regions where modern inputs are readily available.



The models suggest that by 2100, global yields could fall 11% even if emissions drop to net zero, and by 24% if emissions continue to climb. The outlook for 2050 is not much better, with an estimated 8% reduction in yields regardless of emissions changes.



“If we ignore those long-run damages, we assign an economic value of zero to them, and that is clearly wrong,” Hultgren said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-farming-needs-support">Future farming needs support</h2>



Hsiang and Hultgren are now turning their focus to helping governments prepare. They’re working with the <a href="https://www.undp.org/">United Nations Development Program</a> to share the findings and identify communities most at risk.



“We’re focusing on how to make it so that this is not actually what our future looks like, even if we can’t get our act together on the emissions side,” Hsiang said.



Helping farmers adapt won’t be easy. In many regions, they lack access to basics like quality fertilizer or accurate weather forecasts. The team is developing tools to prioritize funding and resources where they can make the biggest impact.



For Hsiang, the message is clear: climate change is eroding one of agriculture’s most essential assets - stability.



“Farmers know how to maintain the soil, invest in infrastructure, repair the barn. But if you’re letting the climate depreciate, the rest of it is a waste. The land you leave to your kids will be good for something, but not for farming,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09085-w">Nature</a>.



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Climate change may devastate global food production

As climate change continues to reshape the environment, new research...

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green water teems with microscopic life, while ultramarine blue usually signals relative scarcity.



A fresh analysis of two decades of satellite images suggests that the dividing line between those hues is on the move. A new study finds open-ocean waters are steadily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/">greening</a> at high latitudes and becoming bluer in the tropics and subtropics.



Because the tint of seawater tracks chlorophyll - the pigment that phytoplankton use for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a> - the trend hints at a large-scale rearrangement of life at the base of marine food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ocean-s-shifting-color-code">The ocean’s shifting color code</h2>



The research team, led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> post-doctoral scholar Haipeng Zhao, sifted through global data captured from 2003 to 2022. The data came from <a href="https://aqua.nasa.gov/modis">NASA’s MODIS-Aqua</a> instrument, which scans the planet every two days.



Each pass measures subtle shifts in reflected light that reveal chlorophyll concentration right at the surface. To avoid the optical noise of sediment-rich coastlines, the researchers focused exclusively on the open ocean.



“In the ocean, what we see based on satellite measurements is that the tropics and the subtropics are generally losing chlorophyll, whereas the polar regions - the high-latitude regions - are greening,” Zhao said.



In practical terms, that means less plankton in warm, blue waters flanking the equator and a rising abundance in polar waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inventive-math-for-a-noisy-planet"><a></a>Inventive math for a noisy planet</h2>



Working with satellite imagery always involves gaps - patches of cloud, sensor dropouts, differences in daylight.



To tease out a coherent story, Zhao and colleagues borrowed a pair of statistical tools more often used to study household incomes: the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient.



Lead investigator Nicolas Cassar, a scientist at Duke, explained the leap from economics to oceanography: “We borrowed concepts from economics called the Lorenz curve and the Gini index, which together show how wealth is distributed in a society.



“We thought, let’s apply these to see whether the proportion of the ocean that holds the most chlorophyll has changed over time.”



The result? Over twenty years, the ‘chlorophyll rich’ zones - already green - grew greener, particularly in the northern hemisphere, while blue regions lost even more pigment. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-climate-connections"><a></a>Testing the climate connections</h2>



Greener poles and bluer tropics might sound like a straightforward fingerprint of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">global warming</a>. However, the study stops short of that conclusion.



The authors compared chlorophyll shifts with four environmental variables: sea-surface water temperature, wind speed, light availability, and mixed-layer depth. Only warming tracked consistently with the observed color change; the others showed no strong association.



Even so, co-author Susan Lozier of Georgia Tech cautioned against a rush to label climate change the culprit. “The study period was too short to rule out the influence of recurring climate phenomena such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a>,” Lozier said.



“Having measurements for the next several decades will be important for determining influences beyond climate oscillations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-plankton-big-impact">Changing plankton, big impact</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">Phytoplankton</a> do more than tint the waves. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide and convert it to organic matter, sequestering carbon when dead cells sink.



A poleward migration of productivity could rearrange that natural pump. Cassar notes that the geographic shift may decide how long that captured carbon remains out of circulation.



“If carbon sinks deeper or in places where water doesn’t resurface for a long time, it stays stored much longer. In contrast, shallow carbon can return to the atmosphere more quickly, reducing the effect of phytoplankton on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon storage</a>,” he said.



Food security is another concern. Many equatorial nations rely on rich fisheries sustained by plankton blooms. A steady drop in primary producers could disrupt the food web, reducing fish stocks vital to diets and economies.



“Phytoplankton are at the base of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/">marine food chain</a>. If they are reduced, then the upper levels of the food chain could also be impacted, which could mean a potential redistribution of fisheries,” Cassar warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-color-shift-continues">Ocean color shift continues</h2>



The study adds the open ocean to a list of Earth systems already showing poleward ecological drift. On land, satellite records have documented expanding forests in high latitudes and stressed vegetation in the subtropics. 



Now, with the ocean’s own chlorophyll belt shifting, researchers see a consistent planetary story unfolding.



Still, the authors emphasize that two decades are only an opening chapter. Longer records, deeper observations, and improved models of phytoplankton physiology are needed to predict the full ecological impact.



The ocean’s color shift signals change - green in high latitudes, blue near the equator - as ecosystems quietly reorganize. It silently tracks a significant re-ordering of marine life that could reshape climate feedbacks and global fisheries alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adr9715">Science</a>.



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Shifting ocean color is pushing marine life toward the poles

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green...

Astronomers have spotted a giant exoplanet, named TOI-6894b, that's bigger than Saturn and circling a red dwarf star only one-fifth the mass of the Sun.



This finding rewrites expectations about where massive planets can form and hints that such worlds may be common around the smallest stars. The discovery emerged from a survey of Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (<a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/tess/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TESS</a>) data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-star-hosts-a-giant-toi-6894b">Tiny star hosts a giant TOI-6894b</h2>



TOI-6894 is a cool <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planets-orbiting-red-dwarf-stars-may-not-be-habitable-ultraviolet-uv-radiation/">red dwarf</a> that shines with far less light than the Sun. Yet its companion, TOI-6894b, is a puffed-up gas world whose radius exceeds Saturn’s while its mass is only half as large.



“I was very excited by this discovery. I originally searched through TESS observations of more than 91,000 low-mass red dwarf stars looking for giant planets,” said lead author Edward Bryant, an astronomer at University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>).



“Then, using observations taken with one of the world’s largest telescopes, <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO’s VLT</a>, I discovered TOI-6894b, a giant planet transiting the lowest-mass star known to date to host such a planet.



“We did not expect planets like TOI-6894b to be able to form around stars this low-mass. This discovery will be a cornerstone for understanding the extremes of giant planet formation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-and-planet-mismatch">Star and planet mismatch</h2>



The host star is 60 percent smaller than the next-tiniest star known to harbor a transiting gas giant. That fact alone forces astronomers to rethink estimates of planetary populations.



“Most stars in our galaxy are actually small stars exactly like this, with low masses and previously thought to not be able to host gas giant planets," said co-author Daniel Bayliss, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Warwick</a>.



"So, the fact that this star hosts a giant planet has big implications for the total number of giant planets in our Galaxy.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toi-6894b-is-a-mystery">TOI-6894b is a mystery</h2>



Standard core-accretion theory struggles to explain the new object. Low-mass stars should possess thin disks that cannot build hefty planetary cores before the gas disperses.



“It’s an intriguing discovery. We don’t really understand how a star with so little mass can form such a massive planet!” said co-author Vincent Van Eylen, an expert in exoplanets at UCL.



“This is one of the goals of the search for more exoplanets. By finding planetary systems different from our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/">solar </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">s</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/">ystem</a>, we can test our models and better understand how our own solar system formed.”



The team explored two alternate routes. “Given the mass of the planet TOI-6894b could have formed through an intermediate core-accretion process,” Bryant said.



Alternatively, the planet could have formed when a gravitationally unstable disc fragmented under its own gravity, leading gas and dust to collapse into a planet. However, neither scenario fits the present data perfectly, keeping the planet’s origin open.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-giant-details-emerge">Gas giant details emerge</h2>



TOI-6894b orbits at a distance that leaves its atmosphere chilly by exoplanet standards. The estimated equilibrium temperature is only 420 Kelvin.



“Based on the stellar irradiation of TOI-6894b, we expect the atmosphere is dominated by methane chemistry, which is exceedingly rare to identify,” said co-author Amaury Triaud, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>.



Temperatures could allow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-jupiters-clouds-not-ammonia-ice-leaves-astronomers-astonished/">ammonia</a> to be detected in an exoplanet atmosphere for the first time.



“TOI-6894b likely presents a benchmark exoplanet for the study of methane-dominated atmospheres and the best ‘laboratory’ to study a planetary atmosphere containing carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen outside the Solar System,” he said. 



Such promise has already earned the planet a place in the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) observing queue. Spectra next year may reveal the gas balance and cloud depth, shedding light on the planet’s formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toi-6894b-opens-new-star-search-lanes">TOI-6894b opens new star search lanes</h2>



“This system provides a new challenge for models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/">planet formation</a>," said co-author Andrés Jordán, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://pure.uai.cl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University Adolfo Ibáñez</a>. "It offers a very interesting target for follow-up observations to characterize its atmosphere."



“Our efforts have allowed us to contribute significantly to a better understanding of how often small stars can form giant planets, and we are providing prime targets for follow-up with space-based platforms.”



Every sentence of data from TOI-6894b will sharpen those statistics. If many dim red dwarfs host similar planets, the Milky Way could have more gas giants than expected.



For now, the new world stands as a reminder that planet formation remains flexible - and sometimes spectacularly bold - no matter how modest the parent star.



-----



The study was led by researchers at the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Warwick</a>, University College London's (UCL) <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/mssl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mullard Space Science Laboratory</a>, the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>, and other partners.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02552-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image credit: University of Warwick/Mark Garlick



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Astronomers discover a tiny star with a giant planet that should not exist

Astronomers have spotted a giant exoplanet, named TOI-6894b, that's bigger...

Hidden beneath the thick crust and scorching layers deep inside our Earth lies an immense stash of precious metals. Scientists have long believed these riches, which include gold and ruthenium, remain stuck near the core-mantle boundary, a zone that is about 1,900 miles (3,000 kilometers) underground.



Yet new findings indicate some of these metals are edging upward through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-exoplanet-glows-with-red-hot-molten-lava/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic</a> eruptions on islands like Hawaii. Observations show traces of ruthenium in Hawaiian lava that hint at a slow leak from Earth’s deepest interior. 



Many of these insights come from the work of Dr. Nils Messling from the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-core-metals-leak-into-earth-s-mantle">Core metals leak into Earth's mantle</h2>



“When the first results came in, we realized that we had literally struck gold! Our data confirmed that material from the core, including gold and other precious metals, is leaking into the Earth’s mantle above,” Dr. Messling enthused.



He and other researchers found chemical signatures in lava that suggest metals can migrate from the core to the surface.&nbsp;



This work aligns with earlier <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aal4179" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> indicating distinct isotopes of tungsten in certain volcanic rocks. By comparing precise <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/isotopic-ratio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isotope ratios</a>, researchers noted anomalies that could only be explained by a hidden source deep within the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molten-rock-helps-metals-travel-from-core">Molten rock helps metals travel from core</h2>



“Our findings not only show that the Earth’s core is not as isolated as previously assumed," explained <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/prof.+dr.+matthias+willbold/555303.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Matthias Willbold</a>, who is also from the University of Göttingen. 



"We can now also prove that huge volumes of super-heated mantle <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/harrat-khaybar-an-active-lava-field-in-saudi-arabia/">material</a>, several hundreds of quadrillion metric tons of rock, originate at the core-mantle boundary and rise to the Earth’s surface to form ocean islands like Hawaii,” 



Much of this evidence turned up in the melted rock that feeds Hawaii’s volcanoes.&nbsp;



These details offer a glimpse into how metals bound in the core could ride streams of <a href="https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781501508950-009/html?lang=en&amp;srsltid=AfmBOoqhuNQgWi4iHVPVUUcWu9n3wzjB2gLCgtxcXgkbiZ4n9hkZXkAc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">igneous fluids</a> into shallower regions. 



The transport is slow by human standards, yet even a tiny upward trickle over millions of years can transfer notable amounts of valuable elements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaked-metals-may-explain-surface-deposits">Leaked metals may explain surface deposits</h2>



Some gold and related metals used in modern technology may have once sat near the center of Earth. Precious metals are essential in fields like renewable energy, electronics, and medical devices.



The exact scale of this movement is still under investigation, but the possibility raises new questions about how mineral deposits form.



Experts also note that gold’s scarcity on the surface drove its historic status and monetary role. Understanding that traces of it seep into the mantle from far below may shift how scientists think about metal distribution and planetary evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-inner-layers-exchange-materials">Earth’s inner layers exchange materials </h2>



Geologists once imagined the core as an isolated reservoir, shut off by thousands of miles of dense rock. Recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825219302636" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> challenge that notion and point to a slow but steady exchange of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-lava-tubes-for-homes-middle-east-saudi-arabia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>.



Whether these interactions have been ongoing since Earth’s earliest history remains an active research question.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09003-0/figures/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/gold_precious-metals_core-to-surface_chemical-details_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Ru values of OIBs, picrites and peridotites from the modern and Archean upper mantle. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1971419"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Ru values of OIBs, picrites and peridotites from the modern and Archean upper mantle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



Researchers emphasize that the current metal flow from the core is too small to spark any gold rush. They view it instead as a geological phenomenon that reveals how Earth’s inner processes keep shaping its surface in unexpected ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precious-metals-from-earth-s-earliest-days">Precious metals from Earth’s earliest days</h2>



The movement of ruthenium isotopes also hints at the types of material from which Earth originally formed. 



Researchers believe the core retains the chemical fingerprint of ancient planetary building blocks, which are distinct from what was added subsequently during <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103524002033" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">late accretion</a>.



This means some of the metals rising through volcanic plumes today could be leftovers from the earliest days of Earth’s formation, which would offer rare insight into events that happened more than 4.5 billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metal-flow-shows-earth-s-core-changes">Metal flow shows Earth's core changes</h2>



“Whether these processes that we observe today have also been operating in the past remains to be proven. Our findings open up an entirely new perspective on the evolution of the inner dynamics of our home planet,” remarked Dr. Messling.



Some scientists suspect that rock plumes carrying metals might have spurred geochemical differences in the oceans and atmosphere over long periods. 



They also consider how these plumes might influence volcanic island chains and the distribution of certain mineral deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



These findings don’t just matter to geologists. The presence of core-derived materials near the surface may affect how scientists model Earth’s heat flow, magnetic field generation, and deep mantle convection.



Beyond academic curiosity, the confirmation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/">core-mantle exchange</a> might one day influence how we locate and assess mineral resources, especially in volcanic regions that were previously overlooked.



The next steps involve pinpointing the rate at which metals flow from the core and how they rise through the Earth's mantle. 



Isotope measurements of other elements could provide even more clues about the composition of our planet’s inner zones.



These measurements will help researchers unravel deeper questions about planetary formation, ongoing exchange among layers, and the origins of metals that power crucial technologies. 



This knowledge might reshape long-held ideas and reveal new facets of Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/iceland-eruption-blasted-lava-into-the-sky/">complexity</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09003-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Volcanic gold discovered in Hawaii may have come directly from Earth's core

Hidden beneath the thick crust and scorching layers deep inside...

For years, thin plastic bags have been one of the most visible symbols of pollution - blowing through streets, choking marine wildlife, and breaking down into microplastics that contaminate ecosystems.



Now, a new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.udel.edu/">University of Delaware</a> and <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> offers the clearest evidence yet that bag bans and fees do make a difference.



By analyzing data from tens of thousands of beach cleanups across the United States, the researchers found that jurisdictions with plastic bag laws saw a significant drop - between 25% and 47% - in plastic bags as a share of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-bag-bans-have-drastically-reduced-ocean-pollution/">shoreline litter</a>.



The study is the first large-scale analysis to connect local policy with direct environmental outcomes, rather than relying on consumer checkout data alone.



“A lot of the previous economics literature on plastic bag policies has used checkout data at the store level,” said lead author Anna Papp, an environmental economist at Columbia. “We were excited to add to that a direct measurement of plastic litter on these shorelines.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-plastic-bag-problem">Understanding the plastic bag problem</h2>



Americans use billions of plastic bags each year - often for just minutes - yet these bags can take hundreds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-policies-like-plastic-bag-bans-can-often-backfire/">years to break down</a>. 



Most end up in landfills, where they occupy space without decomposing, or escape into the environment, littering streets, waterways, and natural areas. 



Because they’re lightweight, they easily blow out of trash bins and landfills, creating widespread pollution that’s difficult and costly to clean up.



Once in the environment, plastic bags wreak havoc on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/filter-feeders-transform-microplastics-into-a-bigger-threat/">wildlife and ecosystems</a>. Animals, particularly marine life, often mistake them for food or become entangled in them, leading to injury or death. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-way-to-remove-microplastics-from-tap-water-home-faucet/">Microplastics</a> from degrading bags enter the food chain, raising concerns about long-term health effects in both wildlife and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volunteers-help-map-plastic-waste">Volunteers help map plastic waste</h2>



The idea for the study began when co-author Kimberly Oremus, a marine policy expert at the University of Delaware, noticed that volunteers at Delaware beach cleanups were using an app called Clean Swell to track the litter they picked up.



The app feeds into the <a href="https://www.coastalcleanupdata.org/about">Ocean Conservancy’s TIDES database</a>, which collects crowdsourced data from thousands of cleanups around the world.



“When we found the database that had information on different shoreline cleanups, we realized we could look at the composition of litter before and after a policy to see what effect it had,” Oremus said. “And then we could compare that to places that never got a plastic bag policy.”



