A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved Darwin right - it links today’s birds to ancient dinosaurs. Even though the first specimen was discovered over 160 years ago, this iconic fossil continues to offer fresh insights into how birds came to fly.



One of the most revealing specimens yet, the “Chicago Archaeopteryx,” was recently studied by researchers from the Field Museum. 



Their findings, published in the journal Nature, were made possible thanks to remarkable preservation and advanced technology.



The fossil was put on public display in 2024 at the Field Museum, giving both scientists and the public a close look at one of the most complete Archaeopteryx fossils found to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smallest-archaeopteryx-fossil-ever-found">Smallest Archaeopteryx fossil ever found</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx was discovered in the Solnhofen limestone of Germany, a site well known for yielding all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx specimens</a>.



This particular fossil had been in private hands since before 1990. In 2022, it arrived at the Field Museum through a collective effort from fossil enthusiasts and supporters.



“When we first got our Archaeopteryx, I was like, this is very, very, very cool, and I was beyond excited," enthused Jingmai O’Connor, the Field Museum’s associate curator of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nothosaur-polar-sea-reptile-fossil-oldest-ever-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil reptiles</a> and lead author of the paper. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_illustration_credit-michael-rothman_1s.webp" alt="Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Credit: Michael Rothman" class="wp-image-1970311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration showing Archaeopteryx in life, including its tertial feathers that would have helped it fly. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Michael Rothman</figcaption></figure>



"But at the same time, Archaeopteryx has been known for over 160 years, so I wasn’t sure what new things we would be able to learn. Our specimen is so well-preserved and so well-prepared that we’re actually learning a ton of new information, from the tip of its snout to the tip of its tail.”



This specimen is the smallest known Archaeopteryx, being only about the size of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-so-dim-witted-pigeons-have-their-own-version-of-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pigeon</a>. Its tiny bones are embedded in extremely hard limestone, making extraction especially tricky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-the-archaeopteryx-fossil">Preparing the Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



Because the bones and soft tissues are nearly the same color as the surrounding rock, even identifying where the fossil ended and stone began was a major challenge. Preparing it took over a year. 



The Field Museum’s fossil prep team worked under UV light to avoid damaging delicate soft tissues and used CT scans to guide their work.



“A CT scanner is essentially a machine that takes a series of X-rays, which it uses to build a three-dimensional image, based on differences in density. It lets you see inside things,” explained O’Connor.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CT scanning</a> was very important for our preparation process - it let us know things like, the bone is exactly 3.2 millimeters (0.1 inches) below the surface of the rock, which let us know exactly how far we could go before we would hit the bone."



This is the first time a complete Archaeopteryx has been CT scanned and the data made available.



The UV lighting was equally important. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Previous studies</a> have shown that there’s something in the chemical composition of Solnhofen fossils that makes the soft tissues fluoresce, or glow under UV light,” said O’Connor.



“So, our amazing prep team utilized UV light periodically through the preparation process to make sure that they weren't accidentally removing any soft tissues that you can’t see with the naked eye.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-detail-in-this-archaeopteryx-fossil">Unprecedented detail in this Archaeopteryx fossil</h2>



The result is a specimen that reveals more fine detail than any previous Archaeopteryx fossil.



“We’re lucky in that this specimen happens to be extremely well-preserved, but we can also see features that probably were preserved in other specimens, but which didn’t make it through cruder preparation processes in the past,” said O’Connor. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/archaeopteryx-fossil_field-slab_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum." class="wp-image-1970309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx. Click image to enlarge. Photo by Delaney Drummond. (c) Field Museum.</figcaption></figure>



“Having the preparation of this specimen done by scientists whose goal was to preserve as much tissue and bone as possible made a huge difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The new fossil has helped answer questions about several parts of Archaeopteryx anatomy - its skull, hands, feet, and wings.



“The bones in the roof of the mouth help us learn about the evolution of something called cranial kinesis - a feature in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-hollow-bones-just-like-modern-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern birds</a> that lets the beak move independently from the braincase," explained O'Connor.



She added that, although this may not sound exciting to the average person, to those who study bird evolution it is an important thing. 



It's been hypothesized that having <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialized skulls</a> for different ecological niches might have helped birds evolve into the more than 11,000 species present today.



Preserved soft tissues in the feet and hands suggest that this animal walked on the ground and possibly even climbed trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-archaeopteryx-took-flight">How Archaeopteryx took flight</h2>



One of the most debated topics in paleontology is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how flight evolved</a> in dinosaurs.



Archaeopteryx wasn’t the first feathered dinosaur, nor the first with wing-like structures, but it may have been the earliest to truly take flight. 



“We think it’s the earliest known dinosaur that was able to use its feathers to fly,” said O’Connor, who highlighted this as her favorite finding in the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Archaeopteryx-fossil_UV-light_soft-tissue_credit-Delaney-Drummond_1s.webp" alt="The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Credit: Delaney Drummond" class="wp-image-1970313"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Chicago Archaeopteryx under UV light to show soft tissues alongside the skeleton. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Delaney Drummond</figcaption></figure>



The key to its aerial ability may lie in a set of upper arm feathers known as tertials. Archaeopteryx had an unusually long upper arm bone, which could have created a disruptive gap in the wing's surface - problematic for flight. 



“If air passes through that gap, that disrupts the lift you’re generating, and you can’t fly,” O’Connor explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-modern-birds">Differences in modern birds</h2>



Modern birds evolved shorter upper arm bones and specialized tertial feathers to close this gap. 



Remarkably, the Chicago specimen of Archaeopteryx shows it had long tertial feathers too - something unseen in its flightless dinosaur relatives. 



“Our specimen is the first Archaeopteryx that was preserved and prepared in such a way that we can see its long tertial feathers,” she noted.



These feathers, absent in closely related non-avian dinosaurs, suggest those creatures couldn’t fly. 



“That tells us... Archaeopteryx could,” O’Connor added. “This also adds to evidence that suggests dinosaurs evolved flight more than once - which I think is super exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-more-to-learn-160-years-later">Still more to learn, 160 years later</h2>



The Chicago Archaeopteryx has already helped scientists answer long-standing questions. But this study is only the start.



“We're learning something exciting and new from just about every part of the body that we have preserved. And this paper is really just the tip of the iceberg,” remarked O’Connor.



After 160 years, it’s clear that Archaeopteryx still has plenty to teach us. Thanks to the care and tools used in preparing this fossil, we’re seeing it in ways that past generations of scientists could only imagine.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08912-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Archaeopteryx fossil discovered with preserved soft tissue proves Darwin was right all along

Archaeopteryx is often referred to as the fossil that proved...

They found this child’s bones 27 years ago in a shallow rock shelter in central Portugal. Researchers immediately noticed that the young skeleton had traits belonging to modern humans and to Neanderthals, suggesting these two groups once had children together.



Recent testing shows the remains are around 28,000 years old, which supports the idea that these populations did more than simply coexist. Genetic <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp5769" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already confirm that many people today carry some Neanderthal DNA.



“Being able to successfully date the child felt like giving them back a tiny piece of their story, which is a huge privilege,” said <a href="https://marine-conservation.earth.miami.edu/people/center-faculty-and-staff/bethan-linscott/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bethan Linscott</a> from the University of Miami, who helped lead the effort to pinpoint the child’s age.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-an-ancient-grave">Piecing together an ancient grave</h2>



Archaeologists mentioned that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/">bones</a> were colored with red pigment. That detail suggests the child, likely only around four years old, might have been wrapped for a special burial.



The skeleton’s body proportions indicate mixed heritage. Experts say these features align with evidence that humans and Neanderthals shared genetic material, which still appears in modern populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-neanderthals-confirmation">Humans and Neanderthals confirmation</h2>



For years, scientists struggled to determine the age of the child’s bones. Contamination from roots and soil made traditional <a href="https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-is-carbon-14-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiocarbon dating</a> unreliable.



With updated methods, they’ve now shown that the child lived around 28,000 years ago - right in the window when humans and Neanderthals were both present in Europe. 



This reaffirms that the child came from a population where the two groups had already blended.



Scientists relied on a method that focuses on analysis of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/hydroxyproline" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydroxyproline</a>, an amino acid that helps form bone collagen. By isolating this portion of proteins, they overcame contamination that had previously prevented accurate dating.



Earlier tests failed because of plant material and residue that altered the results. This amino acid-based approach yielded a more trustworthy age estimate that suggested the burial predated modern times by many thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-child-s-physical-features">Tracing the child’s physical features</h2>



Researchers have noted that the child’s skeleton displayed a mix of traits. The limb proportions were similar to those seen in Neanderthals, while the skull and jaw had features reminiscent of modern humans.



This combination supports the idea of ancient interbreeding. It also suggests that early hybrid individuals were not rare accidents but part of a broader pattern of human evolution in Ice Age Europe.



“The study of where humans came from is important for the same reason we keep the portraits of our parents and grandparents,” said <a href="https://ia.ub.edu/en/joao-zilhao/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">João Zilhão</a> from the University of Lisbon. Anthropologists stress that such discoveries highlight how interwoven human origins can be.&nbsp;



This child’s grave shows that multiple human groups carried on shared traditions. It reminds us that cultural practices, like careful burials, may have spanned diverse communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-burial-practices-reveal-social-ties">How burial practices reveal social ties</h2>



The child’s grave wasn’t a simple resting place - it reflected cultural meaning. The red ochre staining on the bones and the possible use of animal skin indicate symbolic rituals that may have been shared across communities.



Nearby findings, including a carefully placed juvenile rabbit bone and traces of charcoal under the body, suggest intentional acts tied to mourning or belief. These choices give clues about how early humans related to one another, honored their dead, and marked moments of loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-the-red-deer-bones">The mystery of the red deer bones</h2>



Two red deer bones found near the child’s body were once thought to be part of a funeral ritual - maybe offerings or tools used during burial. But new hydroxyproline dating shows that those bones are older than the child, ruling out that theory.



It’s now more likely the deer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-bone-tools-suggest-early-humans-were-smarter-than-we-thought/">bones</a> were already in the ground when the grave was dug. They may have just been moved accidentally during burial or used to help position the body, not placed there for symbolic reasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-neanderthals-what-s-next">Humans and Neanderthals - what's next?</h2>



Charcoal found beneath the child’s legs was once believed to mark a ritual fire set during the burial. But the charcoal turned out to be at least 150 years older than the child, which weakens the idea that it was intentionally burned for the ceremony.



Instead, researchers think it was already part of the shelter floor, possibly left from older human activity in the area. While it added mystery to the burial, the charcoal may have had nothing to do with the child's burial at all.



Researchers plan to apply similar dating methods to other remains that once seemed impossible to date. The hope is that these techniques will uncover more about where our ancestors traveled and how they mingled with different populations.



Bringing these findings to the public presents a broader lesson about our shared past. The long-buried skeleton serves as a symbol of how varied groups once connected to shape who we are today.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp5769" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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A 28,000-year-old 'hybrid child' confirms interbreeding between humans and Neanderthals

They found this child’s bones 27 years ago in a...

Glaciers are melting faster than at any other time in recorded history, and the consequences extend far beyond iconic vanishing ice.



A recent review synthesizes more than 160 studies. It warns that the loss of glacial ecosystems is triggering planet-wide ripples across ice, water, land, and the countless organisms that depend on them.



The analysis was conducted by an international team that includes researchers from the University of Wollongong (<a href="https://www.uow.edu.au/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UOW</a>) and the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>. 



The research highlights a looming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity</a> crisis in some of Earth’s most specialized environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-store-climate-secrets">Glaciers store climate secrets</h2>



Study co-author Sharon Robinson is a fellow at UOW’s School of Science and Deputy Director of Science Implementation at <a href="https://arcsaef.com/">Securing Antarctica’s Environmental Future</a> (SAEF). 



“Glaciers are one of the most valuable tools we have for understanding the health of our planet,” said Robinson.



Ice cores preserve air bubbles and chemical clues, revealing thousands of years of past climates, eruptions, and temperature shifts.



Yet these same glaciers are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrinking</a>. Global forecasts suggest that by mid-century, the world will lose roughly one-third of present glacial mass. As meltwater pours into rivers and oceans, physical and biological systems are jolted out of long-held equilibria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystems-losing-life">Ecosystems losing life</h2>



“Glaciers and glacially influenced ecosystems host unique biodiversity spanning all kingdoms of life, but glaciers are retreating as the global climate warms, threatening specialist species, ecosystem functions, and stability,” Robinson said.



Microbial mats, mosses, cold-adapted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">insects</a>, and hardy vertebrates - all honed over millennia to thrive in frigid, nutrient-poor settings - now face habitat shrinkage or outright disappearance.



“Glacier retreat drives changes in biodiversity and ecosystem functions across countless different habitats," Robinson noted. "Glacial ecosystems worldwide contain thousands of microorganisms, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newcomers-overtake-native-species">Newcomers overtake native species</h2>



When ice withdraws, bare rock and sediment open new habitats for life. Pioneer species - those first colonizers - often flourish in the short term.



But the study reveals a troubling trend. As temperatures rise, generalist species outcompete the specialists that once defined these ecosystems in Glaciers.



Glacial ecosystems lose their unique biodiversity over time as generalist species gradually replace specialized microbes and organisms. 



"This ecological turnover reduces the distinctive biological signature of glacial landscapes and may permanently erode global biodiversity," Robinson said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-melt-reshapes-rivers">Glacier melt reshapes rivers</h2>



Beyond local habitat loss, accelerated melt reshapes regional hydrology. Normally, glaciers act as slow-release reservoirs, feeding rivers through dry seasons and buffering communities against drought. 



Rapid melt sends surges of freshwater that disrupt ecosystems, raise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-will-spend-over-3-trillion-dollars-damages-from-sea-level-rise/">sea levels</a>, and threaten water supplies.



“Given that three-quarters of Earth's freshwater is stored in glaciers, rapid retreat will lead to the disappearance or considerable disruption of many aquatic ecosystems and species. This includes food supply, foraging areas, and mating grounds and could lead to local extinctions,” Robinson said.



“The future of mammals who use glaciers as refuges or as places to nest is also uncertain. Essentially, the distinctive functions performed by glaciers may be eroded, leading to long-time impacts on the planet's delicate ecosystem.”



Changes in meltwater flow can also alter ocean currents and weather patterns far from the ice, linking glacial retreat to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/">extreme climate events</a> and fisheries collapse worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-impacts">Understanding the impacts</h2>



The review stresses that scientists still lack detailed knowledge of how newly ice-free landscapes evolve over decades. Which pioneer species establish their habitats there? How quickly do nutrient cycles stabilize? Which functional traits help or hinder survival? 



Filling these gaps is crucial for forecasting biodiversity outcomes and crafting conservation plans.



“We need to understand the impacts to be able to inform management conservation practices and policies, which could mitigate the devastating changes taking place in the glacial landscape,” Robinson said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-push-to-save-glaciers">Global push to save glaciers</h2>



Recognition of these far-reaching impacts prompted the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations</a> to declare 2025 the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation. 



