A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

What if eating chocolate could be more than just a guilty pleasure? What if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-and-cocoa-prices-have-doubled-in-the-past-year-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chocolate</a>, infused with probiotics, had hidden health benefits beyond the usual antioxidant boost from dark varieties?



Scientists are working on just that. By infusing chocolate with prebiotics and probiotics, they aim to transform it into a functional food. 



The goal is to produce a delicious, gut-friendly treat that does more than satisfy cravings. But there’s a challenge: adding health-boosting ingredients can alter texture, moisture, and even protein levels. 



The trick is to keep the chocolate as indulgent as ever while making it better for the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probiotics-make-chocolate-healthier">Probiotics make chocolate healthier</h2>



Probiotics are tiny, beneficial microbes found in yogurt and kimchi that play a vital role in gut health. They help balance bacteria, aid digestion, and even reduce inflammation.



But they’re delicate. Stomach acid, heat, and processing can destroy probiotics before they ever reach the intestines, where they do their best work.



Enter prebiotics. These compounds, often dietary fibers, act as food for probiotics, helping them to thrive. Together, they form a powerhouse combination known as synbiotics. The challenge now is to find a way to embed these prebiotics and probiotics into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-chocolate-survive-dna-research-may-help-save-cacao-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chocolate</a> without ruining its flavor or texture.



That’s where researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from the Jaypee Institute of Information Technology (<a href="https://www.jiit.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JIIT</a>) in India stepped in.



Instead of using complex processing methods, they took a different approach - corn and honey. These natural prebiotics were easy to integrate, and eliminated the need for complicated manufacturing techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimenting-with-flavor">Experimenting with flavor </h2>



The research team didn’t stop at a single chocolate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recipe</a>. They created five versions. 



One was a control - pure chocolate with standard ingredients like cocoa butter, cocoa powder, and milk powder. 



The others were synbiotic chocolates, each containing different combinations of prebiotics (corn and honey), probiotics (Lactobacillus acidophilus La-14 or Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG), and a flavor enhancer - either cinnamon or orange.



Then came the tests. Fat content remained steady across all chocolates, keeping the mouthfeel familiar, but other properties shifted.



Orange-flavored chocolate, for example, changed the game. It lowered the pH, increased moisture, and even boosted protein levels compared to the other samples. Scientists believe the citrus elements interacted with the probiotics, enhancing their stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probiotics-change-chocolate-s-texture">Probiotics change chocolate’s texture</h2>



Texture matters in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-farming-could-save-the-future-of-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chocolate</a>. The perfect piece should break with a clean snap, not crumble or feel too soft. The synbiotic chocolates, however, lost some of that sharp break. 



Additional ingredients disrupted the chocolate’s structure, making it slightly softer. Whether that’s good or bad depends on personal preference. Some might find it more luxurious.



Nutritionally, though, the changes were promising. The probiotic-enhanced chocolates had higher antioxidant levels than the control. That means they not only delivered gut-friendly microbes but also an extra dose of protection against oxidative stress.



Storage was another key test. Would the probiotics survive? Over time, microbial counts decreased, but not as much as expected. Even after 125 days, probiotic levels remained high.



This shelf life exceeded that of many other probiotic-infused chocolates that had been tested in past studies, proving that the chosen bacteria strains and prebiotic ingredients contributed to long-term stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-real-test-is-surviving-digestion">The real test is surviving digestion</h2>



Chocolate infused with probiotics sounds great in theory, but there’s a bigger question: do the probiotics actually make it past the stomach? 



Harsh digestive conditions can destroy beneficial microbes before they reach the intestines, rendering the whole idea useless.



To find out, the researchers simulated human digestion in a lab. The results were encouraging. The probiotics maintained substantial viability for over five hours, meaning they had a strong chance of surviving long enough to benefit gut health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-it-still-feel-like-a-treat">Does it still feel like a treat?</h2>



Of course, none of this matters if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-will-help-climate-proof-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chocolate</a> doesn’t taste good. People aren’t likely to choose gut-friendly chocolate if it doesn’t deliver the same rich, satisfying experience. So, the researchers sampled their creations.



“Personally, we enjoyed the orange-flavored chocolates the most, where the vibrant citrus notes complemented the rich cocoa, and it had a slightly softer texture that made each bite feel more luxurious,” said Gaur.



That’s a promising sign. A probiotic chocolate that doesn’t taste like a “health food” could appeal to a much wider audience. Experimenting with more flavors could make these chocolates even more exciting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-probiotic-chocolate">The future of probiotic chocolate</h2>



This study is just the beginning. While the results suggest that synbiotic chocolates can boost gut health and antioxidant levels, there’s still room for improvement. Future research could refine the probiotic strains, adjust texture, and enhance flavors.



“In the future, we are excited to explore additional health benefits of these chocolates while thoroughly investigating their sensory and nutritional profiles, with the goal of creating an even more wholesome and enjoyable treat,” said Gaur.



If successful, this could mark a shift in how people see chocolate - not just as a sweet indulgence, but as a functional food. Imagine a world where treating yourself means nourishing your body, too. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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Chocolate could be the next probiotic powerhouse

What if eating chocolate could be more than just a...

For over a century, the early Paleocene mammal named Mixodectes pungens has remained an enigma. First identified in 1883, its remains consisted of small fragments of fossilized teeth and bones - not enough for paleontologists to be able to draw many conclusions.



Researchers at that time could only guess about the creature's habits and its position in evolutionary history. 



Recently, however, a far more complete fossilized skeleton of one of these ancient mammals has been analyzed, and this has shed light on aspects of the animal's anatomy, behavior, diet and evolutionary connections.



The research team found that this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-earliest-evidence-of-mammals-at-the-seashore/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early mammal</a>, that lived in western North America about 62 million years ago, was tree-dwelling, weighed around three pounds, and fed primarily on leaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixodectes-related-to-primates-and-colugos">Mixodectes related to primates and colugos</h2>



The researchers determined that Mixodectes was more closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> and colugos - also known as flying lemurs - than previously thought.



"A 62-million-year-old skeleton of this quality and completeness offers novel insights into mixodectids, including a much clearer picture of their evolutionary relationships," said Eric Sargis, professor of anthropology in <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_illustration_credit-Stephen-Chester_1m1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_illustration_credit-Stephen-Chester_1s.webp" alt="Graphic illustration of Mixodectes pungens. New findings illuminate ancient species and its evolutionary connections to modern-day humans. Credit: Stephen Chester" class="wp-image-1962388"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Graphic illustration of Mixodectes pungens. New findings illuminate ancient species and its evolutionary connections to modern-day humans. Credit: Stephen Chester</figcaption></figure>



The skeleton, which includes a partial skull, teeth, spine, rib cage, and limbs, was discovered and excavated in New Mexico’s San Juan Basin, under a federal permit.



The well-preserved remains have helped scientists reconstruct how the species, which roamed the Earth shortly after the extinction of the dinosaurs, moved, ate, and interacted with the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-built-for-climbing">Built for climbing</h2>



The study revealed that Mixodectes was built for life in the trees. Its limb structure and claws suggest that it could cling to almost vertical surfaces, much like modern primates.



Its molar teeth were shaped for breaking down tough plant material, indicating an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darwins-ground-sloth-was-not-fully-vegetarian/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">omnivorous</a> diet with a strong preference for leaves.



"This fossil skeleton provides new evidence concerning how placental mammals diversified ecologically, following the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction of the dinosaurs</a>," said  Stephen Chester, associate professor of anthropology at <a href="https://www.brooklyn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brooklyn College/CUNY</a> and lead author of the study.



"Characteristics such as a larger body mass and an increased reliance on leaves allowed Mixodectes to thrive in the same trees likely shared with other early primate relatives."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-ecological-niche">Unique ecological niche</h2>



At almost three pounds (.4 kilograms), Mixodectes was quite large for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-driving-tree-dwelling-primates-to-the-ground/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree-dwelling</a> mammal of its era. It was much larger than another small, forest-dwelling mammal, Torrejonia wilsoni, that was discovered with it. 



While Mixodectes ate primarily leaves, Torrejonia consumed mostly fruit, suggesting that the two species occupied different ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixodectes-and-the-evolutionary-tree">Mixodectes and the evolutionary tree</h2>



The researchers conducted two phylogenetic analyses to determine Mixodectes’ evolutionary placement. 



One analysis suggested it was an archaic primate, while the other classified it as a primatomorphan - part of a group that includes primates and colugos, but not tree shrews.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_skeleton_credit-scientific-Reports_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_skeleton_credit-scientific-Reports_1s.webp" alt="The skeleton, discovered in New Mexico’s San Juan Basin, is the most complete of its kind known to exist. Credit: Scientific Reports (2025)" class="wp-image-1962390"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The skeleton, discovered in New Mexico’s San Juan Basin, is the most complete of its kind known to exist. Credit: Scientific Reports (2025)</figcaption></figure>



"While the study doesn’t entirely resolve the debate over where mixodectids belong on the evolutionary tree, it significantly narrows it," commented Sargis.



These discoveries not only enhance our understanding of Mixodectes but also provide insight into how early mammals evolved and diversified in changing forest environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-back-at-the-post-dinosaur-world">Looking back at the post-dinosaur world</h2>



The finding of this Mixodectes fossil offers a glimpse into the ecosystems that arose in the aftermath of the mass extinction that eradicated the dinosaurs.



The initial Paleocene was an era of accelerated evolutionary transformation, as mammals started to diversify and utilize the ecological niches left vacant by the demise of the large reptiles.



During this time, the forests of North America were lush and humid, with plenty of room for arboreal mammals, such as Mixodectes, to flourish.



The fact that they had adapted claws for climbing indicates that they competed and coexisted with other arboreal species, such as early primate ancestors.



Their diet split - with Mixodectes being leaf specialists and other species preferring fruit - could have reduced direct competition and enabled several species to coexist in the same environment.



Apart from its role in ecology, the adaptation of Mixodectes as a specialist tree-dweller is in keeping with the wider pattern of mammals adapting to make use of tree habitats.



These initial experiments in climbing, grasping, and dietary specialization laid the foundation for the eventual emergence of primates, which set the stage for the evolutionary path that would eventually give rise to humans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-90203-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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62 million years ago this mysterious mammal called Earth home

For over a century, the early Paleocene mammal named Mixodectes...

College athletes who suffer concussions may experience changes in their brains for up to a year after being cleared to play, according to new research. 



A concussion is a form of mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) that can interfere with normal brain function.



While symptoms like headaches, fatigue, and balance issues may fade, brain scans reveal that recovery at the neurological level may take much longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-brain-recovery-after-concussion">Tracking brain recovery after concussion</h2>



Researchers used brain scans over the course of a year to track biomarkers of brain injury in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-what-age-do-olympic-athletes-perform-their-best/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">athletes</a>.



“Concussion can have long-term effects on brain health, and there is growing evidence that brain recovery may persist months to years, even after symptoms like headache, fatigue and balance problems resolve,” said Dr. Nathan Churchill of St. Michael’s Hospital in Toronto.



“Our study followed athletes before and after concussion for over a year, using multiple brain scans to examine biomarkers that signify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychoactive-drug-relieves-symptoms-of-traumatic-brain-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain injury</a>. Our results provide strong evidence, suggesting incomplete recovery of brain function when returning to play and beyond.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-changes-over-time">Brain changes over time</h2>



The experts evaluated 187 college athletes, 25 of whom experienced concussions during the regular season. They played high-impact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-who-play-team-sports-have-fewer-mental-health-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sports</a> like basketball, football, hockey, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, and volleyball.



All of the athletes underwent pre-season testing that assessed balance, thinking, and memory in order to set a baseline. They also had a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scan prior to the start of the season.



Participants who later experienced concussions were given additional brain scans at important intervals: about five days following their concussion, upon clearance to resume playing, one to three months after resuming play, and one year after resuming play.



As a comparison, 27 athletes who did not have concussions had similar scans at their subsequent pre-season evaluation.



The researchers then contrasted the pre- and post-injury scans of the concussed players, with additional examination of how these changes compared to those of healthy players.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-flow-and-white-matter-changes">Blood flow and white matter changes</h2>



The tests revealed that despite being cleared medically, athletes who had experienced concussions continued to exhibit evidence of brain damage. 



The most significant finding was a reduction in blood flow to the fronto-insular cortex - a region of the brain involved in thinking, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/concussions-alter-brain-signals-that-are-crucial-for-memory-and-focus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>, emotions, and social behavior.



At the time of their return to play, concussed athletes showed an average decrease of nine milliliters of blood per 100 grams per minute compared to healthy athletes.



A year later, the difference was even greater, with an average decrease of 11 milliliters per 100 grams per minute. These changes were more pronounced than those seen in uninjured athletes.



The researchers also looked at how water molecules flowed through the brain’s white matter. These scans indicated that, even a year after the injury, concussed athletes continued to display possible signs of residual brain injury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-repeated-concussions">Impacts of repeated concussions</h2>



“The presence of significant, long-lasting brain changes after injury reinforces concerns about the consequences of repeated concussions, and to what extent these effects accumulate over time,” said Churchill. 



“More studies are needed in larger groups of people to further investigate the long-term effects to the brain.”



One limitation of the study is that it only included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-kids-sports-putting-their-hearts-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young athletes</a>. Future research should look at how concussions affect non-athletes and people in other age groups to understand the broader impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-athletes">What this means for athletes </h2>



The results of the study contribute to the increasing concern regarding the management of concussions in athletes, especially when they are young. Although symptoms resolve within weeks, brain recovery might take many more months.



All stakeholders, including athletes, coaches, and clinicians, should consider these residual effects when deciding whether it will be safe to return to play.



Concussions are more than just temporary setbacks - they can have lasting effects. Monitoring brain health even after symptoms subside is crucial for long-term well-being.



The research was supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Canadian Institute for Military and Veterans Health Research, and Siemens Healthineers Canada.



 The full study was published in the journal of the <a href="https://www.aan.com/PressRoom/Home/PressRelease/5245">American Academy of Neurology</a>.



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College athletes have lasting brain changes after concussion

College athletes who suffer concussions may experience changes in their...

Life on Earth may not have begun with a dramatic lightning strike into the ocean. Instead, tiny microlightning charges from crashing waterfalls and breaking waves might have played a crucial role.



​New research from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>&nbsp;suggests that water droplets, when sprayed into a mix of gases found in early Earth’s atmosphere, can create organic molecules.&nbsp;Among them is uracil, a key component of DNA and RNA.​



The findings add another layer to the long-debated Miller-Urey hypothesis. Proposed in the 1950s, the theory suggests that lightning interacting with a gas mixture could generate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-super-earth-hd-20794-found-just-20-light-years-away-is-best-target-yet-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic molecules</a>.



The new study, published in Science Advances, offers an alternative explanation: water spray itself can generate the necessary reactions without external electricity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microlightning-and-organic-molecules">Microlightning and organic molecules</h2>



Scientists found that when water droplets divide, they develop opposing charges. Larger droplets carry positive charges, while smaller ones become negative. 



When these oppositely charged droplets move close together, sparks fly between them. This process, termed "microlightning" by the researchers, mimics how lightning forms in clouds.



Richard Zare, the&nbsp;<a href="https://chemistry.stanford.edu/people/richard-n-zare" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marguerite Blake Wilbur Professor of Natural Science</a>&nbsp;and professor of chemistry at Stanford’s School of Humanities and Sciences, co-authored the study.



“Microelectric discharges between oppositely charged water microdroplets make all the organic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-early-earth-a-purple-planet-scientists-say-its-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecules</a> observed previously in the Miller-Urey experiment, and we propose that this is a new mechanism for the prebiotic synthesis of molecules that constitute the building blocks of life,” said Zare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-water-sprays-in-early-earth">Role of water sprays in early Earth</h2>



For billions of years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-intelligent-life-is-likely-very-common-throughout-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> had a rich mixture of chemicals but lacked organic molecules with carbon-nitrogen bonds. These bonds are essential for proteins, nucleic acids, and other key biological structures. 



The&nbsp;<a href="https://dosequis.colorado.edu/Courses/MethodsLogic/Docs/Miller.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miller-Urey experiment</a>&nbsp;suggested that lightning striking the ocean could have formed these molecules. However, some scientists argue that lightning was too rare and the ocean too vast for this to be the main source.



Zare and his team offer a different perspective. Their experiments showed that microlightning could produce key organic molecules. They sprayed room-temperature water into a gas mixture containing nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia. 



The result was the formation of organic compounds, including hydrogen cyanide, glycine, and uracil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microlightning-as-a-reliable-energy-source">Microlightning as a reliable energy source </h2>



Instead of rare lightning strikes, microlightning may have been a more frequent and reliable energy source. Waves crashing against rocks, waterfalls spraying mist, and other natural processes could have provided a constant supply of tiny sparks, triggering chemical reactions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">necessary for life</a>.



“On early Earth, there were water sprays all over the place - into crevices or against rocks, and they can accumulate and create this chemical reaction,” Zare said. “I think this overcomes many of the problems people have with the Miller-Urey hypothesis.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-power-of-water-droplets">Hidden power of water droplets</h2>



Zare’s team has explored other surprising properties of water droplets. Their research includes studying how water vapor may help produce ammonia, a key ingredient in fertilizer, and how tiny water droplets can spontaneously generate hydrogen peroxide.



“We usually think of water as so benign, but when it’s divided in the form of little droplets, water is highly reactive,” Zare said.



This new research shifts the focus from dramatic lightning bolts to the quiet but powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemistry</a> of water droplets. The findings open new possibilities for understanding how life began - not with a single strike, but with countless tiny sparks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-from-countless-sparks">Life from countless sparks</h2>



The discovery of microlightning as a potential source of organic molecules offers a fresh take on one of science’s biggest mysteries. It suggests that instead of relying on rare and dramatic events, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> may have emerged from small but constant processes.



By shifting the focus from massive lightning storms to tiny sparks within water droplets, this research presents a more practical and widespread explanation for the formation of life’s essential components. Rather than a single, extraordinary moment, life may have emerged through countless tiny reactions occurring over time.



This idea not only deepens our understanding of how life began on Earth but also expands the search for life beyond our planet. If tiny sparks in water droplets can create organic molecules here, similar processes might be taking place on distant worlds with liquid water.



As scientists continue to explore the origins of life, the smallest elements of nature may hold the biggest answers. The research from Stanford University serves as a reminder that life’s beginnings might not have been marked by a single, powerful event but by a series of small, persistent sparks shaping the path forward.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt8979" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Microlightning from water droplets may have sparked life on Earth

Life on Earth may not have begun with a dramatic...

A recent research discovery suggests that, as environmental temperatures increase, the effectiveness of natural insect repellents against mosquitoes could decline.



