A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Paloch,,South,Sudan,-,March,2,,2014:,A,South,Sudanese

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ingenio.upv.es/en">INGENIO Institute</a> in Spain has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-threatens-the-health-of-billions-of-people/">climate change</a> – in combination with the socio-economic characteristics of various regions - influences the likelihood and duration of armed conflicts in Africa. Moreover, the experts discovered that a prolonged increase in temperature and precipitation rises the probability of conflict even beyond the affected areas by four to five times, particularly in populations up to a radius of approximately 550 kilometers.



The researchers used a negative binomial regression mathematical method on data from the African continent from 1990 to 2016 to investigate the relation between climate change and the probability of armed conflicts. Although the results revealed that changes in climatic conditions have significantly influenced the probability of such conflicts over large spatial ranges, the scientists identified certain differences between the impact of various climate phenomena.&nbsp;



For instance, while food shortages due to droughts were found to increase the possibility of conflict, especially if water shortages persist for at least three years, excess rainfall and flooding can also trigger conflict, but in a very short period of time and a less diffuse spatial range.&nbsp;



“The results we have obtained have far-reaching implications for territorial policies on the African continent,” said study co-author Davide Consoli, an expert in the Economics of Innovation at the INGENIO Institute. “For example, changes in climatic conditions influence the likelihood of conflict over large areas, which means that the design of climate adaptation policies must consider the particularities of each territory.”



Moreover, in areas most prone to armed conflict, the persistence of violence requires the implementation of climate change adaptation strategies in combination with peacekeeping measures.&nbsp;



“These measures are essential in the design and implementation of adaptive strategies for climate resilience. In fact, poorly designed adaptation interventions can exacerbate existing inequalities and increase the risk of conflict,” Consoli concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40888-022-00271-x#Sec11">Economia Politica</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Climate change increases the risk of armed conflict

A new study led by the INGENIO Institute in Spain...

Lactobacillus,Bacteria,Colonies.,Female,Us,High,School,Student,(16,Y.o.)

An international team of scientists has recently described the world’s largest bacterium, which was discovered among the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forest-reveals-ancient-climate-change-effects/">mangroves</a> of the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe in 2009. Measuring over one centimeter in length, Thiomargarita magnifica is over 5,000 times larger than most of the other known bacteria.



“Most bacterial cells are&nbsp;microscopic, and measure around two thousandths of a millimeter in length,” said study lead author Jean-Marie Volland, an expert in Microbial Biology at the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> (Berkeley Lab). “While there are some exceptionally sized&nbsp;bacteria&nbsp;which can measure several hundred micrometers, these remain within the theoretical limit of how large these organisms can grow.&nbsp;T. magnifica, however, is significantly above this limit. When compared to most bacteria, it would be like a human encountering another human as tall as Mount Everest.”



Besides its enormous size, T. magnifica has also surprised scientists by the peculiar manner in which it stores its DNA. While most bacterial DNA floats freely around the cell, this bacterium’s genetic material was found within compartments similar to those seen in plants and animals. “These membrane-bound compartments represent a new type of bacterial organelle that we name pepins,” Dr. Volland explained. “Until now, we thought DNA packaged inside an organelle was solely a feature of eukaryotic cells. It is therefore a fascinating example of a bacterium which has evolved a higher level of complexity.”



As in the case of other species of its genus, T. magnifica’s genome contains a large number of genes linked to sulphur oxidation and carbon fixation. However, unlike its relatives, this bacterium lacks most genes associated with nitrate metabolism, suggesting that it developed a sedentary lifestyle that rules out the possibility that it may ever infect humans.&nbsp;



“More than a quarter of its genome is dedicated to secondary metabolism,” explained study co-author Tanja Woyke, an expert in Single Cell Genomics at Berkeley Lab. “These genes can include bioactive compounds which may explain why we didn’t find any bacteria on the outside of its cell. Overall, these genes make up a significant part of its genome, which is 12 million base pairs long. This is not unheard of in bacteria but is within the upper range. It has more than half a million copies of its genome in a cell, which equates to three trillion base pairs and is a thousand times larger than the human genome.”



Further research is needed to clarify this peculiar bacterium’s role in the ecosystem in which it lives, and how it evolved to achieve such an enormous size and strange genetic features. “This project has really opened our eyes to the unexplored diversity of microbes,” said study senior author Shailesh Date an associate professor of Epidemiology and Biostatistics at the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a>.&nbsp;



“We're just scratching the surface, and who knows what interesting things we are yet to discover. The study of biological complexity has a lot to offer our understanding of the tree of life, and in the future may allow us to produce interesting new physiologies and biochemistry,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb3634">Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

The world’s largest bacterium discovered in the Caribbean

An international team of scientists has recently described the world’s...

Niger is one of the driest countries in sub-Saharan Africa, being plagued by frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-will-face-more-frequent-and-extreme-droughts/">droughts</a> that are considerably hindering its farming business, leading to dying crops and widespread famine. In an attempt to find cheap and sustainable solutions for reviving this country’s agriculture, a team of researchers from Niger, the United Kingdom, and Germany has assessed the benefits of using a mineral-rich, low-cost, and easily accessible fertilizer: sanitized human urine, which they renamed “Oga” (meaning “the boss” in the Igbo language) in order to avoid the negative connotations of the term “urine.”



For thousands of years, humans have known that urine is an excellent fertilizer for crops, since it contains many of the ingredients found in commercial fertilizers, such as phosphorous, nitrogen, and potassium. However, due to the squeamishness associated with utilizing urine to grow crops, its use has always been limited.&nbsp;



To test its effectiveness on large-scale farming, the researchers conducted a total of 159, 288, and 234 on-farm trials between 2014 and 2016. The farmers were divided into two groups - the first continued to use their traditional farming methods to grow their pearl millet grains (a common type of crops in the region), while the second group applied Oga (with or without animal manure) to their experimental plots, after being trained on how to safely use it. The results revealed that, over a period of three years, those who used Oga experienced an average 30 percent increase in their crop yields.&nbsp;



“Oga is a low risk, low financial input fertilizer option ready for dissemination on sandy Sahelian sites with low pearl millet yield level,” the study author wrote. Two years after these experiments, the scientists found that this method has significantly increased in popularity, with over one thousand farmers regularly using it to fertilize their crops.&nbsp;



Further research is needed to assess the benefits of using urine as a fertilizer in industrialized countries too. According to several scientists, switching from commercial fertilizers to urine could not only increase crop yields and reduce fossil fuel intensive resources needed to grow them, but also make our sanitation systems more sustainable.



“Millions and millions of dollars a year are spent trying to treat our waste before it goes into receiving waters for acceptable nitrogen and phosphorus criteria,” said Cara Beal, a researcher in Environmental Health at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/">Griffith University</a> in Australia. “But if we can close that nutrient loop it’d be very sensible in terms of sustainability, the circular economy, and looking after our planet a little bit better,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13593-021-00675-2#Abs1">Agronomy for Sustainable Development</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Human urine can effectively fertilize crops

Niger is one of the driest countries in sub-Saharan Africa,...

Scientists have long known that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-rally-against-the-worlds-first-octopus-farm/">octopus</a> is an extraordinary organism with a highly complex brain and cognitive abilities that are unique among invertebrate creatures. According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.sissa.it/">International School for Advanced Study</a> (SISSA) in Trieste, Italy, the neuronal and cognitive complexity of these animals could originate from a molecular analogy with the human brain. The experts found that the octopus and human brain share similar transposons, or “jumping genes” – a type of genes that can move from one point to another of an individual’s genome, shuffling or duplicating.



Over 45 percent of the human brain is composed of such jumping genes. However, most of them lost their ability to move, or are inactive because they accumulated mutations over generations. Moreover, even some of the intact ones are most of the time blocked by cellular defense mechanisms. The most relevant mobile elements, though, belong to the Long Interspersed Nuclear Elements (LINE) family. These are still potentially active, and are thought to be associated with cognitive abilities such as learning or memory.&nbsp;



The scientists found that the genomes of two common species of octopus – Octopus vulgarisms and Octopus bimaculoides – are also rich in jumping genes, although most of them are inactive. However, some elements of the LINE family were discovered in parts of the octopus brain that are crucial for these creatures’ amazing cognitive abilities.



“The discovery of an element of the LINE family, active in the brain of the two octopus species, is very significant because it adds support to the idea that these elements have a specific function that goes beyond copy-and-paste,” explained study co-senior author Remo Sanges, the director of the Computational Genomics Laboratory at SISSA.



“I literally jumped on the chair when, under the microscope, I saw a very strong signal of activity of this element in the vertical lobe, the structure of the brain which in the octopus is the seat of learning and cognitive abilities, just like the&nbsp;hippocampus&nbsp;in humans,” added study co-author Giovanna Ponte, a researcher in Biology and Neurophysiology at the <a href="https://www.szn.it/index.php/it/">Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn</a>.



According to the researchers, this similarity between the genetic constitution of the human and octopus brain are a fascinating example of convergent evolution – a phenomenon for which, in two genetically distinct species, the same molecular processes develop independently, in response to similar needs.&nbsp;



“The brain of the octopus is functionally analogous in many of its characteristics to that of mammals. For this reason, also, the identified LINE element represents a very interesting candidate to study to improve our knowledge on the evolution of intelligence,” concluded co-senior author Graziano Fiorito, the director of the Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms at the Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-022-01303-5">BMC Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Human and octopus brains are more similar than expected

Scientists have long known that the octopus is an extraordinary...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> (SFU) has found that temperature changes have negatively impacted most species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multiple-habitats-must-be-protected-to-save-bumblebees/">bumblebees</a> over the past 120 years. According to the experts, such shifts in temperatures had more of a negative impact than other factors, including precipitation levels and floral resources.



“Bumblebees are important pollinators for wild plants and for the crops humans rely on for food. That’s why we need to develop conservation strategies that account for the future impacts of climate change on bee populations,” said study lead author Hanna Jackson, a Masters student in Biological Sciences at SFU.



Together with her colleagues, Jackson analyzed a large dataset containing records of 46 species of bumblebees from North America between 1900 and 2020. In order to estimate the effects of climate and land-use variables on species’ occupancy, the researchers created two occupancy models - one focused on time and the other on environmental factors. The analysis revealed that six bumblebee species decreased through time, 18 remained stable, and 22 increased.