The initiative aims to raise awareness of glaciers’ roles in climate regulation, hydrological cycles, and socio-economic stability.



The researchers hope the initiative will spur funding for long-term monitoring and strengthen international collaboration on adaptation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-signal-climate-crisis">Melting glaciers signal climate crisis</h2>



Glaciers are melting symbols of planetary change, but they are also living ecosystems teeming with organisms found nowhere else.



As ice retreats, it sets off a domino effect - from species loss to weather shifts - stressing the need to protect the cryosphere.



The new synthesis makes clear that protecting glaciers is not just about saving ice; it is about preserving the intricate web of life - and the climatic services - that ice sustains.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44358-025-00049-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Biodiversity</a>.



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Melting glaciers are putting many unique ecosystems at risk

Glaciers are melting faster than at any other time in...

In the heart of Mexico, a food revolution is quietly taking shape. Food scientist Raquel Gomez is reimagining one of the country’s most iconic foods - the tortilla. 



With a vision to provide a longer-lasting, nutrient-rich option, Gomez is developing a wheat flour tortilla infused with probiotics. This innovation has the potential to impact millions, particularly those in impoverished areas where refrigeration is a luxury. 



Gomez’s work is more than just a scientific endeavor; it is a mission to tackle malnutrition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-system-can-predict-child-malnutrition-before-it-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> insecurity in Mexico.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortillas-can-spoil-quickly">Tortillas can spoil quickly</h2>



In Mexico, tortillas aren’t just food - they’re a way of life. Every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-alternative-seafood-can-help-save-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meal</a> revolves around them. Breakfast might include huevos rancheros with tortillas. Lunch often features tacos or quesadillas. Dinner could be a simple tortilla roll with beans or cheese. It’s a staple that shows up on every plate, every day.



But there’s a problem. Tortillas spoil quickly. Fresh corn tortillas, in particular, become inedible within a few days, especially in hot, humid conditions. 



Most Mexicans can’t store large quantities because they don’t have refrigerators. So, they buy fresh tortillas daily from neighborhood shops, known as tortillerías.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortillas-that-last">Tortillas that last</h2>



Gomez sees a better way. Instead of buying tortillas every day, why not make one that lasts longer? She’s developed a wheat flour tortilla that can stay fresh for up to a month without refrigeration. That’s unusual. Traditional tortillas start to grow mold in just a few days.



But this isn’t just a scientific experiment. "It was developed with the most vulnerable people in mind," Gomez said. She’s thinking about families without fridges, those in rural areas where food spoils quickly.



If her tortillas can last a month, that means fewer trips to the market, less money spent, and more security for families struggling to get by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probiotics-extend-shelf-life">Probiotics extend shelf life </h2>



Probiotics are live microorganisms commonly found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgotten-indigenous-crops-could-help-solve-modern-climate-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">foods</a> like yogurt, kefir, and kimchi. They’re often called “good bacteria” because they promote gut health and aid digestion. But in Gomez’s lab, probiotics are doing more than just that. 



The team has incorporated probiotics into their tortilla dough. Most tortillas don’t contain these beneficial microorganisms. But here, they’re the secret weapon. Why? Because probiotics do two critical things.



First, they prevent mold growth. In these probiotic-packed tortillas, the good bacteria outcompete the mold, keeping the tortilla fresh for weeks.



Second, they provide nutritional benefits. Probiotics are known to improve gut health, thus aiding in digestion and boosting the immune system. So, Gomez’s tortilla isn’t just a food item. It’s also a functional food - one that nourishes the body while staying fresh without preservatives.



The result is a tortilla that doesn’t just sit on the shelf - it lasts on the shelf. It remains nutritious. It stays edible. And for families without refrigeration, that’s a game changer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-malnutrition-with-tortillas">Fighting malnutrition with tortillas</h2>



This isn’t just food science. It’s survival science. Nearly 14% of children under five in Mexico suffer from chronic malnutrition. In Indigenous communities, the number jumps to 27 percent.



Gomez wants her tortilla in those kitchens. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lab-grown-chicken-just-got-a-flavor-and-texture-boost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food</a> that lasts means fewer trips to the store, less expense and more meals on the table.



Teresa Sanchez lives in Chiapas, one of Mexico’s poorest states. In her small, wooden house, there’s no refrigerator. She has never owned one. Instead, she cooks on a wood-burning stove, just as her mother and grandmother did. It’s a way of life passed down through generations.



When asked why she doesn’t have a fridge, Sanchez’s answer is simple: "Where are you going to get a refrigerator if there's no money?" Refrigerators are expensive, and in areas like Chiapas, few families can afford them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-waste-and-more-stability">Less waste and more stability</h2>



Without refrigeration, keeping food fresh becomes a constant challenge. Sanchez boils meat to preserve it. If it doesn’t get eaten that day, she boils it again the next day. And the day after that. Repeated boiling keeps bacteria at bay, but it also drains nutrients and alters taste.



Gomez knows this cycle all too well. She’s met families like Sanchez’s. She understands the daily struggle to keep food from spoiling. 



The new tortilla is designed to last for weeks without a fridge, and to offer a solution for families who can’t afford to lose food to spoilage. For people like Sanchez, it could mean less boiling, less waste, and more stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preservatives-or-probiotics">Preservatives or probiotics?</h2>



Most tortillas on store shelves are packed with preservatives. Calcium propionate is the common one. It keeps mold away, but there’s a cost. 



"One of the most commonly used additives in processed wheat flour tortillas is calcium propionate, which is considered harmful to the colon's microbiota," said Guillermo Arteaga, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.unison.mx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sonora</a>.



Gomez takes a different path. Her tortillas rely on probiotics instead. They are natural, clean and do not contain artificial ingredients.



Right now, Gomez’s tortillas use wheat flour. It’s the go-to in northern Mexico. But in the south, corn rules. Corn is cheaper, more readily available, and more culturally significant.



However, corn also spoils faster. Gomez wants to change that. Her team is working to adapt the probiotic method to corn tortillas. It’s not easy. Different grain requires different fermentation, but it’s worth trying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-the-tortillas-beyond-the-lab">Moving the tortillas beyond the lab</h2>



In 2023, Gomez’s work seemed poised for a breakthrough. The National Autonomous University of Mexico (<a href="https://www.unaminternacional.unam.mx/en/unam" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNAM</a>) signed a deal to distribute her probiotic tortillas. This could have brought the tortillas to stores and, more importantly, to the people who need them most.



But the deal fell through. The reasons aren’t specified, but the outcome is clear - the tortillas never made it to market. They remained in the lab, stuck in the experimental phase.



Despite the setback, Gomez kept pushing forward. In December, she received recognition for her work from the Mexican Institute of Industrial Property. The award acknowledged her innovation and the potential impact of her tortillas.



But while awards validate her efforts, they don’t put food on people’s tables. The tortillas need to move beyond the lab and into the hands of people like Teresa Sanchez, where they can actually help families struggling with food insecurity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-convincing-people-to-try-lab-made-tortillas">Convincing people to try lab-made tortillas</h2>



Gomez faces a tough challenge. In Mexico, fresh tortillas aren’t just food - they’re tradition. Families buy them warm, soft, and straight from neighborhood shops every day. 



The idea of a lab-made tortilla, even one packed with probiotics and designed to last a month without a fridge, feels foreign. Gomez knows this. "It was developed with the most vulnerable people in mind," she says, as if reminding herself why she started.



Gomez wants her tortilla in kitchens like Sanchez’s - a product that can endure the heat, stay fresh, and reduce food waste. But for now, the tortillas remain in the lab, waiting for a chance to reach those who need them most.



Gomez keeps working, keeps testing, keeps hoping. The tortillas haven’t made it to market yet. Maybe they never will. But if they do, they could be more than just food. They could buy time - time to eat, time to save money, time to survive. For families like Sanchez’s, that time could mean everything.



Information for this article was obtained from <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250513-scientists-in-mexico-develop-tortilla-for-people-with-no-fridge">Agence France-Presse</a>.



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New tortillas can last a month without refrigeration

In the heart of Mexico, a food revolution is quietly...

Plants in the Alps are now springing to life sooner than they did just a few decades ago. A new study shows that over the past 25 years, vegetation in mountain regions has begun growing about six days earlier on average after snowmelt than it used to.



The research, led by Michael Zehnder of the <a href="https://www.slf.ch/en/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF</a>, points to a clear driver: rapid warming following the disappearance of seasonal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-droughts-could-quadruple-by-2100-harming-water-supplies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snow</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-speeds-up-alpine-spring">Warming speeds up alpine spring</h2>



“On average, as a result of climate change, the ambient temperature is almost two degrees Celsius warmer after the disappearance of snow cover than it was 25 years ago,” Zehnder said. 



The warmth accelerates growth, quickly turning snow-covered slopes into green alpine meadows. While that might seem like a small shift in timing, it marks a substantial change in the rhythm of alpine life. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-spring-flowers-can-save-bees-and-boost-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> is reshaping mountain ecosystems,” Zehnder said. From flowers to farming, the pace of spring is picking up across elevations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alpine-life-feels-the-change">Alpine life feels the change</h2>



The changes in plant timing go beyond scientific curiosity. They touch various aspects of daily life in alpine regions.



For instance, “alpine farming might also start earlier in the future,” Zehnder noted, suggesting that warmer, greener pastures could prompt earlier seasonal grazing. 



Hikers and tourists may also experience spring in the alpine region earlier than in past decades, potentially altering the timing of peak visitation.



But perhaps most consequential is what this shift could mean for alpine biodiversity. Some plants quickly respond to warm temperatures. Others rely on internal clocks or light levels, waiting for longer days before growing.



Some plants don’t begin growing right after the snow disappears. Some species wait for longer daylight, while others sprout quickly in response to rising temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-clocks-at-different-heights">Different clocks at different heights</h2>



The study uncovered important variation across elevations. Near the treeline, around 2,000 meters above sea level, vegetation required more cumulative warmth to begin growing when snowmelt came early. 



In other words, the earlier the snow disappeared, the more warming days plants seemed to need before responding.



But higher up the slopes, plant communities showed more consistency. Even when snowmelt occurred early, these high-altitude plants appeared to rely on a fixed number of warm days before growth kicked in.



These subtle differences could have long-term consequences for how mountain vegetation evolves. 



Species that respond quickly to warmth may expand their range or outcompete those tied more rigidly to other cues. Over time, that could change not only which plants dominate specific locations but also the entire structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-ecosystems-are-thrown-off-balance-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpine ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-mountain-spring">Monitoring the mountain spring</h2>



To measure these changes, Zehnder analyzed data from 40 stations that are part of the <a href="https://www.sensalpin.ch/en/measuring-networks/imis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intercantonal Measurement and Information System</a> (IMIS), a Swiss weather and snow-monitoring network. Each station includes an ultrasonic sensor that tracks snow depth throughout the year.



“This way we receive data without having to be in the field ourselves,” Zehnder explained. Because those sensors work in summer, they detect subtle ground cover changes as snow melts and vegetation appears.



Zehnder used machine learning to train a model that distinguishes snow-covered ground from plant-covered ground using sensor data. With this model, he was able to pinpoint when each location made the transition from winter white to spring green over a 25-year period, from 1998 to 2023.



Still, to know which species were growing at the monitored sites, Zehnder had to go into the field himself. That meant trekking to remote IMIS stations at altitudes ranging from 1,700 to 2,700 meters above sea level. 



“Researchers cannot tell from the IMIS station data which plants are growing under the sensors,” he noted, so direct observation was essential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-picks-the-favorite-plants">Climate picks the favorite plants</h2>



Zehnder emphasized that not all Alpine plant species will benefit equally from earlier snowmelt and rising temperatures. 



“It’s important, though, to understand how different plant communities will have different responses to even earlier snowmelt in the future and who the winners and losers will be,” Zehnder said.



The shift in timing is likely to favor species that respond directly to warmth over those that wait for longer days. As these dynamics play out, the makeup of alpine meadows may transform, potentially reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-pressure-has-a-hidden-impact-on-plant-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a> in some locations.



Combining environmental data, fieldwork, and machine learning, the study reveals how climate change is shifting alpine life’s timing. With snow melting earlier and spring arriving sooner, the alpine region - like many of the world’s mountain ranges - are on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70195" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Alpine spring begins earlier, speeding up plant growth

Plants in the Alps are now springing to life sooner...

On May 13, 2025, scientists announced intriguing findings about the protective role of skin bacteria against sunlight. The research highlights how certain microorganisms on the skin might reduce the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation.



The scientists studied how some skin microbes adjust our response to UV exposure by breaking down a compound called <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-drug/def/cis-urocanic-acid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cis-urocanic acid</a>. This discovery sheds new light on how the skin's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teen-skin-bacteria-could-hold-the-secret-to-acne-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microscopic allies</a> could influence sun-related health issues.



The study was led by Dr. VijayKumar Patra from the International Center for Infection Research in Lyon, France, and the Research Unit for Photodermatology at the<a href="https://www.medunigraz.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Medical University of Graz</a> in Austria.



Dr. Patra and his colleagues uncovered how the skin’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-tool-analyzes-face-age-to-predict-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> might influence sun-induced effects through a specialized metabolic process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-bacteria-reduce-uv-damage">Skin bacteria reduce UV damage</h2>



The skin’s outer layer, known as the stratum corneum, is home to many microorganisms that coexist with our cells. Researchers have found that these organisms adapt to the skin’s available nutrients, creating products that can affect local immune responses.



One key factor is how the microbiome deals with sun-triggered molecules. By handling these molecules, microbes shape how skin cells react to environmental challenges. 



The experts observed that certain strains thrive when cis-urocanic acid is present, hinting at new ways to view sun protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-microbes-and-immune-responses">Skin microbes and immune responses</h2>



Scientists refer to cis-urocanic acid as an <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6223114/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immunosuppressive molecule</a> that can tamp down local defense mechanisms. This property is helpful in some cases, but it also raises concerns about skin damage if the immune system is weakened at the wrong moment.



Investigators found that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7919/">microbial metabolism</a> can reduce the impact of cis-urocanic acid on immune cells. They discovered a clear tie between bacterial growth patterns and skin’s ability to respond to sun exposure.



“This is the first time we have demonstrated a direct metabolic link between UV radiation, a host-derived molecule, and bacterial behavior that affects immune function,” said Dr. Marc Vocanson, from the French Institute of Health and Medical Research (<a href="https://www.inserm.fr/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INSERM</a>). 



The research illustrates how basic skin processes and microbial communities interact in surprising ways.



The findings strengthen the idea that the microbiome helps manage signals that keep our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alice-ball-young-chemist-transformed-an-ancient-kava-plant-into-an-effective-therapy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> healthy. They also suggest that interactions between bacteria and immune cells can shift with changes in the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-inside-sun-exposed-skin">What happens inside sun-exposed skin</h2>



When the skin is hit by UVB rays, a common type of ultraviolet radiation, a molecule called trans-urocanic acid in the outer skin layer changes form. It turns into cis-urocanic acid, which has strong effects on immune activity in the area.