Mosquitoes have a pain receptor called TRPA1, which acts like a fire alarm, detecting noxious heat and harmful chemicals to protect the insect.



This receptor also plays a crucial role in determining which hosts these insects find attractive, especially if they're unprotected by repellents.



Study co-author Peter Piermarini is a&nbsp;professor of entomology at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ohio State University</a>.&nbsp;



“What we found was that the chemicals were not able to activate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-repellents-that-actually-work-yes-thanks-to-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito</a> wasabi receptor as effectively when temperatures exceeded the heat activation threshold,” explained Piermarini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-weakens-natural-repellents">Temperature weakens natural repellents</h2>



Essentially, insect repellents work as chemical barriers, keeping away pesky mosquitoes from their potential targets. But, in warmer temperatures, the TRPA1 receptors of mosquitos become less sensitive. 



This means that natural repellents, such as citronella and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-why-catnip-is-a-powerful-mosquito-repellent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catnip</a> oil, may lose some of their buzz. As a result, products containing these ingredients might not work as well in extreme heat conditions.



This, in combination with longer breeding periods caused by a warming climate, could potentially exacerbate the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito-borne diseases</a> considerably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-experimental-testing">The experimental testing</h2>



Professor Piermarini and graduate student Yeaeun Park set out to investigate the role of temperature in repellent sensitivity in mosquitos. 



The researchers removed TRPA1 mosquito receptors and injected them into frog egg cells. They then tested how these receptors responded to citronella and catnip oil under normal and elevated temperatures.



The experts found that these receptors were still activated, but were less sensitive to those substances in hotter temperatures. "It was very close to what we predicted." said Piermarini.



The second experiment involved observing how adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infectious-female-mosquitoes-converted-into-non-biting-males/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">female mosquitoes</a> reacted to these repellents at varying temperatures.



Once temperatures exceeded 32 degrees Celsius, mosquitoes showed less avoidance to these substances, implying a similar behavior might be observed in real-world scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-vs-natural-repellents">Synthetic vs. natural repellents</h2>



However, not all repellents are created equal in the face of rising temperatures. A synthetic mosquito repellent, DEET, was also tested in the study. 



Unlike natural counterparts, DEET doesn’t interact with the wasabi receptor to deter mosquitos, and its efficiency remained unaffected by higher temperatures.



“This suggests that during the hottest days of the year you’d probably want to stick with a more conventional synthetic repellent and avoid using a natural product with citronella or catnip oil,” noted Piermarini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-in-depth-understanding-can-save-lives">In-depth understanding can save lives</h2>



Now that we have this information, where do we go from here? The next step for the Ohio State team is to unearth the specific mechanisms behind temperature-induced desensitization of the TRPA1 receptor.



The researchers plan to study this phenomenon extensively, possibly by recruiting human participants.



“The more we learn about the mechanisms by which these natural products work, it can help us determine which ones might be better to use under certain conditions,” said Piermarini. "Understanding these limitations can potentially save lives."



When it comes to battling the bugs, our defenses should remain robust, regardless of the weather. So, as the world gets warmer, it is time we adapt our arsenals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-mosquito-control-strategies">Adapting mosquito control strategies </h2>



With rising temperatures reducing the effectiveness of natural repellents, researchers and public health officials are exploring alternative strategies to keep mosquito populations in check.



Innovations in mosquito control, such as genetically modified mosquitoes, habitat disruption, and novel synthetic repellents, are gaining attention as potential solutions.



One promising approach involves the use of spatial repellents - substances that create a protective barrier in an area rather than relying on direct application to the skin.



Scientists are also investigating plant-derived compounds that remain effective in high temperatures, ensuring that natural alternatives continue to play a role in mosquito defense.



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-habitats-are-expanding-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> extends mosquito breeding seasons and shifts their geographic range, adapting repellent strategies will be crucial for reducing the risk of mosquito-borne diseases. 



Future research will focus on developing heat-resistant formulations and integrated pest management techniques that can withstand the warming climate.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048357525000392?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology</a>.



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Rising temperatures could make insect repellents less effective

A recent research discovery suggests that, as environmental temperatures increase,...

Chronic pain plagues millions of individuals across the globe, but its influence extends beyond the physical symptoms. A recent review of over 375 published studies has uncovered a remarkably strong link between chronic pain and mental illness.



The researchers found that 40% of adults living with chronic pain have clinically significant depression and anxiety - a result that is of particular concern considering the absence of comprehensive treatment for both conditions.



The study, led by researchers at <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins Medicine</a>, emphasizes the need for regular screening for depression and anxiety in individuals with persistent pain conditions. 



The research showed that women, younger adults, and individuals with fibromyalgia were most at risk of suffering mental illness associated with chronic pain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chronic-pain-and-mental-health">Chronic pain and mental health</h2>



For many years, studies have shown that chronic pain and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-can-safely-treat-mental-health-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health disorders</a> often occur together. But according to this new research, the link is actually stronger than it was initially believed to be.



The results reinforce the need for mental health treatment to become a routine aspect of managing chronic pain, which is defined as pain that lasts more than three months. Ongoing pain can be disabling, often impacting an individual's capacity to work, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-circadian-disturbances-trigger-mental-health-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>, and participate in daily activities.



According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), approximately 51.6 million U.S. adults - about 21% of the population - suffered from chronic pain in 2021. Among these individuals, between 20% and 40% also experience <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-crisis-half-of-the-worlds-population-will-be-affected-by-age-75/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression and anxiety</a>.



Dr. Rachel Aaron, the first author of the study, is an assistant professor of physical medicine and rehabilitation at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.



“Right now, we have effective psychological treatments for depression and anxiety, and effective psychological treatments for chronic pain, but these treatments are often siloed," explained Dr. Aaron.



"In fact, many studies exclude people with chronic pain who have depression or anxiety from clinical trials. We need integrated treatments that address chronic pain and mental health together."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comprehensive-analysis-of-global-data">Comprehensive analysis of global data</h2>



In an attempt&nbsp;to&nbsp;assess the&nbsp;magnitude of the problem, the researchers examined data from 376 studies that were carried out between 2013 and 2023. These studies involved 347,468 adult patients from 50 nations, with a mean participant age of 52.



The aim was to provide an estimate of how prevalent depression and anxiety are among individuals who suffer from chronic pain, and to compare their frequencies to those who live without persistent pain conditions.



The study incorporated clinical symptoms from medical histories, diagnostic criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), and many demographic variables such as age, gender, location, and pain duration. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-depression-anxiety-and-chronic-pain">Depression, anxiety, and chronic pain </h2>



Among the seven key symptoms of depression and anxiety disorders, the researchers found that patients with chronic pain exhibited the highest rates in clinical depression (39%) and clinical anxiety (40%).



Major depressive disorder was present in 37% of individuals, while 6% experienced persistent depressive disorder.



Generalized anxiety disorder affected 17% of individuals, while 8% had panic disorder. Social anxiety disorder was less common, with a rate of two percent.



The findings suggest that the psychological distress experienced by the patients is more than just a reaction to discomfort.



The data supports the theory that adverse life experiences and emotional distress can increase the risk of chronic nociplastic pain - a condition linked to changes in the way the brain and spinal cord process pain signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-better-screening">The need for better screening</h2>



Despite the strong link between chronic pain and mental health, screening for depression and anxiety is not a routine part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/patients-with-chronic-pain-are-turning-to-cannabis-for-relief/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic pain treatment</a>. 



Many chronic pain patients with depression or anxiety struggle to find specialized care, and some are even excluded from clinical trials designed to test new pain treatments. The lack of access to integrated care leaves them in a cycle of untreated symptoms.



“People who have chronic pain are more likely than those who don’t to have depression and anxiety. This is a significant public health problem that should be addressed with routine screening of depression and anxiety in clinical settings, and the development of novel treatments that target their comorbidity,” noted Dr. Aaron.



“At the same time, this is also a story of resilience. Most people with chronic pain do not have depression or anxiety. These results challenge the ableist narrative that chronic pain is inherently depressing, and remind us that people with chronic pain can and do lead psychologically healthy, fulfilling lives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-pain-management">Rethinking pain management</h2>



The study’s findings highlight the need for a shift in how we treat chronic pain and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-exercise-amplifies-physical-and-mental-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a>. Instead of being treated as separate issues, medical professionals should develop new strategies that address both simultaneously. 



This could include integrated therapy programs, improved screening in clinical settings, and broader inclusion criteria in research trials.



Recognizing the link between chronic pain and mental illness is the first step toward real change - one that could improve the lives of those living with persistent pain and the mental health challenges that often accompany it.



 The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2831134" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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People with chronic pain have high rates of depression and anxiety

Chronic pain plagues millions of individuals across the globe, but...

Polymers are a fundamental part of our daily lives. They are found in everything from electronics and construction materials to household items and vehicles.



Traditionally deemed safe due to their large molecular size, these substances have mostly avoided regulatory scrutiny. However, a new study challenges this assumption - showing that some polymers can degrade over time, releasing smaller chemical molecules that may pose potential risks.



This discovery raises concerns about the hidden risks associated with using polymers that have long been considered harmless, and highlights the need for greater oversight.



As researchers uncover more about the breakdown processes, questions arise about the long-term environmental and health consequences of widespread polymer use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-polymer-mystery">Unraveling the polymer mystery</h2>



Can we trust polymers to be safe? The scientific community has traditionally thought so. The logic was simple; we believed these large molecules were too big to migrate out of the products and into people, thus posing no health risks.



As a result, polymers have managed to dodge regulation, and they are exempt from fundamental toxic acts like the Toxic Substances Control Act in the U.S. and REACH in the E.U.



However, the latest study is now challenging this long-standing conviction. Researchers from <a href="https://www.jnu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jinan University</a> in China and the University of Toronto have discovered that certain polymers used as flame retardants might be breaking down into smaller, harmful chemicals.



"Our study suggests polymers can act as a trojan horse for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-kitchen-utensils-may-leach-toxic-chemicals-in-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxic chemicals</a>. They are added to products as inert large molecules but, over time, they can degrade, exposing us to their harmful breakdown products," said study senior author Da Chen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flame-retardants-and-their-hidden-risks">Flame retardants and their hidden risks</h2>



To test their hypothesis, the researchers experimented with two polymeric brominated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-chemicals-linked-to-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flame retardants</a> (polyBFRs). These substances were created as "non-toxic" alternatives to banned flame retardants. 



Surprisingly, the team found that both polyBFRs decomposed into dozens of types of smaller molecules.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-strengthen-the-toxicity-of-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxicity</a> testing of these smaller molecules in zebrafish showed a considerable potential for causing mitochondrial dysfunction and developmental and cardiovascular harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakdown-products-in-the-environment">Breakdown products in the environment</h2>



The scientists didn't stop there. They sought out these polymer breakdown products in the environment. Alarmingly, the molecules were detected in soil, air, and dust.



The highest concentration levels were detected near electronic waste recycling facilities, gradually decreasing with distance from these sites.



These findings bolster the claim that the use of polyBFRs in electronics can result in the release of toxic breakdown products into the environment, potentially exposing humans and wildlife to harm.



Miriam Diamond, a co-author and professor at the University of Toronto, expressed her concerns.



"Widespread use of these polyBFRs in electronics may result in exposures when these products are manufactured, when they're in our homes, and when they're discarded or recycled," said Professor Diamond.



"Since it is suspected that production volumes are very high (the chemical industry does not disclose the volumes), the potential for pollution - and resulting serious harm to people and wildlife - greatly concerns me."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-concern-over-polymer-safety">Growing concern over polymer safety</h2>



The implications of the research extend to other types of polymers used in consumer products, such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).



Despite arguments from PFAS producers that fluorinated polymers should be exempt from regulation, scientists insist that fluorinated polymers are members of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pfas-crisis-humans-are-early-warning-system-for-wildlife-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PFAS</a> class of substances and that the use of all PFAS should be avoided.



"To escape regulation, flame retardant and PFAS producers are increasingly pivoting to polymers for use in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-household-products-expose-people-to-dangerous-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">everyday products</a>. As a result, problematic polymers emit toxic small molecules from products we touch, sit on, wear, and keep in our homes," said Arlene Blum, executive director of the Green Science Policy Institute.



"Regulators need to close this loophole to protect consumers - especially children - from the possibility of serious chemical harm." 



In conclusion, it's essential for us to reconsider our understanding and regulation of polymers. They might not be as benign as once thought. 



More research is needed, but one thing is clear: we need to be aware of the potential invisible risk in our everyday products.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01513-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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Everyday polymers that are considered 'safe' release harmful toxins

Polymers are a fundamental part of our daily lives. They...

Aging can feel like an unstoppable force. Some researchers believe it may one day be slowed or even paused, thanks to an emerging technique known as cellular reprogramming.



Curiosity has surrounded this approach since a 2016 mouse experiment at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salk Institute</a>, where progeric rodents (that age more rapidly than normal) lived longer after exposure to four genes that could rewrite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular aging</a>.



Lucy Xu, a postdoctoral research fellow at <a href="https://oto.hms.harvard.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>, has followed these findings closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-reprogramming-changes-aging-cells">How reprogramming changes aging cells</h2>



Every mammalian cell contains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a>. However, the DNA in your heart cells behaves differently than it does in your skin cells because of the <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Epigenome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenome</a>, an outer layer affected by <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-role-of-methylation-in-gene-expression-1070/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methylation</a> patterns that can turn genes on or off. Over a lifetime, methylation shifts with diet, pollution, exercise, and stress.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22056670/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> discovered that activating <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/cr200759" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">four reprogramming genes</a>, named after Shinya Yamanaka, can strip away large portions of these methyl marks. This can reset cells to an earlier, more flexible state, which can be good or dangerous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-and-pitfalls">Potential and pitfalls</h2>



Animal studies have linked complete reprogramming to <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22074-teratoma" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teratomas</a>, which are bizarre growths that sprout tissues like teeth and hair in odd places.



In one early mouse experiment by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12586/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spanish researchers</a>, “many of the animals died within weeks,” which reveals just how risky total cellular regression can be.



In partial reprogramming, researchers use fewer <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/cr2008309" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yamanaka genes</a> or cycle them briefly to avoid pushing cells back into a stem cell state. This less-extreme version aims to refresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> while preserving their identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-safety-is-a-concern">Why safety is a concern</h2>



“I don’t believe there can be reprogramming. You’re practically telling these cells to become cancer,” said Charles Brenner, a scientist at <a href="https://www.cityofhope.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">City of Hope</a> research center in Duarte, California. Creating extra stem-like cells might be a path to fierce cancers.&nbsp;



To reduce the odds of uncontrolled cell growth, some scientists use a well-known antibiotic to control gene activity. They turn it on briefly, then shut it off. The hope is that this approach rejuvenates tissues without allowing runaway <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-doctor-recommended-regimen-that-could-slow-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell</a> division.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reprogramming-cells-in-aging-tissues">Reprogramming cells in aging tissues</h2>



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2975-4%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research</a> from Harvard in 2020 showed promise by focusing on eye tissues in older mice. David Sinclair, a Harvard geneticist who worked on the study, used only three of the original four genes - removing the one most associated with tumors.



A biotech company, <a href="https://www.lifebiosciences.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Life Biosciences</a>, has advanced this strategy by testing partial cell reprogramming on monkeys with eye damage. 



The firm plans to apply for permission to do the same in people who have suffered sudden optic nerve strokes, believing the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-44740-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic-switch method</a> is safer than previous attempts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-aging-itself">A closer look at aging itself</h2>



While eye tissues seem like a controlled starting point, some labs also hope to apply partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-cellular-mortality-timer-that-dictates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reprogramming</a> more broadly.



A follow-up <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-022-00183-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> at the Salk Institute used carefully timed reprogramming in mice with extra copies of reprogramming genes. Tumors were less common, and some tissues showed younger biological markers, although lifespans did not increase.



Those results fuel speculation that certain organs, such as the brain, might benefit from partial reprogramming. Investigations at Stanford University <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00594-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tested</a> this approach in mice, aiming to improve brain aging. 



The targeted reprogramming boosted newly formed neurons, though the mice had an uptick in inflammation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



The technique still prompts concerns about long-term effects and who will have access if human trials succeed. Some fear only people with deep pockets may benefit initially. Others wonder if reprogramming might lead to costly or risky treatments that never live up to the hype.



Some scientists remain optimistic. They believe partial reprogramming might transform eye disease care, and later, other age-related problems. They acknowledge that verifying safety is key and that any therapy for aging must pass rigorous testing.



Life Biosciences expects to begin clinical trials in the near future, and will use partial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reprogramming</a> to help certain adults who suffer acute optic nerve issues.



Analysts say these initial results will guide future work. If the therapy shows no tumors or unexpected complications, it could open a path for new treatments targeting age-related loss of function.



“I worry about the speed,” Xu said, noting that more questions need answers before the technology expands beyond small clinical studies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-reprogramming-cells">Future of reprogramming cells</h2>



No one knows whether these methods will eventually slow or alter aging in humans. Undeterred, investors hope partial reprogramming can become a novel strategy for a range of conditions.



Research continues across universities and startups. Many experts see partial reprogramming as a step forward, as long as scientists can balance rejuvenation with safety.



Others warn that tampering with cellular identity may unleash problems we can’t yet predict. Even so, interest in these trials keeps growing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00594-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Can we reverse aging? A bold new approach could reprogram cells

Aging can feel like an unstoppable force. Some researchers believe...

The human immune system constantly adapts to the flu viruses it encounters. Throughout life, exposure to different flu strains builds a complex immune memory. Recent research suggests that this memory might help protect against emerging threats like the H5N1 avian influenza virus. 



Scientists at the Perelman School of Medicine at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a> have discovered that people exposed to certain flu viruses in childhood may have some level of immunity against H5N1.



Their findings, published in Nature Medicine, reveal that older adults, particularly those exposed to flu strains before 1968, possess antibodies that can recognize H5N1. 



These antibodies may not stop infection but could make H5N1 less severe. The findings show who is at risk and who needs the vaccine most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flu-exposure-in-childhood">Flu exposure in childhood </h2>



Scientists have long known that childhood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-mutations-found-in-first-severe-u-s-human-case/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flu</a> infections leave lasting imprints on the immune system. 



The body learns to recognize the flu strains it first encounters, creating antibodies that can last for decades. These antibodies are often most effective against flu viruses similar to those encountered in early life.



“We know that early childhood influenza exposures can elicit immune responses that last a lifetime,” said senior author Dr. Scott Hensley, a professor of microbiology.



“We found that antibody responses that were primed by H1N1 and H3N2 viruses decades ago can cross-react to H5N1 avian viruses circulating today. Most of these cross-reactive antibodies cannot prevent infections, but they will likely limit disease if we have an H5N1 pandemic.”