With no federal ban on plastic bags in the United States, the researchers had a rich dataset of hundreds of local and state-level laws to compare. 



Between 2007 and 2023, they compiled over 600 distinct policies, allowing them to assess a wide range of regulations and their impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bans-and-fees-differ-greatly">Bans and fees differ greatly</h2>



While it might seem obvious that banning or taxing plastic bags would reduce litter, the magnitude of the effect surprised the team.



“There are so many pathways a bag can take from the checkout line at the store,” Oremus said. “It’s great to see a policy that works in such a clearly measurable way.”



Interestingly, the research also showed that some types of policies work better than others. 



State-level laws tended to have a stronger impact than city or county ordinances, and fees - perhaps counterintuitively - were more effective at reducing litter than outright bans.



Papp noted that this could be because fees encourage people to bring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-retailers-are-replacing-plastic-bags-with-eco-friendly-paper-bags/">reusable bags</a>, while bans may be more easily circumvented with loopholes or substitutions.



The researchers also observed that the policies had the biggest impact in areas that started with higher levels of plastic bag pollution, suggesting that public buy-in and visible local problems may help drive compliance and effectiveness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-decline-slows-not-stops">Plastic decline slows, not stops</h2>



Despite the success of bag policies in reducing local litter, the overall share of plastic bags among shoreline trash is still increasing - just not as quickly in areas with bans or fees.



“We’re still getting more plastic bags on shorelines as a percentage of all the cleanup items over time,” noted Oremus. “It’s not eliminating the problem, it’s just making it grow more slowly.”



This sobering trend highlights the limitations of local policies when facing a global problem. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-production-increases-create-identical-plastic-pollution-increase/">Plastic production</a> and consumption continue to rise, and single-use items remain deeply embedded in supply chains and consumer habits.



“Ours is the first large-scale study to use hundreds of policies and tens of thousands of cleanups to look at their effects,” Papp said. “But it is important to keep in mind that this is a relative decrease in affected areas compared to areas without policies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bags-are-just-the-start">Bags are just the start</h2>



With the <a href="https://www.unep.org/">United Nations Environment Program</a> preparing for its next round of negotiations on an international <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-treaty-is-a-historic-opportunity-to-stop-a-human-health-crisis/">plastic treaty</a> in August 2025, the study offers timely evidence that policy can make a tangible difference.



“Overall, our findings do show that plastic bag policies are broadly effective in limiting litter along shorelines,” Papp said. Yet, plastic bags remain just one piece of the puzzle.



The researchers hope their work will help policymakers think beyond local or single-product solutions and push for more comprehensive strategies. 



Plastic bag <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-policies-like-plastic-bag-bans-can-often-backfire/">bans</a> aren’t a silver bullet, but they’re one of the tools that clearly work - and that gives scientists something to build on.



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Plastic bag bans help, but they aren't enough to stop pollution

For years, thin plastic bags have been one of the...

Preschool can change more than just how kids learn to read. A long-term study shows that a focused preschool program can help students better handle emotional and behavioral challenges even in high school.



The REDI program, short for Research-based, Developmentally Informed, was designed to improve social-emotional skills and language abilities in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/todays-children-will-face-more-climate-extremes-than-ever-before/">children</a> from low-income families. This intervention has now shown benefits that span over a decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preschool-program-taught-emotions">Preschool program taught emotions</h2>



REDI was integrated into 22 Head Start classrooms across three counties in Pennsylvania. Teachers received weekly support and training.



The curriculum was based on Preschool PATHS, which targeted emotion understanding, impulse control, and social interaction.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-have-the-brainpower-to-navigate-maps-at-a-very-young-age/">Lessons</a> were reinforced through interactive reading, sound games, and print activities. Parents also got handouts and DVDs to continue the learning at home.



“We wanted to work with Head Start and look at whether there were ways to strengthen the programming by incorporating more up-to-date research on what we knew about social-emotional development,” said Karen Bierman, the lead researcher from <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Pennsylvania State University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preschool-kids-behaved-better">Preschool kids behaved better</h2>



In preschool, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mobile-addiction-harms-kids-mental-health-more-than-screen-time/">children</a> who received REDI showed higher emotion knowledge and social competence. These early gains prepared them to navigate relationships and school challenges more effectively in later years.



Teachers noted better cooperation and emotional regulation by the time students reached elementary school.



REDI students showed fewer behavior problems in high school with an effect size of 0.27 and fewer emotional symptoms with an effect size of 0.41, based on teacher, parent, and self-reports. These effects appeared more than ten years after the intervention ended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-lasting-emotional-skills">Building lasting emotional skills</h2>



Academic skills acquired in preschool often fade if not supported. But social-emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-now-the-reality-for-nearly-half-a-billion-children/">skills</a> can persist. They help children form strong relationships, manage feelings, and stay focused. This improves school experiences year after year.



“The preschool intervention had built a protective capacity for kids to better manage the social pressures and emotional demands of adolescence,” Bierman said.



The REDI study followed participants from age 4 to 18. It showed how early emotional learning helped children stay steady through the transitions of school and adolescence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-gains-linked-to-school-success">Emotional gains linked to school success</h2>



The preschool program did not directly raise grades or on-time graduation rates. But it helped in indirect ways. Students with better emotional control did well in school and graduated on time. These gains began with behavior and adjustment in grade school.



The study revealed six clear paths that linked REDI to better GPA and another six to graduation on time. These involved improvements in emotion knowledge, social competence, parent involvement, and behavior management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-parents-and-teachers">Role of parents and teachers</h2>



Parent involvement played a central role. One major path to fewer emotional symptoms in teens began with parents engaging more with school. REDI supported this through weekly take-home tools and DVDs for families.



Teachers observed that REDI children adjusted better and built stronger classroom relationships. These qualities helped them avoid negative peer influence and handle stress throughout school.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preschool-programs-after-the-pandemic">Preschool programs after the pandemic</h2>



After the pandemic, many children face wider gaps in education and emotional well-being. Programs like REDI offer a model for support that starts early and continues to matter later. The program cost only $191 per child, making it a cost-effective approach.



These results suggest that early efforts in emotional development have lasting impact. They shape school behavior and support success in life.



“Our findings suggest that when you boost early social-emotional skills, the big payoff is going to be sustained improvements in social-emotional and behavioral adjustment,” said Bierman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-follows-kids-into-adulthood">Study follows kids into adulthood</h2>



Researchers continue to follow students from the preschool program into their twenties. They are studying how early learning affects college, work, and personal life. 



The goal is to see how the preschool program shapes success in adulthood. Many families have remained in the study for over 14 years. 



"They’ve been really willing to hang in there with us,” said Bierman. The commitment of these families could help build stronger programs for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.14235" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Child Development</a>.



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Early preschool program helps teens behave better in high school

Preschool can change more than just how kids learn to...

Echidna,In,The,Zoo

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like misfits, but the bigger oddity hides in their DNA. For most mammals, a gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22246/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY</a> flips the switch for testis formation and sets sex development in motion.



Researchers have now shown that these <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotreme.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotremes</a> wield a completely different master key: a Y‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4654491/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a>). 



<a href="https://researchers.adelaide.edu.au/profile/linda.shearwin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Linda Shearwin</a> of the University of Adelaide’s School of Biological Sciences led the international team that cracked the case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-sex-gene-in-monotremes">Different sex gene in monotremes</h2>



Platypuses carry five X and five Y <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2413164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a> that line up in an alternating chain during male meiosis, a structure unlike anything in other mammals. 



Females hold five paired X chromosomes, yet the species thrives, proof that complicated does not always mean fragile.



Genomic clocks place the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/obl4he/vertebratediversity/monotremes.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotreme split</a> from other mammals at roughly <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8081666/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">187 million years ago</a>, long before SRY arose in placental and marsupial lineages. 



Their last common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/">ancestor</a> with us never carried SRY, so a different mechanism had to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monotremes-have-10-sex-chromosomes">Monotremes have 10 sex chromosomes</h2>



Monotreme males don’t just have an X and a Y. They juggle a system with up to 10 sex chromosomes, five Xs and five Ys in platypuses, and a slightly smaller set in echidnas. 



These chromosomes form a chain during sperm production, a configuration that looks more like a daisy chain than the standard X–Y pair mammals typically carry.



This odd setup baffled scientists for decades. Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">therian mammals</a>, monotreme sex chromosomes share homology with bird Z chromosomes, not with the mammalian Y. 



That raised suspicions early on that monotremes must use a completely different trigger to determine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/">sex</a>, but proving it required access to rare developmental stages.



Anti‑Müllerian hormone normally turns off female tract development in male embryos and later guides <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2024.1468364/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ovarian follicle growth</a>. In people, doctors measure AMH to gauge fertility or predict menopause timing.



Most mammals keep AMH on an ordinary chromosome, far downstream of SRY and <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>. In echidnas and platypuses, evolution duplicated the gene, parked the copy on a Y chromosome, and rewired its control panel to switch on early in male gonads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-starts-outside-the-cell-s-nucleus">Sex starts outside the cell’s nucleus</h2>



“This new understanding fills a significant knowledge gap and ultimately can be used to support conservation of these iconic Australian mammals. AMHY would be the first known example of a growth factor playing a sex‑determining role in mammals,” said Dr. Shearwin. 



Her team tracked AMHY activity in developing echidna testes well before visible sex differences appeared. 



The protein works outside the nucleus, binding a surface receptor and relaying signals rather than directly steering DNA. 



That makes monotremes the only known mammals where a secreted factor, not a transcription factor, calls the first shot in sex development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-amhy-different-from-amhx">What makes AMHY different from AMHX</h2>



Although a X‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMHX) and AMHY both belong to the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4325469/">TGF-β protein family</a> and share key structural features, they diverged significantly after an ancient gene inversion. 



The two proteins are only 52% identical, with differences concentrated in regions that affect hormone cleavage and signaling.



Their promoter regions also diverge. AMHY lacks the usual <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2626" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA4</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=SF1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SF-1</a> binding sites seen in AMHX and other mammalian AMH genes. 



Instead, AMHY uses unique transcription factor sites, like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2820524/%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DMRT1</a> and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC548021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA1</a>, which are active only in male gonads, suggesting a custom regulatory setup designed for sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-view-of-sex-genes">Wider view of sex genes</h2>



AMH duplications have taken over sex determination more than once. A male‑specific <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5555456/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a> copy steers testis formation in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11907690/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Patagonian pejerrey fish</a> and old‑world silversides. 



Some amphibians use the same trick, showing that hormones can win the evolutionary race against classic DNA‑binding proteins.



The discovery also underlines how fragile Y chromosomes can be. SRY itself did not appear until about 160 million years ago and was identified in humans only in <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/sex-determining-region-y-mammals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1990</a>. 



If SRY could pop up late, there is no reason other genes cannot step in when needed, as monotremes demonstrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-monotreme-sex-matters">Why monotreme sex matters</h2>



Platypus populations face habitat loss and climate change, and captive breeding programs struggle because eggs are delicate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/">reproductive cycles</a> poorly understood. 



Knowing that AMHY, not SRY, dictates sex gives biologists a tool for early‑stage sexing of embryos in conservation labs.



The work also helps physicians dissect AMH’s many roles in humans. Because monotreme AMHY triggers an entire sex pathway on its own, comparing its sequence to human AMH may spotlight sites essential for receptor binding or signal strength. That insight could refine AMH‑based fertility tests or therapies.



To test AMHY's function, researchers tried introducing platypus AMHX and AMHY into developing chicken embryos, a model known to respond clearly to sex-determining signals. 



Overexpressing chicken AMH in females causes visible masculinization, so scientists hoped platypus versions might do the same.



But nothing changed. The monotreme proteins didn’t cause male traits in chickens, even when highly expressed. 



Structural analysis showed that key binding sites between mammalian AMH and the bird receptor don’t line up well. 



This mismatch confirms that early mammalian changes in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34155118/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMH–AMHR2 interaction</a> likely limit cross-species functionality.



The full study is published in <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03546-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Biology</a>.



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Platypus and echidnas break mammal rules with weird sex system

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like...

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still leaving space for wildlife? A new proposal says they can.



By setting aside one-fifth of farmland for nature, and tweaking everyday practices on the rest, we can help wildlife recover without sacrificing the food on our tables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-with-wildlife-in-mind">Farming with wildlife in mind</h2>



The plan comes from ecologists at the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> and the University of Alcalá in Spain. Study co-author Professor James Bullock elaborated on the importance of the research.



“Reversing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity loss</a> and degradation of ecosystems is essential both for nature as well as long-term global food security. But there is no single silver bullet for nature recovery and so far it has been unclear how to integrate rewilding into agricultural landscapes," said Professor Bullock. 



“Our proposed approach moves beyond land sparing versus land sharing. We believe rewilding can be interwoven into agricultural landscapes and could be key to maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/">food production</a> in a way that is sustainable in the long term for people and the planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedicating-land-to-nature-recovery">Dedicating land to nature recovery</h2>



According to the study, fostering rewilding approaches alongside farming could create agroecological landscapes that accommodate biodiversity while remaining resilient and functionally connected. Certain incentives would encourage farmers to adopt this approach.



“While setting aside land for nature recovery could potentially be made a legal requirement for farmers and landowners, there is more likely to be acceptance and success of rewilding if there are incentives in the form of payments for ecosystem services and tax deductions,” noted Professor José María Rey Benayas, lead author on the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-farming-needs-wildlife">Why farming needs wildlife</h2>



Modern farming has greatly increased food production since the 1940s. But this has often come at the expense of nature. 



Clearing land, using heavy fertilizers and pesticides, and removing natural features like hedgerows have pushed many plant and animal species to the edge.



This loss doesn’t just affect wildlife - it disrupts vital services that farms depend on, such as healthy soil, natural pest control, and water retention. As these services decline, the long-term productivity and resilience of farming systems are put at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-declining-wildlife">The cost of declining wildlife</h2>



Across Europe and beyond, once-common species are disappearing from farmland. For example, the U.K. has lost over 40 million birds since 1970, and wild bee populations have declined in more than half of European countries, according to multiple long-term surveys.



These animals aren’t just part of the scenery - they’re key to food production. Birds eat crop pests. Bees and other insects pollinate the flowers that develop into fruits and vegetables. Their loss means greater reliance on artificial fertilisers, pesticides, and expensive manual labour.



Bringing wildlife back isn’t just a conservation goal - it’s a practical step toward more affordable and reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">farming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-to-farming-alongside-wildlife">Steps to farming alongside wildlife </h2>



The researchers suggest a four-part plan that links nature conservation with everyday farming. 



First, they recommend reserving at least 20% of farmland for nature. This space would include large patches of woodland, wetlands, and species-rich grassland to form strong core habitats. 



Second, these patches should be connected by green corridors - such as hedgerows, ponds, and strips of scrubland - that allow wildlife to move, feed, and reproduce.



Third, they propose protecting small hotspots within working fields. This would involve setting aside about 10% of cropped land for flower strips, beetle banks, and bird perches, bringing the total to the 30% global restoration goal. 



Finally, they call for small changes in daily farming practices, like reducing chemical use, planting flowers for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a>, and letting livestock graze more freely to help spread seeds and support healthy soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewilding-has-benefits-for-farmers">Rewilding has benefits for farmers</h2>



Many European regions cannot host bears or bison. However, smaller species such as lynx, wildcat, or European hare can still boost ecosystem health. Choosing the right mix depends on local conditions.



Helping wildlife can pay off in more ways than one. When farms support natural habitats, they often see practical benefits in return. 



Better soil retains more water and nutrients, which supports stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-can-help-make-crops-more-resilient/">crops</a>. Pollinators and natural predators of pests can help increase yields in nearby fields. 



Farmers may also spend less on fertilizers and pesticides, lowering overall input costs. In some places, governments might provide payments or tax breaks to reward efforts that support biodiversity and ecosystem services.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-room-for-wildlife">Making room for wildlife</h2>



Reaching the 20% target may be challenging for small farms, but collective action can make it achievable. At the same time, each region will need to adapt the plan to fit its local conditions. 



Areas with heavily degraded farmland have the most to gain, while places with traditional, low-impact farming may require fewer changes. 



The researchers emphasize that this is just a starting point - but the message is clear: making room for wildlife alongside farming can help secure both indigenous species and food for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2860">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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Farming for wildlife: How traditional practices can protect nature

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still...

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, and it has a story that spans nearly a million winters.



Researchers report that Akarotaxis gouldae (nicknamed the banded dragonfish) branched off from its nearest cousin some 780,000 years ago, surviving cycles of advancing and retreating ice in near‑total isolation, according to <a href="https://www.vims.edu/people/corso_ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrew Corso</a> of the <a href="https://www.vims.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS)</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-dragonfish-family-tree">Tracing the dragonfish family tree</h2>



Genetic work showed that A. gouldae separated from A. nudiceps after glaciers sealed much of the Southern Ocean, leaving a pocket of fish marooned in deep trenches.



“There are two distinct bands on the sides of adult A. gouldae that are not present on A. nudiceps,” said Corso, adding that the specimens had sat unrecognized in museum jars for decades.



Time‑calibrated <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/phylogeny" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phylogeny</a>, a technique that treats <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-of-human-genetic-mutations-unveiled/">DNA mutations</a> as a molecular clock, supports the 780,000‑year split and hints that the ancestors of today’s banded dragonfish rode out the ice age beneath moving glaciers before re‑emerging when the ice pulled back.



The banded dragonfish joins the family Bathydraconidae, a group famed for its sparse sampling and for species that often turn up only as larval traces in plankton nets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-museum-collections">Importance of museum collections</h2>



Old jars, dusty shelves, and handwritten labels might not seem exciting, but they’ve become critical to discovering overlooked species like Akarotaxis gouldae. 