This transformation isn’t just chemical - it has real consequences for how the skin reacts to threats. Cis-urocanic acid tends to suppress immune responses, which might help with inflammation but can also make the skin more <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/60355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vulnerable</a> to infections or cancer-causing mutations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-ways-to-protect-skin">New ways to protect skin </h2>



Dr. Peter Wolf is an expert in the research unit for photodermatology at the Medical University of Graz.



“These findings open the door to microbiome-aware sun protection, where we not only protect the skin from UV radiation, but also consider how resident microbes can alter the immune landscape after exposure,” said Dr. Wolf.



This perspective could influence the design of sunscreens and after-sun care. Experts note that any new approach will need to account for the balance between cutting down damaging UV effects and preserving beneficial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protein-changes-discovered-protect-humans-mammals-from-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">functions</a>. 



The research may ultimately reshape how physicians use UV-based therapies for conditions like psoriasis or dermatitis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-bacteria-to-heal-skin">Using bacteria to heal skin</h2>



Changes in the microbiome might influence how sunburns develop or how quickly skin recovers after strong UV exposure. Some scientists are already investigating how lotions with helpful bacteria could support skin repair.



At this stage, there is still plenty to learn before these ideas translate into clinical treatments. 



The researchers stress that controlled studies are needed to confirm the best way to keep the skin microbiome stable while reducing UV risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-bacteria-and-uv-protection">Skin bacteria and UV protection</h2>



“This pivotal study shows that microbial communities are not passive victims of environmental stress but dynamic regulators of immune responses, capable of metabolizing UV-induced skin products such as cis-urocanic acid,” said Dr. Anna Di Nardo of <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego</a>.



She noted that skin bacteria can shape how our bodies deal with UV-induced changes, highlighting the significance of microbial metabolism as a factor in skin health. 



Dr. Di Nardo also mentioned growing concerns about sun damage and the potential role of beneficial microbes in preventing long-term effects.



Scientists across dermatology and immunology agree that this link between microbes and UV response holds promise for better prevention strategies. It also raises questions about whether tailored skincare could tap into these microbial interactions in the future. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jidonline.org/article/S0022-202X(25)00405-1/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Investigative Dermatology</a>.



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Our skin's bacteria could be a natural sunscreen

On May 13, 2025, scientists announced intriguing findings about the...

Mountain environments have captured our imagination for centuries. They offer striking landscapes, distinctive habitats, and a sense of calm that many species find comforting.



A recent analysis suggests that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> may cope with rising temperatures better than people once thought. 



This new research, led by I-Ching Chen from the American Association for the Advancement of Science (<a href="https://www.aaas.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AAAS</a>), challenges the idea that all mountain species are on a one-way trip toward extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-warming-affects-mountain-species">How warming affects mountain species</h2>



Scientists have long examined how warming affects animal and plant ranges. One <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group</a> found that alpine regions are experiencing temperature changes faster than many lower areas. This has prompted questions about how quickly species move to stay in suitable conditions.



Traditional theories point to a simple path: as warmth creeps higher, species must scramble upslope or vanish. 



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-wetlands-are-turning-into-mercury-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountain</a> creatures do climb to cooler elevations, but a new dataset of thousands of historical and modern range records suggests that most are managing shifts without the sweeping extinctions many feared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-predictions-may-be-overstated">Extinction predictions may be overstated</h2>



The widely recognized <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1817416115" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">escalator to extinction</a> concept predicts that steep terrain restricts movement. Higher elevations leave little room for escape, so species get stuck and face extinction. 



However, the researchers found no solid evidence of mass disappearances linked directly to this idea. "Observed changes largely fell within random expectations, accounting for geometric constraints,” noted Chen. 



The team used a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43586-020-00001-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bayesian modeling approach</a>, a probabilistic method that helps analyze data under uncertain conditions, to track changes in where species live.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-species-with-limited-ranges">Mountain species with limited ranges</h2>



Some species occupy narrow ranges and were predicted to vanish first when forced to new territory. Many have expanded to higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-plants-are-not-safe-from-rapid-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground</a>, but they did not always abandon lower limits.



The study’s findings suggest that tight mountain boundaries are not immediately sealing any fate. Instead, these expansions reflect a flexible response that might help these specialized creatures endure ongoing temperature shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-species-adapt-to-warming">How species adapt to warming</h2>



Not all species respond to warming by moving up. Some adjust by shifting their activity times, altering diets, or evolving faster reproduction cycles to cope with heat.



A <a href="https://academic.oup.com/conphys/article/4/1/cow035/2951699" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in the Rocky Mountains found certain butterflies adapted by changing when they emerged each season rather than climbing higher elevations. These shifts show that elevation isn’t the only axis of climate response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-blurs-species-boundaries">Climate change blurs species boundaries</h2>



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016953470300288X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotic homogenization</a> is a process where different communities start to look more alike. Lowland species gradually move upslope, and unique mountain specialists mix with newcomers. Over time, these once-distinct groups blend.



Homogenization can reduce diversity of traits that once set each area apart. One <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1219033" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> in the European Alps found increasing plant diversity at higher elevations, but it also showed a trend toward more generalist species over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertain-future-for-mountain-species">Uncertain future for mountain species</h2>



Some scientists warn that the study only reflects current trends, not long-term outcomes. Species might still face delayed consequences known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169534709001918" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction debt</a>, where loss happens years after the initial environmental change.



Climate disruptions can also affect reproduction, migration timing, and food chains in ways that take time to appear in range maps. Without ongoing monitoring, early warning signs might be missed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-long-term-effects-of-warming">Potential long-term effects of warming</h2>



Some researchers point out that warming may accelerate, so any delay in extinctions could be temporary. Mountains might be resilient now, but conditions may shift faster than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-rising-mountains-give-birth-to-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> can handle in coming decades.



Others emphasize that different regions vary in elevation spread, terrain complexity, and existing conservation measures. Local factors may play a big role in determining which mountain areas remain robust and which slip into trouble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-mountain-ecosystems">Protecting mountain ecosystems </h2>



Scientists note that mountain ecosystems connect with rivers, valleys, and forests. When one part of the chain changes, the surrounding zones feel the impact. 



Some of the study’s authors caution that future ecological interactions may look different as more generalist species move upslope.



Conservation efforts in these regions will likely require new ways to track ongoing shifts. Observing subtle changes in how species occupy space across mountain slopes can help protect vulnerable spots before problems escalate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-on-mountain-species">New insights on mountain species</h2>



Though the picture is more optimistic than predicted for some high-elevation creatures, it raises new concerns about shrinking distinctions between once-separate communities. 



The immediate threat may not be widespread die-offs, but a quiet rearrangement of biodiversity.



Skeptics advise monitoring these patterns closely. Conditions are always changing, and caution remains wise where habitats and their inhabitants are so intimately tied to unique geographic features.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adq9512" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Most mountain species are actually adapting to warming instead of flirting with extinction

Mountain environments have captured our imagination for centuries. They offer...

Last week, NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> rover revealed something unusual on the slopes of Jezero Crater. It snapped a photo of a strange rock, covered in round lumps that looked like spider eggs in a nest.



<a href="https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/people/stackmorgan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Katie Stack Morgan</a> at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory is leading efforts to figure out how this puzzling object formed and ended up in this location. 



Because the rock, now known as <a href="https://assets.science.nasa.gov/dynamicimage/assets/science/missions/mars2020/2025/perseverance-rover-updates/ASCAM_SOL1442_scam01442_MOS_LR08_FUS_RGB_____St_Pauls_Bay_________P01.jpg?w=3034&amp;h=2083&amp;fit=clip&amp;crop=faces%2Cfocalpoint" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">St. Pauls Bay</a>, doesn’t seem to match its surroundings, the team suspects it might have been moved by geological processes that took place long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egg-like-spherules-in-the-mars-rock">Egg-like spherules in the Mars rock</h2>



The rover captured the image on March 11, 2025, showing a large chunk of “float rock” that stands out against the lighter rocks and red dust. 



Scientists use the term float rock to describe stones that are no longer in the spot where they formed.



This piece of debris is peppered with spherules less than an eighth of an inch (3 millimeters) in size. 



NASA researchers think these spheres could be related to past meteor strikes or are possibly the result of groundwater reactions within the Martian crust.



In 2004, NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mer-opportunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Opportunity</a> rover discovered tiny orbs that researchers nicknamed "blueberries.” These spherules were found on Meridiani Planum and were later identified as hematite-rich lumps.



That discovery led to the suggestion that water once flowed through the rock, creating concretions in the process. 



But Martian spherules don’t always come from water activity, and other scenarios - like cooling volcanic droplets - can generate similar shapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-rock-spherules-and-meteors">Mars rock spherules and meteors</h2>



One possibility is that these mini-spheres formed when a meteorite slammed into the surface and hurled molten bits high into the atmosphere. Those fragments could have cooled rapidly, creating little blobs of rock that fused together.



If that’s the case, this St. Pauls Bay rock might have traveled a considerable distance before landing in its current spot. This movement would offer fresh insights into how impacts scatter materials around the planet.



Another scenario involves groundwater percolating through subsurface rock layers. Over time, mineral-laden water might have cemented certain components, leaving behind small knobs or nodules.



These lumps may have become visible through erosion. If this turns out to be the right track, it would add to evidence that <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/Jezero_crater_through_the_eyes_of_Mars_Express" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a> once hosted liquid water, which intrigues those scientists who are searching for evidence of ancient life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-placing-the-rock-in-context">Placing the rock in context</h2>



"The team is now working to link the spherule-rich texture observed in St. Pauls Bay to the wider stratigraphy at Witch Hazel Hill," NASA officials wrote in a recent update. 



They aim to pinpoint which rock <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/">layers</a> on the hill match the composition of this peculiar find, and establish whether it simply rolled down the hill.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mars_rock_St-Pauls-Bay_spherical-structures_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/mars_rock_St-Pauls-Bay_spherical-structures_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This image from NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover, a fusion-processed SuperCam Remote Micro Imager (RMI) mosaic, shows part of the “” target, acquired from the lower Witch Hazel Hill area of the Jezero crater rim. The image reveals hundreds of strange, spherical-shaped objects comprising the rock. Perseverance acquired this image on March 11, 2025, or sol 1442 — Martian day 1,442 of the Mars 2020 mission. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/IRAP." class="wp-image-1970271"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image from NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover, a fusion-processed SuperCam Remote Micro Imager (RMI) mosaic, shows part of the “” target, acquired from the lower Witch Hazel Hill area of the Jezero crater rim. The image reveals hundreds of strange, spherical-shaped objects comprising the rock. Perseverance acquired this image on March 11, 2025, or sol 1442 - Martian day 1,442 of the Mars 2020 mission. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/IRAP.</figcaption></figure>



Geologic mapping with Perseverance’s cameras and instruments will help narrow down where the rock originated. 



If they discover a layer that matches St. Pauls Bay, it will fill in gaps about past processes that shaped this corner of Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Special tools on Perseverance can test the chemistry of the spherules found in the Mars rock. Pinpointing the iron, magnesium, and other elements inside the spheres will guide scientists toward one hypothesis over another.



If the chemical signature leans toward volcanic elements, that may confirm an eruption or impact-related event. On the other hand, a heavy presence of water-altered minerals might hint at a more sedate origin involving groundwater flows.



By pursuing the origin of these lumps, researchers could unravel more about how rocks traveled across the planet. Even a single misplaced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freya-castle-rock-with-black-and-white-stripes-found-on-mars-has-nasa-excited/">stone</a> can hold clues about large-scale collisions, floods, or volcanic outbursts that shaped Mars eons ago.



Rover teams see every oddity as a chance to learn about unseen processes beneath the Red Planet’s surface. More roving observations and sample analyses will determine whether St. Pauls Bay rock is a special case or part of a broader pattern scattered around Jezero Crater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-the-mars-rock-spherules-puzzle">Solving the Mars rock spherules puzzle</h2>



Scientists may soon direct the rover to examine darker layers around the crater that are visible from orbit. If these layers share similar chemistry, it would mean the rock simply rolled downhill.



If not, that outcome could point to an origin far from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/perseverances-climb-to-witch-hazel-hill/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Witch Hazel Hill</a>. Sorting that out may reveal how widespread spherule formation is within Jezero Crater and whether it links to events elsewhere on Mars.



This puzzling chunk of stone is a tantalizing reminder that we still have much to learn. Even after decades of Mars missions, new discoveries continue to disrupt assumptions.



Although the lumps look like “spider eggs,” there’s no indication of any real alien critters. The small nodules remain a geological phenomenon, and it’s up to researchers to decode their past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-value-of-continued-investigation">The value of continued investigation</h2>



Some experts say even small clues can reshape our understanding of Martian history. One odd rock might <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-found-alive-sealed-inside-rock-after-2-billion-years/">rewrite</a> timelines of when volcanic or impact events took place.



Perseverance is designed to collect these intriguing snapshots of planetary evolution. Studying them up close helps build a clearer picture of Mars, layer by layer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-story-in-the-rocks">Finding the story in the rocks</h2>



The rover’s mission isn’t just about dramatic rocks. It’s about piecing together the puzzle of a once-dynamic world that may have held conditions suitable for microbial life.



Every time NASA encounters an unexpected object like the St. Pauls Bay rock, it highlights the diversity of geological processes that occurred on Mars. By tracking this single rock to its source, researchers can expand our knowledge of planetary processes beyond Earth.



Information for this article comes from a NASA online <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/blog/shocking-spherules/">press release</a>. 



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Martian rock looks like a nest of spider eggs

Last week, NASA’s Perseverance rover revealed something unusual on the...

Butterflies sometimes appear to zigzag and drift when they hover. Their bodies may look jerky from a distance, yet these movements help them stay aloft in ways few people expect.



Yanlai Zhang from <a href="http://ev.buaa.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beihang University</a> recently contributed to a study that examines how body angle allows butterflies to maintain stable flight in place. 



The research explores a unique aspect of hovering that might spur fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robobee-mimicking-nature-with-insect-inspired-microrobots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> for small aerial robots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-tilt-helps-a-butterfly-hover">Body tilt helps a butterfly hover</h2>



Butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-birds-lose-the-ability-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight</a> usually looks chaotic. Many experts note that quick shifts and uneven wing beats are actually precise motions that allow them to avoid predators.



These graceful insects rely on flexible wing structures to keep their balance. Some experts suspect there is a fine interplay between wing movement and body alignment that helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> manage their lift.



Scientists have found that the body pitch angle is a major factor in supporting a butterfly’s weight in midair. This angle aligns forces to counteract gravity.



Hovering stability often depends on how insects tilt their bodies. By changing these angles, each wing stroke can steer the butterfly’s overall direction without wasting energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-airflow-in-butterfly-hovering">The role of airflow in butterfly hovering</h2>



Observers have long wondered why <a href="https://horticulture.oregonstate.edu/oregon-vegetables/cabbage-white-butterfly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white cabbage butterflies</a> flutter with frequent stops and starts. It appears they are fine-tuning their body positions while hovering.