This means that people who were first exposed to H1N1 or H2N2 viruses before 1968 may have antibodies that can recognize the stalk of H5N1’s hemagglutinin protein. 



Since the stalk evolves more slowly than the head of the hemagglutinin protein, it remains more similar across different flu strains. However, younger individuals, who first encountered later flu viruses, may not have the same level of cross-protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-virus-is-changing-fast">Bird flu virus is changing fast</h2>



H5N1 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-has-killed-20-million-chickens-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> have been present in bird populations for decades, but a newer version, called clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1, has recently spread among cattle. 



So far, this virus does not easily infect humans, as it does not bind well to receptors in the upper respiratory tract. However, if it mutates to infect human airway cells more efficiently, it could potentially start spreading between people.



Influenza viruses are named after the two key proteins on their surface: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). These proteins allow the virus to enter and exit host cells. 



Current flu vaccines work by training the immune system to recognize the hemagglutinin head, preventing infection. 



However, the hemagglutinin head changes rapidly, making it difficult to develop long-lasting vaccines. The stalk of the hemagglutinin protein evolves more slowly, meaning antibodies that recognize it may offer broader protection across different flu strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prior-flu-exposure-and-h5n1-immunity">Prior flu exposure and H5N1 immunity </h2>



To understand how prior flu exposures influence immunity, the researchers analyzed blood samples from over 150 individuals born between 1927 and 2016. They looked at antibodies targeting the hemagglutinin stalk across multiple flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a>, including H5N1.



The analysis showed that people born before 1968 had more antibodies capable of binding to the H5N1 stalk. In contrast, younger individuals, who did not encounter earlier flu strains, had lower levels of these antibodies.



A person’s birth year appeared to strongly influence their ability to fight H5N1. Older adults had a greater number of cross-reactive antibodies, while children and younger adults had significantly fewer. 



This suggests that younger individuals may be at greater risk if H5N1 were to spread widely among humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaccines-can-protect-the-most-vulnerable">Vaccines can protect the most vulnerable</h2>



To further explore vaccine responses, the researchers examined another group of individuals born between 1918 and 2003.



These individuals received a 2004 H5N1 vaccine, which did not exactly match the clade 2.3.4.4b strain currently circulating. The experts took blood samples before and after vaccination to measure changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-flu-may-be-more-harmful-to-the-brain-than-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibody</a> levels.



The results aligned with their earlier findings. Older adults already had some antibodies that could recognize H5 stalks before vaccination. After receiving the vaccine, their antibody levels increased slightly. However, in children and younger adults, antibody levels increased much more significantly.



This suggests that while older individuals already have some degree of cross-protection, younger populations may gain the most from targeted vaccination efforts.



“In the event of an H5N1 pandemic, all age groups will likely be highly susceptible, but it is possible that the highest disease burden will be in children,” said Hensley. “If this is the case, children should be prioritized for H5N1 vaccinations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-possible-outbreak">Preparing for a possible outbreak</h2>



This study shows why knowing how past flu infections affect immunity is so important. Older adults might already have some protection against H5N1 because of flu viruses they encountered long ago. But younger people, who lack this exposure, could be at greater risk if H5N1 changes and starts spreading between humans.



Flu vaccines are still one of the best defenses, even when they don’t exactly match new virus strains. Scientists are closely watching H5N1 and working on vaccines that could protect more people if an outbreak happens.



Some researchers are also looking into universal flu vaccines. Instead of targeting fast-changing parts of the virus, these vaccines would focus on more stable regions, like the hemagglutinin stalk. If successful, they could provide longer-lasting protection against different flu types and help prevent severe illness from future flu threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-immunity-may-prevent-pandemics">Bird flu immunity may prevent pandemics</h2>



While H5N1 is not yet a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-virus-preparing-for-tomorrow-despite-minimal-risk-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health threat</a>, its continued circulation among birds and cattle raises concerns.



The possibility of mutations that allow it to infect humans more easily means that preparation is essential. Research like this study helps guide vaccination strategies, ensuring that those most at risk receive protection if an outbreak occurs.



By understanding how flu exposure shapes immunity, scientists can develop better vaccines and public health strategies to minimize the impact of future influenza pandemics.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-025-03599-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



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Adults may be more resistant to bird flu virus than children

The human immune system constantly adapts to the flu viruses...

Sharks have long been portrayed as fearsome predators, dominating the oceans with their sleek bodies and razor-sharp teeth. Movies and myths have painted them as threats to humans, but the reality is quite the opposite. Sharks have far more reason to fear us. 



Nearly one-third of all shark species are now threatened with extinction, primarily due to overfishing.



This is not just a loss for sharks but a significant disruption to marine ecosystems. As apex predators, sharks play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ocean life. Their decline can trigger chain reactions that affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-fishing-is-making-coral-reefs-collapse-in-an-unexpected-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish populations</a> and coral reefs.



A team of researchers at UC Santa Barbara recently examined whether current regulations, such as requiring fishermen to release captured sharks, are enough to protect them. 



The study reveals that these mandates alone will not be sufficient. To preserve these vital creatures, a combination of strategies is necessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-sharks-are-caught-accidentally">Many sharks are caught accidentally </h2>



Some sharks are specifically targeted by fisheries, but many others are caught unintentionally. This issue extends far beyond the species directly sought after by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> industry.



“More than half of sharks that are caught and killed in fisheries are captured incidentally and then discarded,” said Darcy Bradley, co-author of the study and adjunct faculty at the Bren School of Environmental Science &amp; Management.



Many fisheries operate under retention bans, which require fishermen to release certain species instead of keeping them. Currently, 17 oceanic shark species are protected under these bans in tuna fisheries. 



However, while these policies aim to reduce shark deaths, researchers questioned whether they truly prevent population decline. The team sought to understand the fate of sharks after they are released back into the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-mortality-rates">Shark mortality rates</h2>



To get a clearer picture of shark survival, the researchers analyzed over 150 published studies and reports on shark mortality. These studies documented the number of sharks that died either upon being hauled onto a fishing vessel or soon after being released.



The analysis covered nearly 150 different shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-dropped-to-record-low-in-2024/">species</a>, each caught using various fishing techniques. By examining this data, the team estimated mortality rates for an additional 341 species that lacked direct studies.



Certain sharks were far more vulnerable to death after capture. Small sharks and several threatened species, including thresher sharks and hammerheads, had particularly high mortality rates. Deep-sea species also fared poorly due to the extreme pressure changes they experienced when pulled from the depths.



“Mortality was surprisingly high for some species such as smoothhound sharks,” said co-lead author Leonardo Feitosa. “Ranging from 30 to 65%.” Deep-water species, like sleeper sharks, suffered from the trauma of rapid pressure shifts, making their survival after release unlikely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-retention-bans">Limits of retention bans</h2>



Simulating different policy scenarios, the researchers found that retention bans could reduce shark mortality by three times on average. However, this reduction was still not enough to ensure the sustainability of heavily fished species, such as mako and silky sharks.



“Retention bans are a beneficial first step towards addressing shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a>,” said Bradley. 



But he warned that these bans alone will not be enough. Additional conservation measures, such as restricting certain fishing areas, setting catch quotas, and regulating fishing gear, must be implemented to ensure long-term population stability.



Certain shark species, such as blue sharks, bonnetheads, and angel sharks, have a better chance of recovering due to their faster reproductive rates. However, even the blue shark, which is the most heavily fished shark species globally, remains vulnerable.



“While it is highly unlikely that retention bans will ever be implemented for such a commercially important species, our results show that this could be a relatively simple and impactful strategy if it becomes necessary to sustain populations," said Feitosa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-rules-are-needed-to-protect-sharks">More rules are needed to protect sharks</h2>



For many shark species, retention bans alone will not be enough. To make a real impact, conservation strategies must focus on reducing the number of sharks caught in the first place. 



One approach is to ban the use of steel wire on longlines, which increases the likelihood of sharks becoming entangled in fishing gear.



Spatial regulations could also help. Designating certain areas as shark nurseries and pupping grounds and restricting fishing in these zones would give young sharks a chance to grow and contribute to the population. 



Protecting these critical habitats could make a significant difference in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustaining species</a> that are struggling to recover.



Another challenge is the lack of data on other cartilaginous fish species, such as stingrays, skates, and chimaeras. 



“Fifty-seven percent of cartilaginous fishes threatened with extinction in the world are not sharks,” Caughman explained. The team could not include these species in their study due to insufficient data, highlighting the need for further research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-towards-a-sustainable-future">Towards a sustainable future</h2>



Shark conservation requires cooperation among governments, scientists, and fisheries. Members of The Nature Conservancy are currently collaborating with the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission’s scientific staff to find effective strategies for shark protection. 



These efforts aim to create well-informed policies that balance fishing needs with conservation goals.



The study serves as a call to action for the global community. Without stronger conservation strategies, shark populations will continue to decline, leading to widespread ecological consequences. 



By combining various management approaches and investing in better data collection, scientists and policymakers can work toward a future where sharks remain an essential part of the ocean’s ecosystem.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish and Fisheries</a>.



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One third of shark species face extinction despite fishing bans

Sharks have long been portrayed as fearsome predators, dominating the...

A new report reveals that more than one-third of all U.S. bird species stand in high or moderate conservation danger. Additionally, there are 112 “tipping point” species that have seen half or more of their populations vanish in the past 50 years.



The tipping point groups identified in the report include 42 red-alert species such as Allen’s Hummingbird, Tricolored Blackbird, and Saltmarsh Sparrow. These species are facing a high risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> unless swift interventions are made.



“Birds tell us that we have a full-on emergency across all habitats,” said Marshall Johnson, chief conservation officer at the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Audubon Society</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-state-of-the-birds-report-nbsp">State of the Birds report&nbsp;</h2>



The 2025 U.S. State of the Birds report was unveiled at the 90th annual North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference in Louisville, Kentucky.&nbsp;



Compiled by a coalition of top science and conservation organizations, the report documents sustained widespread losses in American bird populations across mainland and marine habitats, highlighting 229 species requiring urgent conservation measures.&nbsp;



The findings follow on from the influential 2019 study that found the loss of three billion birds in North America over five decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-america-s-birds">Significance of America's birds</h2>



In defending birds, the report emphasizes not just the ecological arguments but also the financial rewards for local economies. 



Nearly 100 million Americans take part in bird-related activities, from casual backyard birding to dedicated expeditions. 



The total economic output connected to bird watching activities is $279 billion, while birding related activities support 1.4 million jobs, the experts argued, referencing the latest <a href="https://www.fws.gov/program/national-survey-fishing-hunting-and-wildlife-associated-recreation-fhwar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation</a> data.



The study emphasizes that birds are also central to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-lost-years-of-time-to-poor-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> benefits. By citing existing research, the authors explain that daily or weekly encounters with birds and nature help relieve stress and diminish symptoms of anxiety and depression - an added incentive to strengthen conservation programs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-trends-in-bird-habitats">Disturbing trends in bird habitats</h2>



In analyzing bird populations across America, the authors warn that nearly every type of ecosystem is witnessing declines. Even ducks, which had been a bright spot in past reports, are trending downward in more recent tallies.



“The rapid declines in birds signal the intensifying stressors that wildlife and people alike are experiencing around the world because of habitat loss, environmental degradation, and extreme weather events,” noted Amanda Rodewald, faculty director of the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>’s Center for Avian Population Studies.&nbsp;



“When we see declines like those outlined in the report, we need to remember that if conditions are not healthy for birds, they’re unlikely to be healthy for us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cause-for-both-alarm-and-hope">Cause for both alarm and hope</h2>



“There is no doubt that the 2025 State of the Birds report is cause for alarm, but it is also cause for hope. Public interest in birds and the economic benefits from birding are at unprecedented levels, as is the information available about the status of each and every one of our bird species,” said Jeff Walters, conservation committee co-chair at the <a href="https://americanornithology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Ornithological Society</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/bird-populations_united-states_rapid-decline_graph_credit-Cornell_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/bird-populations_united-states_rapid-decline_graph_credit-Cornell_1s.webp" alt="Long-term population trends for America's birds. Credit: State of the Birds long-term population trends, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology." class="wp-image-1962322"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Long-term population trends for America's birds. Credit: State of the Birds long-term population trends, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.</figcaption></figure>



Strategies for reversing these declines emerge throughout the document. The authors highlight conservation success stories and methods that have proven effective for waterfowl, waterbirds, and other avian groups, indicating that more robust action could yield results on a larger scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-conservation-approaches">Effective conservation approaches</h2>



“Many bird populations are struggling. But a proven blueprint for success is science-based planning and collaborative investment in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> conservation,” said Steve Adair, Ducks Unlimited chief scientist.



Beyond this, practical measures - like private lands programs, ranching partnerships, forest renewal projects, coastal restoration efforts, and seabird translocation - have all shown promise in reviving bird populations under stress.&nbsp;



Adair cited the strong cooperation among hunters, landowners, agencies, and corporations as having historically benefited waterfowl numbers, at least where suitable weather conditions apply.



“Decades of strategic and aggressive wetland habitat conservation from hunters, landowners, state and federal agencies, and corporations has boosted numerous waterfowl and waterbird species when weather conditions are favorable. We’ve shown it works. And we must do more,” Adair said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-america-s-bird-life">Protecting America's bird life</h2>



At the same time, the report makes clear that bird conservation has ripple effects for human communities and broader ecosystems.



“Fortunately, many of the actions that are good for birds are good for us. When we protect the habitats that birds rely upon, we also protect the ecosystem services that sustain us,” Rodewald said.



In other words, robust protections for wetlands, coasts, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-bird-song-can-help-scientists-make-smarter-forest-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>, and other key habitats not only safeguard bird life, but also maintain carbon storage, preserve water quality, and buffer cities and towns against natural disasters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-effective-solutions">Looking toward effective solutions</h2>



Michael J. Parr, President of <a href="https://abcbirds.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Bird Conservancy</a>, praised ongoing research but emphasized that more support is crucial:



“We have clear evidence that conservation works in halting declines,” said Parr. “What we now need more than ever are programs and funding that match the scale of the greatest challenges birds face today. The science is solid on how to reverse the damage done, but to succeed, these issues need to be taken seriously.”



Marshall Johnson of the National Audubon Society reinforced this need for prompt and inclusive measures. 



“Birds unite us across the hemisphere and across the political spectrum - there should be no hesitation as we move to protect them today and in the future,” he said.



Ultimately, the 2025 U.S. State of the Birds report highlights a stark warning but also underscores the possibility for saving countless bird species if deliberate policies and robust support meet the urgency of the crisis.&nbsp;



Humans stand to benefit economically and culturally from an environment where bird populations thrive, reminding all stakeholders of the vital connections between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife conservation</a> and broader social well-being.



The report can be found <a href="https://www.stateofthebirds.org/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



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Saving America's birds: Scientists declare a 'full-on emergency' in the US

A new report reveals that more than one-third of all...

When astronomers observe distant objects, there is a potential pitfall: does a particular star truly appear reddish because of its intrinsic characteristics, or is it merely taking on a red hue due to intervening cosmic dust?&nbsp;



For astronomers, dust is not just an observational inconvenience - it also provides crucial insights into the composition and local conditions within interstellar space.&nbsp;



Two researchers at the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Astronomy</a> (MPIA) have now created the most detailed three-dimensional map to date, tracking dust in our galaxy and explaining how it alters light along our line of sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dust-matters-for-observations">Why dust matters for observations</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dust-becomes-planets-in-the-shadows-of-hh-30/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust</a> spread across the Milky Way dims and reddens the light from distant stars. When light from a star travels to us, the tiny dust particles more strongly absorb and scatter bluer wavelengths, while allowing redder wavelengths to pass more easily.&nbsp;



This wavelength-dependent phenomenon is referred to as extinction (the star appears fainter than it is) and reddening (the star takes on a redder hue).&nbsp;



Accurately disentangling the effect of dust is vital for astronomers, who need a precise picture of distant objects’ actual brightness and color to glean information about their properties.



As Xiangyu Zhang, a doctoral candidate at MPIA, and his advisor Gregory Green explain, cosmic dust particles don’t absorb and scatter light evenly across all wavelengths, but rather they absorb light more strongly at shorter wavelengths, towards the blue end of the spectrum, and less strongly at longer wavelengths, towards the red end.&nbsp;



Studying these dust properties can shed light on the composition and evolution of the interstellar medium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-dust-across-a-galaxy">Mapping dust across a galaxy</h2>



Previous efforts at mapping dust on a galaxy-wide level were limited, mainly due to incomplete data. 



The <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gaia-reveals-moons-around-hundreds-of-asteroids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia mission</a> - devoted to tracking positions, motions, and physical traits for over one billion stars - now offers a treasure trove of new information. 



Gaia’s third data release (DR3), published in June 2022, contains 220 million spectra. Zhang and Green identified 130 million of them as suitable for their study of dust’s effects.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way-dust_map_wavelength_credit-MPIA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/milky-way-dust_map_wavelength_credit-MPIA_1s.webp" alt="Red indicates regions where extinction falls off more rapidly at long wavelengths (the red end of the spectrum), while blue indicates that extinction is less dependent on wavelength. Regions with insufficient data are shown in white. The gray contours enclose regions of high dust density. Credit: X. Zhang/G. Green, MPIA" class="wp-image-1962319"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Red indicates regions where extinction falls off more rapidly at long wavelengths (the red end of the spectrum), while blue indicates that extinction is less dependent on wavelength. Regions with insufficient data are shown in white. The gray contours enclose regions of high dust density. Credit: X. Zhang/G. Green, MPIA</figcaption></figure>



Gaia’s spectra, however, are low-resolution, meaning they only separate incoming light into broad wavelength bins. 



To improve accuracy, the researchers turned to high-resolution data from the <a href="https://www.lamost.org/public/?locale=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LAMOST survey</a> for approximately 1% of the stars in their sample. 



These extra details helped them determine each star’s surface temperature and other properties, crucial for untangling the effects of dust from the star’s own attributes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-3d-dust-map-nbsp">Building a 3D dust map&nbsp;</h2>



Zhang and Green employed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-revolutionize-drug-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> techniques - specifically, a neural network - to synthesize model spectra that incorporate both known stellar properties and dust parameters. 



The researchers compared these model-generated spectra with the observed Gaia data, all while ensuring the results followed certain established laws of physics.