Although both temperature and precipitation increased over the past 120 years, the results suggest that temperature changes had the most pointed negative impact on bumblebee populations, with 37 of the 46 species showing greater declines - or, at least, less positive increases in occupancy - as temperatures have steadily risen.&nbsp;



Nine of these species exhibited clear declines correlated to changing temperatures within their range. The scientists did not find such patterns related to the other factors that were investigated, - such as precipitation - and only one species declined due to scarcity in floral resources. In fact, the study of the relation between bee dynamics and precipitation and floral resources had mixed results: about half of the species were negatively impacted by changes in these factors, while the other half seemed to benefit from them.



Thus, changing temperatures are a major environmental factor driving changes in the composition of bumblebee populations. However, all the observed trends appeared to be highly species-specific.&nbsp;



“Because bumblebee species likely vary in their future responses to land-use and climate change, conservation action should prioritize individual species, taking into account their unique climate and habitat preferences,” Jackson concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0551">Biology Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Temperature changes negatively impact bumblebees

A new study led by the Simon Fraser University (SFU)...

Populations of migratory bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/managing-invasive-species-can-improve-climate-resilience/">species</a> have been declining more than non-migratory birds. Now, researchers have set out to identify the problem in a new study published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14668238">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.&nbsp;



“We know that migratory birds are in greater decline than non-migratory species, but it’s not clear why. We wanted to find out where in their life cycles these migratory species are most exposed to human impacts," said Dr. James Gilroy from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a>’s (UAE) School of Environmental Sciences.



The research shows that migratory birds passing through human built environments suffer the most losses. Impacts with wind turbines, dangerous roads, buildings and power lines are all taking their toll.



“We found that human modification of the landscape in the birds’ distribution ranges in Europe, Africa and Western Asia is associated with declining numbers of over 100 Afro-Eurasian migratory birds," said Dr. Claire Buchan.



"When we talk about modification of the landscape, we mean things like roads, buildings, powerlines, wind turbines – anything that isn’t naturally there."



“One of the biggest impacts seems to be caused by things that would kill a bird outright – for example flying into a wind turbine, a building, being electrocuted on a powerline, hit by a vehicle or hunted. We found that exposure to these human-induced ‘direct mortality’ threats in the bird’s wintering ranges are reflected in population decreases in breeding birds.”



The scientists found 16 different human created factors that negatively impact migratory bird populations across Europe, Asia and Africa, including are collisions, destruction of natural habitat and climate change.&nbsp;



“Our findings are important because we need to understand where declining species are being most impacted by humans across their seasonal migrations," said Dr. Aldina Franco. "Pinpointing where birds are most exposed to these threats could help us target conservation actions."



The scientists hope that their research will help create better conservation plans for birds and improve their survival in the future.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human modifications create deadly traps for migratory birds

Populations of migratory bird species have been declining more than...

In a new study from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Federal_University">Ural Federal University</a>, experts have demonstrated that flowers and tobacco can thrive on polluted land. These plants can adapt to copper in the soil by limiting the accumulation of the metal to the stem and leaves.&nbsp;



“Plants of the Asteraceae and Nightshade families, namely zinnia and tobacco, are copper-exclusive, their root system performs the function of copper accumulation,” explained study co-author Anastasia Tugbaeva. "Biotechnologies for maintaining and restoring components of natural and transformed biosystems", UrFU.&nbsp;



“Using zinnia as an example, we have shown for the first time that it can grow in copper-contaminated soils and even flower faster than in pure soils. That is, it can be used for landscaping areas, it will grow well. Tobacco, an important agricultural crop and useful fertilizer, also adapted to long-term exposure to copper in our experiments and grew comparable to control plants, despite the high content of copper in the substrate.”



For the investigation, the scientists recreated realistic levels of humidity and temperature0. They tested the effect of various concentrations of copper sulfate on growth, and analyzed various physiological characteristics of the plants.



“We conducted experiments for 20, 40, 60 days and used substrates in which the content of copper could even exceed its content in urban soils,” said Tugbaeva. “Under the influence of copper in the root and stem of plants, the expression of five genes responsible for the synthesis of phenolic compounds and lignin is enhanced. Lignin is one of the components of the plant cell wall, which makes it stronger. It is lignin that is the mechanism of plant adaptation, which limits the transfer of metals from the cell wall and the effects of metals on the intracellular structure of the plant.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/horticulturae">Horticulturae</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tobacco and zinnia can thrive in polluted land

In a new study from Ural Federal University, experts have...

Microplastics are the breakdown products of the plastic objects we use in everyday life – wrappings, packaging, bottles, synthetic clothing, and kitchen ware, for example. None of these plastics is biodegradable but, in the presence of sunlight and normal environmental conditions, they perish into small fragments that find their way into the oceans, rivers, foods, drinking water and even the blood of humans and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-disease-transmission-among-animals/">animals</a>. They are one of the world’s biggest environmental problems because, once dispersed, they are very difficult to remove.



Scientists have previously proposed the use of soft robots to collect up these microscopic particles of plastic, but soft robots are commonly made of hydrogels or silicone rubber, which are mechanically inferior and easily damaged in ocean conditions. In a new study, published by the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> in the journal Nano Letters, scientists from China and Germany have used nanotechnology to develop a light-activated fish robot that is made of composite sheets of graphene and can ‘swim’ around quickly and remove microplastics from the environment.



“It is of great significance to develop a robot to accurately collect and sample detrimental microplastic pollutants from the aquatic environment,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=zh-CN&amp;user=qBiAvxkAAAAJ">Yuyan Wang</a>, a researcher at the Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University and one of the lead authors on the study. “To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example of such soft robots.”



The experts used a substance called nacre, also commonly known as mother-of-pearl, upon which to base the design of a new material. Nacre is strong and flexible, and is found on the inside surfaces of clam shells. Nacre layers have a microscopic gradient, going from one side with lots of calcium carbonate to the other side with mostly a silk protein filler. Inspired by this substance, Xinxing Zhang, also from the Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, and colleagues wanted to try a similar type of gradient structure to create a durable and bendable material for soft robots.



The team created this new material by layering various microscopic sheets of molecules according to nacre’s specific chemical gradient. They developed an elastomer actuator with sulfonated graphene-based gradient nanostructures that produced a stretchy, flexible material which is tough and can tolerate high temperatures.&nbsp;



From this material, the researchers made robo-fish that can bend and twist, and even pull along a weight of up to 5kg. Most importantly, the bionic fish can absorb nearby free-floating bits of microplastics because the organic dyes, antibiotics, and heavy metals in the microplastics have strong chemical bonds and electrostatic interactions with the fish’s materials. In this way, the particles are attracted to the surface of the fish and are then absorbed and removed from the water.&nbsp;



“After the robot collects the microplastics in the water, the researchers can further analyze the composition and physiological toxicity of the microplastics,” said Wang.&nbsp;



The tiny fish robot is only 15mm long (about half-an-inch) but it responds to a near-infrared laser light by flapping its tail and ‘swimming’ forward. It can move at 2.67 body lengths per second, a speed that is about the same as that of active phytoplankton moving in water. At this stage, the robo-fish only functions on the surface of the water, where it would be able to absorb floating microplastics but not those deeper down in the water column.



In addition, the newly developed nanocomposite material from which the robots are made is able to heal itself, said Wang, who specializes in the development of self-healing materials. This means the robot fish can heal itself back to 89 percent of its former ability and continue to absorb pollutants, even if it is damaged or torn – which could happen if it goes looking for microplastics in rocky environments or in rough waters.&nbsp;



At this stage, the fish robot is just a proof of concept, Wang notes, and much more research is needed – especially into how this technology could be deployed in the real world. For example, Wang’s team will soon be working on more functionally complex fish robots that can go below the water surface in search of microplastics in the water column. Still, this bionic design could inspire other, similar projects, Wang said. “I think nanotechnology holds great promise for trace adsorption, collection, and detection of pollutants, improving intervention efficiency while reducing operating costs."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiny robotic fish developed to collect microplastics

Microplastics are the breakdown products of the plastic objects we...

Trees are crucial components of ecosystems as they support biodiversity, help ecosystems function and provide important services, such as supplying food, sequestering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marshes-may-soon-flip-from-carbon-sinks-to-carbon-sources/">carbon</a> and contributing to the water cycle. Conserving tree diversity is thus a conservation priority for the functioning of natural ecosystems, for mitigating the effects of climate change, and for use by human societies across the world. Despite these important roles, many tree species are not adequately protected, have become rare and may even be at risk of disappearing altogether.



In a recent large-scale study, an international team of researchers headed by scientists from <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a> in Denmark, has determined the worldwide distribution of more than 46,000 different species of trees, and estimated the extent to which this distribution falls within protected areas. In addition, they have assessed the intensity of human activity in the areas where the trees are found.&nbsp;



In order to do this, the researchers integrated five large databases, each containing millions of records of tree occurrence. They used these data to calculate the distribution of each tree species and then combined the distributions with a global map of the intensity of human activities. Lastly, they used the world database on protected areas (which includes information of more than 200,000 such areas) to map out the levels of protection for each tree species. Their results are published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



The findings highlight the fact that tree species are poorly protected in general, and some have no protection whatsoever. For the 46,752 tree species included in the study, an average of 50 percent of every tree species’ range falls in landscapes that have no protected areas. For 13.6 percent of the species, there is no protection at all, and most of these species have a limited distribution anyway, making them even more vulnerable.



Furthermore, the authors found that only 17 percent of the species considered are not under pressure from human activities. On average, 14.8 percent of the species are exposed to high or very high human pressure, while 68.5 percent are under moderate pressure.&nbsp;



“By compiling millions of registrations collected by researchers and citizens across the world and shared in open databases, we can calculate where it’s most important to preserve and restore natural areas in order to effectively protect biodiversity,” said Josep M. Serra-Diaz, who was previously affiliated with Aarhus University, and who is now an associate professor at AgroParisTech in France.



The researchers not only quantified the threat to tree species on a global scale, but they also suggested how this situation can be improved by means of the ambitious and smart designation of new protected natural areas.