Such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adjustments</a> let them tap into beneficial air currents around their wings. This slight tilt is just enough to balance the forces that hold them up.



“Hovering serves as an essential survival mechanism for critical behaviors, including flower visitation and predator evasion,” said Zhang. Scientists continue to explore how individual flight strokes contribute to upward thrust.



They track the flight paths using high-speed video, then compare these recordings with computations. Doing so uncovers how subtle wing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/golden-eagles-go-to-flight-school-to-master-soaring-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movements</a> can produce enough lift to hover without drifting too far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-flight-informs-drone-design">Butterfly flight informs drone design</h2>



Groups studying <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/micro-air-vehicle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro aerial vehicles</a> see possibilities in these findings. Lightweight, flapping devices might copy butterflies’ low-frequency wing beats for increased hovering efficiency.



Small robots that hover quietly could someday perform delicate tasks. By adopting the body tilt approach, designers may reduce power demands and extend flight times.



Sound pollution is a concern with many drones. Low-frequency flapping could help reduce noise.



“We are particularly excited about deploying such silent hover-capable MAVs for noninvasive wildlife observation, where their biomimetic appearance and quiet operation would minimize disturbance to natural behaviors,” said Zhang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drones-that-can-monitor-wildlife-silently">Drones that can monitor wildlife silently</h2>



Engineers see value in a slow, quiet platform that can capture tiny details without spooking creatures. That capability could help study pollination and other ecological processes.



Such miniature flappers might even be useful in cramped or sensitive environments. Controlled hovering, guided by the body pitch technique, might be the key to stable flight in tight spaces.



During each wingbeat, airflow changes quickly around the butterfly’s wings. Researchers highlight how forewings and hindwings create separate patterns of circulation.



Vortices form, strengthen, and then shed in brief intervals. This dynamic <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9317473/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interplay</a> ensures reliable lift while the butterfly hovers in one spot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-small-flying-robots">Designing small flying robots</h2>



Scientists use computational fluid analysis to piece together these quick movements. High-speed cameras and advanced models allow for precise measurements of wing tilt.



Each shift in angle contributes to a balanced force system. Tracking these details reveals that the butterfly’s body angle is the linchpin of its hovering routine.



Engineers looking at nature’s <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269045583_Development_of_the_Nano_Hummingbird_A_Tailless_Flapping_Wing_Micro_Air_Vehicle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blueprints</a> often find surprising solutions for mechanical problems. Designing smaller, more versatile aerial devices takes on new meaning when we see how well butterflies control their flight.



By factoring in body pitch, researchers aim to replicate a butterfly’s agility. Such adaptive maneuvers could help robots move with more stability and less vibration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-next-steps">Challenges and next steps</h2>



Developers need to ensure enough lift without adding too much weight. Materials that flex like butterfly wings might offer options for more lifelike motion.



Some of these designs may also require refined sensors. Precise control of angles, wing flaps, and position data is crucial for stable hovering in rough conditions.



This investigation hints at new ways to blend biology with technology. Aerodynamics inspired by butterfly hovering might boost scientific progress on miniature flying robots.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article-abstract/37/5/051904/3346692/The-roles-of-body-and-wing-pitching-angles-in?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of Fluids</a>.



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Butterfly hovering technique could revolutionize drone design

Butterflies sometimes appear to zigzag and drift when they hover....

Philosophers have argued for centuries about whether free will exists. Now, a fresh take suggests that artificial intelligence (AI) might meet the conditions for having it.



Recent research proposes that generative AI can display goal-directed behavior, demonstrate genuine choices, and retain control over its actions. This intriguing idea comes from Finnish philosopher and psychology researcher Frank Martela, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.aalto.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aalto University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-free-will-in-ai-systems">Defining free will in AI systems</h2>



In philosophy, free will typically means having intentions, real alternatives, and the power to decide between those alternatives. Some thinkers claim this requires breaking physical laws, but others say it only needs to hold on a functional level.



Frank Martela’s study links these criteria to advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-are-falling-in-love-with-ai-companions-and-it-could-be-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI systems</a> that combine neural networks, memory, and planning. He draws on insights from Daniel Dennett and Christian List, whose theories highlight how an agent’s goals and choices shape its behavior.



Many people worry about <a href="https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393608984" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unmanned aerial vehicles</a> or self-driving cars that make life-or-death calls without human oversight. If these machines can choose their actions, responsibility might shift from programmers to the AI itself.



Martela suggests that the more freedom we grant these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-sensor-reveals-your-true-emotions-even-when-youre-faking-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systems</a>, the more moral guidance they need from the outset. He sees them as mature decision-makers, not naive children who just need basic rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-instructing-ai-on-ethics">Instructing AI on ethics</h2>



One recent incident, the withdrawal of a ChatGPT update due to sycophantic tendencies, sparked fresh concern. Developers realized that quick fixes are not enough when a chatbot can confidently provide flawed or dangerous responses.



Martela contends that instructing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-now-create-custom-fragrances-from-scent-labels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> on higher-level ethics is crucial. He points out that building a moral compass into these tools from the start is the only way to guide their decisions once they operate on their own.



Martela compares training these systems to raising a child. Yet he warns that modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> is more like an adult forced to handle intricate moral problems.



Shaping a technology’s ethical framework demands comprehensive moral philosophy. Martela believes developers must understand nuanced values to address complicated <a href="https://hdsr.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/l0jsh9d1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dilemmas</a> involving autonomy and risk.



Early AI was taught basic if-then rules, but that approach is outdated. Situations in healthcare, transportation, or national defense can be too complex for rigid guidelines.



Martela notes that advanced AI functions in a world full of gray areas, where free will can be complex. A self-help tool, a self-driving car, and a drone might all need nuanced judgment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-free-will-in-ai">Implications of free will in AI</h2>



Handing AI more autonomy could change how we see accountability. Martela’s perspective implies that well-trained systems might bear moral responsibilities once viewed as purely human.



He is also known for discussing how Finland excels in happiness rankings. That expertise in human well-being informs his call for careful AI governance.



An AI can match or <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/superintelligence-9780199678112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exceed</a> human skill in certain tasks. Without ethical direction, its actions might cause harm or spark conflict .



The new research hints that advanced systems can guide their own choices. Martela says it is wise to embed moral priorities before giving them the license to act alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-ai-bear-moral-responsibility">Can AI bear moral responsibility?</h2>



Some experts see these developments as a big leap forward. Others worry about losing human oversight at crucial moments.



Martela hopes that this debate draws more voices from philosophy, psychology, and public policy. He thinks society should weigh potential gains against ethical risks.



Philosophers have long wondered if moral agency requires consciousness. Martela’s work sidesteps that debate by focusing on practical behavior instead.



He points to functional freedom, a concept suggesting that intent and choice are enough for real responsibility. This perspective could transform how courts, governments, and industries address AI-related accidents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-ai-decision-making">The future of AI decision-making</h2>



Martela’s ideas trigger tough questions about AI’s future roles. If a system truly decides its path, do we punish the machine or the people who built it?



Some argue for strict guidelines, while others welcome flexible codes that adapt as the technology evolves. The debate shows no signs of slowing.



Martela’s stance challenges the view that machines are just mindless tools. He proposes that tomorrow’s AI might merit serious reflection on whether it shares our moral load.



He urges designers to incorporate ethical principles early. Both enthusiasts and skeptics agree that ignoring moral questions could be dangerous.



The implications extend beyond labs and corporate boardrooms. Everyone who interacts with advanced AI might feel the impact of these choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-ai">The future of AI </h2>



Legislators, ethicists, and tech leaders are increasingly aware of the stakes. Big decisions lie ahead about how to balance innovation with public trust.



Some experts call for global frameworks to manage AI’s new authority. Others emphasize open debate so that no single viewpoint dominates.



Nobody can predict all outcomes when AI systems gain the power to act independently. Society has a chance to shape this technology before it shapes us.



Moving forward, Martela’s perspective raises hopes and anxieties in equal measure. He underscores that designing AI with carefully chosen moral aims can safeguard both human interests and technological growth.



His argument leaves no room for complacency. Free will in AI might seem abstract, but it has urgent real consequences unfolding right now.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s43681-025-00740-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI and Ethics</a>.



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If AI has free will, who's responsible when things go wrong?

Philosophers have argued for centuries about whether free will exists....

Using radar data from a NASA mission launched more than three decades ago, scientists have found fresh clues suggesting that Venus may still be geologically active. 



Strange, circular structures across the planet’s surface might not just be leftover scars of ancient events - they could point to ongoing tectonic activity that is reshaping Venus even now.



These features, called coronae, caught the attention of researchers at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. 



The findings are based on data collected by NASA’s Magellan mission, which orbited Venus in the 1990s. Magellan’s radar system penetrated the thick clouds cloaking the planet, revealing its topography in detail that still hasn’t been surpassed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activity-beneath-the-surface-of-venus">Activity beneath the surface of Venus</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-venus-is-still-an-active-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coronae</a> are large, oval-shaped formations that can span from a few dozen to hundreds of miles. They’re surrounded by rings of fractures and thought to be shaped by rising plumes of molten rock from beneath Venus’ surface. 



These plumes push against the planet’s crust and upper mantle - collectively called the lithosphere - creating the distinctive ring-like patterns.



“Coronae are not found on Earth today; however, they may have existed when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-earth-was-heated-by-extreme-levels-of-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">our planet was young</a> and before plate tectonics had been established,” noted Gael Cascioli, a research scientist at NASA Goddard.



“By combining gravity and topography data, this research has provided a new and important insight into the possible subsurface processes currently shaping the surface of Venus.”



The researchers studied 75 coronae. Of those, 52 showed signs of hot, buoyant mantle material underneath - suggesting that Venus’ surface isn’t as quiet as we once believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magellan-s-lasting-impact">Magellan’s lasting impact</h2>



NASA’s Magellan spacecraft, managed by the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in California, launched in 1989 and gathered the most detailed gravity and topographic data of Venus available.



Back then, scientists weren’t sure what to make of coronae. They didn’t know how they formed, or what role - if any - they played in the planet’s geologic activity.



Over time, more coronae were found in areas where Venus’ lithosphere appeared thinner and hotter, hinting at a connection between heat flow and corona formation.



“Coronae are abundant on Venus. They are very large features, and people have proposed different theories over the years as to how they formed,” said Anna Gülcher, a planetary scientist at the University of Bern.



“The most exciting thing for our study is that we can now say there are most likely various and ongoing active processes driving their formation. We believe these same processes may have occurred early in Earth’s history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gravity-maps-reveal-tectonic-activity">Gravity maps reveal tectonic activity </h2>



To better understand what’s happening beneath the surface, the research team used 3D geodynamic models and compared them with Magellan’s gravity and topography data. 



The gravity maps were especially important. They helped reveal areas of less dense, rising material beneath the coronae. These would be invisible through topography alone.



The presence of plumes points to multiple tectonic mechanisms at work. One of these is subduction, where material is forced back into the planet’s interior. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-on-venus">Volcanic activity on Venus</h2>



On Earth, subduction involves tectonic plates sliding beneath one another. On Venus, it appears to be happening in a different way - around the edges of some coronae. There, plumes push the surface upward, and the surrounding material gets pushed back down.



Another possibility is lithospheric dripping. This is when cooler, heavier chunks of lithosphere sink into the hotter mantle below. 



A third process might also be involved. Plumes under thick lithosphere sections may trigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanoes-cover-nearly-the-entire-surface-of-venus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic</a> activity at Venus' surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-snapshot-of-earth-s-past">A snapshot of Earth’s past</h2>



The idea that these processes might mirror those that occurred on early Earth is especially intriguing. Venus doesn’t have plate tectonics like we do today, but it may be offering us a snapshot of our own planet’s distant past.



Recent radar images from Magellan have already shown direct evidence of volcanic eruptions, including massive lava flows from places like Maat Mons and Sif Mons. 



While these images show volcanic action, researchers still need sharper resolution to fully understand the underlying tectonics shaping the coronae.



Suzanne Smrekar is a planetary scientist at JPL and principal investigator for the VERITAS mission.



“The VERITAS gravity maps of Venus will boost the resolution by at least a factor of two to four, depending on location - a level of detail that could revolutionize our understanding of Venus’ geology and implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-building-blocks-of-life-zinc-arrived-on-early-earth-planetesimals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early Earth</a>,” said Smrekar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upcoming-venus-mission">Upcoming Venus mission</h2>



NASA’s upcoming VERITAS mission (Venus Emissivity, Radio science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy) is set to dig even deeper - figuratively speaking.



Launching no earlier than 2031, VERITAS will use synthetic aperture radar to create high-resolution 3D maps of the entire planet. 



VERITAS will also use an infrared spectrometer to analyze the surface composition and a radio tracking system to measure Venus’ gravity field. Together, these tools could pinpoint areas of active surface reshaping.



As part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-hellish-planet-venus-can-help-us-find-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VERITAS</a> team, Cascioli and his colleagues are already preparing to use the improved data. Erwan Mazarico, also from NASA Goddard, will co-lead the mission’s gravity experiment.



The hope is that Venus can finally give up more of its secrets. And in doing so, it might tell us something about the early days of our own world.



Image Credit: Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Peter Rubin



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Is Venus alive? New signs of volcanic activity emerge

Using radar data from a NASA mission launched more than...

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they own the place. They cross oceans inside cargo ships, set up vast super-colonies, and push out native species on six continents. 



Once a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nest of ants</a> settles in, homeowners and farmers often reach for poison baits, yet the insects lose interest before enough of them carry the toxic treat back home. 



A new study suggests that a tiny splash of caffeine could keep the party going - and give pest managers an edge.



The research shows that moderate doses of caffeine sharpen an ant’s memory for the bait’s location. Ants that sipped a caffeinated sugar drop found it again more quickly on later trips, leaving a stronger scent trail for nest-mates. 



The discovery points to a low-cost tweak that might finally turn the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invader’s own teamwork</a> against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-ant-huge-impact">Tiny ant, huge impact</h2>



The Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) is only about one-tenth of an inch long, yet its cooperative spirit builds super-colonies stretching thousands of miles along the Mediterranean coast and the U.S. West Coast. 



Those armies displace local insects, rob hummingbird feeders, and even short-circuit electrical gear. 



Recent economic analyses peg the global cost of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive ants</a> - including crop losses and control bills - at billions of dollars each year. No wonder pest crews keep searching for smarter tactics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-caffeine-to-ants">Giving caffeine to ants</h2>



To find out, researchers set up a miniature arena: a Lego drawbridge led each ant onto a letter-size acrylic platform where a single sugar drop waited. 



Some drops carried no additive, while others contained 25 parts per million (ppm), 250 ppm, or 2 000 ppm of caffeine. One hundred forty-two ants took part, and each explorer tackled the course four times.