In doing so, they derived new constitutive models detailing how dust in different parts of the galaxy dims and reddens starlight (often represented by an “extinction curve”).&nbsp;



Through statistical analyses, the experts could reconstruct the properties of dust along each star’s line of sight, culminating in the most finely detailed 3D map of dust across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> yet produced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-birth-and-planet-formation-nbsp">Stellar birth and planet formation&nbsp;</h2>



Dust is sometimes seen as “the astronomer’s enemy,” as it confounds easy measurements of stellar brightness and color. Yet it also lies at the core of stellar birth and planet formation.&nbsp;



Stars emerge from massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular clouds</a>, which are shielded from harsh external radiation by dust. Newly formed stars are surrounded by disks of gas and dust that seed planetary systems.&nbsp;



Moreover, much of the chemical richness in our galaxy, especially elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, remain locked in dust grains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-dust-behavior">Surprising dust behavior</h2>



One of the map’s key findings contradicts earlier expectations. Astronomers once assumed that in regions of higher dust density, dust growth would flatten the extinction curve, making it less sensitive to wavelength.&nbsp;



Instead, Zhang and Green found that in areas of intermediate density, the extinction curve steepens, with shorter wavelengths more readily absorbed than longer ones.



“Higher density,” they note, is still extremely low by human standards - roughly ten billionth billionth grams of dust per cubic meter. 



One plausible explanation is that certain molecules, especially polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), might flourish in these conditions, causing the steeper wavelength dependency. 



PAHs, which are the most widespread hydrocarbons in space, have even been proposed as a possible precursor to life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-3d-map-of-dust-in-the-milky-way-nbsp">First 3D map of dust in the Milky Way&nbsp;</h2>



Zhang and Green’s work constitutes the first detailed, three-dimensional map of the extinction curve of dust in the Milky Way, relying on 130 million measurements compared to around one million in past studies.&nbsp;



The success of this research demonstrates how advanced techniques - merging big data and rigorous physics - can unearth new insights.



Though their results provide an unprecedented view of dust’s large-scale distribution and properties, questions linger about how dust forms and evolves in different parts of the galaxy, and how these changes might influence the births of stars and planetary systems.&nbsp;



Zhang and Green intend to test their PAH hypothesis with future observations, refining the model to capture finer structural details and verifying the presence of specific molecular signatures.



In a broader sense, the study’s methodology promises to refine how astronomers correct for dust’s interference in both local and cosmological observations. 



It may also help interpret new data from upcoming missions that probe the Milky Way’s structure and chemical makeup. 



Consequently, the refined 3D dust map offers a clearer, dust-corrected view of our galaxy’s layout - an essential foundation for everything from measuring star distances to unraveling the riddle of how cosmic matter is assembled into complex, life-enabling systems.



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Cosmic map reveals that the Milky Way's dust has very unusual properties

When astronomers observe distant objects, there is a potential pitfall:...

For the first time, researchers have conducted a year-round evaluation of bacteria and microbial eukaryotes - small marine organisms like phytoplankton - at two Antarctic bases.



By sampling through all the seasons and using the same methods repeatedly, the research provides a thorough picture of how microbial communities respond to climate change.



Between July 2013 and April 2014, researchers took seawater samples from the British Antarctic Survey's long-term ecological monitoring site at Rothera and from the Palmer research station, which is 400 kilometers to the north. 



The scientists employed DNA sequence analysis to identify the bacteria, protists, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> in the water.



Special statistical models were used to forecast microbial interactions - basically charting the "who eats whom" of the microscopic world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microorganisms-shape-marine-ecosystems">Microorganisms shape marine ecosystems</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-in-tasman-sea-is-melting-the-antarctic-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Peninsula</a> is warming at a rate faster than the global average, leading to unprecedented heatwaves and declining sea ice. However, regional variations exist. 



In the waters around Palmer, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-is-losing-its-cooling-power-making-the-earth-even-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> has decreased significantly as temperatures have risen more rapidly when compared to Rothera. This divergence influences microbial community composition in unique ways. 



"At the warmer Palmer site, bacteria influenced microbial community structure by interacting with other microorganisms, while at Rothera, it was the microbial eukaryotes that played a stronger role in shaping community dynamics," explained Engelmann.



This&nbsp;trend&nbsp;towards&nbsp;increased bacterial prevalence in warming oceans might upset biological productivity. 



Phytoplankton are producers in marine food chains, so a reduction in phytoplankton translates to fewer nutrients available for higher organisms such as krill, fish, seabirds, and marine mammals.



“These findings have significant implications for understanding and predicting microbial ecosystem responses to climate change, and are therefore relevant for a broad group of researchers and even for humanity as a whole,” Engelmann stated.



Microorganisms, through tiny, far outnumber all marine animals in terms of biomass. 



Climate-driven changes in microbial food webs within the Southern Ocean could have far-reaching consequences that impact global marine ecosystems and nutrient cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-microbial-data-in-climate-models">The role of microbial data in climate models</h2>



Looking ahead, researchers hope to integrate microbial data into climate and ocean models. 



“The microbial food web is complex; bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-viruses-may-help-slow-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial eukaryotes</a> have different functions and there are a lot of interactions among and between these groups, but also with larger organisms, including animals,” Engelmann commented.



“At this point, it is difficult to predict the impact of climate change on microbial productivity. Our research provides crucial baseline data for understanding the complexity of microbial communities in coastal Antarctic ecosystems, but we need more data and a better understanding of marine microbial communities before we can include them in climate and ocean models,” added Engelmann.



Researchers acknowledge the need for more data to achieve this goal and stress that including data on microbial productivity would make predictive models more accurate in future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-research-timeline">Expanding the research timeline</h2>



The 2013-2014 study marks the first comprehensive seasonal analysis of both bacterial and microbial eukaryote communities in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acidity-levels-of-antarctic-waters-will-soon-double-harming-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic waters</a>. 



Future measurements will provide a clearer picture of long-term microbial trends.



"Now, we've drawn conclusions based on climate differences at two locations. We have samples ready from 2018-2019 and also from 2022. The more of these measurements we collect over time, the more we'll learn about Antarctic marine microbial communities, their interactions, and susceptibility to climate change," Engelmann explained.



Despite the valuable insights gained from these studies, conducting research in Antarctica presents significant logistical challenges. 



Sampling requires extensive coordination, specialized equipment, and considerable resources. Furthermore, international collaboration is key to conducting successful research.



"International cooperation, such as with the British Antarctic Survey and the colleagues in the U.S. who worked at Palmer station and their home universities, is therefore crucial," stressed Engelmann.



With continued efforts, these studies will help unravel the intricate role of microorganisms in the Antarctic ecosystem and their response to an ever-changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-shifts-and-global-ocean-health">Microbial shifts and global ocean health</h2>



The microbial alterations that have been observed in Antarctic waters are just a part of a larger pattern being seen across marine ecosystems globally.



With rising ocean temperatures, changes in microbial communities impact nutrient cycles, carbon sequestration, and food webs, and there are likely implications for marine biodiversity and ecosystem stability.



Phytoplankton, in particular, are responsible for sustaining marine life and governing atmospheric carbon. So shifts in microbial interactions may reorganize the effectiveness of carbon sequestration in the ocean, influencing climate regulation on Earth.



Disruptions to the microbial food web could also have indirect impacts on more complex organisms and possibly reconfigure the structure of polar ecosystems.



Monitoring these microbial dynamics over a period of time will enable researchers to improve climate models and estimate how ocean ecosystems will adjust to ongoing environmental changes. 



When the newly available data for the past years is analyzed, it will help scientists to better understand the long-term patterns that will guide the future of Antarctic marine ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://environmentalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40793-025-00663-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Microbiome</a>.



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Warming waters are dramatically changing microbial life in Antarctica

For the first time, researchers have conducted a year-round evaluation...

The eel trade is driven by high demand and a limited supply. This combination makes eel trading highly profitable, but also controversial due to concerns about sustainability, illegal trafficking, and the impact on endangered species.



Despite strict regulations on European eel exports, illegal trafficking persists. Juvenile eels are smuggled out of the EU to Asia, where they are farmed and sold as food.



Recent research has focused on the European eel (Anguilla anguilla), which is a critically endangered species. Although its trade outside of the EU is highly restricted, large numbers of juvenile eels continue to reach Asian markets.



However, new findings suggest a shift in the global eel trade, with another species increasingly appearing in the market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-the-american-eel">Targeting the American eel</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale-NUS College</a> conducted a study to investigate the presence of endangered eel species in Singapore’s markets. The team purchased 327 eel products from 86 retailers, including supermarkets, restaurants, and wholesalers.



DNA barcoding revealed an unexpected result. While a few samples contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-lack-critical-fish-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European eels</a>, 70% of the tested products were identified as Anguilla rostrata, commonly known as the American eel.



Unlike its European counterpart, the American eel is not critically endangered. However, it is still classified as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a> and faces significant threats from overfishing and habitat loss. 



The study’s findings suggest that traders may be shifting focus from European eels to American eels due to increasing enforcement of EU export restrictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-urgent-action">The need for urgent action</h2>



These findings raise concerns about the future of the American eel population. Without stronger regulations, it could face the same fate as the European eel. 



The research team has called for greater enforcement and monitoring of the American eel trade to prevent further population declines.



The study was conducted as part of Yale-NUS alumnus Joshua Choo’s Environmental Studies capstone project, under the supervision of Professor Benjamin Wainwright.



“It was sad to connect Singaporean unagi with the history of anguillid eel exploitation - where a crash in one anguillid’s stock repeatedly leads to another’s overexploitation and crash," said Choo.



"It was, however, heartening to see so many researchers and Indigenous groups invested in anguillid recovery in Liverpool - from Japan to Aotearoa to the EU and UK."



"There’s room for Southeast Asian perspectives in eel science - it’s important to protect tropical anguillids from the endangerment plaguing their temperate cousins, and to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> solutions for our food that can bypass profit-driven overexploitation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mislabeling-and-wildlife-crime">Mislabeling and wildlife crime</h2>



The study highlights the widespread mislabeling of eel products, often sold as generic "eel" or "unagi," which obscures their true species identity. This deceptive practice not only threatens biodiversity but also poses potential risks to human health and fuels illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sunscreens-lose-effectiveness-and-become-harmful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife trade</a>.



“The trade in eels is described as the greatest wildlife crime on Earth; it supports vast criminal networks that illegally traffic many hundreds of millions of glass eels (juvenile eels) to Asia each year,” said Professor Wainwright.



“What we show with this work is a likely shift in trade; this shift could be the consequence of EU enforced rules and regulations making it harder to smuggle the European eel to Asia, consequently suppliers have now shifted their focus to the less regulated American eel." 



"If the American eel is to avoid a similar fate to that suffered by the European eels, it will be important to closely monitor the American eel trade and introduce rules and regulations designed to prevent overexploitation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eel-trade-and-wildlife-conservation">Eel trade and wildlife conservation</h2>



The study’s findings highlight the need for proactive conservation measures. Stricter monitoring, better labelling practices, and increased awareness among consumers can help curb the illegal eel trade. 



Consumers, researchers, and policymakers will need to work together to ensure that the global eel trade does not continue at the expense of biodiversity.



If no action is taken, the American eel could become the next critically endangered species, and follow the same tragic path as the European eel.



Choo presented the research at the 2024 International Eel Science Symposium in Liverpool, UK.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.70013" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.



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Eel trade is pushing another species to the brink

The eel trade is driven by high demand and a...

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas bacteria species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-and-nano-spearguns">Pseudomonas bacteria and nano-spearguns</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. 



They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>. 



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-t6ss-genes-the-basics">Understanding T6SS genes - the basics</h2>



T6SS genes control the Type VI Secretion System (T6SS), an impressive molecular weapon that bacteria use to fight each other and sometimes even mess with host cells. 



Think of it as a microscopic harpoon gun - bacteria literally shoot toxic proteins into rival microbes to kill them or weaken their defenses. 



Some bacteria also use T6SS to interact with host organisms, either to establish infections or to outcompete other microbes in a shared environment. 



This system gives bacteria a serious advantage in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-that-love-to-kill-bacteria-could-help-fight-deadly-infections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microscopic battlefield</a>, whether they're battling it out in soil, water, or even inside a host’s gut.



Scientists are fascinated by T6SS because it plays a huge role in bacterial survival, competition, and even virulence. 



Some nasty pathogens, like Vibrio cholerae (which causes cholera) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a major threat in hospitals), use T6SS to dominate their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. 



The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. 



These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-attack-detection">Pseudomonas bacteria attack detection</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler.



 Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. 



This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-pseudomonas-bacteria-study">Next steps for Pseudomonas bacteria study</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. 



Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. 



This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. 



Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



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Featured image: Pseudomonas bacteria deploy their nano-spearguns when damaged by a sharp tip (15,000 x magnification). Credit: University of Basel, Biozentrum/<a href="https://nanoscience.unibas.ch/en/services/nano-imaging-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNI Nano Imaging Lab</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Bacteria build tiny 'nano-spearguns' to fight back against attacks

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle...

A frog species thought to be missing for well over a century has been spotted again.&nbsp;This startling discovery was announced by a group of Chilean and international researchers.



First described in 1902, the species Alsodes vittatus had not appeared in any scientific records for more than 130 years. 



Despite multiple expeditions attempting to locate the frog in the intervening decades, all efforts ended in vain - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-discovery">Significance of the discovery </h2>



Recent fieldwork by researchers from the Laboratory of Systematics and Conservation of Herpetozoa (SyCoH) at the <a href="https://www.udec.cl/pexterno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Concepción</a> has confirmed that the elusive amphibian is, in fact, still alive.&nbsp;



The findings detail the missing frog’s reemergence in the southeastern region of the Hacienda San Ignacio de Pemehue in La Araucanía, Chile.&nbsp;



This rediscovery represents a significant moment for scientists studying South American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, especially in light of the many frog species currently listed as threatened or lacking sufficient data to assess their status.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-missing-frog-species">A missing frog species</h2>



Alsodes vittatus, originally described by naturalist Rodulfo Amando Philippi, was initially located by French entomologist Philibert Germain in 1893, who provided the three specimens that Philippi used to define the species.&nbsp;



Ever since then, it has disappeared from the record. Between 1995 and 2002, researchers combed the Pemehue area, determined to relocate A. vittatus, but none succeeded.&nbsp;



Efforts resumed in 2015 and 2016, yet the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> populations identified lacked the characteristic white or yellow dorsal stripe that defines A. vittatus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-south-america-s-frog-species">South America's frog species </h2>



Eventually, over a decade into the investigation, new teams led by Dr. Claudio Correa, engineer in renewable natural resources Edvin Riveros Riffo, and biologist Juan Pablo Donoso focused on a different part of the same region. Their change of venue paid off.&nbsp;



Within the Lolco and Portales river basins at the southeastern end of the former estate, they spotted two populations of a frog that, upon careful examination, was confirmed to be A. vittatus.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/toad-species_Alsodes-vittatus_rediscovered_credit-ZooKeys_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/toad-species_Alsodes-vittatus_rediscovered_credit-ZooKeys_1s.webp" alt="Individuals of Alsodes igneus and A. vittatus from the new populations, syntype of A. vittatus and environment of one of the new locality from underwater Tupuyuntué River at the point where tadpoles and juveniles of A. vittatus were observed. Credit: Edvin Riveros" class="wp-image-1962139"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Individuals of Alsodes igneus and A. vittatus from the new populations, syntype of A. vittatus and environment of one of the new locality from underwater Tupuyuntué River at the point where tadpoles and juveniles of A. vittatus were observed. Credit: Edvin Riveros</figcaption></figure>



This unexpected triumph sheds light on important conservation implications for frogs in the southern cone of South America.



“The main challenge in locating it was the lack of precision in the description of its type locality,” the researchers wrote. 



“In Germain's time, the Hacienda San Ignacio de Pemehue was an estate of enormous size, and the naturalist did not specify the exact place where he collected the specimens.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retracing-old-footsteps">Retracing old footsteps</h2>



While the northwestern section of the old hacienda had been surveyed frequently, there was little information about areas farther to the southeast.&nbsp;



Because Germain never noted his precise collecting site, the modern team resorted to reconstructing his likely path through historical documents and publications.&nbsp;



Armed with this historical context, Correa and Riveros hiked the estate from its southeastern reaches, culminating in the discovery that Alsodes vittatus still exists - albeit in small populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-risks-to-amphibians-nbsp">Significant risks to amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



More than a century after its scientific description, scientists now have their first biological and ecological data on A. vittatus. The species is found living near streams, as is common among many other Alsodes frogs.&nbsp;



By sampling individuals carefully, the team identified the presence of the distinctive dorsal stripe that sets A. vittatus apart.&nbsp;



Because most Alsodes frogs are extremely local in their habitats and easily disturbed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-are-weakening-earths-air-circulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human activities</a>, the researchers believe A. vittatus faces several immediate threats.&nbsp;



Local land-use changes, logging activities, and climate factors all pose significant risks to amphibians in Chile’s temperate forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-and-threatened-frog-species">Missing and threatened frog species</h2>



This is a major milestone for South American herpetology and the conservation of biodiversity in the southern region. 



Many frogs in the region are threatened with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eu-responsible-for-extinction-of-frog-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>, so clarifying the distribution and life history of this one species is a crucial first step toward its protection. 



Field evidence collected by the team indicates that A. vittatus could meet criteria for classification as an endangered species. 



Further studies will be needed to confirm population sizes, any breeding sites, and precise habitat conditions.



“In a broader context, this rediscovery demonstrates the limited biological, evolutionary and biogeographic knowledge of the amphibians that inhabit the southern cone of South America, emphasizing the urgency of their study and conservation,” the scientists wrote.&nbsp;



Since multiple Alsodes species remain poorly understood, the authors encourage additional research and collaboration to fill knowledge gaps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimism-for-amphibian-conservation-nbsp">Optimism for amphibian conservation&nbsp;</h2>



The announcement of A. vittatus’ reemergence brings optimism for amphibian conservation worldwide.&nbsp;



By pinpointing the frog’s habitat and conditions, scientists can make targeted recommendations for habitat preservation, enforce measures that mitigate human impact, and explore breeding programs or other forms of support if the animal’s situation proves perilous.&nbsp;



Above all, the reappearance of a species lost to science for 130 years demonstrates that biodiversity can hide in overlooked corners of the Earth and highlights the value of determined research efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1230.135523" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



Image Credit: Edvin Riveros



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Missing frog species resurfaces after 130 years

A frog species thought to be missing for well over...

Protecting wildlife while managing forests has always been a challenge. In California’s Sierra Nevada mountains, forest managers face difficult decisions as they try to prevent destructive wildfires without harming the birds and other species that call these forests home.



Traditional monitoring methods require significant time and effort, making it hard to collect enough data to guide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



Now, scientists have introduced a breakthrough solution. Using thousands of microphones and advanced machine learning, researchers have developed a way to track forest birds over vast landscapes.