The adult fish had been sitting in museum <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/vertebrate-zoology/fishes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ichthyology</a> collections for years, misidentified as their more common relatives.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1s.webp" alt="Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Credit: Andrew Corso" class="wp-image-1974442"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Andrew Corso</figcaption></figure>



By cross-checking DNA samples with these physical specimens, scientists were able to link the genetic evidence to real-world morphology. Without access to these archives, the banded dragonfish might still be hiding in plain sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfish-species-in-isolation">Dragonfish species in isolation</h2>



Living cut off for hundreds of thousands of years forces species to adapt in unique ways. In the case of Akarotaxis gouldae, the isolation beneath glaciers may have shaped not only its body but also its behaviors and genetic resilience.



Studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/">species</a> like this helps scientists understand how evolution works over long timescales when environments are extreme and gene flow is limited. It also gives clues about how animals might respond to rapid environmental changes happening today.



To persist in water that hovers around 28 °F, notothenioid fishes such as A. gouldae make <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14515019/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antifreeze glycoproteins</a>, tiny molecules that latch onto ice crystals and halt their growth.



Adults likely spend most of the year hundreds of feet down, yet come inshore to guard nests, a behavior documented in related dragonfishes, while their larvae drift near the surface, where food is richer but fishing gear lurks. 



Dissections reveal ovaries holding surprisingly few eggs, suggesting a slow‑growing population that cannot quickly rebound from losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-peninsula-matters">Why the peninsula matters</h2>



All confirmed records of A. gouldae fall inside a roughly 250‑mile swath along the western Antarctic Peninsula, giving the fish one of the narrowest ranges of any Antarctic vertebrate. 



That strip is also among the fastest‑warming places south of the equator; Esperanza Station <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-023-00529-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logged</a> an air temperature of 64.9 °F in 2020, part of a trend of record heat events that are increasing in frequency.



As the water warms and sea ice shrinks, prey dynamics shift. A 25‑year survey shows that larvae of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03042-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic silverfish</a>, an important forage species for penguins and seals, drop sharply when sea ice duration falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-nets-and-collateral-damage">Krill nets and collateral damage</h2>



Commercial vessels net <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/fisheries/krill-fisheries" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a> throughout the Peninsula in mid‑water trawls that work from the surface to about 820 ft, directly overlapping the depths where larval dragonfish ride the currents.



“This limited range combined with their low reproductive capacity and the presence of early life stages in shallower waters suggests that this is a vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-tiger-swallowtail-butterfly-discovered-in-the-u-s-had-gone-unnoticed-by-scientists/">species</a> that could be impacted by the krill fishery,” said Corso. 



Observers note that juvenile finfish bycatch is poorly documented; a few hundred missed larvae could erase a year‑class of banded dragonfish before scientists even know it existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-ship-s-legacy">Honoring a ship's legacy</h2>



The species honors the research vessel <a href="https://www.usap.gov/vesselscienceandoperations/1626/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laurence M. Gould</a>, retired in 2024 after decades ferrying scientists through treacherous seas. Its departure leaves only one U.S. supply ship to cover a coastline the size of the continental United States.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguin-poop-helps-form-clouds-that-could-slow-antarctic-warming/">Penguin colonies</a> already illustrate what slips through gaps in monitoring: satellite and drone surveys reveal that many chinstrap penguin rookeries around the Peninsula have fallen by more than 50 % since the 1980s.



Corso and colleagues hope the banded dragonfish will become a flagship for hidden Antarctic biodiversity, spurring tighter catch limits and fresh investment in field campaigns before climate and commerce push the deep‑sea relic past a tipping point.



The full study is published in <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/52879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New dragonfish species discovered in Antarctica has survived in isolation for 780,000 years

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly...

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species, yet the planet’s first large animal‑built reefs tell a quieter story. New work on fossils from Nevada shows that early Cambrian seas looked nothing like the bustling coral gardens we know today.



Graduate researcher Casey Bennett of the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri</a> and colleagues spent weeks among dusty outcrops, chipping out blocks packed with shells no bigger than grains of sand.



The analysis reveals surprising patterns of life around those ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">structures</a>, offering a fresh window onto evolution half a billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-reefs-spanned-ancient-nevada">Animal reefs spanned ancient Nevada</h2>



More than 514 million years ago, sponge‑like <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/archaeo.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaeocyathids</a> built the planet's earliest animal <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3514525.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> in shallow seas stretching from Siberia to what is now Nevada.



The Harkless Formation near modern Death Valley hosts dozens of these patch reefs, some only a few yards across yet stacked through hundreds of feet of limestone.



Packed between the stone cups of the sponges are fragments of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342184591_Small_shelly_fossils_and_carbon_isotopes_from_the_early_Cambrian_Stages_3-4_Mural_Formation_of_western_Laurentia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small shelly fauna</a>, the quirky menagerie of early mineralized animals that heralded the Cambrian explosion. These fossils, most under a tenth of an inch long, include baby <a href="https://home.wgnhs.wisc.edu/wisconsin-geology/fossils/brachiopods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brachiopods</a>, snail‑like mollusks, and bristly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699524000214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chancelloriids</a>.



Bennett’s team measured fossil assemblages in multiple vertical sections and compared them to the distance from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/">reef</a> walls.



The researchers logged grain size and chemistry of nearby layers to study how sediment influenced fossil preservation. The approach marries classic field mapping with CT scanning that can spot skeletal bits hidden in uncut rock.



That toolbox let the team count tiny creatures that earlier surveys missed, pushing sample sizes into the thousands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-fossils-trace-ancient-reefs">Tiny fossils trace ancient reefs</h2>



Small shelly fauna crop up worldwide in rocks dating to the first 25 million years after animals evolved skeletons, making them key markers for global correlation. 



Because many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">species</a> lived fast and died young, their remains provide fine‑scale time stamps that help synchronize distant stratigraphic sections.



The specimens also capture evolutionary experiments that never made it into the later fossil record, such as slug‑like <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1995.0029" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">halkieriids</a> that wore chain‑mail armor of overlapping plates. Linking these animals to specific habitats can explain why some lineages thrived while others fizzled.



Modern coral reefs often harbor dense banks of filter feeders and crustaceans whose larvae settle preferentially on hard walls. If early reefs played a similar ecological role, small shelly species should cluster close to archaeocyathid mounds. 



That prediction has floated in textbooks for decades but rested on scant quantitative data. Bennett’s dataset provided the first rigorous test at meter‑scale resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-didn-t-increase-nearby-species">Ancient reefs didn’t increase nearby species</h2>



“With modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">reefs</a>, biodiversity is expected to decrease as you move away from the reef structure due to reduced shelter and food access,” said Bennett. Yet her counts showed no clear pattern - some distant fossil layers were as species-poor as those near the mounds.



Instead, a few hardy taxa dominate whole <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336585971_Palaeoecology_of_the_archaeocyathan_reefs_from_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_Formation_southern_Nevada_western_United_States_and_carbon_isotopic_evidence_for_their_demise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layers</a>, suggesting that early oceans sorted communities by environmental filters rather than by proximity to the reef.



That pattern echoes observations from later Cambrian sections in Mongolia and Labrador, where reefs also failed to boost local diversity.



“Potentially, this happened by preferentially removing or keeping certain faunas, rather than the reef serving as a major food source for surrounding organisms,” added Assistant Professor Sarah Jacquet.



The remark points fingers at <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrodynamics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrodynamics</a> - the way water flow scours or blankets parts of the seafloor. Models show gentle currents around low-relief reefs can form eddies that trap shells or carry them away. Those physics could produce patchy fossil carpets without invoking biological competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sediment-dictated-fossil-survival">Sediment dictated fossil survival</h2>



The team noticed that changes in <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/blog/2023/08/18/science-lithology-dating-seafloors-movements-over-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithology</a>, whether the rock was a grainy packstone or a micritic mud-governed which shells survived. Coarse beds preserved robust hyoliths, while fine muds favored delicate sponge spicules.



Taphonomic quirks can therefore mask true ecological signals, a warning for paleontologists who chase diversity curves through deep time. By pairing sedimentology with fossil tallies, Bennett shows how to tease apart the preservational filter.



The study also strengthens a growing view that archaeocyath reefs were short‑lived “experiments” rather than foundational keystones. 



Similar conclusions emerged from carbon‑isotope <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390526423_Small_shelly_fauna_biodiversity_from_reef-adjacent_facies_of_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_formation_Nevada" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that tracked the rise and crash of reef communities through Cambrian Stage 4.



Those geochemical shifts hint that global changes in seawater chemistry, perhaps tied to oxygen pulses, played a bigger role than local reef architecture. If true, the early oceans were less a patchwork of hotspots and more a landscape ruled by large‑scale physical drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-warn-us-about-today">Ancient reefs warn us about today</h2>



Coral ecologists <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225405507_Rapid_phase-shift_reversal_on_a_Jamaican_coral_reef">note</a> that today’s reefs often act as biodiversity magnets, with fish and invertebrate richness peaking on the reef and falling away into open sand. But those gradients may depend on the vertical relief and nutrient flow that Cambrian reefs lacked.



Understanding that difference matters because climate change is flattening many living reefs, slicing away the very architecture that supports complex food webs. 



Ancient analogues show that low-relief carbonate banks can persist without the riot of life we associate with reefs. This hints at future ocean floors that remain structurally intact but are ecologically simplified.



“Just because we know how the world works today doesn’t mean it worked the same way back then,” noted Professor Jacquet. Recognizing that flex in nature’s playbook can help scientists design conservation targets that account for multiple evolutionary baselines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-reef-loss-risk">Fossils show reef loss risk</h2>



Bennett plans to sample neighboring formations to see whether diversity patterns change in deeper water or in reefs built by different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-sponges-play-a-critical-role-in-the-ocean-and-they-are-rapidly-vanishing/">sponge</a> species. 



Coupling those data with fluid‑dynamic models could finally pin down how current speed and direction sculpted early animal neighborhoods.



The Nevada hills still hold miles of limestone from ancient animal reefs, awaiting fresh eyes and new technology. Every chip of shale reminds us that even the smallest fossils can rewrite big chapters in Earth history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101822500207X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a>.



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Ancient reefs were surprisingly empty compared to today

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species,...

Diseño sin título - 1

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small slab of rust‑colored rock from a newly discovered exceptional fossil site in central New South Wales, Australia until a curious researcher split the stone in early March. 



“It was a complete fluke,” exclaimed <a href="https://earthsciences.anu.edu.au/people/professor-jochen-j-brocks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Jochen Brocks</a> of the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a> after realizing what he had found. 



That single break exposed a two‑inch fish so complete that even its stomach contents and color cells were still visible.



During the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/miocene.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene epoch</a>, central New South Wales was covered by temperate rainforest and freshwater oxbow lakes rather than today’s dusty paddocks. 



The new species belongs to the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/49887-Osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes order</a>, a group better known for modern graylings and smelts but never before recorded in Australia’s fossil record.



Researchers led by <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/matthew-mccurry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Matthew McCurry</a> at the Australian Museum and <a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/persons/michael-frese" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Michael Frese</a> at the University of Canberra compared dozens of specimens ranging from 2.1 to 3 inches long, confirming a healthy resident population rather than scattered migrants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforest-lake-that-turned-to-rust">Rainforest lake that turned to rust</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-like-rainbow-trout-suffer-extreme-pain-when-killed-by-air/">fish</a> and many plants and insects were entombed in <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Goethite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goethite</a>, an <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866414/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iron‑oxide</a> mineral that precipitated rapidly in the stagnant lake water. 



Iron’s ability to lock soft tissue in place is now recognized as a key factor in deep‑time preservation of cells and proteins. 



Geochemists <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825223000569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that goethite’s fine crystals can replicate sub‑micron features before decay destroys the originals, explaining why pigment cells survived here while bones often did not.



McGraths Flat is classed as a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/abs/konservatlagerstatten-cause-and-classification/40A5D354B2DB79EFB6D654BC77421A33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konservat‑Lagerstätte</a>, a sedimentary deposit famous for extraordinary detail, and its ferric layers sit just three feet below the surface near Gulgong. 



The discovery encourages field crews to re‑examine iron‑rich outcrops worldwide that were once dismissed as fossil‑poor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-fossil-was-a-two-inch-hunter">Fish fossil was a two‑inch hunter</h2>



Under a scanning electron microscope, the team identified packed groups of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms1819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanosomes</a> that once sat inside pigment cells called melanophores. 



Their distribution shows a dark back, pale belly, and two lateral racing stripes, classic countershading that helps living fish blend into sunlit water.



“It pushed the boundaries of what can be preserved,” noted Dr. Frese. Similar spherical and rod‑shaped melanosomes had been recorded earlier in an Eocene fish eye from Denmark, providing a useful comparison for the Australian material. 



The stripes also hint at schooling behavior, because bold horizontal bands are common in small modern smelts that rely on group camouflage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-a-final-snack-reveals">What a final snack reveals</h2>



Each fossil gut contained antennae from <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.4319/lo.1990.35.7.1631" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chaoborus larvae</a>, better known as phantom midge young, along with fragments of insect wings and an occasional bivalve shell. 



Modern Chaoborus sink into mud by day and rise at night to avoid fish, a strategy documented in laboratory and field studies.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1s.webp" alt="Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Credit: Australian National University" class="wp-image-1974319"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Australian National University</figcaption></figure>



The heavy reliance on pelagic prey suggests F. brocksi hunted in open water after dusk rather than picking along the bottom. 



Because several size classes died together, scientists infer the lake provided year‑round habitat, unlike many living smelts that migrate between rivers and the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-parasite-hitchhiker">A parasite hitchhiker</h2>



One specimen shows a juvenile freshwater mussel, or glochidium, clamped to its tail fin. This is the oldest direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/">fossil record</a> of such parasitism and implies the lake was periodically connected to a river where adult unionid mussels spawned.



Another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/">fish</a> swallowed a similar mussel, meaning it likely ventured near the river mouth shortly before dying. 



These clues help reconstruct seasonal flooding patterns in Miocene Australia without relying solely on sedimentology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-iron-fish-fossils-matter">Why iron fish fossils matter</h2>



Palaeontologist <a href="https://staffportal.curtin.edu.au/staff/profile/view/kate-trinajstic-f0dcf6b1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kate Trinajstic</a>, Curtin University, observed that iron deposits “open up a new area for people to investigate.” 



Her point is underscored by experimental decay work showing that early iron infiltration can arrest bacterial breakdown within days.



Goethite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-euarthropod-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-insect-evolution/">fossils</a> therefore extend the window for studying fragile tissues like eyes, muscles, and even viral particles that normally vanish. 



They also capture ecological interactions, predation, parasitism, pigmentation, that skeletons alone cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-australia-s-fossil-record">Rethinking Australia's fossil record</h2>



The discovery of Ferruaspis brocksi challenges the long-held notion that Australia’s freshwater fish fossil record is too sparse for meaningful evolutionary study. 



Until now, no complete body fossils of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes</a> had been found on the continent, leaving major gaps in understanding their arrival and development.



With dozens of specimens at a single site, paleontologists now have a rare opportunity to study not just anatomy, but behavior, ecology, and population structure. 



This level of detail is nearly unheard of in Miocene freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/">fish</a> fossils from the Southern Hemisphere.



The team’s phylogenetic analysis places F. brocksi near the base of the southern Osmeriformes radiation, pushing the group’s Australian arrival to at least 15 million years ago. 



That timeline aligns with molecular studies indicating a mid‑Miocene split between Australian and New Zealand graylings. Fieldwork will resume next dry season, targeting deeper layers that may hold older relatives or their predators.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445684" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Fossilized fish that lived 15 million years ago still has preserved food in its stomach

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small...

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones in the night are more than cinematic symbols of death - they are the planet’s front-line sanitation crew. By devouring carcasses quickly and completely, large scavengers deny dangerous microbes a foothold.



A wide-ranging study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that these underappreciated scavengers are declining at an alarming pace.



The work draws on population assessments for more than 1,300 vertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavengers-clean-up-wetlands-and-boost-their-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scavenger</a> species and reveals a worrisome pattern.



The steepest rates of scavenger decline were found among the biggest, most specialized carrion eaters, while adaptable opportunists such as rats and feral dogs surge in their absence.



“The evidence we found is very clear,” said senior author Rodolfo Dirzo, a professor of biology and environmental science at Stanford. "Scavengers are in decline, but it’s not homogeneous. It is particularly the large and specialized ones.”



“At the same time, this allows space for the smaller scavengers, which are problematic because they are themselves sources of zoonotic diseases.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-cleaners-to-contaminators">From cleaners to contaminators</h2>



The researchers cataloged everything from famous scavengers - Old World <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-vultures-may-threaten-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vultures</a>, spotted hyenas, condors - to less obvious diners such as pond turtles, catfish, even great white sharks.



Cross-referencing each species against the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List</a> and regional studies, they found that 36 percent of the world’s scavenger populations are threatened or already shrinking.



When those dominant consumers disappear, their ecological niche is rapidly filled by smaller generalists in a process ecologists label “ecological release.” In temperate suburbs, that might mean raccoons and crows; in tropical villages, perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> and village dogs.



These newcomers rarely match the efficiency of an eagle or a vulture, leaving more rotting flesh on the landscape. Worse, many thrive near humans, turning carcasses into pathways for diseases to jump from wildlife to people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-scavenger-decline-in-india">Effects of scavenger decline in India</h2>



Few episodes capture the stakes so vividly as India’s vulture crisis in the 1990s. Veterinary use of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac proved fatal to vultures that scavenged treated cattle. Populations plummeted, opening a niche for free-roaming dogs.



With vultures gone, feral dog populations surged, leading to an estimated 39 million extra dog bites and 48,000 human deaths from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rabies-is-spreading-among-marine-animals-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rabies</a> between 1992 and 2006.



Once India banned diclofenac in 2006, vulture numbers began to inch upward. This reminded scientists and policymakers that timely intervention can halt or even reverse a downward spiral.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-quietly-protect-health">Scavengers quietly protect health</h2>



The study emphasizes that these issues are not confined to the Global South. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of the United States, eagles and ravens consume elk carcasses and even aborted fetuses.



By removing potential bacterial incubators within hours, scavengers help curb brucellosis, a livestock disease that can spill over to ranchers. A drop in scavengers there could raise veterinary costs and public-health risks despite the region’s strong infrastructure.