“The idea with this project was to find some cognitive way of getting the ants to consume more of the poisonous baits we put in the field,” says the study’s first author Henrique Galante, a computational biologist at the <a href="https://www.uni-regensburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Regensburg</a>. 



Automated cameras tracked every step, logging travel time and the straightness of each path. Without caffeine, the insects wandered, needing the same span to reach the treat on every attempt. Add a modest stimulant, and the story changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-gives-ant-focus-not-speed">Caffeine gives ant focus, not speed</h2>



“We found that intermediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-evolution-in-plants-the-surprising-story-of-yerba-mate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doses of caffeine</a> actually boost learning - when you give them a bit of caffeine, it pushes them into having straighter paths and being able to reach the reward faster," Galante explained.



In fact, ants that tasted 25 ppm caffeine shaved 28 percent off their foraging time on every return. Those on 250 ppm cut the clock by 38 percent. 



Picture an individual that spent 300 seconds during its first outing - it would need just 113 seconds after three more trips on the lower dose and 54 seconds on the medium dose.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The stimulant</a> did not act like an energy drink. There was no uptick in raw speed. “What we see is that they're not moving faster, they're just being more focused on where they're going,” Galante noted. 



“This suggests that they know where they want to go, therefore, they have learned the locations of the reward.” 



Only path geometry tightened; pace stayed the same. At the heaviest 2 000 ppm dose - the level that kills half of honeybees in tests - the learning advantage disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharper-trails-deadlier-bait">Sharper trails, deadlier bait</h2>



Argentine ants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheromone highways</a>. A worker that discovers food drags its stinger along the ground, laying a chemical breadcrumb trail that guides the next shift. Faster relearning multiplies that effect. 



“We're trying to make them better at finding these baits, because the faster they go and come back to them, the more pheromone trails they lay, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more ants will come</a>, and, therefore, the faster they will spread the poison in the colony before they realize it's poison,” Galante continued.



Adding caffeine could also slash the waste that now limits bait stations. In neighborhoods and orchards, technicians often replenish gels every few days because the first wave of foragers gives up. 



A caffeinated lure might stay attractive long enough for queens and larvae to receive a lethal serving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The team is already field-testing the recipe at infested sites in Spain. They also plan to check whether caffeine interacts with common active ingredients such as hydramethylnon or spinosad. 



“The lowest dose we used is what you find in natural plants, the intermediate dose is similar to what you would find in some energy drinks, and the highest amount is set to be the LD50 of bees - where half the bees fed this dose die - so it's likely to be quite toxic for them,” Galante notes. 



Selecting a concentration that boosts memory without harming pollinators will be crucial.



Caffeine’s appeal extends beyond Argentine ants. Other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> - including fire ants and big-headed ants - share the same food-sharing habits that make baiting tricky. 



If the stimulant nudges their neural circuits in a similar way, managers could deploy a single additive across multiple pest fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-learned-about-ants-and-caffeine">What we learned about ants and caffeine</h2>



To sum it all up, caffeine improves ants' overall focus and learning without increasing speed, allowing them to navigate straighter paths and lay stronger pheromone trails. 



This effect boosts the effectiveness of bait traps, leading more ants to the poison and increasing the chances of it spreading through the colony. 



However, the benefit peaks at moderate doses - very high levels eliminate the learning advantage and can be toxic. So, overall, caffeine makes ants better at foraging and sharing, which ironically makes them more vulnerable to well-designed pest control strategies.



For now, the message is simple: a dash of coffee in the buffet may turn an army’s fabled navigation skills against itself. When the ants get better at remembering dessert, the colony’s days could finally be numbered.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01157-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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When ants eat or drink caffeine, many interesting things happen

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they...

In social animal groups, decisions often emerge without a leader. A tiny minority can influence a much larger group. Fire ants do this too. They show how a small subset of workers can reshape an entire colony’s structure.



Haolin Zeng, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Georgia (<a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UGA</a>), decided to study this power of the few. His findings appear in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 



Zeng and his team uncovered how a minority of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> carrying a genetic variant can flip a colony’s structure from single-queen to multiple-queen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-driven-by-genetics">Power driven by genetics</h2>



Fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> colonies come in two flavors: single-queen and multiple-queen. The difference is genetic. 



Single-queen colonies reject any other queen. They protect their reigning monarch with fierce loyalty. New queens are unwelcome. The workers will kill them.



Multiple-queen colonies? Different story. They carry a genetic variant that makes them open to sharing power. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> nurture additional queens, allowing multiple monarchs to coexist. This social setup stems from a specific gene.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-order-of-the-ant-colony">Social order of the ant colony</h2>



Zeng wanted to know if a small group of multiple-queen workers could sway a single-queen colony. The answer? Yes.



"When a certain portion of the workers carry this gene, somehow the colony switches to behave as a multiple-queen colony. The workers will happily accept any additional queen, but only ones that carry this genetic element," Zeng said.



Surprisingly, only 10% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> needs to carry this gene for the shift to occur. That’s a tiny fraction of the population. Yet, it’s enough to nudge the entire colony toward a new social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ant-introduction-process">The ant introduction process</h2>



You can’t just throw these two groups of ants together. Chaos would erupt. Zeng’s team had to be careful.



First, they introduced 300 single-queen ants and 100 multiple-queen ants through a fine mesh barrier. The mesh allowed them to sense each other’s presence without direct contact. This acclimation period lasted a full day.



Why the mesh? Without it, the ants would have fought immediately. The gradual introduction prevented lethal combat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-change-in-ant-colonies">Social change in ant colonies</h2>



For over 100 hours, researchers watched the ants interact. Would the genetic minority assert its influence? Yes. Slowly, the multiple-queen workers began altering the behavior of their single-queen counterparts.



Workers that once rejected additional queens started accepting them. But not just any queen. They only embraced queens carrying the genetic element. The minority had spoken, and the majority listened.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pheromones-as-invisible-messengers">Pheromones as invisible messengers</h2>



Could the ants be using chemical signals to send messages? Zeng wanted to find out.



The researchers introduced dead multiple-queen ants to the single-queen colony. Some corpses were washed clean of pheromones. Others remained unwashed.



The reaction? The ants responded to the unwashed corpses, suggesting that chemical signals were at play. 



To confirm this, the team coated glass beads in pheromones and placed them in the colony. The ants reacted just as they did to the live workers, proving the power of these invisible messages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-pheromones-and-social-order">Genes, pheromones, and social order</h2>



Zeng’s findings highlight a fascinating dynamic: genetic traits can ripple through a group without direct contact. Pheromones bridge the gap.



"The idea that behavior is impacted not only by your own genes, but by the genes of nestmates or the folks you interact with is important," Zeng said.



This kind of indirect genetic effect isn’t unique to ants. Social mammals, birds, and even fish display similar dynamics. One individual’s genetic makeup can subtly alter the behavior of others around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-crops-to-ants">From crops to ants</h2>



Zeng didn’t start with ants. He began his academic journey studying crop sciences at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Then, in 2016, he switched gears and joined the entomology department at the University of Georgia.



"When I started to study insects, I asked, what are the most interesting system insects to study, ecologically and evolutionarily? That's got to be social insects. They are everywhere and super successful. There are so many questions to ask and behaviors yet to understand," he said.



Now, as a postdoc at UGA’s Odum School of Ecology, Zeng continues his fire ant research, digging deeper into how small groups can change entire colonies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-influence-beyond-ant-colonies">Social influence beyond ant colonies</h2>



Zeng’s study carries implications beyond ants. It suggests that even in seemingly rigid social structures, a small minority can exert a profound influence. Understanding this dynamic could reshape how we view social power, not just in ants but in all animal societies.



The study’s co-authors include Kenneth G. Ross of the UGA CAES Department of Entomology and Takao Sasaki from the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a>.



The paper, titled "Conversion of social organization in fire ants induced by few colony members: unmasking indirect genetic effects," serves as a reminder that sometimes, the few can change the many.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501740122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Just a few ants can change an entire colony's social structure

In social animal groups, decisions often emerge without a leader....

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a stir among paleontologists worldwide. These tracks suggest reptiles roamed Earth far earlier than anyone suspected. 



Researchers uncovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a>-like footprints in northern Victoria, Australia, and matched them to the era that started around 359 million years ago.



According to Professor John Long from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, these imprints challenge the traditional view of reptile evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



According to the experts, the tracks suggest that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> may have appeared roughly 350 million years ago. That date pushes them back to 40 million years earlier than what was previously recorded.



One set of partial prints had distinct claw marks, hinting that these creatures were true reptiles rather than amphibians. Another set showed a smaller front foot and a larger hind foot, which is typical of land-walking vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-origins-in-gondwana">Reptile origins in Gondwana</h2>



Scientists have long studied the southern supercontinent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/41714/chapter-abstract/353976691?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, where many early tetrapods left behind their skeletons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracks</a>. This find in Victoria adds weight to the idea that pivotal evolutionary steps began in these territories.



At the time, Australia formed a central piece of this landmass. Warmer climates may have played a role in encouraging new adaptations among reptile forerunners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-timeline-of-reptile-evolution">New timeline of reptile evolution</h2>



Paleontologists analyze footprints to piece together how ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> moved. A set of clawed toes can reveal whether a creature was an amphibian or a reptile.



“This pushes back the likely origin of crown-group amniotes by at least 35-40 million years,” said Professor John Long. The research highlights how vital footprints can be for revealing new timelines.



Reptiles are part of the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/amniota.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amniote</a> group, which includes birds and mammals. The discovery of claw marks in these fossil tracks implies full independence from watery environments, which is a characteristic of reptiles.



Many scientists once assumed that amniotes emerged in the Northern Hemisphere. These footprints raise questions about when and where some of the earliest reptiles spread across ancient landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-landscapes-and-animal-diversity">Shifting landscapes and animal diversity</h2>



Researchers plan to explore other parts of Victoria for more trace fossils that could fill gaps in the record. They hope future finds will clarify how these animals became adapted for dry land.



Unearthing additional trackways may add to our understanding of how reptiles branched off from amphibians. Each new print can reveal details about posture, movement, and survival tactics.



The Carboniferous Period stretched from about 359 million to 299 million years ago. It featured vast swampy forests, giant insects, and a rise in atmospheric oxygen levels.



Land masses were arranged differently than they are today. Some scientists believe shifting coastlines created niches that spurred new adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats-of-reptile-ancestors">Habitats of reptile ancestors</h2>



Some reptile ancestors likely ventured onto stable ground while others stayed near water. Traces of this transition remain scarce, so every fossil footprint matters.



Even a single impression can show scientists how early amniotes balanced their weight or held their tails. The shape, depth, and spacing can reveal clues about speed or range of motion.



A single fossil slab from Victoria has opened up this debate about reptile origins. Researchers suggest it is significant to re-check older formations in case more reptile evidence has been overlooked.



Professor Long and his team emphasize the need for more fieldwork to confirm whether reptiles appeared across multiple regions at around the same time. They believe this discovery highlights how a single trackway can reshape our ideas about early amniotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-more-reptile-footprints">Seeking more reptile footprints</h2>



Future excavations may uncover more footprints from the early stages of reptile evolution. That could bring clarity to how quickly these animals adapted to life away from water.



Technological advancements like high-resolution scans can make it easier to analyze the details of each print. Insights like these help paleontologists reconstruct entire ecosystems from a few traces left in stone.



Footprint analysis often involves laser scanning to capture 3D shapes. These scans can highlight fine ridges that point to muscle strength or toe flexibility.



Traces of skin patterns, though rare, can also indicate the texture of scales. Each layer of mud or sand holds hints about local conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-land-adaptation-of-reptiles">Early land adaptation of reptiles </h2>



Before amniotes, vertebrates such as fish and amphibians still needed water for reproduction. Over time, eggs with protective membranes evolved and these allowed animals such as reptiles to venture inland.



That transition set the stage for reptiles, birds, and mammals to diversify into countless forms. These footprints mark a link in that long chain.



Researchers compare new prints to known trackways from synapsids and early amphibians. Key distinctions include toe curvature and the presence of claws.



Synapsids, which later led to mammals, often left broader footprints with different digit spacing. Reptile-like tracks, on the other hand, typically show sharper claw impressions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-footprints-of-reptile-ancestors">Ancient footprints of reptile ancestors</h2>



These ancient footprints connect modern wildlife to ancestors that once explored muddy banks. Each imprint brings a sense of wonder about how life took shape on land.



Understanding those steps may also shed light on broader evolutionary processes. After all, reptile success paved the way for the future rise of dinosaurs and beyond.



Scientists emphasize that no single discovery stands alone. Footprints, bones, and environmental data must all be pieced together to form a coherent story.



Though incomplete, this record keeps expanding thanks to fresh finds in unexpected places. Each new track offers a glimpse into a time of rapid evolutionary change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Reptile ancestors appeared 40 million years earlier than we thought

Fossil footprints from the ancient Carboniferous Period have caused a...

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western Amazon. This small creature, which belongs to the poison dart frog family, stands out with unusual copper accents on its limbs and an overall eye-catching look.



Dr. Evan D. Koch, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nm.cz/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of the Czech Republic</a>, helped document the new species in an underexplored region near the Juruá River.



The team first encountered the frog in March 2023, although its official recognition as a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-tree-frog-origins-back-55-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> was only documented on May 14, 2025.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-blue-poison-dart-frog">Striking blue poison dart frog</h2>



The new species of frog bears light blue stripes set against a darker upper body. Its metallic-hued legs are patterned with irregular brown spots, making the species a definite standout. 



Experts have formally named it <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ranitomeya aetherea</a>, referencing its sky-like tones that bring to mind something almost beyond this world.



Early observations suggest it inhabits lowland Amazonian forests, roughly 443 ft (135 meters) above sea level. Individuals often perch on broad-leafed plants within these humid, palm-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-colors-and-potential-toxicity">Unusual colors and potential toxicity</h2>



Members of the broader family, Dendrobatidae, are well known for their potent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/neurotoxin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a>, though each species has its own chemical profile.



Many rely on <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2133521100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic coloration</a> to warn potential predators that making a meal of it would be a bad idea. Even though researchers have only examined a handful of R. aetherea specimens, they suspect that the frog’s bright patches hint at toxic defenses, much like in its colorful cousins.



For locals, the presence of vibrant frogs is nothing new, but the copper and pale stripes on this one are not something they typically see. Field teams were quick to note that the frog’s underside shares this light-blue tone, and is spotted with dark blotches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-of-the-blue-frog">Characteristics of the blue frog</h2>



Study participants noted that these frogs stay near water-filled compartments in certain broad-leaf flora. The watery pockets, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/phytotelmata" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytotelmata</a>, cradle single R. aetherea tadpoles at various stages of development.



Each juvenile has a tinted tail and a small oval mouth. Once they reach more advanced stages, faint stripes start to appear on the tiny bodies.



According to field notes, adults seem most active in the early morning or late afternoon. Males will climb small plants, typically a few feet off the ground, to call out in a series of fast, chirping notes. 