“We did this by calculating the most suitable locations of potential protection areas if we are to safeguard tree species diversity, not only with regard to the coverage of species, but also with regard to their evolutionary and functional differences,” explained lead author Dr. Wen-Yong Guo, who started the work at the Center for Biodiversity Dynamics in a Changing World (BIOCHANGE), but is now affiliated with East China Normal University in Shanghai.



The researchers have based their work on two existing plans for protecting the world's biodiversity:



<ul><li>According to the UN Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, adopted in 2010, at least 17 per cent of land areas, lakes and watercourses were to be protected by 2020.</li><li>Now, the 2050 Vision of Biodiversity is on the drawing board, and many interest groups are calling for the vision to be brought in line with the Half-Earth Project proposed by Harvard biologist, E.O. Wilson. The Half-Earth Project advocates protecting half the earth’s surface by no later than 2050.</li></ul>



The researchers calculate that, following the above two conservation scenarios, protection of the top 17 percent or the top 50 percent of tree priority areas would make a considerable difference in protecting global tree diversity. They find that protecting 17 percent and 50 percent of the high-priority areas for trees would increase the average protected proportion of each tree species’ range to 65.5 percent and 82.6 percent respectively. This would also leave far fewer species (2,151 and 2,010) completely unprotected.&nbsp;



“But taking a broad-brush approach or just designating the most convenient areas, for example uninhabited tundra and desert areas, will not have the desired effect. Based on our calculations in this study, we’ve identified the areas in which nature conservation makes most sense to safeguard global tree diversity. If we’re smart, protecting 17 per cent of land areas would mean that, on average, a tree species will have protected areas in 66 per cent of the landscapes in which it is found, as opposed to the current 50 per cent. With the Half-Earth vision, the proportion would be 83 per cent. Two-thirds of the tree species that are currently unprotected will have protected areas in the landscapes in which they’re found if we reach the 17 per cent target,” explained Jens-Christian Svenning, professor of Biology at Aarhus University and director of BIOCHANGE.



“But in order to achieve this, we have to look at the distribution of all species across the world, and establish protected areas so that they cover the species and their biological functions and evolutionary differences in the best possible way."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human activity and poor protection threaten tree diversity worldwide

Trees are crucial components of ecosystems as they support biodiversity,...

A new study published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000044">PLOS Climate</a> paints a grim future for coastal areas in the mid-Atlantic. A modeling simulation predicts that the coastal marsh zones will go from carbon sinks to carbon emitters as the climate warms and ocean levels rise.



The marshes will expand into low-lying forests and freshwater wetlands, killing the trees, which will release carbon as they decompose.&nbsp;



During the study, Katie Warnell of <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> collaborated with seven natural resource agencies along the coast. She says her findings are significant for management.&nbsp;



“This research and our conversations with the states raise lots of questions about options for managing coastal landscapes given these changes and emphasizes the importance of&nbsp; reducing greenhouse gases and sea-level rise overall because that's the main driver of all of this."



Warnell also points out that losing marshes is not just a concern for climate change.&nbsp;



“Carbon is one piece of the picture. There are many other reasons to keep marshes around, including coastal protection and nursery habitats for fisheries. We need to weigh all of these different factors in making decisions about managing our coastal habitats.”



Based on the model, a negative outcome is likely. In 16 out of 19 runs, the model forecasted that marshland will transition from carbon sinks to carbon sources, releasing more carbon into the atmosphere than the marshes can capture.&nbsp;



But not all hope is lost, according to Warnell. “There might be some things that can be done to protect key areas from converting. In North Carolina, berms and pumps have been used to protect agricultural land and towns from sea level rise. While these are expensive, they might be worth it in certain areas.”



Another option would be to preemptively cut down trees in vulnerable areas before they are killed by salt water. However, the paper mentions this solution might be risky because the method has not been tested and because of the obvious ecological impacts. Let’s hope it doesn’t come to that.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Marshes may soon flip from carbon sinks to carbon sources

A new study published in PLOS Climate paints a grim...

Although much research has already been done to predict the effects of climate change on the land, sea, and ice, the ways in which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-have-an-amplifying-effect-on-global-warming/">clouds</a> will be affected is less understood. According to a new study published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021MS002841">Journal of Advances in Modelling Earth Systems</a>, climate change could either cause low clouds to dry up and shrink like the ice sheets, or they could thicken and become more reflective.



“If you ask two different climate models what the future will be like when we add a lot more CO2, you get two very different answers. And the reason for that is the way clouds are included in climate models,” said study co-author Michael Pritchard, an associate professor of Earth System Science at the <a href="https://uci.edu/">University of California, Irvine</a>.



While clouds and aerosols (particles of soot and dust that nucleate cloud droplets) are a fundamental part of the climate equation, these phenomena occur on a length- and time-scale that current models cannot reliably reproduce. Thus, they are always included in climate models through various approximations.



Some of the most advanced global climate models struggle to approach four-kilometer global resolution. However, in order to manage to capture the fine-scale turbulent eddies which form shallow cloud systems, models would need a resolution of at least 100 meters. Experts estimate that it could take until 2060 before the computing power able to capture this level of detail will be available.



In order to fix this gap, Professor Pritchard and his colleagues have tried to break the climate modelling problem into two parts: a course-grained, 100-kilometer lower-resolution planetary model, and many smaller patches with 100- to 200-meter resolution. These two simulations run independently and exchange data every 30 minutes to ensure that neither simulation goes off-track or becomes unrealistic.&nbsp;



“The model does an end-run around the hardest problem - whole planet modeling,” explained Professor Pritchard. “It has thousands of micromodels that capture things like realistic shallow cloud formation that only emerge in very high resolution.”



This modeling method was made possible by one of the fastest computers in the world, the <a href="https://www.tacc.utexas.edu/systems/frontera">Frontera supercomputer</a> at the Texas Advanced Computing Center, which scientists can use to run models at time- and length-scales accessible only on a few other computer systems in the United States, and test their potential for cloud modeling.



“The use of computation-based methods is critical to our understanding of climate and everything else around us,” said Manish Parashar, director of National Science Foundation’s <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/oac">Office of Advanced Cyberinfrastructure</a>. “Frontera is inspiring climate scientists to devise new and novel simulation methods for enabling our deeper understanding of climate change.” &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How will clouds be affected by climate change?

Although much research has already been done to predict the...

Hermit,Crab,(decapod,Crustaceans)

Hermit crabs are found in oceans all over the world, occupying habitats that range from shallow coastal waters to the deepest of seas. They have soft, fragile abdomens that need to be protected from damage and are adapted to occupy the empty shells of mollusks, carrying these shells around like mobile homes while they forage on detritus on the ocean floor.&nbsp;



A study, led by Dr. Yoshikawa from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a>, has now identified a species of hermit crab off the coast of Japan that carries a specific and previously unknown species of anemone on it back. The anemone, described for the first time in this study, has been named Stylobates calcifer and it is only found on the shells of a single host species of hermit crab, Pagurodofleinia doederlein. In fact, the anemone is so important to the hermit crab that, when the crab moves into a new shell home, it will go to great lengths to take the anemone along.&nbsp;



At least 35 symbiotic sea anemone species have been found living on the legs of hermit crabs or on the shells they inhabit. Symbiosis implies a close physical relationship between organisms of different species, and in the case of hermit crabs and their anemones, this is a mutualistic relationship from which both species benefit. Having an anemone covering one’s back may provide camouflage and protection, while riding through the water on the shell of a crab may ensure access to food, particularly the scraps of food left over after the crab eats dinner.



Dr. Yoshikawa and his team collected 16 specimens of the new, deep-sea anemone from depths of 100 - 400 meters between 2017 and 2020. All the specimens came from the ocean on the Pacific side of Japan, and were used for detailed studies of the anatomy, morphology, histology and genetics of the species. Based on the results of these analyses, the researchers have described and named the new species of anemone, Stylobates calcifer, in a publication in <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/bbl/current">The Biological Bulletin</a>, a journal of the University of Chicago Press.&nbsp;



In addition to describing the new species of anemone, the researchers were able to record live video footage of the process whereby a hermit crab that chose to move house succeeded in coaxing its anemone to detach from the old shell and settle on the new one. This is not an easy task as the anemone occupies the entire top surface of the hermit crab’s shell, and is attached by means of a hard, chitinous secretion called a carcinoecium. This structure helps the anemone cling to the uneven surface of the mollusk shell, but also strengthens and enlarges the shell, which gives the crab extended occupation of its shelter.&nbsp;



Despite this, a hermit crab will eventually outgrow its shell and will need to find new, more spacious accommodation. The researchers were able to observe the behavior involved when a captive hermit crab changed shells, thereby extending the understanding of how this symbiotic relationship between hermit crab and anemone is maintained.&nbsp;



Initially, the hermit crab left its old shell and tested out its new one. Once convinced that the new shell was a better option, it tapped and pinched the anemone (still attached to the old shell) with its walking legs and chelipeds (legs that bear claws). It also climbed on top of the anemone and tapped it with the new shell, continuously trying to encourage the anemone to detach. By this physical stimulation and provocation, the crab was able to peel the base of the anemone off the surface of the old shell, but it took approximately 12 hours of intense activity on the part of the crab.



The crab then tried all means of tactics to get the anemone to attach itself to the new shell, which was now on the crab’s abdomen. The crab dragged the anemone around, manipulating it, presenting it with the new shell and continuously stimulating it with legs and chelipeds. Initially, the anemone did not respond in any way and the crab’s efforts appeared fruitless. However, after the anemone was turned upside-down and placed on its tentacles, the crab maneuvered itself, along with its new shell, into a suitable hollow in the anemone’s foot.&nbsp;



Eventually, 18 hours after the anemone’s detachment from the old shell, it began to show ‘climbing’ behavior and mounted itself onto the new shell. It soon covered the surface of the shell and was positioned vertically, with its tentacles facing upwards, ready to access food particles suspended in the water column. The entire process took 43 hours from the time that the hermit crab initially changed shells.&nbsp;



The study authors acknowledge that all their behavioral observations involved only a single crab-anemone pair because of the difficulties involved with retrieving and maintaining deep-sea species in captivity. Nevertheless, they suggest that their observations reveal details of a remarkable symbiotic relationship between deep-sea organisms. Future research would need to focus on how the anemones recognize the host hermit crabs on the ocean floor and then build and retain their highly specific association with them.&nbsp;



The live video recordings are available at <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/719160#_i32">https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/719160#_i32</a>



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Remarkable symbiotic relationship found in the deep sea

Hermit crabs are found in oceans all over the world,...