Lead author Chinmay Sonawane, a doctoral student in Dirzo’s lab, underscored humanity’s reliance on species most of us rarely notice: “We’re starting to understand exactly how we depend on each individual species.”



“As we become more aware of these connections, we're going to be more inclined to protect these species, because we are ultimately protecting our health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-driving-scavenger-decline">Factors driving scavenger decline</h2>



Three forces repeatedly surfaced in the team’s analysis. Expanding agriculture and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> fragment habitats, making it harder for wide-ranging birds and mammals to find carcasses or safe nesting sites.



Intensive livestock production brings direct conflict when ranchers poison or shoot scavengers they suspect of killing calves. At the same time, wildlife trade and trophy hunting remove lions, eagles, and other predators that double as high-capacity scavengers.



These pressures often overlap. Clearing forest for pasture, for instance, strips vultures of roosting trees while putting them nearer cattle treated with toxic veterinary drugs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-function-and-human-well-being">Ecosystem function and human well-being </h2>



Public suspicion of scavengers compounds their plight. “There is this prejudice that these scavengers are nasty animals and that we should get rid of them, but they are important for the functioning of ecosystems, also for human well-being,” Dirzo said.



The authors call for multi-layered solutions. Conservationists must protect nesting cliffs and den sites and enforce tighter regulation of pharmaceuticals known to poison birds.



Outreach programs can dispel myths, showing local communities how vultures actually protect livestock by removing disease hotspots. Financial incentives or livestock-guarding measures could reduce retaliatory killings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> and jackals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-are-public-health-allies">Scavengers are public health allies</h2>



Rather than tracking a handful of charismatic species, the Stanford team focused on a functional group - animals bound by what they do rather than by taxonomic labels.



That lens, they argue, reveals how losing one slice of biodiversity can disrupt entire healthcare networks in nature. If carcasses linger, fly populations balloon, dog packs expand, and viruses gain new hosts.



Scavengers may lack the appeal of pandas or coral reefs, yet their economic and public-health value is immense. The world’s oldest waste-management system runs on wings, paws, and powerful stomach acids.



Letting it collapse means footing a growing medical bill - one paid in outbreaks, veterinary losses, and human lives. Protecting vultures in India reduced rabies deaths; hyenas curb anthrax in Africa; condors help keep Americas’ pastures cleaner.



Ultimately, the study offers a simple equation: conserve the big eaters of the dead, and you safeguard the living. Ignore them, and the costs arrive on hospital ledgers and in destabilized ecosystems. The choice is clear - and action is urgently needed to halt scavenger decline. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417328122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Scavenger decline is a threat to ecosystems  - and human health

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones...

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects like dragonflies long before they take flight. 



A sweeping analysis of 87 <a href="https://dragonflies.online/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European dragonfly</a> species now shows that the temperatures and seasonal rhythms a larva faces underwater matter more to adult trait variety than the climate the insect meets in the air, challenging long‑held conservation habits.



“This is really useful going forward, as the results will provide a new general rule to guide how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">biodiversity</a> scientists forecast climate responses,” said Professor Lars L. Iversen of <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-life-shapes-adult-function">Dragonfly larva life shapes adult function</h2>



Early stages often happen out of sight, yet they leave lasting biological fingerprints that show up in community‑wide patterns.



The new work argues that <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> cannot be understood only by watching visible adults because carryover effects ripple from submerged childhoods into the adult population’s body sizes, wing shapes and flight ranges.



Functional biogeographers have long mapped where <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1415442111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits cluster</a>, but they usually assume those traits respond directly to the present environment. Iversen’s team instead found that underwater experiences set constraints that later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/">environments</a> can only tweak rather than erase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pond-temperatures-shape-body-traits">Pond temperatures shape body traits</h2>



A dragonfly begins life as a bold little <a href="https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/dragonfly-larvae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nymph</a> clinging to stems or burrowing in mud for up to two years before it ever unfurls a wing. 



The study linked cooler waters, steep temperature swings and irregular water levels with narrower adult trait ranges, while warmer, more stable ponds produced adults with a broader toolkit for dispersal.



“This is a really important study, as many predictions for how climate might affect diversity are based on observations of adult stages,” noted Lesley T. Lancaster of the University of Aberdeen.&nbsp;



To capture nuance across thousands of 31‑mile‑wide grid cells, the researchers calculated each community’s trait space as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-dimensional-hypervolume_fig3_4201499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three‑dimensional hypervolume</a>. This is a statistical shape that shows how body length, wing size and other measurements spread out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-shape-adult-traits">Dragonfly larva shape adult traits</h2>



Mean annual temperature emerged as the single strongest predictor of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.12525" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult trait diversity</a>, and most of that link flowed indirectly through its impact on larvae rather than adults themselves.&nbsp;



Topography, forest cover and the ratio of permanent to seasonal water bodies nudged the numbers too, but their direct and indirect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">effects</a> often pulled in opposite directions, dampening what surface observations alone would suggest.



Classic <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1938285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> show that overcrowded larvae shift strategies when food or space runs short, sharpening interference or exploitative tactics that later echo in adult sizes. 



By folding such legacy effects into structural‑equation models, the team could explain two‑thirds of the variation in adult functional diversity across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrying-larval-traits-into-adulthood">Carrying larval traits into adulthood</h2>



Similar carryover <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> crop up in mosquitoes, mayflies and even beetles whose larvae face drying pools, hinting that early‑stage filters may be a widespread driver of community change. 



Because many freshwater insects are hemimetabolous, meaning they do not enjoy a complete makeover during metamorphosis, the traits they build early cannot be fully rebuilt later.



In systems where water is warming fastest, lake <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0067-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already record shifts in mixing regimes and ice cover that alter larval conditions, foreshadowing trait reshuffles in the flying stage. 



Understanding those lags may help explain why some species expand poleward quickly while others stall despite suitable adult habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advice-for-conservation-planners">Advice for conservation planners</h2>



Restoring riparian shade or managing water levels in breeding ponds can give juveniles the thermal and oxygen buffers they need, indirectly widening adult trait portfolios that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">population</a> resilience. 



Policies that focus only on adult foraging grounds or migration corridors risk missing these upstream levers and may underestimate vulnerability under rapid warming.



By targeting nursery habitats, managers may also help a suite of terrestrial predators, birds, bats and spiders, that rely on the timing and size structure of dragonfly emergences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-forecasting-tools">Biodiversity forecasting tools</h2>



Most current biodiversity models assume that traits are shaped in real time by adult habitat features, with little room for past influences. But these new findings show that such models may be incomplete.



To improve accuracy, researchers suggest future climate impact models should include developmental carryover effects as core parameters. 



Incorporating early-life trait-environment links could allow forecasts to anticipate shifts not just in where species live, but how they function once they arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-pathways-of-dragonfly-larva">Biological pathways of dragonfly larva </h2>



Researchers now want to see whether the same indirect pathways exist in tropical species, where seasonality is muted yet temperature ceilings are high.



Experts are also exploring genetic clues that might reveal how much of the carryover effect is plastic adjustment versus hard‑wired evolution. 



For now, the message is clear: if you want to protect an animal’s future, start where it begins, not where it ends.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/geb.70056" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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Dragonfly larvae expose climate’s hidden influence on biology

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects...

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at least 112 million years. When blue light hits their skin, these animals absorb it and re-emit it as green, yellow, orange, or red.



Fish biofluorescence is invisible to us in daylight, but under the right light it turns reefs into underwater neon signs. It is a natural light show that has evolved silently beneath the waves, largely unnoticed by human eyes until recently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-glowing-fish">Tracing the origins of glowing fish </h2>



Two new studies by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a> trace how and when this glow took hold.



The research maps biofluorescence across 459 species and shows just how varied the colors have become.



The team combed through every known case of glowing bony fish, then added 48 previously unreported species. The analysis suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/">biofluorescence</a> first showed up in ancient eels and has evolved on its own more than 100 times since.



“Researchers have known for a while that biofluorescence is quite widespread in marine animals, from sea turtles to corals, and especially among fishes,” said Emily Carr, lead author of both studies. 



“But to really get to the root of why and how these species use this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapta</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ion</a> - whether for camouflage, predation, or reproduction - we need to understand the underlying evolutionary story as well as the scope of biofluorescence as it currently exists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-speed-up-the-glow">Coral reefs speed up the glow</h2>



Life on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral reef</a> seems to speed up this evolutionary trick. Reef-dwelling fish acquire biofluorescence about ten times faster than species that stay in open water. 



After the mass extinction 66 million years ago, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> vanished and reefs rebounded, glowing species multiplied quickly, taking advantage of newly available habitats and ecological niches.



“This trend coincides with the rise of modern coral-dominated reefs and the rapid colonization of reefs by fishes, which occurred following a significant loss of coral diversity in the K-Pg extinction,” Carr said. 



"These correlations suggest that the emergence of modern coral reefs could have facilitated the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fishes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-color-spectrum-widens">The color spectrum widens</h2>



In a second set of experiments, the team photographed museum specimens under special lights. Some families flashed at least six distinct peaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/">fluorescence</a> - far more variety than scientists had documented.



“The remarkable variation we observed across a wide array of these fluorescent fishes could mean that these animals use incredibly diverse and elaborate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns,” said study co-author John Sparks.



“As these studies show, biofluorescence is both pervasive and incredibly phenotypically variable among marine fishes. What we would really like to understand better is how fluorescence functions in these highly variable marine lineages, as well as its role in diversification.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-glowing-fish-could-help-medicine">How glowing fish could help medicine</h2>



Fluorescent proteins borrowed from jellyfish transformed molecular biology. The many new hues found in fish could lead to the next generation of imaging tools, helping doctors spot tumors or guide surgery with light.



For now, the ocean keeps many of its secrets hidden in plain sight. But every flash of color brings us closer to understanding how fish communicate, hide, hunt, and find mates - turning a midnight reef into a silent conversation of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-fish-biofluorescence">Future research on fish biofluorescence </h2>



While these findings shed light on the deep history and diversity of glowing fish, there is still a lot more to uncover.



Scientists are now working to understand how different species actually see and use these colors in their everyday lives. Do they glow to blend in, to attract mates, or to send messages we can’t decode yet? 



The answers could not only explain how these fish thrive in their underwater environments but also help us develop new tools in optics, communication, and even biotechnology.



Each discovery adds a small piece to a much bigger puzzle - one where light doesn’t just brighten the ocean, but also points the way to future innovation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316789">PLOS One</a>.



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How fish started glowing over 100 million years ago

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at...

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This morning ritual, known as the dawn chorus, can drown out every other sound. A new study from India reveals that some species dominate that pre‑sunrise concert, while others stay quiet.



The researchers recorded 69 species in the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a>, a mountain chain recognized for exceptional biodiversity. They <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> that 20 of the species sing far more at dawn than dusk, while only one shows the opposite pattern, pointing to social traits as the primary drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-dawn-chorus">Decoding the dawn chorus</h2>



Vijay Ramesh, a postdoctoral biologist at Cornell University’s <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/">K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics</a>, led the microphone‑array campaign that captured months of continuous audio in the Ghats.



Past theories claimed that cool, still air at sunrise lets high‑pitched songs travel farther, giving early risers an acoustic advantage.



 A 2019 <a href="https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-019-0328-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> showed that song timing is remarkably consistent within individuals, suggesting a behavioral cause rather than improved sound transmission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-which-birds-sing-first">Predicting which birds sing first</h2>



Sound scientists once assumed that humid morning air slows high frequencies less than dry mid‑day air, effectively lengthening a whistle’s reach. 



Field <a href="https://malagr.de/hutch/hutchpub/anbe3.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> with playback speakers, however, show that vegetation scatter and competing insects erase most of the theoretical gain by breakfast time. 



The new Indian dataset supports the behavioral view by showing no correlation between dawn singing and light level, wind speed, or transmission quality. Instead, two traits (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/territoriality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">territoriality</a> and broad diets) predict which birds sing first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-territories-matter-at-sunrise">Why territories matter at sunrise</h2>



Territorial birds declare their claims at sunrise when rivals and potential mates are alert but still hidden by shadow. Acoustic contests at that hour reduce the risk of physical fights, a pattern <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19337589/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> in banded wrens and other songbirds.&nbsp;



The idea fits evolutionary logic: a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> that joins the dawn chorus before foraging advertises overnight survival, discourages trespass, frees daylight hours for feeding young, and reduces exposure to midday heat that hampers long songs. 



In the Ghats study, species ranked as highly territorial were 1.2 times more likely to sing in the dawn chorus than their less combative relatives - a statistically robust edge.



“We found that highly territorial birds and omnivorous species were much more likely to be active singers during dawn hours,” said Ramesh. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-tells-another-story">Diet tells another story</h2>



Diet adds another clue because omnivores that split meals between fruit and insects also dominated the early soundscape. Ramesh suggests that their flexible menu keeps them in mixed‑species foraging flocks that rely on constant chatter to coordinate movement. 



Omnivory also widens the calendar window for feeding because fruit crops peak at different times than insect hatches, giving versatile foragers an incentive to keep group members updated on shifting resources across seasons or plantations.



“Omnivores might sing more at dawn because these species are often members of mixed‑<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">species</a> foraging flocks where vocal communication is essential,” explained Ramesh. 



<a href="https://www.macaulaylibrary.org/2019/01/09/mixed-species-flocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of such mobile flocks show that vocal leaders broadcast frequent contact and alarm calls, letting dozens of companions share information about food and predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dawn-chorus-was-recorded">How dawn chorus was recorded</h2>



All those insights rest on <a href="https://bou.org.uk/blog-metcalf-pass-acou-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">passive acoustic monitoring</a>, a technique that stations weather‑proof recorders in the canopy and lets algorithms sort every chirp. The Ghats project collected simultaneous tracks from 43 forest sites, multiplying human survey capacity.



Each recorder about the size of a paperback ran on rechargeable batteries and captured 20‑kHz audio files that later fed into machine‑learning software trained to identify species from their calls, trimming weeks of manual listening into automated minutes, an advance highlighted by open‑source projects like <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.17.613451v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdNET</a>.



“Passive acoustic monitoring allowed us to collect simultaneous acoustic data for 43 locations, over several months. We could not have done this study without it because we needed a lot of data to answer our questions,” said Ramesh.



Other researchers echo that enthusiasm. “Passive acoustic monitoring allows us to continuously take the pulse of bird populations without having to be physically present in the field,” explained Jorge Velásquez, Director of Science for Audubon Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-voices-and-ecosystem-health">Bird voices and ecosystem health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/western-ghats-and-sri-lanka/species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a> stretch nearly 1,000 miles along India’s west coast and rank among the planet’s eight biodiversity hotspots, hosting hundreds of globally threatened animals and plants. Mountaintop forests there funnel monsoon rains and sustain thousands of endemic species.



Acoustic surveys give conservationists a low‑cost way to track those communities in real time. A dawn chorus rich in specialist voices flags healthy habitat, while a shift toward generalists may warn of logging or climate stress.



The Ghats data will now feed into regional monitoring dashboards that guide reserve boundaries and restoration priorities. Managers can rerun the same code next year and instantly see whether bird territories are shrinking or expanding.



Climate <a href="https://india.mongabay.com/2019/01/changing-monsoonal-rainfall-patterns-in-the-western-ghats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a> predict that monsoon timing in the Ghats could shift by several weeks this century, and long acoustic time series will let ecologists see whether dawn song calendars move in lockstep or resist the change across altitudinal gradients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-bird-breaks-the-dawn-chorus-rule">One bird breaks the dawn chorus rule</h2>



One puzzle remains: the <a href="https://ebird.org/species/dafbab1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dark‑fronted Babbler</a> sang more at dusk than dawn, bucking every social rule observed. Future studies that pair microphones with visual tracking may reveal whether its roosting ecology or predator pressure flips the timetable.



Answering that question would help determine whether birds tailor song schedules to evade particular predators, mirror daily light cycles, or coordinate with insect emergence.



Ramesh hopes to repeat the approach on other continents to see whether territoriality and diet steer the chorus in temperate woodlots as strongly as they do in tropical forests. The answer could turn dawn song into a global barometer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">ecosystem</a> change.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Territorial birds rule the dawn chorus in tropical forests

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This...

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups tend to follow the majority. But biologists and social scientists have found that a vocal minority - sometimes just 5 to 10 percent - can sway the final decision if they’re persuasive, energized, or well-connected. This effect is known as “minority influence.”



A new study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-ants-can-teach-us-how-to-create-stronger-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire ants</a> offer a dramatic, gene-driven version of the same principle. A handful of workers carrying a particular stretch of&nbsp;“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">selfish DNA</a>” can push their nest-mates to welcome extra queens, transforming the colony’s entire social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-and-ant-colony-structure">Selfish DNA and ant colony structure</h2>



The invasive red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, dominates swaths of the southeastern United States and is spreading on multiple continents. 



Ecologically and economically, it is one of the most impactful insects on Earth. It also comes in two distinct social forms.



Single-queen colonies (monogyne) recognize and defend one egg-laying monarch. Workers in these nests are intensely territorial, killing any foreign queen that dares enter.



Multiple-queen colonies (polygyne) tolerate several unrelated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ant-queens-turn-to-cannibalism-recycle-bodies-for-colony-disease-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">queens</a> and spread by budding - new queens and escorts walk a short distance and start satellite nests.



The social form matters: monogyne nests are aggressive but slower to spread; polygyne nests can carpet landscapes with interconnected supercolonies.



A single gene complex, dubbed Gp-9, largely decides whether a colony embraces one queen or many. The variant known as Gp-9 B promotes single-queen structure; the variant Gp-9 b pushes toward multiple queens.



Only workers with the b allele accept extra royalty - and that gene acts in strikingly “selfish” fashion, ensuring its own propagation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-roots-of-ant-behavior">Genetic roots of ant behavior</h2>



Takao Sasaki, now an associate professor in the <a href="https://www.sas.rochester.edu/bcs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester’s Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences</a>, teamed with postdoctoral researcher Haolin Zeng and Professor Kenneth Ross at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>. Together, they tested how small a minority of b-bearing workers could tip an entire colony.