Observers say that solitary males can gather within the same area without obvious conflict, though they appear to react strongly to call playbacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-vocal-patterns">Unique vocal patterns </h2>



Calling sessions last under a second and carry a quick flurry of distinct, tonal notes. That pattern sets it apart from a few other relatives whose calls have fewer notes or run at a different pitch. 



In one instance, a male produced a longer series when a female approached, suggesting there may be a special “courtship call.”



That same male was spotted leading the curious female toward a hidden leaf base with water trapped inside. This behavior offers a peek into how they might bond or share parental tasks. 



Previous <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/650727" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> on other species in this group have documented complex childrearing steps, and the research team suspects that R. aetherea may have similar habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strict-habitat-requirements">Strict habitat requirements </h2>



Across South America, frogs of the genus Ranitomeya often occupy extremely specific habitats. It has been over ten years since a new species in this genus was named, which makes this a significant find for biologists who are keen on amphibian diversity.



Some of its relatives, like Ranitomeya imitator, feature more greens and spots, while others go for bolder oranges or reds. R. aetherea’s softly tinted copper legs represent a separate thread in the group’s evolutionary tree.



Further genetic work suggests it clusters close to other species from the southwestern Amazon, yet it holds its own distinct lineage.



Investigators suspect that these frogs may have strict habitat requirements and boundaries around their living space, which means they may potentially have very limited range sizes.



Such a focus on exact territory often makes each species vulnerable to land-use changes or deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-blue-frog-discovery">Significance of the blue frog discovery</h2>



Local communities were aware of various frogs in their forest, but the scientific world had no formal record of frogs with this patterning until now.



Its presence highlights that the southwestern Amazon, with patches that are still difficult to reach, can house animal groups that slip under the radar. Additional exploration may uncover other new amphibians, especially within pockets that share similar vegetation or water sources.



Researchers plan to keep monitoring these populations over the coming years. This effort is essential for tracking any environmental threats that could place these frogs at risk. 



Given the increasing human activities in this region, timely observation may help shape protective measures in the near future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321748" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



Image Credit: Koch et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0



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Blue frog with copper legs discovered in the Amazon rainforest

A rare, bright-blue amphibian has been identified in the western...

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey flee. Herds eat and sleep together. It all feels spontaneous -each creature responding to its needs in the moment.



But new research suggests there may be a hidden order to all this movement. And it’s not just found in one place or species. It appears across continents, in animals living very different lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-movement-across-the-globe">Animal movement across the globe</h2>



The study involved animals from three dramatically different environments. In the dry heat of the Kalahari Desert, meerkats dig through the sand. In Panama’s rainforests, coatis nap high in the trees. On the Kenyan savannah, spotted hyenas roam the grasslands. 



These species differ in body size, diet, and behavior. But researchers found something they all had in common - how they moved from one activity to the next.



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior tracked these wild animals using accelerometers, the same sensors found in smartphones and fitness watches. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-pattern-in-animal-behavior">Unexpected pattern in animal behavior </h2>



The devices recorded tiny shifts in body movement, many times per second, and for days at a time.



“This approach allowed us to capture detailed behavioral sequences over days and even weeks from multiple individuals across three distinct species,” said Ariana Strandburg-Peshkin, group leader at the institute and senior author on the study.



Using machine learning, the data were sorted into different behavioral categories: lying, walking, foraging, and more. 



A meerkat might lie still for a while, scan the area, then dig for food. A coati might spend time climbing, resting, or eating. These changing states, tracked over time, revealed an unexpected pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-behavior-that-sticks">Animal behavior that sticks</h2>



Across all three species, one rule seemed to apply: the longer an animal stays in one behavior, the less likely it is to change. 



“We assumed there would be differences,” said Pranav Minasandra, a postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study. “But we found common patterns in how animals switch between behaviors, regardless of what species and which individual. It's as if their behavior was built on the same hidden algorithm.”



The finding goes against what many might expect. Imagine a hyena that’s been walking for 10 minutes. Most people would assume it’s more likely to stop soon. The researchers thought so too. 



“We originally thought the probability of switching behaviors would increase over time, as we assumed it would not be optimal to lock-in to any behavior,” explained Minasandra.



Instead, the opposite was true. Animals became more committed to the behavior the longer they stayed in it. This effect - known as a “decreasing hazard function” - appeared across all three species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-what-comes-next">Predicting what comes next</h2>



The researchers also examined a concept they call “predictivity decay.” This refers to how well current behavior can predict future behavior. 



As time goes on, it gets harder to make accurate predictions because of random shifts and outside influences.



Still, even this unpredictability showed a consistent pattern. “We found that the pattern of predictivity decay was remarkably consistent across all animals studied, implying a shared architecture beneath the surface,” the researchers said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-these-patterns-exist">Why do these patterns exist?</h2>



The study points to two possible explanations. One is simple: positive feedback. The longer an animal stays in a behavior - like lying down - the more reasons there are to continue. 



Maybe it’s comfortable, feels safe, or is simply copying what its group is doing. In any case, staying becomes easier than switching.



The second theory involves decision-making over multiple timescales. Animals are constantly processing cues from different sources: hunger, danger, weather, and social cues. 



Each signal operates on its own rhythm. The way these rhythms overlap might explain why behavior unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-ahead">More questions ahead</h2>



There’s still a lot to explore. Do these patterns apply to animals that live alone? What about animals at different stages of life, or under stress? Could these long-behavior states help save energy, improve attention, or coordinate group movement?



“What this study suggests is that real animals, be they hunting, hiding, or resting, are guided by hidden structures that seem to echo across life’s branches,” noted Meg Crofoot, Director of the Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies.



Animal behavior may seem unpredictable. But this research suggests that, deep down, many species are following a similar rhythm. One that links creatures as different as hyenas, coatis, and meerkats in a quiet, shared structure of movement.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503962122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Animals share hidden behavior patterns across continents

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey...

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long timeline. Every chip of flint or shard of bone builds a narrative of how early humans used tools to feed themselves, cooperated, and thought about the places they called home. 



Fresh finds from two sites just northeast of today’s Tel Aviv - Jaljulia and Qesem Cave - add an eye-opening chapter to that story. 



They point to a moment, roughly 400,000 years ago, when hunters in the Levant not only pivoted to new prey but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tools-in-south-africa-reveal-early-human-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redesigned their tools</a> and, perhaps, their beliefs.



The discoveries revolve around a specialized flint implement known as a Quina scraper. 



At first glance the artifact looks modest - smaller than a modern smartphone. Its scalloped edge, though, is razor-sharp, built for slicing through muscle and hide with an efficiency that would have impressed any butcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flint-tools-and-shifting-appetites">Flint tools and shifting appetites</h2>



For nearly a million years, large game dominated dinner menus here - especially elephants that roamed plains stretching from Africa into Eurasia. 



When those giants dwindled, hunting parties had to recalibrate. 



The speedier, leaner fallow deer offered far less meat per kill, so hunters needed to process many more carcasses to match the calories once supplied by a single elephant. That change forced a rethink of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategy and gear</a>.



Fallow deer thrived in mixed woodlands along what are now the Samarian highlands. Their bones fill layers in Jaljulia and Qesem Cave, signaling a dietary shift that mirrors broader environmental turnover during the late Lower Paleolithic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-carved-with-flint-for-venison">Tools carved with flint for venison</h2>



Enter the Quina scraper. Unlike earlier, more rudimentary scrapers, this one features a stepped, scale-like working edge that holds a keen bevel. 



Microscopic wear marks reveal repeated motions suited to neatly removing skin and sinew. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool design</a> likely spared hunters valuable time at the kill site, reducing exposure to scavengers and rival predators that could steal a hard-won carcass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2s.webp" alt="A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020)" class="wp-image-1970089"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Modern experiments with replicas confirm that the tool excels at producing long, clean strips of hide - ideal for lashing shelters, wrapping meat, or even tailoring early garments. 



A single scraper could be resharpened several times, making it a portable workhorse on multi-day forays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-from-sacred-hills">Stone from sacred hills</h2>



The most unexpected twist lies not in the tool’s shape but in its raw material. Quina scrapers at both sites were made of flint hauled roughly 12.4 miles from the western slopes of the Samarian mountains, bypassing closer outcrops. 



That same upland served as a calving ground for fallow deer. Hunters, then, were linking an essential resource - flint - to the very landscape that provided their new staple food.



The study’s lead authors - Vlad Litov and Prof. Ran Barkai of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> - spell out what that pairing means. 



"In this study we tried to understand why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools changed</a> during prehistoric times, with a focus on a technological change in scrapers in the Lower Paleolithic, about 400,000 years ago," Litov explained. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forced-to-hunt-smaller-animals">Forced to hunt smaller animals</h2>



We found a dramatic change in the human diet during this period, probably resulting from a change in the available fauna: the large game, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particularly elephants</a>, had disappeared, and humans were forced to hunt smaller animals, especially fallow deer.



Clearly, butchering a large elephant is one thing, and processing a much smaller and more delicate fallow deer is quite a different challenge. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e)" class="wp-image-1970087"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Systematic processing of numerous fallow deer to compensate for a single elephant was a complex and demanding task that required the development of new implements. 



"Consequently, we see the emergence of the new Quina scrapers, with a better-shaped, sharper, more uniform working edge compared to the simple scrapers used previously," Litov added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-advancement-shown-in-flint-tools">Tech advancement shown in flint tools</h2>



Prof. Barkai explains that the study reveals “links between technological developments and changes in the fauna hunted and consumed by early humans.” 



While previous theories credited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advancements in stone tools</a> to biological evolution, he and his team suggest a “double connection, both practical and perceptual.”



Practically, tool sophistication evolved to meet the demands of hunting smaller, faster prey. Perceptually, Barkai points to a symbolic association between specific locations and resources. 



“We found a connection between the plentiful source of fallow deer and the source of flint used to butcher them,” he notes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prehistoric hunters</a> seemed to favor flint from the same region where the deer roamed - Mounts Ebal and Gerizim - suggesting a deep-rooted awareness of the landscape and its significance.



“This behavior,” he adds, “is familiar from many other places worldwide and is still widely practiced by native hunter-gatherer communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



According to Litov, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mountains of Samaria</a> held deep significance for prehistoric people living at Qesem Cave and Jaljulia. 



“We believe that the Mountains of Samaria were sacred to the prehistoric people… because that’s where the fallow deer came from,” he says.



As elephant populations declined, early humans in the region shifted their focus to fallow deer. Tools made from a variety of local stones have been found at Jaljulia, but something unique occurred when they began sourcing both their prey and tool-making materials from the Samarian highlands.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3s.webp" alt="A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1970091"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



“Identifying the deer's plentiful source, they began to develop the unique scrapers in the same place,” Litov explains. 



These specialized tools - first appearing in Jaljulia around 500,000 years ago - later spread more broadly, showing up at Qesem Cave between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago.



Archaeological evidence, including fallow deer bones from Mount Gerizim and other sites, suggests that the area supported deer populations well into the Holocene. 



“Apparently, the Mountains of Samaria gained a prominent or even sacred status as early as the Paleolithic period,” Litov concludes, “and retained their unique cultural position for hundreds of thousands of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-man-was-smarter-than-we-thought">Prehistoric man was smarter than we thought</h2>



Pairing a resource with a place crops up again and again in human history, from obsidian quarries in the American Southwest to jade rivers in ancient China. 



The Jaljulia and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qesem_cave" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qesem Cave</a> findings push that behavior deep into the past, showing that meaning and material were already intertwined long before written lore. Technology did not change in a vacuum; it mirrored environmental stress and social imagination.



Understanding how early communities adapted to shrinking megafauna offers a cautionary parallel for modern ecosystems losing key species. Innovation can soften the blow, but it also reshapes culture in ways that echo far beyond survival. 



A humble flint scraper, carried miles across rugged ground, reminds us that tools are never just tools. They are signatures of what people value, where they find sustenance, and how they make sense of their world.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11759-024-09493-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeologies</a>.



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Stone tools created 400,000 years show technological advancement of early humans

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long...

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost the invisible shield that keeps its surface hospitable. Earth's magnetic field, generated by whirling molten iron deep below our feet, faded until it was so weak it was barely detectable.



At the same moment, oxygen flooded the oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, and curious soft-bodied creatures began sliding across the seafloor. The coincidence has fascinated geologists and biologists for decades.



Fresh measurements from ancient crystals now reveal just how close Earth came to a magnetic stall. They also strengthen the suspicion that a waning field set the stage for the rise of complex life. 



The new data trace a dramatic drop in magnetic intensity and help explain why the field later rebounded, saving Earth from becoming a dry, radiation-blasted rock like Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-ancient-magnetic-field">Earth's ancient magnetic field</h2>



To read the planet’s magnetic diary, researchers collected grains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroxenite and gabbro</a> from South Africa, Brazil, and Canada.



Each mineral contains microscopic iron needles that froze in alignment with the ambient field when the rocks cooled. 



By reheating single crystals in a carefully shielded furnace, the team coaxed out tiny magnetic signals that record field strength at the time of eruption.



After analyzing hundreds of crystals, <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> geophysicist John Tarduno and colleagues saw a clear pattern. 



“In general, the field is protective. If we had not had a field early in Earth history, water would have been stripped from the planet by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> (a stream of energized particles flowing from the Sun toward Earth),” Tarduno explained.



“But in the Ediacaran, we had a fascinating period in the development of the deep Earth when processes creating the magnetic field … had become so inefficient after billions of years that the field almost completely collapsed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-very-weak-magnetic-field">Very weak magnetic field</h2>



Crystals dated to 591 million years ago indicate a magnetic field about 30 times weaker than today - the most feeble long-term value ever measured. 



Follow-up samples show the enfeebled state persisted for at least 26 million years.



Before and after that window, rocks more than 2 billion years old and younger than 565 million years record a field as sturdy as the modern one, revealing just how exceptional the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran lull</a> was.



During the low-field stretch, solar wind could punch far deeper into the atmosphere. Charged particles stripped away lightweight hydrogen, a process that left relatively heavy oxygen behind. 



The timing lines up with multiple geochemical markers that show a sharp increase in oxygen levels, supporting the idea that the weakened shield helped push Earth past a threshold needed for the development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large, mobile animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinner-armor-richer-air">Thinner armor, richer air</h2>



The atmospheric link also finds support from geobiologist Shuhai Xiao of <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere shields the Earth</a> from solar wind, thus holding the atmosphere to the Earth. Thus, a weaker magnetosphere means that lighter gases such as hydrogen would be lost from the Earth’s atmosphere,” Xiao explained to CNN.



As hydrogen escaped, oxygen concentrations rose, allowing metabolism-hungry organisms to branch out.



Tarduno agrees that other processes - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-no-photosynthesis-baffles-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic microbes</a> - were certainly at work.



“We do not challenge that one or more of these processes were happening concurrently. But the weak field may have allowed oxygenation to cross a threshold, aiding animal radiation (evolution),” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-and-earth-s-core">Magnetic field and Earth's core</h2>



Rock records also solve a puzzle about when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s inner core</a> began to form. Once field strength hit its nadir, it bounced back quickly.