This innovative approach offers an unprecedented level of detail, providing valuable insights that help balance conservation with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-wood-removal-can-save-forests-from-future-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> management. 



A new study highlights how bioacoustic technology can revolutionize wildlife monitoring and support better decision-making for the future of these forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-bird-sounds">Capturing bird sounds </h2>



Researchers at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics led this study, which analyzed more than 700,000 hours of bird sounds. 



The team deployed microphones at 1,600 sites, covering around six million acres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a>. The goal was to track ten important bird species, including owls and woodpeckers, which serve as indicators of forest health.



These species provide crucial information about changes in the environment. By listening to their calls across different locations, scientists can assess how forest conditions impact wildlife.



"The amount of coverage that gives us and the idea of what's happening with species at so many different locations allow for really powerful inference to be drawn from the network," said study lead author Kristin Brunk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-wildlife-monitoring">Machine learning and wildlife monitoring</h2>



To analyze the massive amount of recorded data, scientists turned to BirdNET, a machine-learning algorithm designed to identify bird calls automatically. This system allows researchers to recognize different species and understand how their presence relates to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-climate-solutions-mixed-forests-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.



The study examined how factors such as tree density and canopy cover influence bird populations. These are the same variables that forest managers consider when making conservation decisions. The ability to connect bird activity with habitat conditions provides an essential tool for guiding land management strategies.



By mapping where different birds live, researchers can help forest managers make more informed choices. This is especially important as they work to reduce wildfire risks through controlled burns and forest thinning. Without careful planning, these activities could unintentionally disrupt bird populations.



"We're able to understand bird populations in the context of the forest conditions that are going to be actively manipulated by the management community to hopefully restore some resilience to this system," said Connor Wood, lead researcher at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cheaper-forest-bird-tracking">Cheaper forest bird tracking</h2>



Monitoring wildlife over such a large area would be nearly impossible using traditional methods. Conducting field surveys requires a significant investment of time and resources. In contrast, passive acoustic monitoring offers a more efficient and cost-effective solution.



"If you think about what the cost would have been to get that amount of information by having biologists collecting data across the landscape… the cost effectiveness can't really be matched," Brunk noted.



This system enables continuous, long-term monitoring without the need for large field teams. The data collected can also be used to track changes in bird populations over time, offering a deeper understanding of how forests evolve under different management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-bird-monitoring">Forest bird monitoring </h2>



The success of this study goes beyond California’s Sierra Nevada. The researchers believe that bioacoustic monitoring can be applied to other regions facing similar conservation challenges. 



By adapting this technology, scientists and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> managers worldwide can gain better insights into wildlife populations and habitat conditions.



"It's sort of a blueprint for how passive acoustic monitoring can inform management," said Brunk.



This approach is particularly valuable in areas where human access is difficult. Remote forests, protected reserves, and even urban green spaces could benefit from passive monitoring. 



The ability to gather large amounts of data with minimal human disturbance makes this a promising tool for conservation efforts around the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-forest-and-wildlife-protection">Future of forest and wildlife protection</h2>



The integration of cutting-edge technology with conservation practices represents a major step forward. Listening to the sounds of the forest can help scientists understand how bird populations respond to changes in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



"By combining new technologies with practical management needs, we're creating tools that can help protect both forests and wildlife during a time of rapid environmental change," said Wood.



The research was conducted in collaboration with the U.S. Forest Service, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Oregon State University, University of California-Merced, and Chemnitz University of Technology. This partnership highlights the increasing role of technology in conservation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/fee.2843" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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Every bird song can help scientists make smarter forest decisions

Protecting wildlife while managing forests has always been a challenge....

Nature is always changing, sometimes in small but powerful ways. Genetic and brain changes can shape how species behave. A recent study by Nicholas VanKuren and Nathan Buerkle at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> reveals how a simple neural change can shift mating preferences in male butterflies. 



The findings show that small brain and sensory changes can quickly alter behavior, helping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-survival-and-mate-selection">Butterfly survival and mate selection</h2>



Heliconius butterflies, known for their striking wing patterns and colors, use these visual signals as a defense against predators. Their bright hues serve as warnings, signaling toxicity or unpalatability. 



Since survival depends on these warning signals, males have evolved a strong preference for females with similar wing colors. Choosing mates with matching patterns ensures that future generations retain these critical survival traits.



Despite the clear evolutionary advantages of such preferences, little is known about the underlying genetic and neurological mechanisms. What makes a male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> prefer a female with a particular wing color? 



Scientists aimed to uncover the sensory and genetic factors influencing these choices by studying two subspecies of Heliconius cydno, one with yellow patches on its wings and the other with white. 



The research has revealed the deep connections between vision, genetics, and behavior in shaping mate selection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-mate-choice-and-genetics">Butterfly mate choice and genetics</h2>



To understand the genetic basis of mate preference, the researchers examined the genomes of the butterflies.



They identified four specific genomic regions linked to both wing color and mate selection. One of these, known as the "K locus," had already been associated with similar traits in other Heliconius <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-create-silk-seatbelts-to-strap-in-for-metamorphosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>. 



This finding suggests a common genetic mechanism influencing both physical traits and behavioral tendencies in these insects.



The team also explored gene expression patterns in different parts of the butterfly’s nervous system, including the retina, optic lobe, and brain.



The researchers found that seven genetic variants were not only located in regions associated with mate preference but were also expressed at different levels in yellow and white males. These variations likely play a direct role in determining which wing color a male butterfly finds attractive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-vision-affects-mate-choices">Butterfly vision affects mate choices</h2>



Beyond genetic factors, the researchers investigated how these butterflies process visual information. 



They focused on the activity of photoreceptors in the butterflies' eyes, which play a crucial role in distinguishing colors. Their experiments revealed a striking difference in how color perception influences mate preference.



Male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> that preferred yellow-winged females had green-sensitive photoreceptors that strongly inhibited the activity of UV-sensitive photoreceptors. This inhibition was significantly weaker in males that did not show the same preference. 



This means that a relatively simple modification in the peripheral nervous system alters how butterflies perceive different wing colors, shaping their mate choices.



The findings suggest that mating preferences are not just about detecting certain colors but rather about how the brain processes sensory information. Males are not simply seeing a preferred color more clearly; their nervous systems are wired to find one wing color more attractive than another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-implications-of-sensory-changes">Evolutionary implications of sensory changes</h2>



The ability to rapidly alter sensory processing could be a key driver of behavioral evolution in butterflies. 



Since inhibitory relationships between photoreceptors can evolve quickly, changes in mating preferences may emerge in relatively short periods. This flexibility allows populations to adapt to new environmental conditions and evolve distinct mating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaviors</a>.



The study provides valuable insight into how such changes can drive species evolution. "Inhibitory relationships between photoreceptors are easily evolvable, which may allow rapid behavioral evolution," noted the researchers. 



By altering how butterflies perceive potential mates, these neural modifications can contribute to reproductive isolation, eventually leading to the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mate-choice-mechanisms">Mate choice mechanisms</h2>



Understanding the genetic and neurological basis of mate preference in butterflies extends beyond this single species. 



Similar mechanisms may exist in other animals where visual cues play a central role in mating decisions. By identifying the genetic and neural pathways that shape attraction, scientists can gain deeper insights into the broader forces driving evolutionary change.



The study paints a comprehensive picture of how small genetic differences influence sensory processing, which in turn affects behavior. 



"Our work generated a striking picture of how a critical visual behavior - mate choice - is controlled, from variation in the connections between neurons in the eye down to genetic variation across the genome," concluded the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002989" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Butterfly mate preferences shift with slight brain changes

Nature is always changing, sometimes in small but powerful ways....

Aging is a natural process that affects every living being. From the moment we are born, our bodies begin an intricate journey of growth, repair, and eventual decline. The outward signs of aging—wrinkles, sagging skin, and graying hair—are familiar to everyone. 



Yet, the true impact of aging lies deeper, within our very cells. Over time, our DNA and cellular structures experience gradual wear, leading to the changes we associate with getting older.



Some animals have developed ways to temporarily reverse this process. The fat-tailed dwarf lemur of Madagascar is one such example. Researchers at <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> and the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Francisco</a>, have found that this small primate can slow cellular aging during hibernation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-telomeres-in-aging">Role of telomeres in aging</h2>



At the end of each chromosome, tiny caps called telomeres protect genetic material, similar to how plastic tips prevent shoelaces from fraying. 



With each cell division, telomeres shorten. Stress, lack of sleep, and inactivity can accelerate this process, leading to cell dysfunction.



Dwarf lemurs, however, have a way to extend their telomeres. A study in Biology Letters suggests that their cells rejuvenate during hibernation, slowing the aging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hibernation-affects-aging">How hibernation affects aging</h2>



"When winter sets in in the wild, dwarf lemurs disappear into tree holes or underground burrows, where they spend up to seven months each year in a state of suspended animation," said lead author Marina Blanco of Duke.



This state is a survival strategy during food shortages. Their heart rate drops from 200 beats per minute to fewer than eight, their body temperature falls, and their breathing slows significantly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dwarf-lemurs-telomeres">Dwarf lemurs' telomeres</h2>



To study these effects, researchers at the <a href="https://lemur.duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke Lemur Center</a> observed 15 dwarf lemurs before, during, and after hibernation. They monitored changes in telomere length by testing cheek swabs.



To simulate natural conditions, they lowered the temperature gradually and provided artificial burrows. Some lemurs were allowed to eat when awake, while others lived off stored fat, mimicking their wild behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hibernation-reversed-aging-in-lemurs-cells">Hibernation reversed aging in lemurs' cells</h2>



"At first we thought something was off with the data," said researcher Greene.



Genetic sequencing showed that telomeres lengthened rather than shortened during hibernation. UCSF co-author Dana Smith confirmed the findings with Nobel Prize-winning telomere expert Elizabeth Blackburn.



Lemurs that remained in deep torpor had the most significant telomere lengthening, while those that periodically woke to eat saw little change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temporary-but-significant-effects">Temporary but significant effects</h2>



The telomere extension was not permanent. Within two weeks of coming out of hibernation, the lemurs' telomeres returned to their original length.



Researchers believe this lengthening may help counteract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular damage</a> from periodic rewarming.



"Like starting a car after it’s been sitting unused in cold weather, these drastic metabolic rev-ups really challenge the body to the extreme, from zero to 100," Greene explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-findings-in-humans">Similar findings in humans</h2>



A comparable telomere extension has been observed in humans under extreme conditions. Astronauts spending a year on the International Space Station and divers living underwater for months have shown similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>.



By increasing their telomere length, dwarf lemurs may extend the number of times their cells can divide. This could contribute to their long lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connection-between-aging-and-hibernation">Connection between aging and hibernation</h2>



Dwarf lemurs can live nearly 30 years, twice the lifespan of similar-sized primates like the galago, which does not hibernate.



"Longevity and telomere repair may be linked, but we don't know for sure yet," Blanco said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-aging">Implications for human aging</h2>



Scientists still do not fully understand how dwarf lemurs achieve this cellular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-doctor-recommended-regimen-that-could-slow-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rejuvenation</a>. If researchers can uncover the mechanisms behind this process, it could open the door to new treatments for age-related diseases in humans.



One challenge is ensuring that telomere lengthening does not lead to unintended consequences. 



While longer telomeres can help maintain cellular function, excessive lengthening can increase the risk of uncontrolled cell division, which is linked to cancer. Researchers will need to find ways to harness these benefits without triggering harmful effects.



This remarkable research, partially funded by the Duke Lemur Center, highlights the remarkable ways nature has evolved to protect against aging. 



As scientists continue to study these incredible animals, they may uncover new hibernation-based strategies to slow aging and help humans maintain healthier, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer lives</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0531" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Hibernation allows lemurs to slow down their aging

Aging is a natural process that affects every living being....

In a twist that sounds like science fiction, researchers have modified mouse DNA to include traits that were once found in the extinct woolly mammoth. These <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Engineering" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic engineering</a> efforts highlight growing attempts to make de-extinction a reality for vanished <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



This project has yielded small mice bearing a fluffy, woolly coat that echoes features of the Ice Age giant. The lab results have stirred curiosity among scientists and the general public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-de-extinction-of-lost-species">De-extinction of lost species</h2>



“For us, it’s an incredibly big deal,” said Beth Shapiro, chief science officer at <a href="https://colossal.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colossal Biosciences</a> in Dallas. Scientists behind this plan envision a future where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct creatures</a> might roam again.&nbsp;



The experts see these tiny rodents as proof that <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/CRISPR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> can modify multiple genes to recreate lost traits. The technology harnesses molecular tools to snip and rearrange DNA inside living cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tweaking-the-genes">Tweaking the genes</h2>



To make the mice woolly, the researchers analyzed ancient mammoth genomes alongside elephant DNA. They disabled certain genes tied to hair texture, color, and heat regulation.



They also introduced a unique mutation found in woolly mammoths to see if it would produce thick fur. The resulting offspring exhibited curly coats that surprised many observers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-de-extinction-bring-species-back">Can de-extinction bring species back?</h2>



Vincent Lynch, a biology professor at the University at Buffalo, remains unconvinced about bringing back the vanished giants and recently voiced his skepticism. "Mammoths are extinct and cannot be ‘de-extincted’ or resurrected,” he stated.



Critics argue that the time and resources funneled into reviving extinct beasts might be better spent saving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> that are currently teetering on the brink of extinction. They question whether any environment could truly accommodate the needs of species that disappeared thousands of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-stumbling-blocks">Practical stumbling blocks</h2>



Even if these genetic tweaks scale up, an elephant’s <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/african-elephant" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gestation</a> lasts nearly two years, which complicates experiments. The size of the mother and the specialized procedures that are required add another layer of difficulty.



Some scientists also worry about how herds of woolly-elephant hybrids might affect fragile ecosystems. These delicate networks of living organisms can be disrupted in ways that are hard to predict.



Others are worried about overshadowing urgent efforts to protect living species. They believe well-tested conservation approaches must not lose momentum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-unpredictable-mutations">Concerns about unpredictable mutations </h2>



Recreating extinct species raises questions about ethics and responsibility. Some bioethicists warn that modifying living animals to resemble long-lost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-concern-over-species-extinctions-fades-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> could create unintended suffering, especially if genetic changes cause health complications. 



Others argue that lab-engineered species might blur the lines between conservation and unnatural interference.



Scientists also face concerns about <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Drift" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic drift</a>, where unpredictable mutations arise over generations. If mammoth-like elephants are introduced into the wild, they may not behave like their Ice Age relatives.



Such changes might influence their ability to interact with the environment as their ancient counterparts did, affecting everything from diet and migration patterns to social structures and survival strategies.



This uncertainty fuels debate over whether reviving extinct species serves scientific curiosity more than real-world ecological benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-de-extinction-research">Future of de-extinction research</h2>



Colossal Biosciences aims to produce elephant embryos with mammoth-like traits within a few years. The ambitious timeline hinges on refining gene-editing steps and ensuring safe pregnancies.



In the meantime, these fuzzy rodents serve as a tiny window into how far science can push modifications. The experiment demonstrates a desire to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct</a> adaptations without waiting for a living mammoth to appear.



Many experts remain unconvinced that this venture will lead to practical conservation gains. Others see an inventive effort to better understand genetic traits that once shaped Ice Age creatures.



Supporters argue that advanced editing approaches might shield certain species from threats like habitat loss or disease, whereas critics counter that tinkering with extinct DNA could distract from proven strategies such as habitat restoration.



Debates aside, each step in this research reveals new layers of complexity in de-extinction. We now face the question of how far to push these technologies.



The controversies will likely intensify as the conversation shifts from lab-born mice to massive mammals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.03.641227v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: Colossal Biosciences



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How creating 'woolly mice' in the lab will bring back the woolly mammoth

In a twist that sounds like science fiction, researchers have...

Whales are not just big - they’re important contributors to healthy oceans. When they poop, they move nutrients from deep water to the surface, benefiting organisms in the marine food web.&nbsp;



Now, new research has shown that whales also ferry substantial quantities of nutrients for thousands of miles in their urine and other bodily outputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delivering-nutrients-across-the-ocean">Delivering nutrients across the ocean</h2>



In 2010, experts revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-poop-is-a-natural-fertilizer-that-keeps-the-ocean-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, feeding at depth and pooping at the surface, offer a critical resource for plankton growth and ocean productivity.&nbsp;



The latest study, led by the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, has found that whales transport abundant nutrients horizontally across entire ocean basins.&nbsp;



These nutrients typically travel from rich, cold waters where whales feed to warm equatorial regions where they mate and give birth, delivered in large part by their urine - though sloughed skin, calf feces, carcasses, and placentas also play a part.



“These coastal areas often have clear waters, a sign of low <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>, and many have coral reef ecosystems,” said Joe Roman, a biologist at the University of Vermont, who co-led the research.&nbsp;



“The movement of nitrogen and other nutrients can be important to the growth of phytoplankton, or microscopic algae, and provide food for sharks and other fish and many invertebrates.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-distance-nutrient-pipeline">A long-distance nutrient pipeline</h2>



The researchers found that in oceans worldwide, great whales - including right whales, gray whales, and humpbacks - carry around 4,000 tons of nitrogen each year into coastal zones in the tropics and subtropics.&nbsp;



They also deliver more than 45,000 tons of biomass. Before commercial whaling decimated whale populations, this offshore-to-inshore “nutrient pipeline” could have been three or more times larger.



For instance, scientists estimate that thousands of humpback whales migrate annually from a vast foraging region in the Gulf of Alaska to a smaller breeding area in Hawaii.&nbsp;



The team shows that the nutrient inputs - tons of excretions, skin, and carcasses - provided by whales in the <a href="https://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary</a> are about double the amount brought in by local oceanic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-whale-conveyer-belt">The whale conveyer belt</h2>



“We call it the ‘great whale conveyor belt,’ or it can also be thought of as a funnel because whales feed over large areas, but they need to be in a relatively confined space to find a mate, breed, and give birth. At first, the calves don’t have the energy to travel long distances like the moms can,” Roman explained.&nbsp;



Another factor is that the whales likely remain in shallow, sandy waters to muffle their calls. “Moms and newborns are calling all the time, staying in communication,” he added. “And they don’t want predators, like killer whales, or breeding humpback males, to pick up on that.”



Therefore, nutrients that are widely dispersed over feeding zones become concentrated in limited tropical and subtropical habitats, “like collecting leaves to make compost for your garden,” as Roman put it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-animals-massive-migrations">Large animals, massive migrations</h2>



During summer, fully grown whales gorge on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-satellites-track-antarctic-krill-are-these-tiny-ocean-shrimp-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a>, herring, and other prey in high-latitude waters near Alaska, Iceland, and Antarctica. Recent studies indicate that North Pacific humpback whales can gain about 30 pounds daily in spring, summer, and fall.&nbsp;



This substantial fat build-up supports an incredible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>: baleen whales routinely travel thousands of miles to tropical breeding grounds without eating. Gray whales, for example, make a nearly 7,000-mile journey between feeding grounds off Russia and calving sites along Baja California. 