Most previous work had examined stable nests already committed to one form or the other. The new experiments created mixed groups from scratch, mirroring the early stages of an invasion when different ant lineages collide.



“Our research may help us understand how other animals make consensus decisions,” Sasaki said.



Using DNA markers, the team first verified each ant’s social-genotype - B B for single-queen preference or B b for multiple-queen preference. They then built experimental colonies of 3,000 workers and a single B-type queen.



Into these colonies they introduced B b workers in varying proportions, from zero to 30 percent, along with test queens carrying either genotype. Continuous video monitored how workers treated potential newcomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-can-shift-the-ant-colony">DNA can shift the ant colony </h2>



With no B b workers present, resident ants killed any stranger queen in the colony within hours, matching monogyne behavior in the wild. But once the minority of B b workers reached roughly 10 percent, the colony’s stance softened.



Those few workers began grooming and feeding extra queens that carried the same b allele, escorting them safely into the brood chambers. 



Over the following days, B B workers joined the caretaking - even though the shift ultimately lowers their own inclusive fitness. The single-queen colony had morphed into a multi-queen society, simply because a genetic minority rewrote the ground rules.



“By looking at their genes, we know their preferences for having one queen versus multiple queens,” Sasaki said. “By manipulating the proportion of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">workers</a> with certain genes, we can test if and how a minority can convince the rest of the group members.”



Chemical communication is the likely mechanism. Fire ants rely on pheromones to tell friend from foe and to decide which queens belong.



Additional tests showed b-bearing workers alter queen pheromones or change how nest-mates respond to those chemical signals. Whichever the pathway, the outcome favors any queen - and thus any gene - matching the minority’s genotype.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selfish-dna-shapes-behavior">Selfish DNA shapes behavior</h2>



The study highlights an evolutionary twist known as an indirect genetic effect: one individual’s traits are molded not just by its own DNA and environment, but by the genes carried by its social partners.



Here, the selfish DNA in roughly a tenth of the ants drives an outcome (polygyne structure) that benefits copies of that same element, even though it may not help the colony at large.



“This knowledge is important not only for understanding the biology of social insects like fire ants but also for broader insights into the evolution of cooperation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sociality</a> in animals, including humans,” Zeng said.



Because multi-queen colonies bud readily and thus expand invasion fronts, the ability of a genetic minority to flip nest behavior could accelerate the spread of fire ants worldwide. Evolutionary models will need to account for such feedback between genes and group dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-think-like-neurons">Ants think like neurons</h2>



Sasaki frames the findings in terms of “collective cognition,” his broader research focus. Just as neurons exchange signals to create unified thoughts, social insects exchange chemical and tactile cues to make group decisions.



If a small cluster of neurons can trigger a mental state, why not a small cluster of genetically distinct ants triggering a social state?



“The brain is a good example,” Sasaki explained. “Each neuron talks to other neurons. A brain is a cognitive unit. Ants as colonies make collective decisions like brains do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-help-outvote-majority-rule">Genes help outvote majority rule</h2>



The fire-ant case suggests that minority influence may have a deeper biological foundation than previously realized. In some cases, it’s encoded in selfish stretches of DNA that manipulate social systems like ant colonies from within.



Whether similar elements lurk in other species, subtly guiding flock movements, pack hierarchies, or even aspects of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secret-social-lives-pandas-have-their-own-version-of-facebook/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social networks</a>, remains an open question.



What is clear is that in complex societies, majority rule is never absolute: under the right genetic and social conditions, the few can still lead the many.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501740122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Selfish DNA' can result in minority influence in social animal groups, including humans

From corporate boards to honeybee hives and ants colonies, groups...

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago did more than erase a charismatic animal; it severed an ancient partnership that once spread the seeds of large-fruited trees across the continent.



A new study shows that these elephant-like creatures were habitual fruit-eaters and indispensable couriers of botanical life. This helps explain why several modern tree species now teeter on the brink of extinction.



An international research team examined ninety-six fossil molars of Notiomastodon platensis collected along a 1,500-kilometer sweep of Chilean coastline.



Using microscopic wear patterns, chemical fingerprints locked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth</a> enamel, and residues trapped in dental calculus, they pieced together the animal’s menu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-traces-reveal-fruit-diet">Fossil traces reveal fruit diet</h2>



Florent Rivals is a researcher at the Catalan Institute for Human Palaeoecology and Social Evolution (<a href="https://cerca.cat/en/centres-cerca/iphes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPHES-CERCA</a>).



“We found starch residues and plant tissues typical of fleshy fruits, such as those of the Chilean palm (Jubaea chilensis),” he said.



Those tiny traces, preserved since the Pleistocene, provide the first direct evidence that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/student-discovers-a-34000-year-old-mastodon-fossil-by-accident-while-walking-around-a-farm/">mastodon</a> routinely swallowed whole fruit - and by extension the seeds buried inside.



Stable-isotope signatures reinforced the picture. “Through stable isotope analysis, we were able to reconstruct the animals’ environment and diet with great precision,” said Iván Ramírez-Pedraza, a researcher at IPHES-CERCA who helped chart the chemical trail.



The pattern points to a mixed woodland rich in fruit resources, the kind of landscape where a multi-ton mammal could feast while roaming long distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-a-forty-year-old-idea"><a></a>Testing a forty-year-old idea</h2>



Back in 1982, biologist Daniel Janzen and paleontologist Paul Martin suggested that many tropical trees evolved oversized, sugary fruits specifically to lure now-extinct megafauna.



These included mastodons, giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-world-of-giant-sloths-why-did-they-shrink-and-when-did-it-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloths</a>, and native horses - animals capable of gulping down the bounty and depositing viable seeds far from the parent plant.



Their “neotropical anachronism” hypothesis was ingenious but largely speculative. The new study supplies the hard proof those pioneers lacked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_chile_diversity_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974219"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Diversity of extinct mammals that inhabited the surroundings of Ancient Lake Tagua Tagua. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



Lead author Erwin González-Guarda of the <a href="https://www.uoh.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of O’Higgins</a> argued that the multi-proxy approach was crucial.



Conventional wear studies alone cannot distinguish leaves from soft fruit, while isotopes reveal diet breadth but not specific ingredients. Residual microfibers in dental plaque filled that gap, confirming that fruit made up a regular part of the mastodon’s meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastodons-spread-forest-seeds">Mastodons spread forest seeds</h2>



“Dental chemistry gives us a direct window into the past,” said co-author Carlos Tornero, an isotope specialist at IPHES-CERCA.



The team concludes Notiomastodon was a key long-distance seed disperser in late Pleistocene South America.



When the animals died out - probably under combined pressure from rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate shifts</a> and expanding human hunting - no substitute of equal size and wanderlust remained.



Tapirs, peccaries, and monkeys still disperse some fruit in tropical zones, but across central Chile, the ecological courier service is effectively bankrupt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-feel-the-absence">Forests feel the absence</h2>



The researchers ran a machine-learning analysis to gauge present-day risk for plants once dependent on megafaunal dispersers.



In central Chile, forty percent of those trees now sit on threatened or endangered lists - four times the proportion in regions where alternative animal carriers survive.



“Where that ecological relationship between plants and animals has been entirely severed, the consequences remain visible even thousands of years later,” said co-author Andrea P. Loayza, paleontologist at the Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://ieb-chile.cl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEB</a>) in Chile.



Today the Chilean palm endures in a few fragmented groves. The monkey-puzzle tree, Araucaria araucana, iconic yet genetically impoverished, clings to high Andean ridges.



The gomortega, Gomortega keule, known locally as queule, hangs on in scattered coastal valleys. Its plum-sized fruit now mostly drops beneath the parent canopy, rather than being hauled kilometers away inside a mastodon’s gut.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-seeds-and-mastodons">Forests, seeds, and mastodons</h2>



Beyond its detective work, the paper carries a cautionary message. Ecosystems retain the impact of lost species for millennia, and restoring their roles will be a major challenge.



Rewilding with living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-are-not-always-harmful-in-new-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a> has been floated as one possibility, and the fresh Chilean data offer a benchmark for choosing modern analogues based on diet and ranging behavior, not just body mass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/mastodons_Notiomastodon-platensis_paleoenvironment-chile_credit-Mauricio-Alvarez_1s.webp" alt="Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez" class="wp-image-1974221"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Reconstruction of the paleoenvironments in which Chilean mastodons lived, from the semi-arid north to the cold rainforests of Patagonia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mauricio Álvarez</figcaption></figure>



“By combining different lines of evidence, we’ve been able to robustly confirm their frugivory and the key role they played in these ecosystems,” Tornero emphasized.



Conservation managers might use such findings to prioritize corridors that allow surviving mammals to move seeds. They could also experiment with human-mediated dispersal for tree species marooned by the mastodon’s absence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-bones-new-purpose">Old bones, new purpose</h2>



“Paleontology isn’t just about telling old stories,” Rivals concluded. “It helps us recognize what we’ve lost - and what we still have a chance to save.”



With climate change and habitat fragmentation tightening their grip, lessons from deep time may guide present-day action.



Protecting and, where possible, mimicking the ancient partnership between fruit-bearing trees and their gigantic gardeners could give endangered South American forests a second shot at resilience.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02713-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Mastodon extinction is still causing problems with South American ecosystems

The disappearance of South America’s mastodons some ten millennia ago...

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals, and penguins - sit at the heart of the Southern Ocean food web. Yet these tiny animals are also the target of a fast-growing commercial fishery.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> (AWI) and the <a href="https://www.hi.no/hi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute of Marine Research</a> used more than 30,000 hours of sonar recordings from krill-trawling vessels. 



The analysis pinpointed when and where fishing fleets overlap with natural krill predators. The results highlight seasonal hotspots of competition that managers can no longer afford to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sonar-for-krill-clues">Using sonar for krill clues</h2>



Fishing vessels routinely run powerful echo sounders to locate krill swarms. By repurposing those same acoustic logs, scientists gained an unprecedented view of the submarine “traffic” beneath the ships.



The team analyzed over 30,000 hours of sonar data from three krill fishing vessels, gathered over six years in the Southern Ocean. Machine learning algorithms filtered the files for the distinctive signatures produced when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-blow-bubble-smoke-rings-near-humans-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, penguins, or seals dive under a vessel.



“During such encounters, ships and krill predators pursue the same krill swarms," said lead author Dominik Bahlburg, a scientist at AWI. 



"This allowed us to analyze the spatial and temporal dynamics of this competition in order to identify locations and time periods where the interaction between the two groups is particularly intensive."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-penguins-seals-and-trawlers-converge"><a></a>Where penguins, seals, and trawlers converge</h2>



Patterns emerged once the detections were mapped. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penguins</a> and fur seals appeared alongside fishing gear in both summer and winter, especially around the South Orkney Islands and South Georgia. 



Whales appeared most near the Antarctic Peninsula in autumn, when they fatten for their long migration north.



“The South Orkney Islands seem to be a real hotspot for encounters with penguins,” Bahlburg said. “Compared to the Antarctic Peninsula, they have received far less attention in the debate on the impact of krill fishing and many of the colonies affected there are currently not regularly monitored.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-competition-with-penguins">Direct competition with penguins</h2>



The overlap is worrisome as trawlers fish near breeding colonies when adult birds must feed their chicks. Voluntary buffer zones aimed to ease this conflict, but sonar evidence reveals an unintended side effect.



This also suggests that fishing vessels continue to encounter penguins despite the voluntary restriction zones around the Antarctic Peninsula. 



The vessels also continue to compete directly with penguins for krill during the breeding season. Instead, the pressure appears to have shifted to the South Orkney Islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-overlaps-persist-in-winter">Fishing overlaps persist in winter</h2>



One assumption had been that moving effort into winter - when breeding pressures ease - would spare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-noise-is-disrupting-wildlife-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>. The new data challenge that view.



“We were able to show that fisheries and penguins as well as fur seals encounter each other just as frequently in the winter as in the summer season,” Bahlburg said.



Since animals roam farther from colonies in winter, the persistence of close encounters surprised the authors and may require a reassessment.



While penguins and seals were encountered less often near the Peninsula, autumn fishing there overlapped heavily with whales. These whales depend on krill to build blubber reserves before migrating to equatorial calving grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-fleet-data-goes-public">Krill fleet data goes public</h2>



The team found little year-to-year fluctuation in their maps. “Remarkably, these patterns were quite stable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, penguins and whales over a six-year period,” noted study co-author Sebastian Menze, a scientist at the Norwegian Institute.



Such consistency implies the method can deliver rapid, reliable diagnostics as fishing tactics or quotas change.



“Consequently, our results show that acoustic data from fishing vessels and machine learning can act as a reliable foundation for rapid and convenient assessments of fisheries' interaction with the ecosystem,” Menze added.



Collecting those data costs almost nothing extra; crews already archive echo-sounder files as part of normal operations. The largest krill harvester, <a href="https://www.akerbiomarine.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aker Biomarine</a>, even makes its records public through the <a href="https://www.hubocean.earth/platform" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUBOcean platform</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-changes-in-krill-management">Positive changes in krill management </h2>



Until now, scientists mainly used fishery sonar to estimate krill biomass. The study’s broader ecological application opens fresh possibilities.



Bettina Meyer of AWI represents Germany on the <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/home-page" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources</a> (CCAMLR).



“We are expanding the potential uses for ecological questions and demonstrating new, cost-effective ways in which fishing vessels can contribute to krill fishery management,” said Meyer, who's also a senior author of the study. 



“Acoustic data make it possible to quickly draw an initial picture of how changes in fishery management or fleet behavior impact on the Antarctic ecosystem.”



Supported by Germany’s <a href="https://www.bmel.de/EN/Home/home_node.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture</a>, the project feeds directly into CCAMLR deliberations on updated catch limits and dynamic closure zones.



By revealing when and where krill fishing most conflicts with wildlife, the acoustic approach offers a blueprint for fine-tuned regulations. This could help ensure that the Southern Ocean’s keystone crustacean can sustain both its natural predators and the fishery that now depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417203122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Sonar reveals how krill fishing is hurting Antarctic wildlife

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals,...

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most are killed for supper, not for overseas trade in their scales. A new field survey shows that nearly every pangolin taken from the wild ends up in a cooking pot.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> spent three years talking with more than 800 hunters and traders across 33 villages. 



The team estimates that about 21,000 pangolins die each year in the region. Hunters rarely set out to look for them. They pick the animals up by hand while checking snares or working in farm plots. 



Almost three-quarters of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-meat-paradox-people-care-about-animals-but-still-eat-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meat</a> is eaten by the hunters’ own families, and the rest is sold locally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-is-the-motive-for-killing-pangolins">Meat is the motive for killing pangolins </h2>



Study lead author Dr. Charles Emogor conducted the research while pursuing his PhD in the Department of Zoology at Cambridge.



“Thousands of kilos of pangolin scales are seized at Nigeria’s ports, creating the impression that the international demand for scales is behind pangolin exploitation in West Africa,” said Dr. Emogor.



"When we spoke to hunters and traders on the ground around the Cross River forest, the largest stronghold for Nigeria’s pangolins, it was obvious that meat was the motivation for almost all of the pangolin killings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pangolin-scales-often-hit-the-bin">Pangolin scales often hit the bin</h2>



Less than a third of the scales from those animals ever reach a trader. Most are tossed aside. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-hunting-fishing-connect-humans-with-nature-or-reinforce-superiority-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hunters</a> said meat earns three to four times more money per animal than scales do in local markets.



“We found that dedicated pangolin hunts are virtually non-existent. Most pangolins are killed by hunters out for any type of game,” said Dr. Emogor. 



"Around a third of pangolins are caught opportunistically, often while people are working in the fields. Pangolins curl into a ball when threatened, which sadly makes them easy to catch.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prized-taste-and-old-beliefs">A prized taste and old beliefs</h2>



Pangolin meat is considered more flavorful than beef, chicken, or even antelope in many villages. It’s sometimes prepared for pregnant women, based on the belief that it promotes strong, healthy babies. 



This cultural value, combined with the species’ slow reproductive rate, puts intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-mammals-show-how-humans-influence-animal-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressure</a> on the animal's survival.



“Pangolins face a lethal combination of threats,” said Dr. Emogor. “Pangolins are easy to hunt, breed slowly, taste good to humans, and are falsely believed to have curative properties in traditional medicines. In addition, their forest habitat is being destroyed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-solutions-to-save-pangolins">Local solutions to save pangolins </h2>



Because food is the real pull, the researchers argue that local solutions - better patrols, new bylaws, and help with food security - may cost less and work faster than trying to police international trafficking alone.



“Clearly in designing any intervention we need good information on what’s motivating the hunters,” said study co-author Professor Andrew Balmford. “That’s why studies such as this are vital for effective conservation of endangered species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-80-million-years-of-evolution">Losing 80 million years of evolution</h2>



Dr. Emogor now runs Pangolino, a volunteer network that helps villages write and enforce pangolin-friendly rules. His motivation is personal as well as scientific.



"If we lose the pangolin, we lose 80 million years of evolution,” said Emogor. “Pangolins are the only mammals with scales, and their ancestors existed when dinosaurs still roamed the planet."



Cameroon, Gabon, and other nations show similar habits: people value pangolins mainly for food. Until diets change or enforcement improves, Africa’s only scaly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> will keep slipping toward extinction - one meal at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-pangolins-and-forest-life">Protecting pangolins and forest life</h2>



Efforts to save pangolins must go beyond curbing international trade. Protecting these animals - and the ecosystems they live in - means addressing the local drivers of hunting. 



That includes improving food security, offering economic alternatives to bushmeat, and increasing public awareness about the role pangolins play in forest health.



Education and outreach are key. Many hunters don’t realize pangolins are at risk. Some may not know the animals help control insect populations and support ecological balance. 