Climate change has already caused significant damage, including longer and more intense heatwaves, accelerated sea level rise, and the loss of polar sea ice. Now, by performing the first-ever survey of planktonic lipids in the world’s oceans, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) has found that, as global warming advances, there may be fewer and fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omega-3s-seafood-healthy-aging/">omega-3</a> fatty acids produced by plankton at the base of the food web, which will mean less of these lipids available for fish and human beings.



Omega-3 fatty acids are essential fats that the human body cannot produce on its own. They are regarded by scientists as highly beneficial, increasing cardiovascular health and promoting healthy aging.&nbsp;



“The lipids in the ocean affect your life,” said study co-author Benjamin Van Mooj, an expert in Marine Chemistry at WHOI. “We found that the composition of lipids in the ocean is going to change as the ocean warms. That is a cause for concern. We need those lipids that are in the ocean because they influence the quality of the food that the ocean produces for humanity.”&nbsp;



The researchers collected 930 lipid samples from 146 locations across the world’s oceans during seven oceanographic research expeditions from 2013 to 2018.&nbsp;



“Focusing on ten molecularly diverse glycerolipid classes we identified 1,151 distinct lipid species, finding that fatty acid unsaturation (i.e., number of carbon to carbon double bonds) is fundamentally constrained by temperature. We predict significant declines in the essential fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA] over the next century, which are likely to have serious deleterious effects on economically critical fisheries,” the study authors reported.



Although planktonic community lipidomes are affected by a variety of environmental factors, such as nutrient availability, the most fundamental control of their composition appeared to be temperature. “Indeed, it is striking that the relationship between temperature and unsaturation emerges from our dataset despite spanning such diverse and disparate planktonic communities, from the nutrient-depleted subtropical gyres to the highly-productive Antarctic coastal shelf,” the authors wrote.&nbsp;&nbsp;



To determine how the upper and lower limits for the composition of omega-3 fatty acids may shift under future warming conditions, the scientists generated maps using end-of-century sea surface temperature conditions for various climate change scenarios. Under a worst-case scenario with unmitigated greenhouse gas emissions, some ocean regions may witness a drastic decrease of up to 25 percent of these beneficial lipids.



These findings provide examples “of how human activities are perturbing the oceans in ways that we never expected, and of the uncertainty of how the ocean is going to respond to warming,” concluded Dr. Van Mooj.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7455">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Ocean warming will massively reduce omega-3 fatty acids

Climate change has already caused significant damage, including longer and...

When a small group of individuals separates from a larger population and subsequently founds a new population, this has an effect on the genetic variation of the descendants, particularly if the group remains genetically isolated. The founder group will carry only a small selection of the total genetic variation of the original population, and this will be evident in the form of reduced genetic diversity in their offspring. In addition, the founding individuals may carry rare, recessive genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mutations-in-animals-shed-new-light-on-the-process-of-aging/">mutations</a> that will then become common in their descendants due to inbreeding within the founder population.&nbsp;



Despite the fact that founder events can have profound effects on the genetic diversity, fitness and disease risk of populations, not much is known about the timing, intensity or frequency of these events, or how they have shaped the evolution of the species. This type of evolution is not driven by natural selection, where the individuals with the best adapted genes survive and pass on these genes. Instead, founder events give rise to genetically different populations through the survival of a small group of individuals that become the sole founders of a new population with a drastically reduced genetic diversity.&nbsp;



New research has now led to the development of a method that uses genomic analysis to estimate the timing and intensity of founder events in populations of humans and other species. The method, known as ASCEND, involves the analysis of genome-wide patterns of allele sharing between individuals, particularly in isolated populations. The authors, Rémi Tournebize and Priya Moorjani of the UC Berkeley, have developed and applied this method to study global patterns of founder events in recent human history, as well as to assess the evidence for founder events in the history of 40 modern dog breeds.&nbsp;



There are many instances in human history where founder populations have arrived and settled at new locations. For example, the first settlers in Finland arrived some 9,000 years ago and then remained largely geographically isolated, and populations of Romani people migrated to live in Europe and parts of the Americas, forming founding groups in their new homelands. Some groups remain genetically isolated through cultural and religious practices, such as the Ashkenazi Jews and the Amish, who tend to marry within the group.



In the current study, the authors compared the shared alleles in the genomes of 2,310 individuals from 184 different population groups from around the world. They considered a minimum of 5 individuals from each population group and excluded individuals that were closely related. The results, published today in the open access journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/">PLOS Genetics</a>, showed that 61 percent of the population groups considered (113 out of 184) showed genetic evidence of a founder event that had occurred within the past 200 generations.&nbsp;



These findings indicate that a majority of the populations considered have arisen from the genetic input of a small group of ancestors at some time in the recent past. The most extreme founder event was observed in the Onge population from the Andaman Islands, which showed a 10-times greater founder effect than has been found in the Ashkenazi Jews. The Onge are a demographically small and historically isolated population that currently consists of only around 100 individuals.&nbsp;



The researchers found that the highest frequency of founder events occurred in populations from the Oceania region (80 percent out of five groups) and from the Americas (78 percent of nine groups studied). The lowest frequency of founder events was recorded in populations from Europe (38 percent of 30 populations considered).&nbsp;



Furthermore, island populations have experienced more extreme founder events than continental populations, and people with hunter-gatherer or nomadic lifestyles, along with indigenous groups, are also more likely to show genetic evidence of significant founder events in their histories. Analysis of seven Native American groups from Central and South America also showed evidence of significant recent founder events, estimated to be dated to between 200 and 500 years ago, and postdating the European colonization of the Americas.



When the researchers applied their ASCEND technique to the genomes of 52 populations of dogs, representing 40 unique breeds, they found that all of the groups showed evidence of significant founder events within the past 25 generations (75–125 years ago). Unlike the case with human founder events associated with settlement, migration and cultural or religious traditions, dog genomes reflect the influence of dog breeding, a practice that began during Victorian times. Reductions in genetic diversity in dog breeds are likely to be related to inbreeding and the use of a few highly prized males to sire numerous offspring.



Some of the strongest founder events were identified in the boxer and bulldog breeds. These breeds were intensively bred as working dogs, and later as companions. They are known to suffer from high rates of recessive diseases, most likely as a consequence of founder events and subsequent inbreeding in their past histories.



The authors hope that using the new ASCEND analysis technique will help scientists to identify groups that experienced strong founder events and that may consequently be at greater risk of certain genetic diseases. Ashkenazi Jews and Finns, who experienced strong founder events, often undergo genetic screening to learn about their pre-disposition to certain genetic diseases. The current study found that several populations among Native Americans, Oceanians, and South Asians have experienced even more extreme founder events than Ashkenazi Jews, and so these populations may also benefit from genetic screening.



“Some human populations like Ashkenazi Jews or Finns have been extensively studied in population genetics and have helped researchers identify many disease-causing mutations," said the researchers. "Hence, we wanted to study if other populations have a similar history that could enable further progress in medical genetics. We were surprised to see how widespread the history of founder events is in humans, both in present-day and ancient DNA samples, suggesting that investigation of disease-causing variants will be fruitful to identify and reduce disease burden among contemporary groups.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human genomes reveal the history of past founder events

When a small group of individuals separates from a larger...

All living creatures get older and ultimately die. However, according to <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a> researchers, not all organisms age at the same rate. They found that many turtle and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-tortoise-believed-extinct-found-in-the-galapagos/">tortoise</a> species are able to slow down their senescence significantly and, in some cases, nearly turn it off.



Fernando Colchero, Dalia Conde, and Rita da Silva studied 52 turtle and tortoise species and discovered that 75 percent have a very slow rate of senescence. Compared to humans, 80 percent of these long-living species have a slower rate of senescence.&nbsp;



The experts found that the senescence rates of the Aldaba giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea) can reach as low as zero, and the black marsh turtle (Siebenrockiella crassicollis) can reduce their rate of aging to below zero. For the black marsh turtle, this means that the risk of death is reduced as the animal ages.&nbsp;



Moreover, the study authors discovered that the animals have flexible senescence rates. When captive animals were presented with improved living conditions, these adaptable creatures were able to reduce their aging rate.&nbsp;



This flexibility does not apply to humans, as research on humans and non-human primates has shown better living conditions don’t significantly reduce the rate of aging.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Although the researchers are not sure why turtles and tortoises age less rapidly, there are theories suggesting it has something to do with growth after sexual maturity. One theory assumes that as the body prepares for reproduction, more energy is diverted into that function, and the matured body begins to deteriorate as a result. Based on this theory, there is no avoiding the aging process.



However, animal species that continue to grow after sexual maturity, including turtles and tortoises, may function differently. Some scientists think that since these species continue to grow after their reproductive years arrive, they can keep investing energy into cell repair, thereby avoiding the damaging effects of aging. 



The researchers made it clear that they are not calling turtles and tortoises immortal. They noted that these animals will eventually succumb to other causes of mortality, such as disease.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Turtles and tortoises can slow their rate of aging

All living creatures get older and ultimately die. However, according...

Vampyronassa rhodanica was a cephalopod, a member of the group that includes cuttlefish, octopuses, squid and the nautilus. V. rhodanica is also an ancient extinct relative of the more famous vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) which lives in deep, dark pockets of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-the-most-remote-oceans-are-polluted-with-microplastics/">ocean</a>, rarely seen by human eyes.&nbsp;



Now, researchers have analyzed the fossilized remains of V. rhodanica. The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, looks at the extinct squid's tentacles, which evolved for active hunting, unlike its extant relative.



Until now, little has been known about the body - much less the life history - of V. rhodanica. Unlike bodies with hard skeletons, the fossilized remains of cephalopods (besides those with shells) are hard to find.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Alison Rowe led a research team to analyze a rare, well-preserved V. rhodanica fossil from the La Voulte-sur-Rhône (Ardèche, France). The 10-centimeter specimen, which was 164 million years old, had a classic squid shape. The scientists used non-invasive 3D imaging to look more closely at the fossil.&nbsp;



The researchers found that V. rhodanica had similar suckers to the living vampire squid, in that both lack teeth in their suckers. However, modern vampire squids lack robust suckers on the end of their specialized long dorsal arms, which V. rhodanica clearly had.