Meanwhile, some humpback whales in the Southern Hemisphere migrate over 5,000 miles from waters near Antarctica to areas off Costa Rica.



During these treks, they burn off hundreds of pounds a day and excrete substantial amounts of nitrogen-rich urea. One Icelandic study found that feeding fin whales can release more than 250 gallons of urine daily, while humans typically excrete less than half a gallon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-life-on-a-different-scale-nbsp">Living life on a different scale&nbsp;</h2>



Whales have the longest migrations of any mammal and are outsized creatures in every sense.&nbsp;



“Because of their size, whales are able to do things that no other animal does. They’re living life on a different scale,” said co-author Andrew Pershing, an oceanographer at the nonprofit organization Climate Central.&nbsp;



“Nutrients are coming in from outside - and not from a river, but by these migrating animals. It’s super-cool, and changes how we think about ecosystems in the ocean. We don’t think of animals other than humans having an impact on a planetary scale, but the whales really do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circulatory-system-of-the-planet-nbsp">Circulatory system of the planet&nbsp;</h2>



Prior to commercial whaling that started in the 1800s, nutrient transfers would likely have been much larger, Pershing argued. He noted that researchers do not yet fully understand inputs from blue whales - the largest animals on Earth - which were heavily hunted in the twentieth century. 



“There’s basic things that we don’t know about them, like where their breeding areas are,” said Pershing, noting that humpback populations are recovering in some places, but blue whale numbers remain severely diminished.



“Lots of people think of plants as the lungs of the planet, taking in carbon dioxide and expelling oxygen. For their part, animals play an important role in moving nutrients,” said Roman.&nbsp;



“Seabirds transport nitrogen and phosphorus from the ocean to the land in their poop, increasing the density of plants on islands. Animals form the circulatory system of the planet - and whales are the extreme example.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56123-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Whales transport nutrients across entire ocean basins in their urine

Whales are not just big - they’re important contributors to...

We think we understand our dogs and their emotions. We see a wagging tail as happiness and whimpering as sadness, projecting our emotions onto them. This perception forms the foundation of our bond, but what if we are getting it wrong?



New research from Arizona State University (<a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASU</a>) suggests that dog owners frequently misinterpret their pet’s emotions. Instead of reading a dog’s true signals, we rely on context, assuming that we know how our pets feel based on the situation rather than their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-focus-more-when-humans-use-eye-contact-and-gestures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">actual behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-dog-emotions">Understanding dog emotions</h2>



Communication with a dog requires patience and observation. Unlike humans, dogs do not express themselves with words. Instead, they rely on body language, facial expressions, and vocalizations. This can make emotional interpretation challenging, especially when our own biases come into play.



At first glance, it seems simple. You give your dog a treat, and she wags her tail before trotting away happily. You believe she is delighted, that she understands your affection, and that the two of you share a moment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connection</a>. But is that what really happens?



According to ASU researchers Holly Molinaro and Clive Wynne, our interpretation of dog emotions often strays from reality. The study reveals that humans tend to judge a dog’s emotional state based on the surrounding situation rather than the dog’s actual behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-human-bias">Impact of human bias</h2>



Dogs have their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">own way of expressing</a> emotions, but humans frequently misunderstand these signals. This misinterpretation often occurs because we project our feelings onto them. We assume a dog feels happy or guilty because that is how we would feel in a similar situation.



“People do not look at what the dog is doing, instead they look at the situation surrounding the dog and base their emotional perception off of that,” said Molinaro.



Professor Clive Wynne, who studies dog behavior, further explained this challenge. "Our dogs are trying to communicate with us, but we humans seem determined to look at everything except the poor pooch himself."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-context-alters-emotion-perception">Context alters emotion perception</h2>



To test how humans perceive dog emotions, Molinaro and Wynne conducted two experiments. They filmed dogs in various scenarios, capturing moments believed to be positive, such as receiving treats or preparing for a walk, as well as negative situations, like mild scolding or encountering a vacuum cleaner.



Participants watched these videos, some with full context and others with altered backgrounds. In one experiment, the researchers edited the clips so that a dog filmed in a happy setting appeared to be in a negative one, and vice versa. The goal was to see how people would judge the emotions of the dog.



The findings were striking. People overwhelmingly relied on situational cues rather than the dog’s actual behavior to determine its emotional state.



“You see a dog getting a treat, you assume he must be feeling good. You see a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-affectionate-dog-breeds-that-adore-cuddles-and-hugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> getting yelled at, you assume he’s feeling bad,” Molinaro explained. “These assumptions of how you think the dog is feeling have nothing to do with the dog’s behavior or emotional cues, which is very striking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mistaken-emotion-of-a-guilty-dog">Mistaken emotion of a “guilty” dog</h2>



One of the most common misinterpretations in dog behavior is the so-called "guilty look." Many dog owners believe their pet feels guilt after doing something wrong, but research suggests otherwise.



“When you yell at your dog for doing something bad and she makes that guilty face, is it really because she is guilty, or is it because she is scared you are going to reprimand her more?” said Molinaro.



Dogs react to human tone, posture, and body language. What appears as guilt is often fear or submission, a response to their owner’s reaction rather than an understanding of wrongdoing. This misunderstanding can affect training and the bond between pet and owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-influence-of-human-emotions">The influence of human emotions</h2>



Another factor in misreading dog emotions is anthropomorphism - the tendency to attribute human emotions to animals. While humans and dogs share a close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a>, their emotional processing differs significantly.



“I have always found this idea that dogs and humans must have the same emotions to be very biased and without any real scientific proof to back it up, so I wanted to see if there are factors that might actually be affecting our perception of dog emotions,” Molinaro said.



Humans interpret emotions based on cultural and personal experiences. The way one person perceives sadness or happiness may differ from another. When it comes to animals, these subjective experiences shape how we understand their behavior, often leading to inaccurate assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-dog-emotions">A better understanding of dog emotions</h2>



So how can dog owners learn to interpret their pet’s emotions more accurately? The key lies in awareness and observation. Recognizing our own biases is the first step toward better communication.



“The first step is just to be aware that we are not that good at reading dogs’ emotions,” Molinaro said. “We need to be humbler in our understanding of our dogs.”



Every dog has unique emotional expressions. Rather than assuming their feelings based on the situation, owners should pay closer attention to specific behavioral cues. A wagging tail does not always mean happiness, just as a tucked tail does not always indicate guilt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-stronger-bond">Building a stronger bond</h2>



By focusing on a dog’s individual personality and behavior, owners can develop a deeper connection with their pets. Understanding emotions takes time and effort, but the rewards are invaluable.



Molinaro emphasized the importance of looking beyond external factors. “Really pay attention to your own dog’s cues and behaviors."



Taking a few extra seconds to assess a dog’s body language, rather than making quick assumptions, can lead to a more meaningful and trusting relationship. Ultimately, a stronger bond between humans and their canine companions comes not from assumptions, but from true understanding.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08927936.2025.2469400" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anthrozoös</a>.



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Lost in translation: How we misread our dogs’ emotions

We think we understand our dogs and their emotions. We...

Conservation scientists from UNSW Sydney have used DNA technology to confirm that feral cats are the primary predators of reintroduced native animals in South Australia. 



This research aligns with existing data showing that feral cats have caused more native animal deaths than any other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> in Australia. Experts believe feral cats are responsible for two-thirds of mammal extinctions since European settlement.



The recent study suggests that the impact of feral cats may be greater than previously estimated. 



In collaboration with experts from the University of Adelaide, the researchers from <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a> found that conventional methods of determining the cause of death often underestimated the role of feral cats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-the-cause-of-death">Pinpointing the cause of death</h2>



Professor Katherine Moseby, a co-author of the study, noted that pinpointing the exact cause of death for native animals has always been challenging.



“In past releases, we'd be radio tracking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> after release, and if we found dead animals, it would be difficult to determine what caused their death. We would use field evidence like animal spoor, carcass remains, or bite marks on collars to guess whether it was feral cats, birds of prey, fox, or if they just died a natural death," said Professor Moseby.



“And because we’re working in really remote areas, it is difficult to access vets for necropsy. So taking a DNA swab of the dead animal was a really good way to identify if predation was the cause of death. And then we decided to compare the DNA outcomes with evidence in the field to determine if the latter was a reliable method of determining cause of death.”



The team concluded that field evidence alone was not a dependable way to confirm feral cat predation. DNA testing and necropsy were necessary to establish whether a cat had killed an animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-from-conservation-sites">Evidence from conservation sites</h2>



The scientists analyzed DNA evidence collected from radio tracking collars and wounds on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>’ bodies. The team examined two conservation sites in South Australia where native species had been released.



At one location, 148 brush-tailed possums and 110 western quolls were introduced between 2014 and 2016. At another, 42 greater bilbies and 89 bettongs were released in 2017. 



Of the 389 animals reintroduced, 74 were confirmed to have been killed by cats. DNA analysis identified 71 of these cases. Veterinary necropsy confirmed six cat-related deaths, while researchers witnessed three instances of feral cats killing prey.



Three of the four released species managed to survive in smaller numbers. However, bettongs failed to establish a stable population due to heavy predation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underestimated-killings-by-feral-cats">Underestimated killings by feral cats</h2>



The research showed that even DNA analysis underestimated the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shell-fossils-lapworthella-fasciculata-reveal-ancient-predator-prey-battle-517-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> killed by feral cats.



“The DNA is good, but it's not infallible, and a lot of that is because we’re trying to get DNA from cat saliva found on the carcass, and that's quite difficult because DNA degrades quickly in the environment,” said Professor Moseby.



“But ultimately it highlighted that there are a lot more cat killings than previously thought.”



This discovery reinforces concerns that current estimates of feral cat predation may not fully capture the extent of their impact on native wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-controlling-feral-cats">Challenges in controlling feral cats</h2>



Senior author Ned Ryan-Schofield noted that one goal of the study was to assess whether conservationists could rely on field data for quicker assessments of cat predation.



“This could trigger prompt management action like increased cat control rather than waiting until DNA analysis occurred. However, we found that field evidence of cat predation are not obvious and even DNA testing is not infallible,” said Ryan-Schofield, a postgraduate researcher with the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a>.



Despite advances in research, controlling feral cat populations remains a difficult task. The researchers acknowledge that feral cats will continue to pose a significant threat to native animals for years to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-conservation-efforts">Future conservation efforts</h2>



Professor Moseby emphasized the importance of continued <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> and improved management strategies.



“Until we develop genetic tools or other broad-scale methods targeted at feral cats, we can only rely on intensely managing them as best we can,” said Professor Moseby.



”We hope that this research might encourage more conservationists to use DNA and necropsy to identify the cause of death of animals in wildlife reintroductions, and to increase cat control even if no obvious evidence of cat predation are present.”



While eradicating feral cats from the Australian outback may not be possible in the near future, improving tracking and conservation techniques could help reduce their impact on endangered wildlife.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/AM/AM24031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Mammalogy</a>.



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Feral cats kill more native animals than expected

Conservation scientists from UNSW Sydney have used DNA technology to...

When it comes to blending into their surroundings, nature has produced many masters of disguise. From the chameleon’s shifting hues to the arctic hare’s seasonal coat change, camouflage is an essential survival tool in the wild. But one of the most remarkable camouflage experts might not be the first to come to mind - the squid.



Along with their cephalopod relatives like octopuses and cuttlefish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squid</a> have an extraordinary ability to alter their skin color almost instantly. This unique trait has helped them evade predators and hunt effectively for millions of years, dating back to the age of the dinosaurs.&nbsp;



However, despite their long evolutionary history, much about the mechanisms behind this ability remains a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-about-squid-camouflage-nbsp">New details about squid camouflage&nbsp;</h2>



Leila Deravi, an associate professor of chemistry and chemical biology at <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a>, is working to change that. Her recently published study reveals new insights into how squid camouflage operates.&nbsp;



The research demonstrates that squid possess specialized organs that function similarly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-recycle-solar-cells-sustainably-with-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar cells</a>, generating energy that powers their remarkable skin transformations.&nbsp;



The findings not only advance the understanding of these fascinating creatures but could also influence the development of new materials and technology for human use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-squid-camouflage">The science of squid camouflage</h2>



Deravi has spent years studying cephalopods, captivated by their unique biological abilities. Her Biomaterials Design Group at Northeastern focuses on uncovering the mechanics of squid camouflage, with the goal of applying these natural processes to innovative materials.



More recently, her team has concentrated on chromatophores, the specialized pigmented structures responsible for a squid’s ability to change <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-got-their-colors-150-million-years-before-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color</a>. This focus led to a groundbreaking discovery.



Chromatophores are tiny, pigmented organs embedded in the squid’s skin. These structures are surrounded by muscle fibers controlled by neurons, allowing the animal to open and close pigment sacs in response to its environment.



Working alongside another type of skin cell, called iridophores, chromatophores produce a broad range of colors. While chromatophores contain red, yellow, and brown pigments, iridophores reflect greens and blues, giving squid the ability to create a full spectrum of colors in a fraction of a second.



“To have something sense the colors around it and distribute [them] within hundreds of milliseconds is really insane,” Deravi said. “It’s not something that’s easy to do, especially in a living system that’s under water.”



Scientists have long believed that chromatophores function much like pixels on a digital display, simply reflecting colors as needed. But Deravi’s latest research shows that these structures do much more than act as mere colorants - they actually sense and generate energy from light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squid-s-organic-solar-cells">Squid’s organic solar cells</h2>



Her study reveals that chromatophores operate as light-sensitive energy converters, much like solar cells. This capability allows squid to harness external <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescence-emerged-in-animals-540-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light</a> and transform it into energy that assists in their camouflage process.



“It can see whatever light is on the outside and convert that light into energy and then harvest that energy to help distribute camouflage,” Deravi explained.



To test this theory, her research team constructed a squid-powered solar cell. Using conductive glass, semiconductors, electrolytes, and pigmented nanoparticles extracted from squid chromatophores, they created a circuit capable of responding to light.&nbsp;



By exposing the circuit to simulated sunlight, they measured the energy output to determine whether the chromatophores could genuinely generate electrical current.



“We found that the more granules you put into there, the higher the photocurrent response is,” Deravi said.&nbsp;



“It’s a direct indication that the pieces of the chromatophore are actually converting the light from the sun’s simulated light to the voltage, which can complete the circuit and then be harvested, potentially, for a power supply in the animal.”



This marks the first time that scientists have directly linked the chromatophores of a cephalopod to an energy-generating function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-squid-camouflage-nbsp">Secrets of squid camouflage&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how cephalopods achieve their dynamic camouflage could have broad applications beyond marine biology.&nbsp;



Deravi’s lab has already translated their discoveries into practical uses, such as developing wearable UV sensors to help prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melanoma-has-been-replaced-as-the-deadliest-form-of-skin-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin cancer</a>. Her startup, Seaspire, is also exploring how these findings could lead to more environmentally friendly and effective sunscreens.



Squid’s ability to distribute color efficiently with minimal energy consumption could also inspire advancements in wearable technology.&nbsp;



Today’s wearable electronics must balance size, weight, and power usage. Studying how squid utilize their natural solar cells might provide clues for designing more energy-efficient, interactive materials.



“The squid might be the key to developing a truly ‘living digital skin,’” Deravi suggested.



She envisions a future where wearable technology mimics the adaptability of squid skin, seamlessly responding to environmental changes without relying on bulky batteries or complicated circuitry.



“If you think about fully wearable stuff, you just have to think about how to make it the most energetically favorable in order to be fully interactive with the surroundings,” Deravi said. “We’re trying to tap into what the blueprint is that the animal uses to do this and how that correlates to adapting to the environment as well.”



As scientists continue to unlock the secrets of squid camouflage, their discoveries may lead to transformative new technologies - taking inspiration from nature’s own evolutionary genius.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/tc/d4tc04333b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Materials Chemistry C</a>.



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How squid power their amazing camouflage abilities

When it comes to blending into their surroundings, nature has...

Humans instinctively attempt to revive unconscious individuals through first aid. A recent study suggests that mice display similar behaviors in an emergency.



Researchers from the Keck School of Medicine at USC observed that when a mouse became unresponsive, its companion reacted in ways that accelerated recovery.



For years, scientists have questioned whether animals exhibit emergency responses toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-offer-first-aid-to-unconscious-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unconscious peers</a>. 



“But this study is the first time we’re seeing a first responder-like behavior in mice,” noted Li Zhang, the study’s principal investigator and a professor of physiology and neuroscience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mice-act-in-an-emergency">How mice act in an emergency</h2>



The study recorded how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-mice-turn-to-female-mice-to-avoid-fights-keep-social-peace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> engaged with unconscious peers using a machine-learning-based analysis. 



Their responses escalated from sniffing and grooming to more forceful actions such as biting the mouth or tongue and pulling it out. These behaviors resembled emergency actions seen in humans, such as clearing airways.



Wenjian Sun, the study’s first author and research associate at Keck School of Medicine’s <a href="https://keck.usc.edu/zilkha/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute</a>, said that he had never seen this behavior from mice before.



“The behavior was especially unique due to its similarity to how humans behave in emergency responses,” said Sun.



The discovery was made unexpectedly during an unrelated experiment. The pattern of escalating responses strongly suggested an instinctive effort to revive the unconscious peer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reviving-actions-and-their-impact">Reviving actions and their impact</h2>



The emergency response shown by these “helper mice” had measurable effects. 



Huizhong Tao, a professor of physiology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-way-to-suppress-fear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuroscience</a> and co-author of the study, noted that mice targeting the mouth and tongue of an unconscious peer often sped up recovery.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mice_perform-first-aid_credit-USC_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mice_perform-first-aid_credit-USC_1s.webp" alt="In two independent studies, W. Sun et al. and F. Sun et al. showed that mice exhibit stereotyped behaviors toward unconscious conspecifics, escalating from sniffing and grooming to licking of the head and tongue pulling, which accelerated recovery from unconsciousness. Credit: USC/Science" class="wp-image-1961947"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In two independent studies, W. Sun et al. and F. Sun et al. showed that mice exhibit stereotyped behaviors toward unconscious conspecifics, escalating from sniffing and grooming to licking of the head and tongue pulling, which accelerated recovery from unconsciousness. Credit: USC/Science</figcaption></figure>



This behavior was not aggressive. The researchers found that once an unconscious mouse regained awareness, it displayed normal tongue function.