Wildlife conservation groups are working to spread this knowledge, while local governments and partners explore ways to boost law enforcement in remote areas.



Ultimately, protecting pangolins also helps safeguard other species that share their shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-mammals-are-seeking-refuge-in-forest-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>. When forests are preserved and hunting is managed sustainably, entire ecosystems stand a better chance of survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02734-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Disturbing study finds the true reason this amazing creature is on the verge of extinction

Pangolins in Nigeria’s Cross River forests are in trouble. Most...

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have emerged as a crucial conservation strategy. These regions are set aside to limit human interference and provide wildlife with a safe space. 



Conservationists often focus on species counts when measuring success. But are these protected zones doing enough to preserve the entire structure of ecosystems?



This question is at the heart of a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>. Instead of focusing only on species richness, the researchers examined how protected areas affect the complex interactions between species. 



These species interactions - especially predator-prey relationships - build the food webs that make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-by-design-should-we-genetically-erase-harmful-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> stable and functional.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-count-is-not-enough-nbsp">Species count is not enough&nbsp;</h2>



Species richness is important. However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-millions-of-fungal-species-still-remain-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are more than a list of species. The relationships between organisms play a key role in ecological balance. A hawk hunting smaller birds or a songbird feeding on insects reflects interactions that keep ecosystems working.



The Swansea team wanted to understand if protected areas help maintain this ecological balance. They examined the structure of food webs rather than just counting how many species lived in each location. 



A food web includes all the feeding relationships between animals in a region. It shows who eats whom and how energy flows through the environment.



To conduct this study, the researchers turned to citizen science. They used data from platforms like eBird, where volunteers record bird sightings. This allowed the experts to track 509 bird species across 45 ecological networks from Spain to Finland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-webs-inside-and-outside-reserves">Food webs inside and outside reserves</h2>



Using this large database, the team combined observational bird records with known predator-prey links. For example, if a particular raptor feeds on smaller birds, that relationship was mapped. Each network captured the structure of a local bird community and its food web.



The team compared food webs inside protected areas to those in surrounding, non-protected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-lynx-day-2025-protecting-the-silent-hunters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landscapes</a>. These comparisons were not simple. 



The researchers controlled for many variables. They looked at habitat diversity, the percentage of forest and agricultural land, and levels of human pressure.



The experts also considered the designation status of the protected areas. Some zones were part of the European Bird Directives, which provide stronger conservation measures. Others had more general protections. 



These different conservation levels allowed the team to ask whether clearer goals led to better ecological outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-help-in-some-places">Protected areas help in some places</h2>



So, what did the researchers find? In some cases, protected areas improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-for-biological-diversity-2025-bonding-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a> of food webs. The networks inside protected zones tended to have more species overall. Intermediate-level species - those neither top predators nor at the bottom - were more common. 



Also, predators inside protected areas tended to be larger in body size, both at the top and middle levels of the food web.



However, not all of the results were encouraging. The length of food chains and the connectivity of species within the web did not show consistent improvement. In other words, simply having more species did not guarantee a healthier or more connected ecosystem.



The effects varied across Europe. Food webs in Spain responded differently from those in Finland or central Europe. This suggests that local conditions still matter greatly. Protection alone cannot guarantee the same results everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-food-web-differences">Factors behind food web differences</h2>



What caused the variation in results? Several environmental factors played a role. Areas that were more remote generally had healthier food webs. Places with higher habitat diversity also performed better. Human pressure and the amount of nearby farmland had a strong influence too.



Interestingly, areas under the European Bird Directives showed stronger positive trends. This suggests that clearer conservation planning makes a real difference. Just designating a region as "protected" is not enough. What matters is how that protection is implemented.



Study co-author Dr. Miguel Lurgi, who leads the Computational Ecology Lab, emphasized the significance of the research. 



“Studies like ours highlight the complexity of conservation action and the importance of considering key aspects of biodiversity beyond species richness, such as ecological interactions and the tangled networks that they form, into biodiversity assessments,” noted Dr. Lurgi.



“These networks not only structure communities and enable their persistence, but they also play important roles in the functions that ecosystems fulfil in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-must-protect-species-and-their-roles-nbsp">We must protect species and their roles&nbsp;</h2>



This study challenges a common assumption in conservation planning. Many projects measure success by the number of species saved. The research shows that relationships between species are equally vital. 



Protecting one bird species is good. Ensuring that it still plays its ecological role - as predator, prey, or pollinator - is better.



Protected areas clearly help in some ways. They offer space for species to live and grow. But without active planning, their impact on food webs may fall short. Conservation needs to think about networks, not just numbers.



By looking at predator-prey relationships, this research opens a path to more holistic conservation strategies. It also highlights the value of citizen science. 



Platforms like eBird make this kind of large-scale ecological work possible. Every birdwatcher’s observation helps build a clearer picture of how our ecosystems function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-need-better-plans">Protected areas need better plans</h2>



Europe's protected areas are not failing, but they are not universally succeeding either. They need tailored strategies, grounded in ecological data. Simple protection does not always support complex ecosystems.



This study gives policymakers a reason to refine their approaches. If the goal is to protect ecosystems, not just individual species, then conservation must shift. It must include ecological interactions, food web structures, and the subtle forces that hold nature together.



As this research shows, conservation cannot afford to stay simple. Nature is complex. Our strategies must match that complexity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Protected areas don't always protect food webs

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have...

A small team of researchers has reported a striking achievement: they succeeded in raising a mouse that came from two male parents, and it grew into a healthy adult. Their work unveils a set of genetic changes that overcomes the imprinting barriers that typically block such development.



Scientists in various fields have tried for years to figure out how paternal-only DNA could sustain a mammal through all stages of life. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-gene-imprinting">Understanding gene imprinting</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Imprinting" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological imprinting</a> is an inherited pattern of <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Gene-Expression" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene expression</a>. It involves certain genes getting turned on or off depending on whether they come from the father or the mother. 



Researchers found that if you adjust a selection of these imprinting genes, you can open the door for unique reproductive feats, such as an embryo that starts with only paternal cells.



“This work will help to address a number of limitations in stem cell and regenerative medicine research,” explains <a href="http://english.ioz.cas.cn/sourcedb/scs/202310/t20231030_431101.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wei Li</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing. 



In this case, the scientists homed in on key sections of DNA that are known to control fetal growth and viability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-biology">What this means for biology</h2>



When a mouse embryo is formed in the usual way, paternal and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-stress-may-have-lasting-effects-on-fetal-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maternal DNA</a> come together. That combination produces a precise balance of imprinted genes. 



In paternal-only embryos, certain growth-related genes can become overstimulated, but the team was able to selectively modify them so these embryos could mature.



“These findings provide strong evidence that imprinting abnormalities are the main barrier to mammalian unisexual reproduction,” said Qi Zhou, co-lead of this study. 



By re-engineering the problematic gene regions, the researchers made it possible for two sets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">male chromosomes</a> to support a developing mouse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapeutic-ideas">Therapeutic ideas</h2>



A number of genetic and metabolic disorders in humans stem from errors in imprinting. Scientists have asked whether strategies used here might be adapted to correct imprinting problems that cause diseases in people.



One potential target is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK425128/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KCNK9</a>, which has been linked to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18678320/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birk-Barel syndrome</a>. Precise gene editing of such imprinting sites could help in the design of improved treatments for these rare disorders.



In practice, these ideas may take time to progress. Mouse models are often a first step in studying how imprinting influences development. 



The more scientists understand about restoring the right imprinting patterns, the closer they might come to tackling certain medical conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-imprinting-implications">Gene imprinting implications</h2>



The modified imprinting genes not only allowed bi-paternal mice to survive to adulthood, they also improved the efficiency of stem cells used in the process. 



The researchers reported that these <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1181832/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered embryonic stem cells</a> were about twice as likely to develop into full-term pups compared to unmodified cells.



This improved developmental stability could change how scientists approach cloning. Currently, cloned animals often suffer from low survival rates and severe abnormalities, in part due to faulty imprinting. 



Fixing imprinting errors ahead of time might make future cloning methods more reliable, especially in complex mammals like primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations">Ethical considerations</h2>



Questions often arise about how these approaches could extend to humans. 



According to guidelines from the International Society for Stem Cell Research (<a href="https://www.isscr.org/guidelines" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISSCR</a>), heritable genome editing is not currently allowed for human reproductive purposes because it is considered unsafe.



Researchers continue to examine these practices in animal models before even considering steps that approach human application. Investigators involved in this work remain cautious.&nbsp;



While a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-inject-40000-year-old-neanderthal-dna-gli3-gene-into-mice-with-incredible-results/">mouse</a> with two fathers has captured headlines, translating similar methods to people is a bigger leap. 



The focus remains on unraveling how imprinted genes function, and how targeted interventions might fix imprinting-related diseases down the road.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-questions">Next questions</h2>



There is still room to explore how best to refine these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-have-a-surprising-influence-on-their-babys-birth-weight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic strategies</a> to improve survival rates and lessen the chance of complications. 



Specialists are also looking at future animal models to see if placental differences, organ development, or immune responses undergo subtle changes when imprinting is modified. 



Some foresee that data gleaned from these methods will shape the next generation of gene-editing research.



Ongoing studies point to a need for caution. Issues like longevity, fertility, and normal physiology require much deeper evaluation. 



Still, scientists see value in applying these insights to refine cloning and enhance studies of embryonic stem cells. Even partial solutions could inform safer protocols for regenerating cells and tissues in healthcare settings.



-----



This <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/fulltext/S1934-5909(25)00005-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1934590925000050%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">breakthrough</a> was led by <a href="http://english.ioz.cas.cn/sourcedb/scs/202310/t20231030_431101.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wei Li</a> of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing</a> and Qi Zhou of the same institution, with further input from collaborators at <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun Yat-sen University</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1934590925000050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Stem Cell</a>.



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Scientists raised a mouse born from two male parents to adulthood for the first time

A small team of researchers has reported a striking achievement:...

Tiny mammals that weigh less than an ounce should not outlive German shepherds, yet many bats routinely do. Some even clock nearly thirty-five years in the wild, a lifespan that maps to about 180 human years and comes with an astonishing lack of tumors.



A <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> team set out to uncover why, zeroing in on four bat species spanning both major bat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-surf-the-winds-of-storms-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a>. 



Their findings point to a finely tuned partnership between an overachieving tumor suppressor gene, self-renewing chromosomes, and an immune system that fights hard but rarely overreacts.



The work was led by Vera Gorbunova and Andrei Seluanov of the <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/cancer-institute">Wilmot Cancer Institute and Department of Biology</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-defy-aging-and-cancer-patterns">Bats defy aging and cancer patterns</h2>



Cancer risk usually rises with age because every round of cell division adds another chance for DNA damage, a pattern known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto's paradox</a>. 



Across most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> the equation holds, but bats are clear outliers, with at least four separate bat lineages independently evolving extreme <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30966896/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a>.



The new study shows that the “little brown” bat (<a href="https://www.fws.gov/species/little-brown-bat-myotis-lucifugus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myotis lucifugus</a>) carries two working copies of the key tumor suppressor gene <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22268/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">p53</a>, while humans carry only one. 



“High levels of p53 in the body can kill cancer cells before they become harmful in a process known as <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/apoptosis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">apoptosis</a>,” said Gorbunova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-myotis-lucifugus-the-basics">Understanding Myotis lucifugus - the basics</h2>



Better known as the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus is one of the most widespread and familiar bat species in North America. You’ll often find them roosting in attics, barns, caves, and trees - basically anywhere cozy and dark. 



These bats are tiny, weighing less than half an ounce, but they pack a punch when it comes to eating insects. In a single night, one little brown bat can devour hundreds of mosquitoes and other bugs, making them natural pest controllers.



They usually hibernate during the winter, often gathering in large colonies where the temperature stays just right. Sadly, their populations have taken a major hit due to white-nose syndrome, a fungal disease that’s devastated colonies across the continent. 



Scientists and conservationists are working hard to figure out how to protect them, since losing these bats would ripple through entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-use-extra-p53-to-stop-cancer">Bats use extra p53 to stop cancer</h2>



Duplicating p53 is not unique to bats; <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/11994" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a> stockpile roughly twenty versions of the same gene and show remarkably low cancer rates. 



Bats, however, balance extra p53 with regulatory tweaks so it prunes precancerous cells without wiping out healthy ones.



“Our animals can tolerate faster cell growth because their p53 is ready to pull the plug when things look suspicious,” said Seluanov. 



The Rochester team found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-rush-hour-without-crashing-into-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> cells need only two genetic “hits” to turn cancerous in a dish, far fewer than human cells, but the boosted p53 swiftly orders those rogue cells to self-destruct. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endless-telomeres-controlled-chaos">Endless telomeres, controlled chaos</h2>



Bats also keep their chromosome tips long thanks to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12034875/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constitutive telomerase</a>, an enzyme most adult human tissues silence. 



Earlier work in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29441358/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myotis</a> bats revealed that telomeres hardly shorten with age, helping tissues regenerate without sliding toward crisis.



Unfettered telomerase can fuel tumors in other species, yet bats avoid that pitfall. When telomere-powered cell divisions pick up speed, the same hyper-alert p53 system steps in, neutralizing any cell that crosses the line. 



“If cells divide uncontrollably, the higher p53 activity in bats compensates and can remove cancerous cells,” noted Seluanov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bats-fight-disease">How bats fight disease</h2>



A third line of defense comes from a bat immune network that spots danger quickly but stays unusually calm. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-03128-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bats</a> mute the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-019-0165-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NLRP3 inflammasome</a> and tone down <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri3787" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type I interferon</a> storms, preventing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493173/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic inflammation</a> that often seeds cancer in aging tissues.



This balanced <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/immunosurveillance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune surveillance</a> means viruses are cleared efficiently and damaged cells are flagged for destruction, yet surrounding tissue is spared collateral damage. 



Researchers also report expanded natural killer cell receptor families in several bat genomes, hinting at a surveillance squad that never sleeps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bats-can-teach-us-about-treating-cancer">What bats can teach us about treating cancer</h2>



Several experimental drugs already seek to boost human p53 activity in stubborn tumors, and the bat data give that strategy an evolutionary vote of confidence. 



Others aim to reactivate telomerase in aged tissues; the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-acoustic-mental-maps-to-navigate-total-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> blueprint suggests that pairing such therapies with stronger p53 safeguards could keep runaway cell growth in check.



<a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The National Institute on Aging</a> funded the study because it touches on two grand challenges: healthy longevity and cancer prevention. 



If scientists can replicate the bat trio of robust p53, restrained inflammation, and prudent telomerase, future therapies might tackle both aging and malignancy in one stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-other-animals-can-teach-us">What other animals can teach us</h2>



Scientists have long looked to other long-lived animals for answers. 



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10492090/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naked mole rats</a>, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11580846/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bowhead whales</a>, and elephants each have their own anti-cancer tricks, ranging from extra copies of tumor suppressor genes to unique cell death responses. 



Bats now join this elite group, and their diverse adaptations offer a different evolutionary path toward disease resistance.



These findings also support the case for cross-species genetic studies in humans. 



If p53 enhancements or telomerase tuning can be translated safely, it could lead to preventive therapies for high-risk populations or those with inherited cancer mutations. 



What bats seem to offer is not a miracle gene, but a blueprint for managing cellular risk while still allowing the body to repair, grow, and age slowly.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59403-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Bats don't get cancer, now scientists think they know the reason

Tiny mammals that weigh less than an ounce should not...

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes detect ultraviolet, blue, and green light. Bees often visit red flowers, but not for their color. They are drawn to ultraviolet reflections, not the red hue itself.



But two Mediterranean beetles break that pattern.&nbsp;Pygopleurus chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Pygopleurus syriacus&nbsp;can truly perceive red. They seek out red flowers, especially poppies, anemones, and buttercups, for pollen. Their eyes are uniquely tuned to do this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-with-a-four-color-vision-system">Beetles with a four-color vision system</h2>



‘To our knowledge, we are the first to have experimentally demonstrated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> can actually perceive the color red,’ said Dr Johannes Spaethe.



The researchers confirmed this by recording electrical activity from photoreceptors in beetle eyes. They discovered four photoreceptor types. These respond to ultraviolet, blue, green, and red wavelengths.



This tetrachromatic system is rare among beetles. Most have just two or three receptor types. Blue sensitivity, previously missing in some beetle lineages, reappears here. It likely evolved through a gene duplication event and a spectral shift from ultraviolet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-choose-red-over-grey">Beetles choose red over grey</h2>



Photoreceptors are light-sensitive cells in the eye. Just having them doesn't prove an animal can&nbsp;see&nbsp;colors. To show true color vision, an animal must tell colors apart even when they have the same brightness.



To test this, scientists used a trick from bee research by Von Frisch. They gave beetles a choice between red circles and grey ones that varied in brightness. If beetles picked red over all shades of grey, it meant they could see red as a distinct color - not just as a lighter or darker patch.



That’s exactly what happened. In every test, beetles chose red first. The researchers also ran a second test in the wild using traps in five colors. Almost all P. chrysonotus beetles ended up in red traps. This showed their natural color preference matched the lab findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opponency-and-complex-visual-processing">Opponency and complex visual processing</h2>



Recordings also revealed opponency signals. These occur when one receptor type’s signal suppresses another. It is a marker of complex color processing. 



For example, red receptors showed suppressed responses in green wavelengths. This confirmed interaction between channels.



This kind of opponency, previously seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>, suggests advanced neural processing. It likely helps the beetles make sharp color distinctions in complex natural environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-beetles-and-red-flowers">Evolution of beetles and red flowers </h2>



Why do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> care so much about red? It may reflect a mutual evolutionary pathway. Red flowers in the Mediterranean are mostly pollinated by Glaphyridae beetles. These flowers form the “poppy guild.”



‘The prevailing opinion in science is that flower colours have adapted to the visual systems of pollinators over the course of evolution,’ says Spaethe.



Yet this case flips that assumption. Glaphyrid beetles may have evolved their vision to match flower color diversity. 