The scientists hypothesize that these suckers were used like modern suckers - to create a watertight seal to grab and hold prey firmly in the tentacles. Because of these suckers, as well as sensory appendages used for detecting prey, the research team thinks this was an active predator.



By contrast, the modern vampire squid has evolved to a slow moving life deep in the dark, cold ocean where little oxygen is available. During their sedentary lives, vampire squids simply grab whatever food floats their way, making them more opportunistic in nature than their extinct relatives.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient squid had suckers for actively hunting prey

Vampyronassa rhodanica was a cephalopod, a member of the group...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> has found that prehistoric megatooth sharks – the largest sharks that ever lived, including the famous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megalodons-grew-larger-in-cold-water/">Megalodon</a> – were apex predators at the highest level ever measured. According to the experts, these massive creatures that evolved after the dinosaurs went extinct and ruled the world’s seas and oceans until three million years ago fed even upon other predators and predators-of-predators, in a highly intricate food web.



“We’re used to thinking of the largest species - blue whales, whale sharks, even elephants and diplodocuses - as filter feeders or herbivores, not predators,”&nbsp;said study lead author Emma Kast, a former doctoral student at Princeton and currently a postdoctoral fellow in Geography, Geology, and Geophysics at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>. “But Megalodon and the other megatooth sharks were genuinely enormous carnivores that ate other predators, and Meg went extinct only a few million years ago.”



To reach this conclusion, Dr. Kast and her colleagues used a novel technique to measure the nitrogen isotopes in the sharks’ teeth. The level of a specific isotope (nitrogen-15) can be used to reliably assess an animals’ position in the trophic chain. While other researchers have managed to employ this method on creatures from the recent past (up to 15 thousand years ago), in older animals there has generally not been enough nitrogen left to measure. Luckily, the enormous size and abundance of teeth of Megalodons and their relatives helped scientists find sufficient nitrogen traces to be able to clarify these creatures’ position in the food web.



“Teeth are designed to be chemically and physically resistant so they can survive in the very chemically reactive environment of the mouth&nbsp;and break apart food that can have hard parts,” explained study senior author Daniel Sigman, a professor of Geological and Geophysical Sciences at Princeton. Moreover, since sharks are constantly growing and losing teeth, they each produce thousands of teeth over their lifetime. “When you look in the geologic record, one of the most abundant fossil types are shark teeth,” Sigman added. “And within the teeth, there is a tiny amount of organic matter that was used to build the enamel of the teeth - and is now trapped within that enamel.”&nbsp;



By measuring nitrogen isotope levels in this organic matter, Sigman and his team found that megatooth sharks occupied a higher trophic level than is known for any extinct or extant marine species. “Ocean food webs do tend to be longer than the grass-deer-wolf food chain of land animals, because you start with such small organisms. To reach the trophic levels we’re measuring in these megatooth sharks, we don’t just need to add one trophic level - one apex predator on top of the marine food chain - we need to add several onto the top of the modern marine food web,” Dr. Kast concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abl6529?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D49172270223902357213481499257602856343%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1655978988&amp;_ga=2.140267444.64815737.1655711280-2046344334.1629960599">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Prehistoric megatooth sharks were apex predators

A new study led by Princeton University has found that...

In the past, people removed large pieces of wood from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-is-the-climate-impacting-aquatic-life-in-mountain-streams/">streams</a> because they preferred the aesthetics of the pristine rivers depicted by European colonists. Ivan Arismendi is an associate professor in the Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. He explained some of the other reasons that people had for eliminating log jams.&nbsp;



“There is a lot of cultural legacy there, with log jams areas seen as places that increased flood risk, impeded navigation and transport, and accumulated debris," said Professor Arismendi.



However, this idea began to change in the 1980s when biologists realized that these “log jams” enhanced fish habitat. Land managers developed programs to undo past damage, and logs were purposefully put back into streams.&nbsp;



A team of researchers at OSU was curious to know how the presence of wood in streams may affect land-dwelling creatures. To explore this question, Ezmie Trevarrow and Ivan Arismendi set up 13 motion-activated cameras near large log jams near Corvallis, Oregon, between July 2020 and June 2021.



The experts observed 40 species, including mule deer, raccoons, belted kingfishers, and American robins. They also observed one golden eagle, which is a rare find in the region.&nbsp;



Most (68%) of the activity around the log jam consisted of movement, but animals also used the area to rest (18%) and to eat and handle their food (9%). The team observed some spectacular activities, including one brave little deer mouse who used a log to cross the creek during high flow - even though water covered the log.



The study areas were used mainly in the spring, fall and summer, but there was activity in the winter as well. This finding suggests that log jams serve as year-round highways for wildlife in the area.&nbsp;



“This study reveals a hidden role of large wood in streams. The findings are valuable for land managers because they demonstrate additional value of restoration projects that involve wood placement into streams," said Trevarrow.



​​Professor Arismendi is looking forward to gathering more data. This summer, he will set up 30 cameras in Oregon State’s H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in the Cascades Mountains. “This is the beginning of looking into this topic more in-depth. I think there is a lot to unpack about the role of log jams in rivers.”



This study was recently published in <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10531?gclid=Cj0KCQjwhqaVBhCxARIsAHK1tiNwpoLOgeGKULrNVOsA_KsgM340-jigtBuy21lXvzN94Exosq40JCoaAjbfEALw_wcB">Biodiversity and Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Log jams provide year-round "highways" for wildlife

In the past, people removed large pieces of wood from...

They say that no man is an island, but to the tiny mites that inhabit our skin, we are the island of their dreams. These microscopic mites (Demodex folliculorum) live in the pores and hair follicles on the face, including the eyelashes, and the nipples of almost every human being. They are only around 0.3mm long and are passed on to us at birth. From then on, they live in our pores, feed on the sebum that is naturally produced in the cells of the pores, and reproduce on our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-craft-living-human-skin-on-a-robotic-finger/">skin</a> in the darkness of night.&nbsp;



A new study, led by researchers from the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a> has found that life for the mites living on a person’s face is not all roses, however. Their isolated existence results in inbreeding during the lifetime of the host person, which leads to the loss of genes and cells in the parasites. In the study, D. folliculorum&nbsp;genomes were studied for the first time ever, and the results showed that the mites are becoming so simple, genetically and anatomically, that they can be considered in transition from external parasites to internal symbionts.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We found these mites have a different arrangement of body part genes to other similar species due to them adapting to a sheltered life inside pores. These changes to their DNA have resulted in some unusual body features and behaviors," explained Dr. Alejandra Perotti, who co-led the research.



The study of the D. folliculorum DNA, published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>, makes the following fascinating (and bizarre) findings&nbsp;concerning the mites:



<ul><li>Due to their isolated existence on a single person’s face and nipples, with no exposure to external threats, no competition to infest hosts and no encounters with other mites with different genes, the mites have experienced genetic reduction. This has caused them to become extremely simple organisms, with tiny legs, each powered by just three single-cell muscles. They survive with the minimum repertoire of proteins – the lowest number ever seen in this and related species.</li><li>This gene reduction is the reason for their nocturnal behavior too. The mites lack UV protection and have lost the gene that causes animals wake up when it is daytime. They have also been left unable to produce melatonin – a compound that makes small invertebrates active at night. However, they are able to fuel their all-night mating sessions using the melatonin secreted by human skin at dusk.</li><li>Their unique gene arrangement also results in the mites’ unusual mating habits. Their reproductive organs have moved anteriorly, and males have a penis that protrudes upwards from the front of their body meaning they have to position themselves underneath the female when mating, and copulate as they both cling onto the human hair.</li><li>One of their genes has been inverted, giving them a particular arrangement of mouth-appendages that stick out and enable them to feed. This aids their survival when they are young.</li><li>The mites have many more cells when they are young than they do as adults. This contradicts the previous assumption that parasitic animals reduce their cell numbers early in development. The researchers argue this is the first step towards the mites becoming symbiotic inhabitants within the cells of the skin.</li><li>The lack of exposure to potential mates that could add variety to their gene pool means that the mites may well be on course for an evolutionary dead end, and potential extinction. This has been observed in bacteria that live inside cells before, but never in an animal.</li><li>Some researchers had assumed the mites do not have an anus and therefore must accumulate all their feces through their lifetimes before releasing it when they die, causing skin inflammation. The new study, however, confirmed they do have anuses and so have been unfairly blamed for many skin conditions.</li></ul>



Research collaborators from the University of Valencia, University of Vienna and National University of San Juan also contributed to the study.



Dr Henk Braig, co-lead author from Bangor University and the National University of San Juan, said: “Mites have been blamed for a lot of things. The long association with humans might suggest that they also could have simple but important beneficial roles, for example, in keeping the pores in our face unplugged.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Parasitic mites that live on our faces have simplified genetically

They say that no man is an island, but to...

Elephants,In,Chiang,Mai.,Elephant,Nature,Park,,Thailand

As natural environments become increasingly fragmented, the potential for human-wildlife interaction is increasing. Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leaving-trees-standing-could-reduce-climate-consequences/">climate change</a> is also likely to significantly contribute to this problem. By using a risk framework that incorporated different possible scenarios, the experts have examined how the risk of human-elephant conflict could change over time in Thailand.



When humans encroach on natural landscapes, the chances of interacting with wildlife increase. Conflicts can arise when wild animals harm crops or livestock, or when human activities damage animal habitats. For instance, forest edges are highly attractive areas for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-give-birth-and-then-keep-it-moving/">elephants</a> searching for food, which can often bring them into contact with farmers and mature crops.



“In Thailand, half of the country’s population live in rural areas and rely on agriculture,” said study lead author Nuntikorn Kitratporn, a PhD student at the University of Tokyo. “Thailand also has about three to four thousand wild elephants and deforestation and the growth of commercial agriculture have pushed elephants into increasingly fragmented patches of habitat, increasing the chance of interactions between humans and elephants.”