The study also showed that the behavior occurred primarily between familiar pairs and was rare when a mouse was simply sleeping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxytocin-drives-the-emergency-response">Oxytocin drives the emergency response</h2>



Using neural imaging and optogenetics, researchers explored the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-with-two-dads-survives-to-adulthood-major-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activity</a> linked to these responses. 



Zhang and the team found that oxytocin neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus showed increased activity when mice encountered an unconscious partner. Oxytocin, commonly associated with bonding, appeared to play a key role in triggering the emergency response.



Oxytocin neurons responded differently based on whether the partner was unconscious or active. Specific neurons activated during particular actions, such as tongue-pulling. 



The study also demonstrated that stimulating oxytocin neurons increased reviving behaviors, while blocking oxytocin signaling reduced them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-instinct-across-species">A shared instinct across species</h2>



The findings suggest that reviving behaviors may be common among social species. The study showed that mice reacting to unconscious peers acted instinctively in an emergency situation rather than out of mere curiosity. 



The behavioral sequence resembled emergency responses seen in other animals, including primates.



The researchers believe this behavior helps maintain group cohesion and increases survival chances in social species. Tao pointed out that future studies will investigate whether mice exhibit even more complex responses over longer periods.



This discovery sheds light on prosocial instincts in mammals, highlighting how emergency behaviors may have evolved to strengthen social bonds and improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-decisions-are-shaped-by-optimistic-and-pessimistic-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prosocial-behavior-in-animals">Prosocial behavior in animals</h2>



The research team plans to conduct further studies to explore whether mice exhibit even more complex behaviors over extended periods. 



Tao believes this discovery provides an exciting opportunity to investigate the biological foundations of empathy and social assistance in animals.



Future experiments will examine how these emergency responses develop, whether they vary between different strains of mice, and if similar behaviors occur in other rodent species. 



Researchers also aim to explore whether these behaviors can be influenced by external factors, such as changes in social environment or hormonal manipulation.



Understanding the neural mechanisms behind prosocial behaviors in animals may have broader implications for human health. 



Studying how oxytocin influences emergency responses could lead to insights into conditions where social behaviors are impaired, such as autism or social anxiety disorders.



In addition to Sun, Zhang, and Tao, the study included contributions from Guangwei Zhang, Junxiang J. Huang, Can Tao, and Michelle B. Seo of Keck School of Medicine.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq2677" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Mice perform first-aid and save unconscious peers in emergencies

Humans instinctively attempt to revive unconscious individuals through first aid....

Dad,And,Son,Use,Mosquito,Spray.spraying,Insect,Repellent,On,Skin

Mosquito-borne diseases, like malaria and dengue, remain a major global health threat, especially in tropical regions. 



Insect repellents, such as DEET, provide some level of protection but they come with challenges, including high costs, user discomfort and the need for frequent reapplication. 



Meanwhile, widely used spatial repellents that rely on synthetic pyrethroid insecticides face growing resistance among mosquito populations.



A new approach could change the way we protect people from mosquitoes.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, have developed a machine learning-based method that predicts novel mosquito repellents. 



This technique, combined with cheminformatics, has already identified compounds that may offer safer and more sustainable alternatives to traditional repellents. 



With funding from the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>), the team is now working to refine their findings and explore new mosquito control methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-in-mosquito-control">Machine learning in mosquito control</h2>



Mosquitoes use their senses of smell and taste to locate human hosts. By understanding these systems, scientists can develop better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-take-a-new-approach-to-developing-insect-repellents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repellents</a> that disrupt the insects’ ability to find and feed on people. 



The research team has used machine learning to screen more than 10 million chemical compounds, searching for effective alternatives to existing repellents.



"We have already identified repellent molecules with a high success rate, particularly from natural sources, which could provide a safer and more sustainable alternative to current repellents," said Anandasankar Ray, a professor of&nbsp;molecular, cell and systems biology.



 "We have also used machine learning to identify analogs of pyrethroids that are up to 100 times more effective than existing industry standards, like allethrin. This could have a significant impact on combating resistant mosquito populations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-strategies-for-controlling-mosquitoes">Four strategies for controlling mosquitoes</h2>



The research team has concentrated on four major strategies for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-aims-to-control-mosquitoes-by-deactivating-their-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito control</a>.



One of them is the creation of better topical repellents that have a good odor and are long-lasting, offering protection for 12 to 24 hours.



Another strategy focuses on spatial repellents, which form protective barriers around homes and outdoor areas to minimize the presence of mosquitoes.



To fight the increasing resistance of mosquito populations, the scientists are also discovering long-lasting pyrethroid analogs - novel molecules that will continue to be effective against resistant mosquitoes and are well suited for application in bed nets and clothing.



They are also developing improved spatial pyrethroid formulations to make current solutions more effective against resistant mosquito strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gm-mosquitoes-in-the-testing-process">GM mosquitoes in the testing process</h2>



To gain a better insight into how such repellents operate, the researchers are using genetically modified mosquitoes to identify the sensory receptors that enable aversion to novel compounds.



In addition, they are screening volatile compounds for spatial protection and assessing new pyrethroid analogs to test their effectiveness against resistant populations of mosquitoes.



"By identifying and combining the most effective natural and synthetic compounds, we hope to deliver safe, affordable, and highly effective mosquito control solutions that could help reduce human exposure to disease vectors while improving quality of life in at-risk populations," Ray said.



"We are looking for repellents that work as well as [being] cost-effective, easy to use, and culturally acceptable solutions. Based on our preliminary results, we are optimistic that the new compounds could soon be a new weapon in the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquito-borne-diseases-are-a-growing-threat-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosquito-borne diseases</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mosquitoes-prefer-some-people">Why mosquitoes prefer some people</h2>



The research team is also working on another NIH-funded study to determine why some people attract more mosquitoes than others. 



While the sense of smell has been studied extensively, the role of taste in mosquito behavior is still not well understood.



"There’s a need for more effective repellents since DEET’s high cost and poor properties limit its use in tropical areas," Ray explained. "We believe compounds in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mosquitoes-find-tasty-humans-from-hundreds-of-meters-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human skin</a>, sweat, and microbiome metabolites could be key."



This study aims to identify specific skin compounds that influence mosquito attraction and examine how different chemical signals affect mosquito behavior. 



Researchers will test these compounds in behavioral experiments, focusing on those that impact both taste and smell.



"We will test these compounds in behavior assays, focus on those that affect taste or smell, and explore how blends of repellents may reduce mosquito attraction," Ray said. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-research-to-real-world-solutions">From research to real-world solutions</h2>



The work being done by this research team has already led to practical applications. 



A previous NIH-funded project resulted in a product development plan from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and a university spinoff company, Sensorygen. 



This company has created a safe, natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-take-a-new-approach-to-developing-insect-repellents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect repellent</a> that is currently being evaluated for Environmental Protection Agency registration.



With continued research and innovation, machine learning may hold the key to smarter, more effective mosquito control solutions that could improve public health worldwide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/95532v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife Neurosciences</a>.



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Mosquito repellents that actually work? Yes, thanks to AI

Mosquito-borne diseases, like malaria and dengue, remain a major global...

When do you make your bed? In the morning? If you were a chimpanzee, you would likely build it at dusk. Scientists call this process "nest building."



This behavior has existed for millions of years among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-genetically-adapted-to-thrive-in-their-local-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. A secure nest ensures proper rest, which boosts energy levels and cognitive function. 



But researchers have noticed an interesting pattern - young female chimps build nests earlier and more frequently than males.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimps-create-safe-nests">How chimps create safe nests</h2>



For years, primatologists have observed the fascinating process of nest construction. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-constantly-mastering-new-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimps</a> twist branches into circular shapes, reinforcing them with smaller twigs and leaves. These nests serve as cradles in the treetops, shielding them from predators and the elements.



Beyond nighttime rest, chimps build nests during the day. These temporary spots become places to relax, groom each other, or enjoy a stolen moment of solitude. 



Some young chimps use their nests for play, tumbling in and out, treating them as miniature jungle gyms. Others see them as a place to observe their surroundings in peace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-in-their-natural-habitat">Chimps in their natural habitat</h2>



Great apes, including chimpanzees, have practiced this behavior for millions of years. The better their nests, the deeper their sleep. 



And the deeper the sleep, the more energy they have for the challenges ahead. But recent research has revealed something unexpected - female infants build nests earlier and more often than males, suggesting a natural tendency toward independence from an early age.



This discovery emerged from a study led by Canadian primatologist Iulia Bădescu, a professor of anthropology at <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université de Montréal</a>. She has spent years observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-pass-tool-use-skills-across-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> of Uganda’s Kibale National Park, a thriving sanctuary for these remarkable primates.



The research, published in the American Journal of Primatology, was a collaboration between Université de Montréal, the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, and <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-chimps-and-nest-building">Young chimps and nest building </h2>



To understand nest-building behaviors, the researchers observed 72 immature wild chimpanzees between 2013 and 2014, and again in 2018, at a site in Kibale called Ngogo.



They focused on how often young chimps built nests and analyzed factors like age, sex, and maternal experience.



Nest building requires both physical strength and learned skill. The ability to bend and weave branches into a stable structure doesn’t come naturally - it must be practiced. Young chimps start experimenting with nest building early, but only as they grow stronger do they fully master the technique.



As expected, older infants were more likely to build nests than younger ones. However, the most striking discovery was that young female chimps took to nest building more frequently and at a younger age than males.



This aligns with previous studies suggesting that female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-continue-learning-as-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> tend to gain independence earlier than their male counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-chimps-build-nests-earlier">Female chimps build nests earlier </h2>



"The likelihood and overall rates of daytime nest building in wild infant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-can-plan-and-adapt-their-use-of-tools-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> varied with age and sex," said study first author Tara Khayer. "Older and female infants were more likely to build nests, and build them more often, than younger and male infants."



While young males were seen constructing nests, they did so less often. Interestingly, once a chimpanzee started building nests, their approach remained consistent, regardless of gender or their mother’s experience in raising offspring. 



This suggests that once they develop the necessary skills, young chimps construct their nests at a similar pace.



Female infants, however, reached this point sooner. Their drive to create and refine their nests suggests a greater motivation for self-sufficiency. Whether this is a biological adaptation or a learned behavior passed down from mothers remains uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-role-of-nests">Changing role of nests</h2>



As young chimps grow, the role of the nest shifts. For infants under four years old, nests serve as playgrounds - safe spaces for exploration, climbing, and games. Older chimps use them more purposefully, seeing them as spots for rest rather than recreation.



The study confirmed this shift, reinforcing the idea that nest building is not just about comfort but about adapting to different stages of life. For older chimps, a well-constructed nest means a better night’s sleep, which directly affects their physical and cognitive well-being.



"Nest building also represents a type of tool use, since the chimps have to manipulate branches and other materials around them to construct their nest," said Khayer.



"Just like cracking nuts with stones or fishing for ants with sticks, nest building involves putting their environment to good use."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-connection-to-human-evolution">A connection to human evolution</h2>



Chimpanzees are not the only primates who seek comfort in well-constructed sleeping arrangements. Humans have long relied on the ability to create secure resting spaces.



While modern beds have replaced treetop nests, the instinct to carve out a safe place to sleep remains deeply rooted in our evolutionary past.



"Humans, too, sleep in beds," said Bădescu. "So there are interesting evolutionary implications. Studying how chimps learn to build nests from a very young age helps us better understand how all hominids, including us, develop and learn new skills."



This research offers valuable insight into the development of early independence, particularly among female chimpanzees. Their ability to craft their own resting places at a young age highlights their adaptability and problem-solving skills. 



In many ways, their behavior mirrors the early resourcefulness seen in human children as they begin to navigate the world on their own.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.70011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Primatology</a>.



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What chimp nests can tell us about early independence

When do you make your bed? In the morning? If...

In February, researchers from Condrik Tenerife were scanning the waters off Tenerife Island. They hoped to find sharks but stumbled upon something unexpected - a humpback anglerfish (Melanocetus johnsonii) swimming near the surface.



Photographer David Jara Boguñá captured this rare event. These deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, also known as black seadevils, usually live in the "twilight zone" between 200 and 600 meters below the surface. Seeing one alive in daylight was unprecedented.



The <a href="https://youtu.be/6ll_7H9FoWQ?si=OAzDi8zFGk272SAH" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> sparked curiosity and emotion online. The overall reaction suggests a shift in how people view the deep sea, moving from fear to fascination.



Many saw the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-eye-tracking-changes-what-we-know-about-swarm-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> as a symbol of perseverance or tragedy, with some even comparing it to Icarus, a human figure from Greek mythology who died after flying too close to the sun with wax wings. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-lives-of-anglerfish">Strange lives of anglerfish</h2>



Anglerfish are much smaller than many imagine. The female filmed by Boguñá measured about 15 centimeters, while males grow only to about 3 centimeters.



The female fish have a glowing lure on their heads, used to attract prey in the dark ocean depths. The light comes from bacteria that live inside a specialized organ.



Male anglerfish have no lure. Instead, their entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-anglerfish-defy-evolutionary-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence</a> revolves around finding a female. Once attached, they fuse into her body, becoming a permanent part of her circulatory system. They lose their independence and survive only by absorbing nutrients from their mate.



Why this particular anglerfish swam so close to the surface remains a mystery. Scientists speculate that changes in water temperature or the fish’s old age might explain its unusual behavior.



Observers watched it for hours before it died. Its body was later taken to the <a href="https://www.spain.info/en/places-of-interest/tenerife-nature-archaeology-museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Nature and Archaeology</a> in Santa Cruz de Tenerife for further study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-outpouring-of-emotion">An outpouring of emotion</h2>



The video quickly went viral, inspiring memes, artwork, and even poetry. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>’s final journey fascinated people worldwide.



"I like to think she is a respected old grandmother who has dreamed her entire life of seeing the sunlight and the world above the water. She knows her time is nigh, so she bade farewell to her friends and family and swam up towards the light and whatever it might hold for her as her life as an anglerfish comes to a close," one Reddit user noted.



Another person called the fish her “feminist Roman Empire," meaning an idea that inspired her in the way history fascinates others.



Boguñá and Condrik Tenerife commented on the public reaction, noting that the anglerfish has clearly become a global icon. 



"But far from the romanticization and attempt to humanize that has been given to its tragic story, I think that what this event has been for is to awaken the curiosity of the sea to PEOPLE, especially the younger ones, and perhaps, it also serves that messages about marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-fish-and-human-divers-an-unexpected-bond/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> conservation can reach so many more people," said Boguñá.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-perspective">A shift in perspective</h2>



For years, deep-sea creatures like the anglerfish have been seen as monsters. Their glowing lures and sharp teeth have made them the perfect villains in films such as <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0266543/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Finding Nemo</a> and <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0345950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie</a>.



Yet, the public reaction to this anglerfish suggests a shift in perception. Instead of horror, people expressed sympathy and admiration. They saw the fish as a determined creature chasing light, even at great cost.



This response contrasts with the fate of the deep-sea blobfish, once labeled the "world’s ugliest animal." Unlike the blobfish, this anglerfish was embraced as a symbol of struggle and courage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-for-anglerfish">Empathy for anglerfish</h2>



Does projecting human emotions onto deep-sea creatures distort reality? Probably. 



"Deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-two-dozen-unusual-fish-species-discovered-in-peru-and-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> are often pictured as aliens from another planet, and I think that gets people interested in them, because we're all interested in novelty and weirdness and the surreal. I think that can be positive, but the idea of the alien can also cut us off from any responsibility," noted US environmental humanities researcher Stacy Alaimo.



The deep sea faces growing threats, including seabed mining, plastic pollution, and climate change. Perhaps this anglerfish’s moment in the spotlight will encourage more people to care about protecting its world.



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How a dying anglerfish became a global icon on social media

In February, researchers from Condrik Tenerife were scanning the waters...

Makassar,Strait,Highlighted,On,A,Satellite,Image,Map

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something called the "Wallace Line," had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wallace-line-and-species-separation">Wallace Line and species separation</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-australasia">What is Australasia?</h2>



The region that includes Australia, New Zealand, and the islands of the surrounding Pacific is known as Australasia. 



It’s a place where you can find everything from vast deserts and lush rainforests to snowy mountains and stunning coral reefs. 



Australia dominates the region with its massive landmass, unique wildlife like kangaroos and koalas, and world-famous landmarks like the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru. 



Meanwhile, New Zealand brings its own magic with breathtaking fjords, rolling green hills, and a deep-rooted Māori culture. 



The islands of Australasia, including Papua New Guinea and parts of Indonesia, add even more diversity with rich indigenous traditions and some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utrecht</a> in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



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Earth has a natural border line that no species will cross - what is the Wallace Line?

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something...

There's a fascinating dynamic that is happening in the animal kingdom - specifically among Guinea baboons. A recent study shows that female Guinea baboons have a peculiar attraction to males showcasing unique foraging skills.



Experts from the <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/german-primate-center-leibniz-institute-for-primate-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Primate Center - Leibniz Institute for Primate Research</a> conducted investigations on two baboon groups in Senegal’s scenic wilderness and one under close observation at Nuremberg Zoo.



The researchers made a discovery that deepens our grasp of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-ties-influence-the-social-behavior-of-aging-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal social behavior</a>: animals are quite aware of their group members' skills, and they use this knowledge to make social choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attraction-based-on-benefits">Attraction based on benefits</h2>



The experts trained one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-baboons-invest-more-time-in-relationships-with-females/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">male baboon</a> in each group to operate a unique food box. These 'specialized' males became the group's exclusive providers of an additional food source. Curiously, this elevated status attracted the females' attention.



They spent more time with these special males, groomed them more, and even acted aggressively towards other females in the group. 



However, once the food box and the extra food was out of the equation, the females' enamored behavior diminished. This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/guinea-baboons-give-females-more-freedom-and-authority/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">females</a> were acting based on immediate advantages - not on a comprehensive evaluation of the males' capabilities.



On the other hand, males in the group, despite also gaining from the extra food, showed no significant change in their behavior towards the expert forager. This could hint at lower competition among male Guinea baboons for food sources controlled by their counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-favor-immediate-gains">Baboons favor immediate gains </h2>



The study sheds light on the pragmatic side of partner selection among Guinea baboons. The choice is not driven by a long-term evaluation of a male's capabilities, but rather by the immediate benefits they can gain from him.



"Our experiment is the first to identify the type of mechanism, i.e. outcome- or competence-based, underlying skill attribution in a wild non-human primate. As such, our results provide a unique insight into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-may-offer-clues-to-early-human-social-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of complex skill attribution in humans," said William O-Hearm, the lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-research-potential-of-zoos">Enormous research potential of zoos</h2>



Before the field work in Senegal, initial tests were conducted on Guinea baboons at Nuremberg Zoo - one of the few European facilities housing the species and a long-time collaborator of the Primate Research Institute. 