Within their family, different genera prefer different flower colors such as yellow, white, violet, and red. This suggests their visual systems may be flexible and evolving alongside flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-vision-helps-beetles-access-flowers">Red vision helps beetles access flowers</h2>



Specializing in red gives beetles an advantage. Most insects cannot see red. That means red flowers are invisible or less noticeable to them.



But&nbsp;P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;can see red clearly. This gives them special access to food - like pollen - from red flowers that others ignore.



Because fewer insects compete for red flowers, the beetles face less crowding. They also become more reliable pollinators for those flowers.



Over time, flowers may evolve to become red on purpose. This helps attract only beetles and avoid unwanted visitors like bees that may steal pollen without pollinating. This is what scientists call a "private niche in color space."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-window-into-insect-vision">Rare window into insect vision</h2>



P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;are now among the few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> with confirmed red color vision. Their unique tetrachromatic eyes, behavioral responses, and flower preferences paint a new picture of insect-flower interaction.



This research does more than reveal a rare trait. It creates a valuable model for studying pollination, vision, and co-evolution, all through the eyes of beetles.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/doi/10.1242/jeb.250181/368218/Remarkable-red-colour-vision-in-two-Mediterranean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



Image Credit: Johannes Spaethe / University of Würzburg



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Beetles that see red break the rules of insect vision

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes...

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and perpetual smiles. However, their true superpower lies in their ability to regrow lost limbs - even hands, arms, and parts of organs - without leaving a single scar.



This rare ability sets axolotls apart from almost all other vertebrates. Scientists have long looked to them as a living model for unlocking the secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axolotls-regeneration-powers-critically-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-axolotl-healing">Secrets of axolotl healing</h2>



In a study led by <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a> biologist James Monaghan, researchers asked a question that has puzzled scientists for almost two centuries: How does an axolotl know which body part to rebuild and how much of it to replace?



“It could help with scar-free wound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> but also something even more ambitious, like growing back an entire finger,” said Monaghan. “It’s not out of the realm of possibility to think that something larger could grow back like a hand.”



Monaghan traced the animal’s “positional memory” to a common signaling molecule called retinoic acid. Inside the axolotl’s arm, retinoic acid forms a gradient - high near the shoulder, low near the fingertips. Fibroblast cells read that gradient like a map and decide what to build.



“The cells can interpret this cue to say, ‘I’m at the elbow, and then I’m going to grow back the hand’ or ‘I’m at the shoulder. I have high levels of retinoic acid, so I’m going to then enable those cells to grow back the entire limb,’” noted Monaghan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-regeneration-plan">Rewriting the regeneration plan</h2>



To test the system, the team boosted retinoic-acid levels in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skydiving-salamanders-can-fully-control-blood-flow-in-their-toes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salamander</a>’s hand. The result was startling: instead of one new hand, the axolotl sprouted a duplicate limb.



Monaghan said the experiment was "pretty Frankensteiny." Still, it showed that tweaking the signal can rewrite the regeneration plan.



People make retinoic acid too, and our fibroblasts help mend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-chronic-wounds-with-gold-and-red-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wounds</a>. The problem is that human cells ignore the signals that axolotls obey. They lay down collagen and form scars instead of new tissue.



“If we can find ways of making our fibroblasts listen to these regenerative cues, then they’ll do the rest,” said Monaghan. “They know how to make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limb-development-genes-connected-to-fingerprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">limb</a> already because, just like the salamander, they made it during development.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genetics-of-axolotl-healing">The genetics of axolotl healing</h2>



Digging deeper, the researchers linked retinoic-acid signaling to the short homeobox gene (shox). 



When they removed shox with CRISPR-Cas9, the salamanders grew stubby arms capped by normal-size hands - the same limb pattern seen in people who carry a SHOX mutation.



“In order for regenerative biology or regenerative medicine to move forward, we need to understand where positional memory lies and how to manipulate it and engineer it,” explained Monaghan. 



“How do you make a cell move where you want? Changing its positional memory is critical for this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-the-healing-control-switch">Searching for the healing control switch </h2>



Monaghan’s lab is now probing the inner workings of fibroblasts to find out exactly how retinoic acid flips genetic switches like shox. 



Cracking that code could bring medicine a step closer to scar-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-could-be-key-to-treating-non-healing-wounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> - and, one day, the chance to replace more than a fingertip.



For now, the smiling axolotl keeps teaching us that the blueprints for regeneration are already inside our own cells. The challenge is learning how to read them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



While limb regrowth in humans may still sound like science fiction, scientists see realistic opportunities for smaller steps in the near future. 



Advances in regenerative cues and gene targeting could lead to new ways to treat severe injuries, reduce scarring after surgery, or even regrow damaged cartilage.



Rather than trying to grow an entire arm right away, researchers envision using the axolotl’s secrets to guide healing in stages - like rebuilding bone, restoring tissue layers, or regenerating nerves. 



Understanding how fibroblasts respond to positional signals may also open new paths for treating birth defects or degenerative diseases.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59497-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Alyssa Stone/Northeastern University



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Secrets of axolotl healing could teach us how to regrow limbs

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and...

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about the forests, soils, and climates that supported early apes long before the first hominin walked upright. 



Though great apes diverged from other primates around 25 million years ago, our own lineage did not appear until roughly 5 million years ago. In that immense stretch of time, forests rose and fell, volcanoes erupted, and ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> adapted to the world around them.



One place where this deep story unfolds is western Kenya’s Koru 16. This fossil site captures a snapshot of life during the early Miocene, around 20 million years ago. Preserved by ash from the long extinct Tinderet Volcano, Koru 16 is a rich and complex time capsule. 



New research led by Venanzio Munyaka reveals that the story of ape evolution cannot be told without understanding the ecosystems they called home. The study adds fresh insight to a region already steeped in fossil history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-fossils-reveal-evolutionary-activity">Ape fossils reveal evolutionary activity</h2>



Koru 16 has drawn scientific interest for nearly a hundred years. The site’s first primate fossils were discovered in 1927, and legendary anthropologist Louis Leakey led several excavations in the decades that followed. 



While those early efforts laid important groundwork, the last decade brought new urgency and better tools for understanding its full ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">context</a>.



Between 2013 and 2023, Munyaka and colleagues carried out a detailed investigation at two subsites. They recovered nearly 1,000 fossil leaves and a wealth of vertebrate remains. 



The bones came from 25 different species, including pythons, rodents, and three types of apes. These included Proconsul africanus, Proconsul major, and a newly identified large bodied nyanzapithecine.



These discoveries make Koru 16 the most ape rich site within the wider Tinderet group. The presence of multiple ape species in a single forested environment suggests the region played a key role in early ape evolution. But it was not just the bones that told a story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-forests-shaped-how-early-apes-lived">Changing forests shaped how early apes lived</h2>



The team used a combination of paleosol chemistry, leaf structure, and tree stump fossils to reconstruct what Koru 16 looked like millions of years ago. Their results point to a warm, wet tropical forest, interrupted frequently by natural disturbances. 



Volcanic eruptions from the Tinderet complex blanketed the land with ash. Wildfires and seasonal floods added further stress.



Yet through all this, life thrived. Soil analyses indicate the region received about 2,000 mm of rainfall per year, with temperatures likely above 25°C. These conditions are similar to modern tropical forests in Africa, though the vegetation was slightly different. Koru 16’s forest likely had more deciduous trees, with plants that dropped their leaves seasonally.



“By studying the soil, fossils, and tree stumps, we could recreate the forest's climate,” said Munyaka. The climate was not stable. Instead, it was a shifting mosaic of dense forest, open patches, and recently disturbed areas. This landscape would challenge and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> living there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaves-light-and-forest-layers">Leaves, light, and forest layers</h2>



Plant fossils offered a vivid picture of this forest. From the two subsites, researchers cataloged 18 distinct leaf morphotypes. These belonged to plants that likely had short lifespans and fast growth cycles. 



Such traits suggest a forest marked by high turnover, where plants quickly colonized open areas after fires or ashfalls.



Most of the fossilized leaves came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapted to both shaded understories and sunlit clearings. This indicates a mixed canopy, with parts of the forest densely shaded and others exposed. The forest structure would have influenced how apes moved, fed, and nested. 



Some leaves had characteristics similar to those found in modern forests in Uganda and Madagascar, places where rainfall is seasonal and disturbance is common.



The researchers also found casts of fossilized tree stumps. In one subsite, stumps stood close together, suggesting a mature, shaded forest. In the other, stumps were widely spaced, hinting at a more open, disturbed area. 



These contrasts imply that even within a small region, early Miocene forests were ecologically diverse and constantly in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-among-the-ash">Apes among the ash</h2>



The fauna found alongside the plants reinforce this view. Apes were not alone. The site also yielded fossils of large pythons and several rodent species. The dominance of rodents reflects a rich, layered ecosystem. 



Most importantly, the three ape species discovered show that such forests supported a range of primate forms, including some of our most ancient relatives.



“The forest was not a quiet, uniform place,” said one researcher. “It was full of challenges that spurred change.” These challenges likely encouraged the development of new behaviors. Apes may have moved more on the ground, adapted their diets to seasonal food, or evolved new social habits to cope with ecological instability.



This type of environment, warm, seasonal, and disturbed, would have offered opportunities and obstacles. Forest fragmentation and frequent change may have nudged primates toward flexibility in how they lived, moved, and survived. In that sense, the forest itself became an evolutionary partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roots-of-evolution">Ecological roots of evolution</h2>



Koru 16 forces a shift in how we think about ape origins. Rather than emerging in calm, unchanging rainforests, early apes lived in dynamic, fractured landscapes. 



These habitats were shaped by fire, flood, and ash. The soil, climate, and plants constantly shifted, creating a stage that demanded adaptability.



The presence of multiple ape species in this kind of forest suggests that environmental variability did not limit primate evolution. It may have energized it. The ability to navigate change, rather than thrive in stability, might have been a key evolutionary trait.



Through its ancient layers of ash and soil, Koru 16 gives us something rare. It offers a full picture of the world early apes inhabited. It tells a story not just of bones, but of climate, ecology, and survival. 



The research reminds us that the journey to becoming human began not just in upright steps but in leafy canopies, open glades, and the fertile ash beds of a forest always on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025PA005152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology</a>.



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Early apes lived in a constantly changing world of fire and ash

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about...

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to quick-footed hunters, these creatures ruled the prehistoric world for millions of years. Each fossil discovery brings new understanding. 



A recent find has added a key piece to the tyrannosaur story. Named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, this newly identified dinosaur sheds light on how smaller predators evolved into giants like Tyrannosaurus rex.



This breakthrough comes from a global research team led by Jared Voris and Dr. Darla Zelenitsky of the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>. Their findings appear in the journal Nature. 



Khankhuuluu lived about 86 million years ago during a time of rapid change.



As other large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> vanished, new ones took their places. Khankhuuluu stood at the crossroads of this transition. The species bridges the gap between earlier swift hunters and the colossal bone crushers that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-came-before-t-rex">Khankhuuluu came before T. rex</h2>



Khankhuuluu means “prince of dragons” in Mongolian. The name hints at its importance. It was not yet king, but it was certainly part of a royal bloodline.



This dinosaur is now seen as the closest-known ancestor of the tyrannosaurs. Unlike its massive descendants, Khankhuuluu weighed only about 750 kilograms (1,600 pounds). That is similar to the size of a modern horse.



“This new species provides us the window into the ascent stage of tyrannosaur evolution; right when they’re transitioning from small predators to their apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-cancer-clues-for-modern-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> form,” explained Jared Voris, the study’s first author and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Calgary.



Khankhuuluu rose to prominence after the extinction of many other large carnivores. It seized the opportunity and evolved new traits that would eventually lead to its dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-agile-and-built-to-pursue">Fast, agile, and built to pursue</h2>



Khankhuuluu was not a brute force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>. It had a long, shallow skull that lacked the bone-crushing strength of a T. rex. Instead, it relied on its long legs for speed, and its sharp senses. Scientists describe it as a mesopredator, similar in role to a coyote. 



This means it likely preyed on small animals and used agility to avoid larger threats.



One of its most notable features was a pair of tiny horns above its eyes. These were likely used for mating displays or to intimidate other dinosaurs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Credit: University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1973997"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



Later species such as Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus would develop larger and more ornate versions of these horns. 



In Khankhuuluu, however, the structures were still in early development. These subtle differences mark it as a transitional figure in tyrannosaur history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-was-misidentified">Khankhuuluu was misidentified</h2>



The bones that identified Khankhuuluu were not newly dug from the ground. They were actually collected in the 1970s by paleontologist Altangerel Perle in the Bayanshiree Formation in southeastern Mongolia. 



At the time, the fossils were thought to belong to a dinosaur called Alectrosaurus that was more commonly found in nearby China. That assumption held for decades.



Then in 2023, Voris traveled to Mongolia to study the fossils in detail. While examining the material at the Institute of Paleontology, he noticed key differences. These included unique features in the skull and limbs. 



These observations confirmed that the fossils belonged to a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. What had once been misidentified was now recognized as a pivotal ancestor of the tyrannosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tyrannosaur-that-crossed-continents">The tyrannosaur that crossed continents</h2>



Khankhuuluu's legacy is not limited to Mongolia. Its lineage spread far beyond Asia. 



“Khankhuuluu, or a closely related species, would have immigrated to North America from Asia around 85 million years ago. Our study provides solid evidence that large tyrannosaurs first evolved in North America as a result of this immigration event,” Dr. Darla Zelenitsky noted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1974000"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



This migration shaped the history of dinosaurs on both continents. Once in North America, tyrannosaurs began to grow larger and more specialized. Over time, they became the most dominant predators in their environments. 



The journey of Khankhuuluu set this in motion. It is a clear example of how species movement influences evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tyrannosaurs-split">How tyrannosaurs split</h2>



Once in North America, the tyrannosaurs evolved along two main paths. One group became massive apex predators like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



These were the bone crushers, armed with powerful jaws and deep skulls. Another group developed long snouts and stayed medium-sized. Scientists call them “Pinocchio rexes” because of their distinctive faces.



Both branches trace back to Khankhuuluu or a very similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestor</a>. This new discovery shows that the migration from Asia was not just a one-time event. It reveals a pattern of interaction and development that shaped dinosaur evolution.



These findings change the way scientists view the rise of tyrannosaurs. The journey was not linear. It involved branching, mixing, and adapting over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-chapter-in-the-tyrannosaur-story">Next chapter in the tyrannosaur story</h2>



Though Khankhuuluu has answered many questions, it has also raised new ones. Researchers now want to explore earlier stages of tyrannosaur evolution. 



What came before the dragon prince? What traits defined the first members of this mighty family? The answers may lie buried in rocks still waiting to be exposed.



For now, Khankhuuluu stands as a symbol of change. It was not the biggest or most fearsome predator. But it played a critical role in the story of Earth's past. 



As the dragon prince, it holds the key to understanding how some of the most iconic creatures in history came to rule the land.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08964-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Meet the "prince of dragons," closest T-rex relative that started the tyrannosaur dynasty

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to...

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried the faint whisper of wings. Billions of Bogong moths rise from the dry inland plains. Their destination is a handful of icy caves high in the Snowy Mountains, up to 600 miles away.



How these brief-lived insects - each one making the journey only once - find their way across such vast, feature-poor landscapes has long been one of biology’s quiet mysteries.



Now, an international research team has discovered the key: Bogong moths navigate by reading the constellations and the Milky Way, switching to Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/">magnetic field</a> when clouds blot out the stars.



The findings make the species the first known invertebrate to use a stellar compass for long-distance migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unseen-nightly-moth-migration">An unseen nightly moth migration</h2>



Bogong moths (Agrotis infusa) hatch on parched farmland and grasslands across southeastern Australia. Triggered by spring warmth, each insect embarks on a marathon flight toward cool alpine refuges.



When they arrive - sometimes only weeks after leaving birth sites - they wedge themselves into narrow rock cracks. There, they lower their body temperature and remain torpid through the scorching summer months.



Come autumn, they reverse course, return to the lowlands, breed once and die, leaving offspring to repeat the cycle.



Although the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">migrat</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">i</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">on</a> is centuries old, its navigational underpinning has been elusive. Earlier work hinted that moths might sense Earth’s magnetic field. But that alone seemed too crude to guide them to specific caves occupying only a few square miles in the vast Australian Alps.



The new study shows the insects wield a two-part navigation toolkit every bit as sophisticated as that of migratory birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-use-celestial-landmarks">Moths use celestial landmarks </h2>



Led by Professor Eric Warrant of <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a>, the research team built a custom flight simulator: a circular arena whose inner surface could project a perfectly realistic night sky, complete with Zodiac constellations and the luminous smear of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/">Milky Way</a>.



By rotating or scrambling the projection, the team could test what cues the moths use. They also enclosed the device in coils that canceled Earth’s magnetic field, allowing independent manipulation of magnetic and visual information.



When moths collected during spring migrations were placed in the simulator under a natural star map, they reliably flew south-southeast - the direction to the Snowy Mountains from their capture location.



Autumn migrants, tested months later, flew north-northwest toward their breeding grounds. Rotating the star map 180 degrees caused the insects instantly to flip their direction of flight. 



Scrambling the star pattern left them disoriented, proving they were not just chasing the brightest point but reading specific celestial landmarks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-have-a-backup-migration-plan">Moths have a backup migration plan</h2>



Night skies are not always clear. The researchers next obscured the stars while reintroducing a controlled magnetic field.



Deprived of visual cues, the moths still flew along the correct migratory bearing, guided only by magnetism. When both stars and magnetic information were eliminated, the moths lost orientation entirely.



The results reveal a dual-compass strategy: starlight when available, magnetism when not. Such redundancy ensures reliability amid Australia’s famously changeable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/">spring weather</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-tuned-to-stars">Brains tuned to stars</h2>



The team also ventured inside the moth’s brain. Using microelectrodes thinner than a human hair, they recorded from neurons in the central complex - an insect brain hub for spatial processing.