“The observations appear to support the claim that the inner core first nucleated soon after this time, pushing the geodynamo (the mechanism that creates the magnetic field) from a weak, unstable state into a strong, stable dipolar field,” noted Peter Driscoll of the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>. 



A solid seed at the center released extra heat, turbocharging convection in the outer core and restoring the magnetic screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-seafloor-pioneers">Strange seafloor pioneers</h2>



While the field flickered, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran seas</a> hosted life forms unlike anything alive today.



Disk-shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dickinsonia</a> spread as wide as 4.6 feet (1.4 meters) across the mud; quilted fronds waved gently in the currents; and slug-like Kimberella scraped microbial mats for food.



These pioneers vanished before the Cambrian period began, around 539 million years ago, but their brief reign proved that multicellular bodies could flourish once oxygen climbed to breathable levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-if-it-happens-again">What if it happens again?</h2>



Not every expert is convinced the magnetic dip directly influenced the course of evolution.



“It is hard for me to evaluate the veracity of this claim because the influence that planetary magnetic fields might have on climate is not very well understood,” Driscoll cautioned. 



Untangling all the variables - solar activity, mantle chemistry, biological innovation - will take years of careful detective work.



For now, the crystal record points to a simple narrative: Earth’s shield weakened, gases escaped, oxygen levels increased, and life took a bold new turn.



By tracing that chain of events, scientists gain insight into how planets and biospheres interact, a lesson that will guide the search for living worlds far beyond our own.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications, Earth and Environment</a>.



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Complex life emerged on Earth 591 million years ago, scientists think they finally know how and why

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost...

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures about four feet was recently spotted at a mining facility on a small island off Papua New Guinea’s southeastern coast. Its sleek color and large black eyes stopped researchers in their tracks, and inspired a closer.



This newly identified reptile, named Dendrelaphis atra, belongs to a group of tree-dwelling snakes with a history of murky classification. 



It was described by Fred Kraus from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan Ann Arbor</a> after he spent time surveying the local serpent population for a broader research project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unusual-snake-discovery">An unusual snake discovery</h2>



One specimen slithered along old building structures and well-trodden terrain, making the moment feel like a real needle in a haystack. Its strong yet subtle features hinted at a species that is different from the rest of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-coral-snakes-caught-in-rare-food-fight-over-caecilian/">relatives</a>.



These snakes appear quite dark when older, a trait linked to ontogenetic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/melanization" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanization</a>, where color deepens over time.



A smaller, younger version displayed muted shades, revealing the striking contrast between juveniles and adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-setting-and-snake-biodiversity">The setting and snake biodiversity</h2>



<a href="https://www.undp.org/papua-new-guinea/environment-and-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papua New Guinea</a> sits in the heart of a region that supports a vast range of unique endemic plants and animals. 



The land and offshore islands host incredible numbers of reptiles, as well as other species that have yet to be fully cataloged. The presence of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259869057_A_Guide_to_the_Snakes_of_Papua_New_Guinea_The_first_comprehensive_guide_to_the_snake_fauna_of_Papua_New_Guinea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 80 known snake species</a> in this country speaks to its natural abundance.



“Herein I examine the taxonomic status of Dendrelaphis specimens from outlying large islands in Milne Bay Province,” said Kraus, who authored the study. 



The Milne Bay province, located in the southeastern tip of the country, consists of many scattered islands. Each major island has unique ecosystems that shelter creatures found nowhere else on Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-snake-stands-out">Why this snake stands out</h2>



Many members of this genus show lighter tones or distinct patterns. This one shows an almost uniform midnight color, especially as it matures. That difference sets it apart from its close relatives in the D. punctulatus group.



Scientists often rely on scale arrangement, body shape, and even snake genitalia to establish taxonomic differences. 



This approach helped confirm that D. atra is a separate entity. The species takes its name from the Latin word for black, which reflects its appearance in adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-hidden-snake-treasures">Other hidden snake treasures</h2>



This black tree snake was not alone in being an unexpected find. Researchers who surveyed nearby islands in the Milne Bay province realized that each large island in the region seems to have its own native Dendrelaphis species. That pattern shows how island isolation can give rise to new and distinct lifeforms.



Kraus also turned up three other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-coffee-snake-discovered-in-the-cloud-forests-of-ecuador/">serpents</a> - each inhabiting a different island. Experts say it is a reminder that scattered landmasses create pockets of biodiversity that evolve in relative seclusion.



Much about these newly documented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primate-brains-have-evolved-to-rapidly-detect-snakes/">reptiles</a> remains unknown, leaving room for fresh insights in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-shaped-habitat">Human-shaped habitat</h2>



It is intriguing that the black tree snake first appeared in a degraded setting on a mining island. The site’s developed landscape had buildings, pathways, and other signs of heavy human activity. 



Snakes often prefer wilder spots, yet this species was found thriving in altered environments as well.



Papua New Guinea’s island topography makes it tricky for outsiders to conduct wildlife surveys. Rugged terrain, dense vegetation, and unpredictable weather can limit reliable fieldwork. 



These factors emphasize the importance of any documented sighting, especially when it leads to the classification of an entirely new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



“The Milne Bay province has the richest habitat for endemic reptiles and amphibians on the planet,” Kraus said. 



Multiple researchers have suggested that this corner of the Pacific holds many more undiscovered reptiles and amphibians. 



That richness shows up in the form of unusual snakes, frogs, and lizards that can surprise even seasoned experts.



Biodiversity in this area supports local communities, influences the ecology, and expands our overall scientific understanding. 



Each new species provides a clue about the evolutionary paths and environmental conditions that shape life in remote locales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-things-go-next">Where things go next</h2>



The specifics of D. atra’s diet, reproduction, and daily habits still remain to be established. Scientists usually piece together such details by observing the animals across seasons, and collecting data that confirm patterns in the wild. 



For now, the presence of multiple, island-exclusive <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/26637-Dendrelaphis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendrelaphis snakes</a> highlights the hidden variety waiting to be described.



Ongoing studies may reveal how these reptiles adapt to changes in their environment. Further findings might guide conservation strategies to ensure that future generations can appreciate the region’s diverse wildlife. 



Fresh research could also spark collaboration with local groups that have long been aware of the extraordinary creatures in their midst.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5618.4.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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New species of tree snakes with completely black eyes is discovered

A shiny tree snake that is completely black and measures...

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face precarious conditions. They live in a narrow sliver of high-elevation rainforest, and experts fear even one large disturbance may push them toward extinction.



Professor Michael Mahony from the <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Newcastle</a> has studied these amphibians and their limited habitats. Each population ekes out a living in cool, moist spots that are shrinking because of shifting weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isolated-existence-in-upland-forest">Isolated existence in upland forest</h2>



The Eungella Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-eungellensis">Litoria eungellensis</a>) persists in fewer than eight square miles (21 square kilometers) of upland <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5584.3.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland forest</a>. It tolerates a cooler environment than most other tree frogs in the area, but shifting temperatures and rainfall patterns will present new challenges.



The Atherton Whirring Frog (<a href="https://www.frogid.net.au/frogs/litoria-corbeni">Litoria corbeni</a>) occupies a separate section of the tropics, in northern Queensland, but also at higher elevations. Like its relative, it seems unable to adjust to warmer, drier conditions, which has conservationists concerned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sudden-threats-could-be-devastating">Sudden threats could be devastating</h2>



“One catastrophic event could wipe them out entirely,” said Luke Price, a researcher at the South Australian Museum. 



These amphibians remain vulnerable to quick and catastrophic events. With habitats so restricted, any disaster in these cool enclaves could have devastating results.



Researchers note that increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall might reduce the moist habitats on which these frogs depend. When water sources dwindle, the animals face an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">existential crisis</a> that they may not survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-traits-of-the-forest-frogs">Distinct traits of the forest frogs</h2>



Each species emits a distinct call that sets it apart from more common frogs in eastern Australia. Slight contrasts in vocalizations, combined with deeper genetic evidence, helped scientists recognize them as separate species.



Their coloring ranges from mustard-like hues to flashes of red on the hind legs. These markings help camouflage them among leaves and tree bark, but they offer no protection against heat waves or wildfires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-past-climates-matter">Why past climates matter</h2>



The discovery of these frogs also sheds light on Australia’s ancient climate history. 



According to Price, their presence in isolated highland pockets suggests they once occupied a much larger range of connected wet forests during cooler, wetter periods.



This wider historical distribution supports the idea that climate shifts tied to continental drift and global circulation changes - not just modern greenhouse gas emissions - have shaped where species live today. 



The frogs’ survival may depend on understanding both ancient trends and present-day pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-worries-for-small-forest-frogs">Big worries for small forest frogs</h2>



Low numbers and narrow territories qualify both frogs as highly threatened under the guidelines set by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN</a>). 



Not only do they have minimal resilience to sudden habitat changes, but they also have no opportunities to migrate.



“The mantra of ‘adapt or perish’ doesn’t equally apply across species,” said Mahony. He pointed out that these highland frogs cannot move to cooler terrains any farther upslope.



In remote regions of Queensland, regular surveys are tough to coordinate. Gathering more data on frog numbers and breeding success takes time and resources, yet experts say such efforts are necessary for any hope of long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-mother-nature-have-rights-a-tiny-frog-has-joined-the-fight/">preservation</a>.



Fire management is especially difficult in mountainous rainforest. A wildfire in a unique gully or hillside might eliminate water sources and destroy frog refuges in one sweep, leaving no survivors to repopulate those areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-these-forest-frogs-apart">What sets these forest frogs apart</h2>



Unlike many widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-mating-calls-teach-bats-which-prey-to-avoid/">amphibians</a>, these whirring frogs show no signs of behavioral or ecological flexibility. 



They are tightly tied to specific humidity levels, elevation zones, and vegetation types that can be lost quickly with even mild environmental shifts.



Researchers emphasize that while other species may bounce back or shift territory, these frogs lack both the numbers and the landscape corridors to do so. 



That makes them much more vulnerable than most frogs in Australia’s lower altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-take-time-to-adapt">Frogs take time to adapt</h2>



Some amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">populations</a> in other parts of the world have adapted to minor temperature shifts over thousands of years. However, rapid changes may prove too much for small groups that are isolated in tiny zones.



Scientists believe targeted protection of montane areas, along with active measures to maintain moisture levels, could buy these frogs more time. If reserves are created and carefully monitored, that might lessen the risk of sudden habitat loss.



Smaller species can vanish with little notice if they lack escape routes. Because these frogs can’t handle fluctuations in temperature or humidity, the strain of hotter days could tip the balance toward local extinctions.



Habitat restoration efforts and close watching by field biologists might help, but the situation remains tense. Their continued existence depends on coordinated steps that acknowledge the narrow margins in which they live.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zoobank.org/References/C07BE8E9-713C-42E5-9D3F-5F6166C44C5A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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'Whistling' forest frogs recently discovered may be wiped out before we learn about them

Scientists warn that two recently recognized forest frog species face...

A newly identified dinosaur has stirred attention among paleontologists worldwide. It lived about 94 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous epoch and has been hailed as the earliest known member of its family.



The fresh discovery is named <a href="https://dinoanimals.com/dinosaurdatabase/cienciargentina-sanchezi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cienciargentina sanchezi</a>, and it breaks previous records for the oldest known specimen of the rebbachisaurid group of plant-eating dinosaurs. 



The announcement was described by <a href="https://unrn.academia.edu/leonardosalgado" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leonardo Salgado</a> from the Universidad Nacional de Río Negro-Conicet, in association with his colleague <a href="https://independent.academia.edu/Mar%C3%ADaEdithSim%C3%B3n" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">María Edith Simón</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-a-sauropod-surprise">Uncovering a sauropod surprise</h2>



The team uncovered fossilized bones in the <a href="https://www.argentina.travel/en/pr/neuquen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuquén province</a> in Argentina, at the base of the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340720799_New_vertebrate_remains_from_the_Huincul_Formation_Cenomanian-Turonian_Upper_Cretaceous_in_Rio_Negro_Argentina" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Huincul Formation</a>, which is an area famous for other dinosaur remains. 



The remains suggested a dinosaur with a distinctive shape and size, and hinted at a creature that likely stood out among its neighbors.



They recognized that diplodocoid traits set this animal apart. Sauropods in this branch often present specialized vertebrae and unique skeletal structures, which are well-preserved in the remains found at the site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-family-tree">Tracing the family tree</h2>



<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0123475" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experts</a> see rebbachisaurids as a fascinating cluster of long-necked giants. They have turned up on multiple continents and show features not seen in other sauropods, especially in their teeth and vertebrae. In some species, those teeth formed tooth batteries, a trait more common in other dinosaur groups.



“This new species is added to the list of rebbachisaurid sauropods documented in the Huincul Formation,” said Salgado. He and Simón identified key skeletal features that confirm the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/research-ship-finds-palau-nautilus-sea-creature-untouched-since-dinosaur-times/">dinosaur’s</a> status as an early form of these long-necked herbivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-rebbachisaurid-traits">Early rebbachisaurid traits</h2>



Researchers say the neck vertebrae suggest a structure that could have supported a long, flexible neck. The hind legs likely bore a significant amount of weight, which is typical for giants in this lineage. 



Tiny details in the bones gave away this creature’s identity as a close relative of other known rebbachisaurids.



The sheer size probably helped in warding off predators. Plant-based diets would have been abundant near streams and floodplains, and the environment would have been favored by many sauropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-rebbachisaurid-find-matters">Why the rebbachisaurid find matters</h2>



Paleontologists are often eager to fill gaps in dinosaur family trees, and an early rebbachisaurid is especially important. Each discovery shines a light on how these creatures evolved their body structures and feeding habits.



The findings help paint a broader picture of sauropod evolution in South America. 



Researchers gain a clearer look at how different dinosaur groups adapted and survived in changing environments as the Cretaceous Period progressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-short-quote-from-the-past">One short quote from the past</h2>



“The first South American rebbachisaurid sauropods were recognized upon the basis of materials from the surroundings of Villa El Chocón, from the Candeleros and Huincul Formations,” said Salgado. Those early signs opened the door to later breakthroughs in identifying new species.



Cervical vertebrae in this new find lack the typical epipophyses seen in close relatives. 



The dorsal vertebrae show amphicoelous to slightly opisthocoelous centers, a configuration that indicates how older rebbachisaurids may have branched off from later ones.



Spinal shapes also reflect a sturdier frame compared to certain younger species. Collectively, these traits confirm a pivotal spot for this dinosaur in the broader diplodocoid lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-work-in-argentina">Ongoing work in Argentina</h2>



Argentina is no stranger to major fossil revelations. Researchers keep combing sites for the next big puzzle piece that can clarify how giant herbivores roamed. Methods continue to evolve, allowing more precise dating of fossils.