According to Kitraporn and his colleagues, climate change is increasing the chance of human-elephant encounters, as shifting environmental conditions lead to changes in the behavior and distribution of elephants. By using a risk assessment framework, combined with data on the recent spatial distribution of human-elephant conflict (2000-2019) in Thailand, the scientists investigated how these conflicts may develop in the near future (2024-2044), under different scenarios of future climate and socioeconomic conditions.



“We found a spatial shift in risk toward northern areas and higher latitudes,” said Kitratporn. “In other areas, habitat is likely to become less suitable over time, which could first increase and gradually decrease the risk of interactions.” Moreover, the risk of human-elephant conflicts was predicted to increase from increased frequency of droughts.



Better understanding how human-wildlife interactions may change in the future is crucial for long-term planning. “Our results highlight geographically explicit strategies to support long-term planning of conservation resources. Areas with increasing future risk are currently facing low conflict; hence it is recommended that future strategies should enhance adaptive capacity and coexistence awareness. Conversely, areas with lowering future risk from a decrease in habitat quality are recommended to identify buffer strategies around protected areas to support existing large elephant populations,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155174">Science of the Total Environment</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Human-elephant conflicts may increase with climate change

As natural environments become increasingly fragmented, the potential for human-wildlife...

Modern dwarf crocodiles living in Africa today reach maximum lengths of only four to five feet. A new discovery found an extinct "giant" form of two dwarf crocodiles that grew up to 12 feet in length when they lived some 15 to 18 million years ago.&nbsp;



The part of Africa where these giant dwarves were found is also the site of many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-humans-born-with-a-moral-compass/">human</a> fossils - the East African Rift Valley. Previous research in these areas has found early human ancestors with their bones scarred by apparent crocodile tooth marks.&nbsp;



The scientists suspect the new species of crocodiles (known as Kinyang mabokoensis and K. tchernovi) actually ate our ancestors. These crocs had nostrils facing forward instead of straight upward like modern crocodiles, suggesting they spent more time in the forests of the area than in the water - a place they could encounter fragile bipedal apes.&nbsp;



Study co-author Christopher Brochu is a professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the <a href="https://uiowa.edu/">University of Iowa</a> who has many years of experience working with extinct and living crocodilians.



"These were the biggest predators our ancestors faced," said Professor Brochu. "They were opportunistic predators, just as crocodiles are today. It would have been downright perilous for ancient humans to head down to the river for a drink."



The two species of Kinyang lived in a time when their region of Africa was covered in thick forest but both went extinct around 15 million years ago, the question is why? Brochu suspects that the reason might be climactic. This part of Africa today is much drier than the environment Kinyang lived in. With less rain, the place mat have become inhospitable to this strange crocodilian.&nbsp;



"Modern dwarf crocodiles are found exclusively in forested wetlands," said Professor Brochu. "Loss of habitat may have prompted a major change in the crocodiles found in the area. These same environmental changes have been linked to the rise of the larger bipedal primates that gave rise to modern humans."



So it goes, a change in environment always seems to favor one lineage and disfavor another, this is the raw material which evolution uses to shape and reshape our planet.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19328494">The Anatomical Record</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dwarf crocodiles once hunted human ancestors

Modern dwarf crocodiles living in Africa today reach maximum lengths...

Last year, a team of volunteers, farmers, researchers, and various organizations conducted the first national survey of UK turtle doves in decades. The study revealed that there are just 2,100 pairs of turtle doves that currently breed in the UK.



Turtle doves are the only long-distance migratory dove species in Europe, making annual trips to and from Africa. The survey shows that the species is now concentrated in southeastern and eastern England as far north as Yorkshire.



The new estimate represents a 98 percent decline in the turtle dove population since the 1970s, when there was an estimated 125,000 pairs of the small pigeons. Despite this alarming discovery, the <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/">RSPB Wildlife Charity</a> says there is still hope for turtle doves.



For example, Operation Turtle Dove is a partnership of conservation organizations which aims to restore breeding habitat for turtle doves in the UK. This team is advising land managers to create the scrub and tall hedges that turtle doves need for nesting. The birds generally only eat seeds such as the small seeds of various legumes – plants that are disappearing from the countryside.



“In the ’70s, there were records of flocks of over 500 birds, and the UK population was estimated at 125,000 pairs," said Andrew Stanbury, a conservation scientist with the RSPB.



“Although these results paint a stark picture with numbers, the way forward is clear and we stand a good chance of turning around the fortunes of this bird. We hope that the 2021 survey will represent the lowest population point.”



According to RPSB, it is imperative that new agri-environmental schemes in England, which are replacing EU payments for farming after Brexit, continue to support farmers who implement wildlife-friendly measures on their land.



Beyond habitat loss, turtle doves are also threatened by unsustainable hunting practices. Until recently, an estimated one million birds were shot each year in southwest Europe, including migratory birds like turtle doves. However, hunting of turtle doves was outlawed in France, Spain and Portugal in 2021.



“The fact that no hunting is currently permitted on the western European flyway provides us with a huge window of opportunity to reverse the decline in arguably one of England’s most threatened bird species," said Phil Grice, principal specialist for ornithology at Government conservation agency Natural England.



“Providing good nesting habitat, in the form of tall hedges and mature scrub, and abundant seed resources throughout the late spring and summer will be vital.”



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Turtle doves have declined by 98 percent in the UK

Last year, a team of volunteers, farmers, researchers, and various...

Koalas are threatened by habitat loss, climate change and diseases, including the Koala retrovirus (KoRV). This virus is known to cause serious illness in koalas, such as cancer, and is now becoming established as an endogenous retrovirus (ERV) within the population.



In a new study from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en">Uppsala University</a>, researchers have discovered more about retroviral establishment among koalas. By analyzing the koala genome, the experts have found new ERV lineages beyond the Koala retrovirus.



"Retroviruses have left their legacy in host genomes over millions of years as endogenous retroviruses, and their structure, diversity, and prevalence provide insights into the historical dynamics of retrovirus–host interactions. In bioinformatic analyses of koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) whole-genome sequences, we identify a recently expanded ERV lineage (phaCin-β) that is related to the New World squirrel monkey retrovirus," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"This ERV expansion shares many parallels with the ongoing koala retrovirus (KoRV) invasion of the koala genome, including highly similar and mostly intact sequences, and polymorphic ERV loci in the sampled koala population."



According to study lead author Mette Lillie, many of the new ERVs are only found in a few koala individuals, which indicates that they are relatively new. "It may even indicate an ongoing establishment in the population."



After looking at the distribution pattern of ERVs in the koala population and comparing how their lineages differ, the researchers concluded that additional active retroviruses may be discovered in koalas and other animal species that share the same environment. The findings may ultimately help in the search for retroviruses in Australian fauna that have not yet been identified.



"The ERVs that have been left behind after retrovirus infections in the past now make it possible to uncover historical interactions between retroviruses and animal species, such as mapping how virus transmission has taken place," said study co-cuthor Patric Jern. "Variations in ERV distribution patterns within host populations can also be valuable as genomic markers, for example in management and protection of endangered species.'



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New retroviruses have been found in koalas

Koalas are threatened by habitat loss, climate change and diseases,...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) has found that frog-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-play-an-active-role-in-plant-pollination/">bats</a> trained by scientists to associate a phone ringtone with a tasty food reward were able to remember what they learned for up to four years in the wild. While many previous studies have documented long-term memory in a wide range of animals living in captivity – including sea lions, tortoises, dolphins, birds, and primates – this is one of the first attempts to investigate how memory functions in animals living in the wild.



“Being able to study memory in the wild is important,” said study co-author&nbsp;Gerald Carter, an assistant professor of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology at OSU. “You can’t necessarily extrapolate from the wealth of data we have on animals in the lab to what they’re facing in the wild, where there are many more things they have to remember. The environment is different and the brain is different in the wild versus captivity.”



The scientists acquainted 49 bats with a series of phone ringtones which attracted their attention, and trained them to associate flying toward just one of these tones with receiving a baitfish reward. Afterwards, all bats were microchipped and returned to the wild. Between one and four years later, eight of these bats were recaptured and exposed again to the reward-related ringtone. While all of them flew toward the sound, six flew all the way to the speaker and immediately grabbed the reward, suggesting that they expected to find food when primed with the familiar ringtone. By contrast, control bats without previous training to recognize the tones, mostly twitched their ears in response to the sounds, but did not fly toward their source.



“I was surprised – I went into this thinking that at least a year would be a reasonable time for them to remember, given all the other things they need to know and given that long-term memory does have real costs. Four years strikes me as a long time to hold on to a sound that you might never hear again,” said study lead author May Dixon, a postdoctoral researcher in Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology at OSU.



“The study taught us a lot because there are relatively few studies of long-term memory in wild animals and we don’t have systematic understanding of long-term memories in nature yet. If we can collect additional data on different species of bats, we could pick this apart and see what life histories select for long memories.”



Since previous studies have shown that, in other animal species such as the fruit fly, long-term memory is actually detrimental, further research is needed to clarify whether these skills are an asset or a liability for wild frog-eating bats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.05.031">Current Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Marcos Guerra



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Frog-eating bats have a long-term memory

A team of researchers led by the Ohio State University...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/">York University</a> in Canada has discovered that the local environment plays a crucial role in the health and diversity of the gut microbiome of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-struggle-to-recover-after-extreme-weather-events/">wild bees</a>. These findings could help detect invisible stressors and early indicators of potential threats for wild bee populations. Moreover, establishing a baseline of what a healthy microbiome looks like in wild bees will allow scientists to compare species across populations and continents, and better understand how diseases and harmful microbiota are introduced and transmitted.



“We can really dissect bee health in a very systematic way looking at population genetics and parasite pathogen loads, healthy microbiomes, and deviations,” said study corresponding author Sandra Rehan, an expert in Wild Bee Genomics, Environment, and Conservation at York. “The long-term goal is really to be able to use these tools in order to detect early signatures of stress and habitats in need of restoration or conservation. To develop it almost like a diagnostic tool for bee health.”



By using metagenomic analyses, the scientists sequenced the genomes of three species of carpenter bees (a type of wild bee) in North America, Australia, and Asia to shed more light on these bees’ microbiomes, diet and viral load, and environmental DNA.