Certain neurons fired maximally when the simulated starry sky aligned with the migratory heading. Rotating the sky shifted each cell’s peak activity by an equivalent angle, confirming that these neurons encode celestial direction.



That sophisticated computation, packed into a brain weighing a fraction of a gram, rivals the navigational circuitry found in far larger animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-moths-to-machines">From moths to machines</h2>



The discovery joins earlier breakthroughs revealing that South African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-share-their-workload-with-their-mates/">dung beetles</a> use the Milky Way to roll dung balls in straight lines.



Study co-author Javaan Chahl, a remote-sensing engineer at the University of South Australia, has already translated beetle astronomy into an AI sensor that allows robots to orient in low light.



He believes Bogong moths could inspire next-generation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/">drones</a> capable of navigating long distances at night without GPS.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moth-migration-needs-dark-skies">Moth migration needs dark skies</h2>



Bogong moth numbers have crashed due to drought, pesticides, land use changes, and climate-driven shifts in vegetation. The species is now listed as vulnerable.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-skyglow-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycle-in-lakes/">Light pollution</a> compounds the threat by washing out the night-sky cues the moths rely on. Losing dark skies could push the migratory system past a point of no return. 



This would trigger ripple effects across alpine ecosystems that rely on the moths as a seasonal food bonanza for birds and mammals.



“This is not just about a moth,” said Warrant, who also holds appointments at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> and the <a href="https://online.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a>.



The findings help recognize that the night sky is a public commons, critical for countless species - humans included - that have used it to orient, to tell time, to wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigation-by-starlight">Navigation by starlight</h2>



For millennia, Polynesian navigators steered canoes by starlight, and mariners followed the Southern Cross across oceans. 



Now we know that a creature no larger than a paper clip can do the same, threading a path across an entire continent by reading the celestial vault.



Safeguarding the Bogong moth’s migration means protecting the dark, starlit corridors overhead - an essential step if we are to keep both the insect’s ancient journey and our shared cosmic heritage alive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09135-3">Nature</a>.



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Moths read the stars to complete an epic migration

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried...

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles (675 kilometers) below the surface of the ground and is often described as the world’s largest cave system. Recent explorations there uncovered two new fossil sharks that once roamed shallow coastal waters more than 325 million years ago.



Ancient shark specialist John-Paul (JP) Hodnett of the Maryland-National Capital Parks and Planning Commission (<a href="https://www.mncppc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MNCPPC</a>) worked with the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fossils/index.htm">National Park Service Paleontology Program</a> to identify the fossils. 



These finds have everyone buzzing because they offer a glimpse into marine habitats that thrived when parts of what is now eastern North America were covered by a warm sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-shark-fossil-puzzle">Prehistoric shark fossil puzzle</h2>



The newly documented sharks are Troglocladodus trimblei and Glikmanius careforum, and they are from a group known as <a href="https://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/fossil-month-cten.php">ctenacanth</a> sharks. 



They both measured about 10–12 feet (3–3.6 meters) long, which is similar in size to an oceanic whitetip shark.



The shark fossils were collected from various limestone formations, which were deposited during the Middle to Late <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/mississippian-period.htm">Mississippian Period</a>. 



The bigger picture is that these habitats were once submerged under shallow seas and supported a wide range of fish life. Researchers have now identified more than 70 ancient fish species in the cave system.



A partial set of jaws belonging to a young <a href="https://shark-references.com/species/view/Glikmanius-careforum">Glikmanius careforum</a> revealed fresh details about cartilage, which rarely fossilizes well. 



Cartilaginous remains of sharks are often fragile and easily destroyed by erosion, so finding them preserved in a protected space is especially rewarding.



Experts note that this newly identified material adds depth to ongoing discussions of how shark groups diversified while the supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea">Pangea</a> was taking shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-fieldwork">Collaborations and fieldwork</h2>



“Every new discovery at Mammoth Cave is possible due to collaborations,” said park superintendent <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/management/index.htm">Barclay Trimble</a> of Mammoth Cave National Park. 



Researchers and volunteers have explored hidden passages, river channels, and even narrow crawlways in search of key fossils.



Members of the <a href="https://www.cave-research.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cave Research Foundation</a> also took part in these efforts. The name Glikmanius careforum was chosen to honor that organization’s valuable support in the field.



The partial cartilage from this genus points to a short head with a strong bite, possibly used to feed on smaller fish and <a href="https://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/HoughtonEC/Orthocones.html">orthocones</a>, which are squid-like creatures with elongated shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-help-trace-evolutionary-change">Fossils help trace evolutionary change </h2>



Troglocladodus trimblei stands out for its branching tooth design that helped it secure prey in the Mississippian seas. 



This prehistoric hunter probably shared a coastal environment with G. careforum, in waters that covered modern-day Kentucky and Alabama.



Researchers say these sharks likely thrived in nearshore habitats that teemed with bony fish, shelled organisms, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-sharks-brazilian-waters-sharpnose-sharks-rhizoprionodon-lalandii-ocean-pollution/">marine creatures</a>.



Tracing these fossils across multiple rock layers provides insights into how the environment changed over time. 



Coastal waters rose and fell as landmasses drifted toward each other, gradually merging into a single continent. 



These broader patterns helped shape the distribution and evolutionary paths of ancient sharks like T. trimblei and G. careforum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-preserve-shark-fossils">How to preserve shark fossils</h2>



Field teams spent long hours underground carefully mapping and collecting small fragments of teeth. A single <a href="https://www.npca.org/articles/7703-the-unveiling-of-mammoth-cave-s-history">tooth</a> from T. trimblei sparked initial interest when Superintendent Trimble first discovered it on a 2019 trip. 



Seasoned cavers and geologists coordinated to ensure safe retrieval of each piece, knowing that one misstep could damage the delicate remains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1s.webp" alt="A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Artwork by Benji Paynose" class="wp-image-1973763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Click image to enlarge. Artwork by Benji Paynose</figcaption></figure>



Research at Mammoth Cave has led to conversations about how best to preserve fragile fossils within difficult-to-access passages. Experts say stable cave temperatures help keep these discoveries in good condition. 



Park managers have also integrated these new data into guidelines for future research so that more clues to marine life from 325 million years ago may be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-shark-fossils-matter">Why these shark fossils matter</h2>



Scientists use these finds to compare local fossil collections with specimens from similar periods in other parts of the world. 



Documenting body sizes, tooth arrangements, and skeletal details helps researchers build a clearer timeline of shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">evolution</a>.



These comprehensive studies uncover shifts in fish diversity that occurred as oceans changed and landmasses joined together. 



Experts also link fossil data with knowledge from bony fish records, coral structures, and other sea life. This combined approach paints a full picture of ancient marine habitats and shows how some species adapted while others vanished. 



The two new fossil sharks at Mammoth Cave highlight that even well-known geologic areas can hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-caught-riding-on-the-back-of-the-worlds-fastest-shark-in-the-open-ocean/">surprises</a> for many years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cave-explorations">Future cave explorations</h2>



Mammoth Cave continues to yield glimpses into a vanished coastline that spanned what is now Kentucky, Europe, and northern Africa. 



T. trimblei and G. careforum are just two recent additions to an ever-expanding fossil catalog, reminding everyone that exploration still brings answers and new questions.



In many ways, these ancient sharks highlight how puzzle pieces of geologic history keep fitting together. Field teams are now eager to see what lies in deeper chambers or behind the narrow channels.



The next phase of study may involve more advanced imaging and careful excavation in lesser-known passages, guided by new mapping techniques. 



Findings like these spur a broader appreciation for the cave system’s scientific value, well beyond its length or visual features.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377873693_NEW_CTENACANTH_SHARKS_CHONDRICHTHYES_ELASMOBRANCHII_CTENACANTHIFORMES_FROM_THE_MIDDLE_TO_LATE_MISSISSIPPIAN_OF_KENTUCKY_AND_ALABAMA">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Two prehistoric sea monsters found after 325 million years in the world’s largest cave

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles...

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable, and its European range has never stayed still for long. 



New research shows that the bear’s wanderings are tied less to temperature than to where its food grows or grazes - an important detail with big conservation consequences.



Pablo M. Lucas and colleagues at the <a href="https://ics-seville.org/university-of-seville/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Seville</a> analyzed more than three million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-brown-bears-have-a-genetic-weak-spot/">bear</a> locations and the energy yield of 276 food species to find the pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bears-follow-food-with-most-energy">Bears follow food with most energy</h2>



“We detected 276 species in their diet. Bears occupy those places where the most energy from the species in their diet is available,” explained Lucas. 



Brown bears consume anything from acorns to red deer, shifting diet with local supply. Lucas’s team confirms that bears settle where the most calories are packed into the landscape, a principle ecologists call <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/12/10/1928" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic energy optimization</a>.&nbsp;



Europe holds about 17,000 free‑ranging brown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untangling-the-history-of-polar-bears-and-brown-bears/">bears</a> spread over 22 countries, yet the population is fragmented into 14 sub‑populations, from the Cantabrian Mountains to Karelia. 



The <a href="http://www.bearconservation.org.uk/eurasian-brown-bear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> classifies the species as “Least Concern” globally, but several regional groups remain vulnerable. Fragmentation matters because food landscapes vary sharply across short distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-food-sources-for-bears">Climate shifts food sources for bears </h2>



Climate change is already nudging thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-brown-bears-are-digging-up-japans-artificial-forests/">species</a> poleward and uphill, some three times faster than biologists once estimated. As fruiting plants, insects and ungulates relocate, bears face a moving target.&nbsp;



In warmer regions such as Greece and Türkiye, the study found bears behaving almost like herbivores, with nuts and berries dominating the diet. 



Farther north in Scandinavia and Finland, meat from wild boar or moose supplies over half of a bear’s annual calories.



American grizzlies offer a parallel: on Alaska’s Kodiak Island, warmer summers now ripen elderberries during salmon runs, and many bears abandon fish for fruit. 



The European analysis suggests similar switches are likely whenever plant and animal phenology collide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-energy-landscape">Mapping the energy landscape</h2>



To quantify edible energy, the team combined scat and stomach studies with remote‑sensing models of plant and prey habitat. 



A key variable was <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/691/ds691.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isothermality</a>, the ratio of day‑to‑night temperature range to annual range, which influences plant productivity.



Areas rich in reproductive plants such as oak and beech mast scored high for bears in Spain, while regions with dense roe‑deer populations pulled bears east of the Carpathians.



The researchers then layered these food maps onto climate and land‑use projections for 2050. Where forests shrink or heat stress pushes oaks uphill, the calories disappear and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/">bear</a>’s probability of presence drops with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bear-food-zones-may-shrink">Bear food zones may shrink</h2>



Under a mid‑range emissions pathway, suitable bear habitat could contract by one‑third if both abiotic (climate, land use) and biotic (food availability) changes unfold as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forecast</a>. 



Losses are steepest in the East Balkan and Türkiye groups, where warming outpaces plant adaptation. In contrast, the Scandinavian and Karelian sub‑populations may gain ground as forests march north, provided prey species keep pace.



A separate Swedish <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296319593_Seasonal_and_annual_variation_in_the_diet_of_brown_bears_Ursus_arctos_in_the_boreal_forest_of_southcentral_Sweden" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of 527 bear scats showed similar north-south dietary splits and underlines that bears quickly alter foraging tactics when new options arise. 



Such flexibility could buffer northern bears but offers little help to isolated southern populations hemmed in by farmland and roads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-people-and-policy">Implications for people and policy</h2>



Europe’s large carnivores have rebounded over the past two decades, sparking new debates about coexistence. Where wild prey declines, bears turn to orchards, beehives and livestock carcasses, raising conflict costs. 



Predicting hotspots of future food scarcity can guide compensation schemes and habitat corridors before tensions flare.



Forest managers also gain a roadmap: protecting seed‑producing trees in southern Europe may retain critical autumn fattening grounds, while maintaining continuous ungulate habitat in the north ensures carnivorous diets stay wild. 



The study argues that conservation targets should shift from static range maps to dynamic “energy maps” that track how calories, not just climate, flow across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-species-adapt-like-bears">Not all species adapt like bears</h2>



Brown bears are generalists, able to switch food sources as the landscape changes. But many species aren’t so lucky. 



Animals with a <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/generalist-and-specialist-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialist diet</a>, such as the Iberian lynx or alpine butterflies, may not adapt as quickly if their primary food vanishes or migrates beyond reach.



Species with limited mobility or narrow climate tolerance face a double threat: they can’t chase food, and even if they could, suitable shelter might not be there. 



Conservation strategies that work for flexible foragers like bears won’t always translate to more fragile species caught in tight ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-step-is-testing-other-predators">Next step is testing other predators</h2>



Lucas and co‑authors hope to expand the model to wolves and lynx, testing whether prey‑driven range forecasts improve planning for multiple predators at once. 



The researchers are also calling for finer‑scale monitoring of plant phenology so managers can spot mismatches early.



For now, the brown bear reminds us that protecting a species means protecting its pantry. Where acorns fall and deer graze today will shape where cubs are born tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Brown bears move where their food grows

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable,...

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape conservation efforts. From cartoons to fundraising campaigns, giving animals human emotions and faces makes them more relatable. But this seemingly harmless trick has deeper consequences. 



A new study in the journal iScience&nbsp;explores how cultural, personal, and social factors shape our willingness to see animals like ourselves. This impacts which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/">species</a> we choose to protect.



“Unfortunately, anthropomorphism significantly influences conservation efforts... Species that appear more human-like or exhibit human-like behaviors usually tend to receive more attention, funding, and public support,” said Federica Amici of <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-responses-to-animals">Emotional responses to animals</h2>



The research team surveyed 741 adults from Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, and Spain. Each participant rated how much they agreed with statements about animals’ emotions, minds, intentions, and even their ability to distinguish good from evil. 



Respondents also reported their religious beliefs, education level, social networks, and personal experiences with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/">animals</a>.



Participants with less education tended to assign more human-like free will to animals. In contrast, those with more structured scientific learning were more cautious. 



Interestingly, urban experiences like owning pets or seeing animals in media predicted more emotional connections. These people were more likely to believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/">animals</a> had minds, emotions, and intent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lonely-humans-humanize-animals">Lonely humans humanize animals</h2>



Social isolation played a powerful role. People with weaker social ties were more likely to see animals as emotionally complex and similar to humans. 



This tendency was even more pronounced in allocentric individuals, who see themselves as part of a group rather than independent. 



These individuals often attributed more free will and emotions to animals, perhaps to meet their own need for companionship



“People who feel lonely or aren’t well connected to others often try to meet their need for social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/">connection</a> by seeing human-like qualities in animals or other non-human things,” noted Amici. 



This helps explain why pet owners or animal lovers may assign deeper personalities to their pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-anthropomorphism">Understanding anthropomorphism</h2>



The attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to non-human entities, including animals, objects, deities, or abstract concepts, is known as anthropomorphism. 



This tendency is deeply ingrained in human cognition and language, often used to make the unfamiliar more relatable or comprehensible. 



From ancient myths where gods possess <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">human emotions</a> to modern cartoons where animals talk and act like people, anthropomorphism plays a key role in storytelling, religious belief, and even scientific interpretation. 



It serves as a cognitive shortcut, allowing individuals to empathize with and interpret the actions of non-human entities through a human lens.



In scientific and philosophical contexts, anthropomorphism can be both a useful heuristic and a source of bias. For instance, in animal behavior studies, attributing intentions or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions to animals</a> can aid observational insight, but it also risks oversimplifying or misrepresenting their true nature. 



Similarly, in technology and artificial intelligence, people often perceive machines as having intentions or feelings, a phenomenon that shapes user experience and ethical concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-religion-shapes-human-view-of-animals">Religion shapes human view of animals</h2>



Religious belief had a noticeable effect. Participants from monotheistic traditions like Islam and Christianity were less likely to attribute free will, emotions, and pain to animals. 



In contrast, those from non-monotheistic faiths such as Hinduism and Buddhism were more open to the idea that animals could feel, think, and even deceive.



“Non-monotheistic religions appear to contribute more strongly to envisioning a space of coexistence between humans and other species,” said Amici. This supports the idea that religions emphasizing interconnection nurture deeper empathy toward non-human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-monkeys-as-moral-agents">Seeing monkeys as moral agents</h2>



The study included special focus on monkeys. People with greater exposure to monkeys were more likely to believe monkeys could deceive, plan, or act with intent but paradoxically, less likely to think monkeys felt pain.



Why the contradiction? The researchers suggest a possible reason. When animals are seen as threats, such as crop raiding monkeys, humans may still judge their behavior but downplay their suffering. 



This type of moral distancing may help humans justify their actions when conflicts arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-and-understanding-emotions">Feeling and understanding emotions</h2>



The survey measured traits like the ability to feel primary emotions such as anger or fear, secondary emotions like guilt or shame, and understand others’ intentions. 



Most people saw monkeys as capable of feeling basic emotions and having minds of their own.



However, beliefs about more complex traits like distinguishing good from evil were more variable. These attributions often reflected a blend of religion, social closeness, and urban experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assigning-human-traits-to-animals">Assigning human traits to animals</h2>



Assigning human traits to animals can help conservation efforts. It can boost empathy, raise funds, and build support. 



But it can also skew public concern toward cute or familiar species. That may leave less attractive yet ecologically vital creatures out of focus.



“I think anthropomorphizing species can be an effective approach, but it should be used with caution,” said Amici.



This study shows that conservationists must consider social context. Campaigns that resonate in one culture may fall flat in another. 



Customizing messaging based on local beliefs, education, and exposure to animals can make programs more effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-sympathy-to-strategy">From sympathy to strategy</h2>



This research uncovers how deeply our personal lives shape what we see in animals. By recognizing those patterns, conservation can become more inclusive and impactful. 



Instead of relying only on emotion or charisma, strategies can balance human connection with ecological urgency. When we see animals clearly, through both empathy and science, we might finally protect them wisely.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00954-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Why we see some animals as more human than others

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape...

species in Dimyidae

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