The controlled conditions of the zoo made it possible for the researchers to observe baboons closely and test feasible fieldwork ideas.



Lorenzo von Fersen, the zoo's Curator of Research and Species Conservation, emphasized the significance of conducting research in controlled environments. 



"The decisive factor for this study was the opportunity to work with the Guinea baboons at Nuremberg Zoo under controlled conditions. Such research approaches are not only scientifically valuable, but also enrich the animals' lives by providing them with cognitive challenges that enhance their natural abilities,” said von Fersen.



Jörg Beckmann, biological director and deputy director of the zoo, noted that zoos have enormous research potential and also offer information about their individuals that is often not available in the wild, as well as expertise that is important when working in the field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guinea-baboons-and-social-intelligence">Guinea baboons and social intelligence </h2>



The findings of this study extend beyond Guinea baboons, offering valuable insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-intelligence-did-not-evolve-due-to-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of intelligence</a> and social decision-making across species. 



By demonstrating that baboons recognize and respond to the skills of their peers, the research supports the idea that social animals - including early human ancestors - may have developed similar cognitive strategies for survival and resource acquisition.



The researchers suggest that such pragmatic decision-making could have played a role in the evolution of human intelligence. 



In ancestral human societies, individuals who could assess the competencies of others - whether in hunting, tool-making, or leadership - would have had a distinct advantage in forming beneficial social bonds.



This concept aligns with theories in evolutionary biology that emphasize the role of cooperation, reciprocity, and resource control in shaping complex social structures.



Moreover, this study highlights how non-human primates, like baboons, continue to challenge our understanding of cognition. 



As research progresses, scientists hope to uncover even more parallels between human and primate decision-making, further bridging the gap between our species and our closest relatives in the animal kingdom.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2925" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Guinea baboons prefer mates with skills

There's a fascinating dynamic that is happening in the animal...

Bird songs fill forests with rich melodies, signaling territory, attracting mates, and fostering communication within flocks. These sounds are not static; they change over generations, much like human languages and music.&nbsp;



New research from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> sheds light on the evolution of bird songs, revealing the significant influence of population dynamics. 



The experts analyzed over 100,000 bird songs, highlighting how movement, age, and turnover shape song <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>.



The researchers spent three years collecting over twenty thousand hours of recordings from great tits (Parus major) in Oxfordshire. This population has been monitored for 77 years as part of the Wytham Great Tit study.



The goal was to understand which songs gain popularity, which disappear, and how song repertoires evolve over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-song-evolution-with-ai">Tracking song evolution with AI</h2>



To analyze song changes, the researchers developed an AI model capable of recognizing individual birds based on their songs. 



This technology enabled them to measure song differences between birds and track variations across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



The results revealed that birds of the same age share more similar repertoires, while mixed-age communities exhibit greater cultural diversity.



Song turnover accelerates when birds leave or die, as young newcomers adopt and introduce new song types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-s-age-and-song-retention">Bird's age and song retention</h2>



Older birds play a key role in preserving songs that are fading from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-turn-bird-dreams-into-captivating-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



While young birds drive change by adopting new song types, older individuals act as "cultural repositories" of past songs. 



This dynamic mirrors how grandparents remember songs unfamiliar to younger generations.



However, age alone does not determine song change. The experts found that when birds mix more due to increased movement and immigration, they adopt common songs, which slows the rate of song evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-song-traditions">Local song traditions</h2>



Birds that stay close to their birthplace maintain distinctive song cultures, much like isolated human communities develop unique dialects. 



Areas with less movement tend to retain more varied and unique song traditions.



Newcomers usually integrate into local song traditions rather than introducing completely new tunes. However, they often learn more songs, enriching the local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">musical landscape</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-evolution-in-bird-songs">Cultural evolution in bird songs</h2>



“Just as human communities develop distinct dialects and musical traditions, some birds also have local song cultures that evolve over time,“ noted lead researcher Dr. Nilo Merino Recalde from the University of Oxford.



“Our study shows exactly how population dynamics - the comings and goings of individual birds - affect this cultural learning process, influencing both song diversity and the pace of change.”



This study is the first to extensively examine the role of demography in shaping cultural diversity in a wild animal population. 



By using a large dataset of individual song variations, it provides insights into both bird behavior and the broader implications of demographic changes on cultural evolution in animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



The findings could have important implications for conservation efforts by showing how population shifts influence cultural traditions in birds. The complete dataset is now publicly available for further research.



“Our work here shows, once again, that tracking individuals over their lives allows us to understand so much of the way that different processes interact in natural populations," noted Professor Ben Sheldon from the University of Oxford, who leads the long-term study in <a href="https://www.wythamwoods.ox.ac.uk/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wytham Woods</a>.



"It’s thrilling to think that we can explain the acoustic landscape we hear in the woods each spring in terms of the result of the cumulative combination of individual movements and survival over many years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bird-song-research">Future of bird song research</h2>



This study opens new possibilities for research into animal communication and cultural transmission. 



By integrating artificial intelligence and long-term field studies, scientists can now explore how different species develop and maintain their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finch-beaks-and-bird-songs-a-new-story-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique traditions</a>.



Future studies could examine whether similar patterns exist in other songbird species or even in non-bird animals that use vocalizations for communication. 



The findings also raise intriguing questions about how climate change and habitat destruction might impact song evolution by altering population structures and migration patterns.



By continuing to study how birds learn and modify their songs, researchers can gain deeper insights into the connections between social behavior, cultural traditions, and environmental change. 



These discoveries not only help us appreciate the complexity of bird communication but also provide a window into the broader forces shaping life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00150-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Birds learn songs like humans learn languages

Bird songs fill forests with rich melodies, signaling territory, attracting...

Pollination happens everywhere, but most people don’t notice it. Small creatures like bees, butterflies, birds, and bats carry pollen between plants, helping them grow. Without pollinators, flowers wouldn’t turn into fruit, and seeds wouldn’t spread. They do more than help plants reproduce - they keep nature healthy, support animals, and help produce food.



But here’s the problem - many of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pollinators-boost-the-nutritional-value-of-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> are vanishing. Climate change, habitat destruction, and industrial farming are wiping out species at an alarming rate.



Their disappearance isn’t just an issue for farmers. It affects forests, grasslands, and even city parks, where pollinators keep plant life going. When they decline, entire ecosystems suffer, and the food supply becomes more fragile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinator-s-role-in-plant-reproduction">Pollinator's role in plant reproduction</h2>



Plants depend on pollination to grow and multiply. Around 85% of wild plant species and more than 70% of cultivated crops rely on pollinators for reproduction. Without pollinators, many plants would fail to produce fruits or seeds.



“In most of the studies conducted on this issue across the world, plants were found not to bear fruit if no pollinator was present,“ noted Maddi Artamendi, a researcher at the University of the Basque Country (<a href="https://www.ehu.eus/en/en-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UPV/EHU</a>).



“Studies of this type have been mostly conducted on crop species, but that does not give a true picture, since the diversity of pollinators is going to decrease, is already decreasing, but is not going to disappear completely."



“What is more, wild plants were also taken into consideration as well as crop plants. We wanted to approach the subject from a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">realistic perspective</a>.”



Her research challenges the idea that only crops suffer from pollinator loss. Wild plants are equally affected, and their decline could disrupt entire ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-pollinator-decline">Impact of pollinator decline</h2>



A study by Artamendi and Ainhoa Magrach, an Ikerbasque Research Professor at Butler County Community College (<a href="https://www.bc3.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BC3</a>) highlights the need to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-pollinators-wild-bees-boosts-food-supply-income/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator diversity</a>. 



The researchers stress the urgency of addressing factors that reduce pollinator numbers. The study found that a decrease in pollinators negatively affects plant reproduction, reducing fruit quantity, seed numbers, and fruit weight. Wild plants suffer more from pollinator loss than cultivated plants.



Self-pollinating plants also benefit from diverse pollinators. “Showing that it is very beneficial for these plants to exchange pollen,” explained Artamendi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-pollinators-and-plant-reproduction">Wild pollinators and plant reproduction</h2>



The study reveals that wild pollinators contribute more to plant reproduction than domestic pollinators, such as honey bees. A decline in wild pollinators significantly harms plant reproductive success.



The loss of invertebrate pollinators is more severe than that of vertebrates. Nocturnal pollinators are disappearing faster than diurnal pollinators. The decline of wild pollinators is greater than that of domestic pollinators. 



These findings highlight the urgent need to protect a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-wars-plants-compete-for-space-on-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-of-pollinators">Decline of pollinators </h2>



To understand pollinator decline, Artamendi and Magrach conducted a meta-analysis of 207 studies from 46 countries. This type of analysis combines data from multiple studies, allowing researchers to find broad patterns.



“We analyzed research done across the world. We had to bear in mind that there are different varieties of plants depending on the climate, that the influence on one plant or another may have been different, and how large the sample was, etc.,“ explained Artamendi.



“We took into account many variables so that all the pieces of research could be compared, and that is how we achieved a real, quantifiable result.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-a-broader-perspective">Need for a broader perspective</h2>



The researchers concluded that all pollinators, both wild and domestic, play a vital role in plant reproduction.



“We cannot focus on domestic pollinators alone. There are more pollinators, and we saw that they are all of great importance in the reproductive success of plants and in maintaining plant diversity," the team noted.



"We should not focus just on crop plants and domestic pollinators, the view has to be opened out.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollinator-protection-matters">Why pollinator protection matters</h2>



The decline of pollinators is not just an environmental issue - it’s a crisis that could reshape entire ecosystems. This study reinforces the importance of protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> to keep nature thriving and ensure stable food production.



By taking action now - whether through conservation efforts, policy changes, or individual choices like planting pollinator-friendly gardens - humanity can help slow this decline. Protecting pollinators means protecting life itself.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02595-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Pollinators are disappearing, and it’s bad news for plants

Pollination happens everywhere, but most people don’t notice it. Small...

When thinking about why animals look the way they do, color is often front and center. However, humans are mostly limited to seeing a certain slice of the spectrum, ignoring the ultraviolet (UV) range that many animals use in their daily lives.&nbsp;



A recent study by scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) highlights the importance of UV coloration in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-group-of-snakes-has-a-new-evolutionary-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a>, showing that UV patterns are widespread and may play a significant role in evading predators such as birds.



The findings point to a broader issue in the study of color evolution: researchers tend to focus on colors we humans can detect.&nbsp;



“A lot of UV color work is done in systems that we consider traditionally bright and colorful, like birds, flowers and butterflies, but a lot of this color research is really biased by the human perception of color,” said Hayley Crowell, a doctoral student in the U-M Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-signals-in-the-uv-spectrum">Hidden signals in the UV spectrum</h2>



Crowell notes that much of the past work on UV color has concentrated on reproductive behaviors - things like UV ‘nectar guides’ in flowers that help steer insects to the part of the flower necessary for pollination.



In snakes, the team suspected UV coloration might be used for different reasons. Because snakes don’t typically rely on bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-system-takes-photos-in-the-same-colors-that-different-animals-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colors</a> to find mates, the scientists hypothesized that UV might be associated more with camouflage or environmental signaling.



The researchers analyzed 110 snake species, collected in various regions ranging from Colorado to Peru. Many of the species examined in the study can see UV light in ways that humans cannot.&nbsp;



Using a specialized camera lens and filters, they captured images of the snakes, searching for ultraviolet reflection patterns. Importantly, they did not rely on black lights to observe fluorescence; instead, they looked at the UV color that the snakes naturally reflect - colors invisible to the human eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-colors-of-snakes">The hidden colors of snakes</h2>



Next, the researchers tested how different factors - such as a snake’s age, sex, habitat, evolutionary background, and how visible the snake was to predators - might correlate with having more or less UV color.&nbsp;



To their surprise, the biggest driver of UV coloration turned out to be where and how the snakes live. Arboreal snakes that spend most of their time in trees and are active at night had the highest levels of UV reflection.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-snake-skins-in-their-nests-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a>, which can also see UV color, are one of snakes’ biggest predators,” Crowell explained.&nbsp;



For a nocturnal, tree-dwelling snake, sporting a heavy UV reflection might be inconsequential at night - but can provide camouflage during the day, when birds are actively hunting.&nbsp;



Leaves, lichens, and other vegetation are all known to reflect UV light. Thus, a snake displaying UV patterns could blend seamlessly into its sunlit habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-lack-of-sex-differences">Surprising lack of sex differences</h2>



One unexpected finding was that UV patterns did not differ substantially between male and female snakes.&nbsp;



“Because reproduction drives UV color evolution in so many other species, the lack of sexual differences in snakes was a surprise,” said study co-author Alison Davis Rabosky, an associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at U-M.&nbsp;



“But I don’t think snakes are actually some kind of outlier doing color ‘differently’ than other animals. I think we scientists have simply overlooked a lot of UV coloration in cryptically colored species, especially in insects. They are the next frontier.”



Snakes are closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-take-bigger-risks-when-they-are-hungry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>, and lizard species are known for strong sexual dimorphism - males often have flashier colors or bigger ornaments than females.&nbsp;



In contrast, the lack of color contrast between male and female snakes suggests that sexual selection may not drive color differences as much in snakes as it does in their lizard relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-individual-variations">Intriguing individual variations</h2>



The researchers also found that some snakes of the same species, same sex, and from the same location could differ dramatically in UV reflectance levels.&nbsp;



Two individuals might look nearly identical in the visible color spectrum, but one reflects UV strongly and the other does not. This highlights the complexity of color usage - humans simply cannot see it, so the reasons behind these differences remain obscure.



Similarly, evolutionary relationships among snakes didn’t always predict UV usage: some closely related species varied significantly in the presence or intensity of UV reflectance.&nbsp;



Even within the same genus, the team found both strongly UV-reflective and barely UV-reflective species or populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reassessing-our-vision-of-animal-color">Reassessing our vision of animal color</h2>



The new research underscores the concept that just focusing on colors visible to humans could hide a great deal of evolutionary strategy.&nbsp;



By revealing that snakes employ UV coloration widely - often for camouflage and not for sex-based selection - this study challenges assumptions about how color is used throughout the animal kingdom.&nbsp;



“I think what’s so exceptional about this study is that we got to look at patterns of UV color across so many species and individuals,” said co-author Hannah Weller, a postdoctoral research fellow at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>. 



“This amazing dataset really helped us start to understand just how variable a trait like this is, even in a group where we wouldn’t expect it.”



Ultimately, the researchers hope to inspire further investigations of UV coloration in other less-studied animal groups, especially among those perceived by humans as drab or colorless.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49506-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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Snakes use invisible colors to outsmart predators

When thinking about why animals look the way they do,...

With spring approaching, many people are already considering which flowers to plant. Flowers do more than simply make gardens look nice. They are an important source of food for birds and insects, particularly wild bees.



In cities, the appropriate combination of flowers can be the difference between healthy bee populations and unhealthy ones.



A recent study has explored how the properties of flowers affect urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flower-strips-can-boost-wild-bee-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee populations</a>. 



The researchers discovered that a diverse range of flower sizes and shapes is crucial for supporting wild bee populations. A more varied floral landscape promotes a richer and more abundant bee community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-flower-shape-and-size-matter">Why flower shape and size matter</h2>



Study co-author Carly Ziter is an associate professor in the Department of Biology in the Faculty of Arts and Science at <a href="https://www.concordia.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Concordia University</a>.



"We know that flowers are an important source of nutrition for bees, but not all flowers are created equal," said Professor Ziter.



"Having a high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-secrets-of-flower-diversity-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flowers</a> is a key to supporting bee populations, but our research goes one step further to show a possible mechanism: that having a diversity of floral species is important because they have different shapes and sizes."



Flowers store <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-carrying-nectar-avoid-overheating-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> within their corolla - the tube-like structure formed by a ring of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-engineer-their-petals-to-be-visually-attractive-to-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">petals</a>. Different bee species have different tongue lengths, which means some bees can only access nectar from specific flower shapes.



"This follows the idea of size-matching, where corollas are the right size for a certain type of bee’s proboscis or tongue, allowing it to effectively connect to the flower’s nectar," noted Professor Ziter.



"So, whether a bee has a short or longer proboscis, they will be able to access the nutrition they need if there are multiple kinds of flower morphology nearby."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-bees-in-the-city">Tracking bees in the city</h2>



The team collected data in July 2020 from 16 sites across the Island of Montreal, including community gardens, nature parks, and cemeteries.



The researchers recorded nearly 2,000 bee samples and identified 150 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-90-of-flowering-plant-species-rely-on-animal-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of flowers</a> within small two-by-two-meter plots.



The density of flowers was measured, and the size of each corolla was documented using digital calipers.



A total of 94 different species of bees were observed during the study. While nectar samples were also collected, no firm connection was established between sugar content and bee diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-diversity-and-the-food-web">Plant diversity and the food web</h2>



"We wanted to see if there was an optimal value for corolla traits," said Professor Ziter. "Was it better to have small corollas, medium ones, or a diversity of them? The results showed quite strongly that having a diversity of corolla sizes was important."



Thriving bee populations play a vital role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a>, supporting entire ecosystems and sustaining food supplies.



According to Professor Ziter, the study supports the belief that a diversity of flowers impacts the next trophic level, which contributes to an ecosystem’s food web in a way that goes far beyond bees. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-make-your-garden-bee-friendly">How to make your garden bee-friendly</h2>



City planners, gardeners, and anyone interested in promoting biodiversity can apply these findings in practical ways.



"If you are planting, try to think about what makes these species different. Are they different colors? Are they different sizes? Do they bloom at different times? The more you can think about these different axes of variety in your own garden, the more you are likely to be better off in terms of supporting biodiversity," said Professor Ziter.



By planting a diverse mix of flowers, urban residents can play a small but significant role in sustaining local bee populations and contributing to a healthier environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-the-right-flowers-for-bees">Choosing the right flowers for bees</h2>



For a bee-friendly garden, native plants are often the best choice since they have co-evolved with local species and provide the most suitable nectar and pollen.



Flowers with open, accessible petals are ideal for short-tongued bees, while tubular flowers cater to species with longer proboscises.



Bloom timing is another crucial factor. By planting a variety of flowers that bloom at different times throughout the growing season, gardeners can ensure a steady food supply for bees from early spring to late fall. 



Perennial flowers such as coneflowers, milkweed, and goldenrod are excellent choices, as they return each year and require minimal maintenance.



Avoiding pesticide use and opting for organic gardening practices further enhances the bee-friendly environment. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3067" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



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Bee-friendly gardening: Why flower diversity is so important

With spring approaching, many people are already considering which flowers...

species in Hemisinidae

News coming your way