Unlike species of social bees such as bumblebees or honeybees, solitary bees get their microbiome – which is crucial for their health – from the environment in which they live and forage for food, instead of inheriting it from their nest mates. “This may make them better bio-indicators as they are much more sensitive to their environment,” Professor Rehan explained.



The researchers found beneficial bacteria that helped with metabolic and genetic functions in all three carpenter bee species, including, for instance, a species of Lactobacillus – a bacterium which is found across most bee lineages, and protects against prevalent fungal pathogens, boosts the immune system, and facilitates nutrient uptake. However, in a previous <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/edn3.291">study</a>, Professor Rehan discovered that adult carpenter bees living in cities lacked this beneficial microbe.&nbsp;



“This raises red flags,” she said. “We are continuing those studies to look at more nuanced urban, rural comparisons, and long-term data to really understand these environmental stressors. Anytime we characterize a microbiome and see deviations from what we know to be normal, it can give us an indication of a population or species in threat.”



In future research, the scientists aim to investigate and compare the microbiomes of a larger variety of wild bee species. “The long-term goal is really to be able to use these tools to detect early signatures of stress in wild bees and thereby identify habitats in need of restoration or preservation. We are excited to be building the tools for a new era of wild bee research and conservation,” Professor Rehan concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03535-1">Nature Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Clues to bee health found in their gut microbiome

A new study led by York University in Canada has...

Worsening environmental pressures due to climate change, such as sea temperature rises, are causing catastrophic losses of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corals-need-our-help-to-survive-global-warming/">corals</a> all over the world. As the waters of the Great Barrier Reef (the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem) warm, subtropical corals are migrating south in search of cooler waters. Sydney’s coastline has recently become home to a new subtropical species of coral (Pocillopora aliciae), raising the question whether this place could become a refuge for corals displaced by climate change.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/">University of Technology Sydney</a> (UTS) has analyzed the metabolism of these new corals under current and future warming scenarios, and found that these invading subtropical corals will survive and thrive in their new habitat. However, the experts argue that warming could pose significant problems for the native Sydney coral species.&nbsp;



“While we found these corals possess the machinery to withstand large changes in temperature, those temperatures could kill the existing corals in Sydney. This is incredibly important when we consider the future of Sydney’s precious ecosystems,”&nbsp;said study senior author Jennifer Matthews, a coral biologist at UTS.



“The ecological services and economic revenue of the Sydney marine environment make it a very valuable ecosystem, but it is under continuous threat from climate change and urbanization, causing increased stormwater inflows and habitat modification.”



However, according to study co-author Brigitte Sommer (a marine ecologist at UTS), increasing the biodiversity and complexity of Sydney’s marine ecosystems could bring significant benefits, by turning this region into a refuge for reef fish, coral crabs, and potentially other coral species.



“Determining which coral species will be able to migrate poleward in warming seas and how they will interact with local species is critical so we can protect these dynamic ecosystems into the future,”&nbsp;she explained.



“We are continuing to examine how corals can live and breed in temperate, or suboptimal, environments, and how we might use this knowledge to help us to protect Australia’s reefs into the future,” concluded Dr. Matthews.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-022-02277-0">Coral Reef</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How will climate change affect Sydney’s coral reefs?

Worsening environmental pressures due to climate change, such as sea...

Wildfires have occurred more frequently around the world in the past few decades. In the United States, 10.3 million acres were burned by wildfires in 2020, amounting to the largest area burned in a single year since 1960. And scientists predict that the area burned annually by wildfires will increase by 76 to 152 percent by the end of this century. 



The inhalation of smoke from wildfires is known to cause health and reproductive issues in humans, as well as affecting air quality, biodiversity, and land use, but the effects of this environmental hazard on dairy cows have not been investigated.&nbsp;



In the U.S., wildfires are particularly prevalent in the western states, which are also home to more than 2 million dairy cows that produce more than a quarter of the nation’s milk. New research has now&nbsp;examined how dairy cattle in the western U.S. may be affected by exposure to fine particulate matter that is formed from the incomplete combustion of carbon during wildfires. The study considered the delayed and persistent effects of exposure to this smoke on the immune, metabolic, and milk production systems of lactating Holstein cows.



"Evidence suggests that wildfire smoke events can result in substantially greater exposure to harmful compounds than typically found in non-fire urban air pollution conditions," explained lead investigator Dr. Amy L. Skibiel, an expert in the the University of Idaho Department of Animal, Veterinary and Food Sciences.



Smoke from wildfires contains fine particulate matter that is a known air toxin and a leading source of air pollution-related disease in humans. “Fine particulate matter can be respired deep into the alveolar recesses of the lungs, where it can induce inflammation, impede lung function, and be absorbed into circulation,” explained Dr. Skibiel. However, the physiological responses of dairy cows to fine particulate matter from wildfire smoke have so far been largely unknown.



The research team monitored 13 cows at the University of Idaho Dairy Center during the wildfire season between July and September 2020. The cows were housed in outside stalls and pens, and were thus exposed to the ambient air quality. The fine particulate matter (PM2.5), air temperature and relative humidity were measured at a nearby monitoring station. Based on these measurements, the researchers determined that the cows were exposed to seven days of continuously high levels of fine particulate matter from wildfires during mid-September. These PM2.5 levels were between 10 and 23 times the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s 24-hour average air quality limits.



Before, during and after this exposure, the daily milk yield of each cow was recorded, along with the chemical composition of the milk. Blood was taken from the jugular vein of each cow before, during, and after exposure, and assayed for hematology, blood chemistry, and blood metabolites.&nbsp;



Analysis of these results showed that each cow produced an average of between 1.20 and 1.55 kg less milk per day for every 100-μg/m3&nbsp;increase in PM2.5&nbsp;during the seven days of exposure, and the seven subsequent days. Milk composition was also affected by PM2.5&nbsp;and the levels of temperature and humidity. Percentages of fat, milk protein and lactose were all lower during times of high particulate matter and high temperatures and humidity.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In addition, higher air temperature and humidity, combined with greater levels of fine particulate matter, altered protein and fat metabolism in the cows, and reduced immune cell populations in the cows’ blood. The balance of essential minerals in the blood was also altered under these conditions, possibly because they perspired or because of their individual physiological responses to stress.&nbsp;



The white blood cells in the cows’ blood were also negatively affected during and after exposure to air pollution due to wildfires. Cows and calves can suffer from respiratory problems, which are the leading cause of mortality in cases where death was not due to predators. Clearly, a reduction in the white blood cells (which are part of the immune system) may indicate an impaired immune response and, thus, increased vulnerability to respiratory infections.&nbsp;



This study is the first to investigate delayed and persistent effects of exposure to wildfire-derived PM2.5&nbsp;on dairy cattle immune response and lactation performance, and highlights the potential implications for dairy cattle welfare, costs to farmers and the supply of dairy products to the U.S. population as wildfires increase in frequency against the backdrop of climate change.



The research is published in the <a href="https://www.journalofdairyscience.org/">Journal of Dairy Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dairy cows exposed to wildfire smoke produce less milk

Wildfires have occurred more frequently around the world in the...

A 100,000-year-old polar bear skull has revealed extensive hybridization between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distinct-population-of-polar-bears-found-in-greenland/">polar bears</a> and brown bears during the warm period of the Pleistocene. The study was led by the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>.&nbsp;



The skull was a rare find; scientists happened upon it while study co-authors Pamela Groves, Daniel Mann, and Michael Kunz were taking a stroll on the Beaufort Sea coastline.&nbsp;



The skull belonged to a juvenile female polar bear who the scientists named ‘Bruno.’ Researchers were able to analyze DNA from the ancient skull and gain valuable information.&nbsp;



“The availability of Bruno’s paleogenome has made it possible to detect an ancient admixture event that impacted all living brown bears," explained study first author Ming-Shan Wang of the <a href="https://pgl.soe.ucsc.edu/">UCSC Paleogenomics Lab</a>.



The team discovered that Bruno was part of a population of polar bears that were ancestral to the polar bears we share the Earth with today. They predict that about 125,000 years ago, the polar bear lineage that led to Bruno and the one that led to all living brown bears hybridized.&nbsp;



As a result of this hybridization, polar bear ancestry makes up about 10 percent of today’s brown bear genome. However, this evidence for hybridization could not be found in modern polar bear DNA.



Study co-author Beth Shapiro explained the importance of Bruno’s contribution. “We never would have seen this without Bruno’s genome, because all living brown bears have that admixture as part of their genomes.”



This is not the only time polar bears and brown bears have mixed. Previous DNA samples indicate that admixing occurred at least four separate times between 15,000 and 25,000 years ago. Moreover, they discovered that genes flowed from polar bears to brown bears in all incidences.&nbsp;



“The admixed individuals, if they survive, do so as brown bears, perhaps because they have difficulty hunting successfully on the sea ice if they are not completely white," explained Shapiro. "Polar bears have always been a small population with not much genetic diversity.”



According to Shapiro, as our Earth warms again, we may see another era of mixing, “We shouldn’t be surprised to see admixture happening again today as the climate changes and these species are overlapping and encountering each other again in the wild. Climate change allows gene flow to occur between what we think of as different species.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01753-8">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

DNA confirms ancient hybridization of polar bears and brown bears

A 100,000-year-old polar bear skull has revealed extensive hybridization between...

A new study led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> has found that an invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasps-are-undervalued-as-predators-and-pollinators/">wasp</a> - which has already caused significant damage in the Southern Hemisphere - could spread throughout North America. For now,&nbsp; it appears that nature’s defenses are keeping this insect under control.&nbsp;



The experts estimate that the Sirex woodwasp (Sirex noctilio) has the potential to reproduce at rates two to three times higher in North America than in its native range in Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Although its impact in this new territory has been limited so far, under the right conditions it could spread quickly and pose major threats to local ecosystems.



Unlike yellow jackets and other common species of wasps, Sirex woodwasps eat wood instead of fruit and meat. Injecting a fungus and a dose of venom into trees can weaken and sometimes even kill them.&nbsp;



The woodwasps also place eggs in the trees, where their larvae hatch and feed on wood that was pre-digested by the fungi. While other invasive species are limited in range by sensitivity to temperature and other climatic factors, the woodwasps do not seem to be restricted by climate.&nbsp;



Although the wasps are considered to be minor tree-eating scavengers in their native region (Galicia, Spain), in non-native areas such as New Zealand, Australia, Chile, Argentina, and other countries in the Southern Hemisphere – where they have no natural enemies – they are responsible for major attacks on pine trees and can be highly expensive to manage. Since entering the United States in 2004 at a cargo port on Lake Ontario, these wasps have expanded throughout the entire northeastern U.S. and parts of Quebec and Ontario in Canada.



According to the scientists, the woodwasp has the potential to be over 150 percent more productive in the U.S. than in Spain. Its higher reproduction rates in the Northeast are partly driven by their different relationship with a parasitic worm that sterilizes wasp eggs in Spain, but not in its new territory. Fortunately, due to the relative scarcity of host pine trees in northeastern U.S. and the existence of natural enemies such as parasitic wasps, these regions appear more resilient to the invaders than initially thought.



“When we first observed the Sirex woodwasp in North America, we said ‘oh no, we better brace ourselves for this,’” said study lead author Flora Krivak-Tetley, an expert in invasive species at Dartmouth. “We are not sure how it will go in other parts of the continent but, for the moment, nature has rallied to its own defense against this woodwasp.”&nbsp;



However, if the wasp will expand in southern or western states – which have larger populations of pine trees – it could cause extensive damage. “This wasp will continue to spread throughout North America and can be expected to eventually show up everywhere there are pine trees,” said study senior author Matthew Ayres, a professor of Biology at Dartmouth. “The good fortune we’ve enjoyed so far with the Sirex woodwasp could change if the insect reaches areas with higher resource availability and fewer natural enemies.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://neobiota.pensoft.net/article/75392/">NeoBiota</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive woodwasp threatens North America’s ecosystems

A new study led by Dartmouth College has found that...

In a recent survey of California’s bumble bees, only 17 species were found, making up just 68 percent of the estimated species diversity of the state. The last survey of bumble bee populations was carried out in the 1980s. The current study, conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> (UCR), was a long overdue follow-up to investigate where bee populations are now.



Besides being beautiful creatures with their own lives and role in the universe, scientists remind us that bumble bees also pollinate some $3 billion worth of crops every year in the United States. The plants that are pollinated by bees include spicy peppers, delicious tomatoes and tart cranberries.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The UCR team, led by entomologist Hollis Woodard, surveyed 17 sites throughout California comprising six different ecosystems where an abundance of bees had previously been found. The researchers tried in four additional locations in southern California but were only able to find ten individual bees at those locations.



“Although we found that relative to other sites the mountains are home to the most diverse bumble bee populations, even at those sites we also failed to find some species that used to be there,” said Woodard.&nbsp;



One of the most common bees, the western bumble bee - which is also an important pollinator - was not found anywhere during the survey. “We didn’t find it even once,” said Woodard. “If it was okay, we should have seen it."



Over half of the bees collected were one species, the yellow-faced bumble bee (Bombus vosnesenskii) making it the most commonly found species in the survey. Even still, this bee has shrunk in population size as well.&nbsp;



“Even the most dominant species has lost a lot of suitable habitat since the last large-scale survey,” said Woodard. “The winner is not doing great.”



In an attempt to limit their damage to the already imperiled insects, the scientists collected just 100 bees at each site, a relatively small number for this type of survey,&nbsp;



A recent court decision put four species of bumble bee on California’s state endangered species list, but none of these species was found during the survey. These bees were already on the federal endangered species list.&nbsp;



“Generally, the state list directs more action toward more local measures. It’s good for them to be covered under both,” said Woodard. “I hope the state listing also encourages Californians to feel like they have a stake in helping the bees survive, because bees certainly help humans survive.”



Now, we can only hope that the listing isn’t too late to protect these bee species, which may or may not be already gone.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

California’s bumble bees are vanishing

In a recent survey of California’s bumble bees, only 17...

According to state officials, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-events-are-becoming-increasingly-common/">extreme heat</a> and humidity killed thousands of cattle in Kansas recently, and high temperatures will continue to threaten livestock this summer. Facilities contacted the <a href="https://www.kdhe.ks.gov/">Kansas Department of Health and Environment</a> for help disposing the carcasses of over 2,000 cattle as of Tuesday, June 14, 2022. 



After producers reduced herds due to droughts and struggled with food costs which climbed as Russia’s invasion of Ukraine tightened global grain supplies, this massive number of casualties added pain to an already strained cattle industry.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Kansas is the third largest U.S. cattle state (after Texas and Nebraska), with over 2.4 million cattle currently in feedlots. According to Scarlett Hagins, a spokesperson for the <a href="https://www.kla.org/">Kansas Livestock Association</a>, as temperatures and humidity spiked over the weekend in western Kansas and cooling winds disappeared, cattle began suffering extreme heat stress and could not acclimate to the sudden change.&nbsp;



“It was essentially a perfect storm,” added AJ Tarpoff, a professor of Animal Science at <a href="https://www.k-state.edu/">Kansas State University</a>. A relatively mild spring may have prevented the cattle from properly adapting to the massive heatwave that hit Kansas recently. “Some cattle may not have fully shed their winter coats by now, which would interfere with their ability to dissipate heat,” explained Professor Tarpoff.



By Monday, temperatures reached 108 degrees Fahrenheit (42 degrees Celsius) in northwest Kansas, and this weekend weather experts predict an increase to over 110 degrees. “It’s going to be oppressively hot and stressful for the animals,” said Drew Lerner, the president of <a href="https://worldweather.cc/">World Weather Inc</a>. However, stronger winds and lower humidity rates may help minimize cattle deaths.&nbsp;



In order to help them survive, ranchers are providing cattle with more water and checking their health regularly. “You can’t say, ‘Oh I checked them three days ago,’” said Brenda Masek, the president of the industry association Nebraska Cattlemen. “When it gets hot, you’ve got be to out every day and making sure that their water is maintained,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Massive heatwave killed over 2,000 cattle in Kansas

According to state officials, extreme heat and humidity killed thousands...

A team of researchers led by the University of Washington and the Greenland Institute of Natural Resources has recently discovered an isolated and genetically distinct population of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-forced-to-hunt-for-food-on-land/">polar bears</a> in Southeast Greenland. 



Unlike other polar bears that rely on rapidly disappearing sea ice for survival, these bears hunt during the entire year on the freshwater ice near marine-terminating glaciers, in sea-ice conditions close to those projected for the High Arctic in the late 21st century. These findings offer reasons for optimism regarding polar bear resilience in the face of climate change.



Previous studies have shown that the Arctic is warming at an unprecedented rate, more than twice as fast as the rest of the planet. This phenomenon is threatening a variety of animal populations, among which polar bears are particularly vulnerable, since most of them rely upon sea ice to hunt seals. 



However, recent forecasts of reduced polar bear populations and geographic distribution are based on broad-scale climate projections that fail to take into account the crucial role of small-scale habitat features which could serve as climate refugia for endangered polar bears.



By combining 36 years of genetic, movement, and demographic data, the scientists discovered and described a genetically distinct, isolated population of polar bears in Southern Greenland. 



Moreover, through sophisticated habitat analysis, natural history observation, and traditional ecological knowledge, they also managed to identify a previously unknown polar bear behavior in this population: the use of fresh ice at the marine terminal glacial fronts (known as “glacial mélange”) as a platform for seal-hunting. While other polar bear populations are forced to move on land or migrate with receding sea ice into less productive regions during the ice-free season, this adaptation allows the Southeast Greenland bears to thrive in rather inhospitable conditions.



These findings have important implications for polar bear conservation, suggesting that marine-terminating glaciers – which are uncommon in most of the Arctic, but can be found in places such as Greenland or Svalbard – may serve as previously unrecognized climate refugia.



The study is published in the AAAS journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abk2793">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Distinct population of polar bears found in Greenland

A team of researchers led by the University of Washington...

Female,Bonobo,With,A,Baby,Is,Sitting,On,The,Grass.

A new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abo3608">Science</a> has argued that, while attempting to mitigate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-reporting-can-change-climate-change-beliefs/">climate change</a> is becoming increasingly urgent, so is the concurrent need for proactive stewardship of the Earth’s rapidly changing biosphere. Since oncoming changes will seriously challenge current natural resource management and conservation efforts, new forward-looking conservation approaches to enable the adaptation and resilience to climate change of a variety of species, communities, and ecosystems are absolutely necessary.



“There is actually a lot we can do to help systems cope with oncoming climate change,” said study lead author Jonathan Moore, a professor of Biology at the <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a>. “From restoring connectivity to reducing local stressors to conserving future habitats - all of these proactive approaches can help the ecosystems that we rely upon to adapt to climate change.”



According to study co-author Daniel Schindler, an expert in Ecosystem Dynamics at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>, in order for species and ecosystems to adapt and be resilient to climate change, preservation-orientated approaches should be complemented by attempts that enable and foster ecological change.&nbsp;



“Local efforts to conserve biodiversity and regenerate habitat complexity will also help maintain a diversity of future options for species and ecosystems in an unpredictable future,” explained Professor Schindler.



Thus, conservation efforts should focus not only on “climate change losers,” but also on the proactive management of emerging opportunities. For instance, while threatening species such as polar bears, warming Arctic oceans and shrinking sea ice may create more fish production in some areas – a phenomenon that needs to be taken into account too when devising proactive approaches to help ecosystems cope with climate change.



“Earth’s systems have an incredible capacity to adapt and be resilient to changes. That is what has allowed some species to persist for millions of years. But our actions are seriously undermining that adaptive capacity,” said Professor Moore. “Natural resource management and conservation efforts will need to embrace the dynamic aspects of the biosphere to help maintain functioning ecosystems and protect biodiversity amid ongoing climate change.”



While it is important and urgent for humanity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to control the pace of climate change, even with the most aggressive reduction strategies further warming will likely persist for decades. Thus, additional strategies to enable adaptation and resilience will be crucial for maintaining functional ecosystems and conserving biodiversity.



“The biosphere has never been static – and we need to embrace management approaches that maintain a dynamic and fluid biosphere. Thus, conservation and management need to be prospective - looking to the future, and proactive - taking action for the future,” Professor Schindler concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How can Earth’s ecosystems adapt to climate change?

A new study published in the journal Science has argued...

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