Better technology also helps with reconstructions. Digital modeling can reveal how muscles attached to skeletons and how these animals may have moved about their ancient habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-changing-worlds">Clues about changing worlds</h2>



Experts think the shift from earlier diplodocoid forms to other sauropod families signals environmental pressures that shaped survival strategies. Some lines thrived in broad, open areas, while others adapted to different landscapes. The presence of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-extinction-influenced-fruit-evolution/">dinosaur</a> suggests transitions may have been more varied than once assumed.



These transitions illuminate broader ecological processes. Changes in climate, vegetation, and terrain likely steered dinosaur evolution in complex ways that are only now being pieced together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-more-answers">Hope for more answers</h2>



Fossils like these keep researchers on their toes. They also draw everyday folks into the excitement of uncovering vanished worlds. 



Salgado and Simón see this as a cue for continued exploration, with the possibility that more early forms could still be out there.



Some experts think we’ve only seen the tip of the iceberg in areas like the Neuquén province. New technology, fresh expeditions, and collaborations all pave the way for further discoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-links-no-more">Missing links no more</h2>



Cienciargentina sanchezi connects dots in rebbachisaurid history by sharing traits with both older and younger relatives. These insights will likely fuel future debates on how diplodocoids spread across ancient landmasses. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-case-of-the-two-clawed-dinosaur-duonychus-tsogtbaatari/">dinosaur’s</a> existence adds depth to our understanding of the Late Cretaceous. Each detail - whether from bones or footprints - challenges our assumptions about how these animals looked and behaved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-for-the-community">Significance for the community</h2>



Scientists collaborate across countries and institutions to analyze and verify these fossils. That teamwork helps ensure accurate identifications. It also makes it easier to compare new specimens with old finds from around the world.



These global partnerships are crucial in paleontology, where a single bone can trigger fresh perspectives on evolution. The story of cienciargentina sanchezi is yet another reminder that fresh insights come from all corners of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-final-note">The final note</h2>



The importance of this 94-million-year-old sauropod lies in its status as a missing piece that enriches our knowledge of an entire family of dinosaurs. It also points to the significance of exploring less examined layers of rock, where new wonders may lie.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667125000606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous Research</a>.



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The oldest known rebbachisaur has been found, dating back 94 million years

A newly identified dinosaur has stirred attention among paleontologists worldwide....

Language is often considered the hallmark of human intelligence, a complex system that enables us to share thoughts, express emotions, and convey intricate messages.



For years, scientists believed that recursion - the ability to nest phrases within phrases - was a defining characteristic of human language. However, new research challenges this view, suggesting that wild orangutans also use recursive communication.



This discovery offers a glimpse into the evolutionary origins of human language, potentially dating back millions of years. By studying Sumatran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutan-mothers-have-unique-parenting-styles-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, researchers have found evidence of structured vocal patterns previously thought to be exclusive to humans. 



This breakthrough not only reshapes our understanding of primate communication but also provides critical insights into how complex language structures may have developed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-roots-of-human-language">The roots of human language</h2>



Language thrives on repetition. Imagine a chain of events like this: “This is the house that Jack built, that sheltered the cat, that chased the mouse, that stole the cheese.”



Each segment builds on the one before, stacking phrases to form a layered, connected structure. This pattern is called recursion.



The pattern stacks phrases like Russian nesting dolls. Each layer connects to the next, creating a complex yet understandable message. Humans use it all the time, embedding clauses within sentences to convey rich and detailed thoughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-use-recursion-too">Orangutans use recursion too</h2>



For years, scientists believed that only humans could use such layered communication. But researchers from <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Warwick</a> have uncovered a startling discovery. Sumatran orangutans, it turns out, use the same pattern.



“When analyzing the vocal data of alarm calls from female Sumatran <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, we found that the rhythmic structure of orangutans’ sounds made were self-embedded across three levels - an impressive third-order recursion,” noted Dr. Chiara De Gregorio, who led the study.



In other words, orangutans aren’t just making noise. They’re stacking vocal sounds, creating layers that echo the structure of human language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-patterns-in-orangutan-calls">Language patterns in orangutan calls</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-orangutan-treats-his-facial-wound-with-a-healing-plant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>’ calls didn’t follow a single, simple rhythm. Instead, they built three distinct layers. 



First, they strung together small sounds, forming short sequences. Next, they combined these sequences into longer, more complex bouts. Finally, they arranged those bouts into extended, rhythmic series.



Each level nested within the next, forming a layered structure. And it wasn’t random. The rhythm changed based on the type of threat the orangutans faced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-use-rhythm-as-a-tool">Orangutans use rhythm as a tool</h2>



Picture a tiger lurking nearby. The orangutan’s calls grow rapid, urgent, and insistent. Now, imagine a less direct threat - a piece of cloth with bright spots. The calls slow down, becoming irregular, almost hesitant.



This adaptability is no accident. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orangutans</a> use rhythm as a tool, adjusting their vocal patterns to fit the situation. 



Dr. De Gregorio and her team noticed these shifts, hinting that orangutans are communicating specific information about their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-the-past">A glimpse into the past</h2>



If recursion exists in orangutan calls, what does that mean for us? Dr. De Gregorio sees it as a glimpse into our evolutionary past.



“This discovery shows that the roots of one of the most distinctive features of human language - recursion - was already present in our evolutionary past,” she noted.



In other words, recursion might not be a human invention. It could be a skill we inherited from ancient ancestors - a skill that orangutans still use today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutan-connection-to-human-language">Orangutan connection to human language</h2>



Language didn’t appear overnight. It evolved, layer by layer, like the vocal sequences of the orangutans. The researchers believe that studying these calls could help us understand how human language began.



Orangutans, with their recursive vocal structures, may hold clues to how our ancestors communicated. Perhaps they, too, stacked sounds, building rhythms to convey complex ideas. 



Over time, these rhythms could have evolved into more structured language systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Why does any of this matter? Because if recursion isn’t uniquely human, then neither is the complexity of thought it enables. 



Orangutans are showing us that the seeds of language run deeper than we thought, stretching back millions of years.



By preserving these animals and their habitats, we’re not just protecting a species. We are safeguarding a link to our own evolutionary history - a history told through layers of sound, rhythm, and meaning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-research-in-primates">Language research in primates</h2>



Dr. De Gregorio and her team have opened a door to new questions. How widespread is recursion among non-human primates? Do other species use similar vocal structures?



For now, the calls of Sumatran orangutans echo through the forest, carrying a message that’s both ancient and new. And in those layered rhythms, we might just hear the distant roots of our own language, reverberating through time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/nyas.15373" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Orangutans use complex vocal patterns found in human language

Language is often considered the hallmark of human intelligence, a...

An octopus taking a piggyback ride on a shark might sound like a tall tale. Yet a surprising video from the waters near New Zealand has given ocean-watchers cause to scratch their heads.



Marine biology professor <a href="https://profiles.auckland.ac.nz/r-constantine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rochelle Constantine</a> from the <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Auckland</a> was on hand to document this unusual sight. 



She spotted a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-ringed-octopus-a-master-of-deception-inspires-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright octopus</a> clinging to a powerful <a href="https://oceana.org/marine-life/shortfin-mako-shark/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shortfin mako</a> shark, the fastest of its kind in open ocean waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-octopuses-aren-t-typically-friends">Sharks and octopuses aren't typically friends</h2>



This get-together was no mild meeting of acquaintances. The shark was swimming along without appearing bothered by its unusual passenger, while the octopus held on with all of its eight arms.



"The ocean is filled with unexpected things," stated Constantine, in a <a href="https://www.auckland.ac.nz/en/news/2025/03/11/sharks-.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> shared after the research trip. Reports suggest the creature stuck close to the shark’s dorsal area.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-helped-catch-the-octopus-ride">Technology helped catch the octopus ride</h2>



Without modern tools, this strange event would’ve gone unnoticed. The research team launched a drone and used a GoPro to get a clear view of what was really on the shark’s back.



Drones and waterproof cameras have become essential equipment for marine science. They let researchers monitor wildlife safely and document rare behaviors without disturbing the animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shortfin-mako-s-swift-reputation">Shortfin mako’s swift reputation</h2>



Many people find the shortfin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-global-photos-of-killer-whales-attacking-the-enigmatic-prickly-shark/">mako</a> shark intriguing. It holds the title for the highest speed among all sharks, clocking more than 40 miles (64 kilometers) per hour.



These sharks grow to impressive sizes, often stretching nearly 12 feet (3.7 meters). Their streamlined bodies and aerodynamic fins help them chase swift prey like tuna and even other sharks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-octopus-got-on-the-shark">How the octopus got on the shark</h2>



While sharks command plenty of attention, the octopus is no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turquets-octopus-dna-tells-scientists-that-west-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse-is-close/">minor figure</a>. Octopuses are known for their flexible bodies, color-changing abilities, and knack for staying out of harm’s way.



Scientists believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-octopus-day-the-intelligent-creatures-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">octopuses sense vibrations</a> through the water, making them skilled at evading predators. 



Their soft tissues allow them to slip through narrow spaces, which raises questions about how one ended up on the back of a large shark.



Encounter stories like these usually come from hidden pockets of the ocean. This unexpected duo popped up near the northern coast of New Zealand’s North Island.



"Incredible moments like this remind us there is more we don’t know than we do," remarked Constantine. She and her team observed the hitchhiking octopus for a short while before it continued onward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-might-the-octopus-be-thinking">What might the octopus be thinking?</h2>



Octopuses have been seen using tools, escaping tight spots, and even unscrewing the lids of jars from the inside. 



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8499036/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> believe they have short-term memory and a basic sense of planning, which might suggest that this hitchhiking event wasn’t purely accidental.



Could the octopus have been hiding from a predator, or trying to explore a new environment? Researchers don’t yet know. 



But holding tight to a moving shark might have offered camouflage, faster travel, or just a brief break from danger in open waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Shortfin mako sharks face threats from commercial fishing and the global fin trade. They are listed as <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/39341/2903170" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a> by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.



Although efforts to regulate shark fishing exist, bycatch remains a major concern. Mako sharks reproduce slowly, so their numbers can’t easily recover after heavy fishing pressure.



Odd encounters can teach scientists new things about predator-prey behaviors. Sharks usually swim near the surface, while octopuses often stick to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-octopus-has-mastered-the-art-of-multispecies-hunting/">seafloor</a>, which makes the partnership puzzling.



Data on these interspecies moments can hint at changes in ocean conditions, habitats, or species movements. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-seas-impair-octopus-vision-to-a-critical-extent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spotting an octopus</a> in open water might be a signal about local currents or unusual feeding patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-octopuses-grab-attention">Sharks and octopuses grab attention</h2>



When species behave in ways that don’t match typical patterns, it forces scientists to recheck assumptions. 



An octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-dropped-to-record-low-in-2024/">riding</a> a shark may seem like a one-off event, but it raises deeper questions about movement, interaction, and adaptability in marine life.



Unusual pairings like this one can highlight stressors in the ecosystem, such as food scarcity, habitat shifts, or climate-related disruption. 



Even a short encounter, captured by chance, might help piece together a larger puzzle about how animals are adjusting to human-altered oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



People sometimes label sharks as dangerous. Videos showing a calm mako might reshape how some view these agile hunters.



Similarly, an octopus is no simple <a href="https://videos.fisheries.noaa.gov/detail/videos/b-roll-packages---all/video/5231307735001/b-roll:-octopus-giant-pacific-research-in-alaska">creature</a>. Researchers have found them to be quite intelligent, capable of short-term problem-solving and playful exploration.



There is still much to learn about how often such hitchhikes happen or why they occur. Marine experts encourage curious minds to support healthy ecosystems by reducing pollution and changing harmful fishing methods.



"One of the best things about being a marine scientist is that you never know what you might see next in the sea," wrote Constantine. When wild animals surprise us, it can spark fresh interest in protecting them and their homes.



Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/3cYlBarkmDY?si=-NlGKY3j2HeJieCC" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch the video of an octopus riding a shark...</a>



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Octopus caught riding on the back of the world's fastest shark in the open ocean

An octopus taking a piggyback ride on a shark might...

Orange cats are everywhere, from the iconic character Garfield to the independent tabby lounging in the sun. But what gives orange cats their signature color? For decades, the answer remained a mystery to scientists.



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.med.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford Medicine</a> and <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a> have cracked the code. The answer lies in a gene called Arhgap36. This gene behaves strangely in orange cats, turning their fur a vivid shade of orange.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-orange-cats-are-rare">Why orange cats are rare</h2>



Scientists have known for years that the orange trait in cats is linked to the X chromosome. Male cats, with their single X chromosome, only need one copy of the gene to flaunt their ginger fur. 



Females, however, require two copies to be completely orange. Otherwise, they become calicos or tortoiseshells, their fur a patchwork of orange, black, and white.



“In a number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bengal-cats-wild-appearance-is-surprisingly-tied-to-domestic-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that have yellow or orange pigment, those mutations almost exclusively occur in one of two genes, and neither of those genes are sex-linked,” explained Christopher Kaelin, a senior scientist in genetics and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-mystery-of-cat-colors">Genetic mystery of cat colors</h2>



Kaelin and his team had a hunch the answer was related to the X chromosome. But which gene? They collected DNA samples from spay and neuter clinics, comparing orange cats to non-orange cats. 



After analyzing the genomes, the researchers found 51 genetic variants that could explain the orange trait. They narrowed it down to three. 



One stood out: Arhgap36. A tiny deletion in this gene cranked up its activity in pigment cells. Normally, Arhgap36 keeps a low profile, mainly operating in nerve tissues and cancer cells. But in orange cats, it’s louder than a kitten demanding breakfast.



“Arhgap36 is not expressed in mouse pigment cells, in human pigment cells or in cat pigment cells from non-orange cats,” Kaelin said. 



“The mutation in orange cats seems to turn on Arhgap36 expression in a cell type, the pigment cell, where it’s not normally expressed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orange-cats-are-usually-male">Orange cats are usually male</h2>



Orange cats are predominantly male, and it all comes down to the X chromosome. Males have one X and one Y chromosome. If that X carries the orange gene, they’re entirely orange. 



Females, with two X chromosomes, need the orange <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> on both to sport a solid ginger coat. If a female inherits only one copy, she becomes a mosaic of orange and black.



This randomness creates the striking tortoiseshell and calico patterns. Some cells activate the orange gene, while others activate the black gene. The result? A coat that’s as unpredictable as a cat’s mood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-genetic-breakthrough">A shared genetic breakthrough</h2>



While Stanford scientists zeroed in on Arhgap36, researchers at Kyushu University pursued a parallel investigation. Professor Hiroyuki Sasaki and his team examined DNA from 18 cats including 10 that were orange. The findings matched those at Stanford.



“This was such strong evidence that even at this stage, we were confident that Arhgap36 was the orange gene,” said Sasaki.



The researchers expanded their study, analyzing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-dna-damage-requires-constant-repair-by-cells-to-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> from 49 more cats, and the same pattern emerged. The Arhgap36 deletion consistently appeared in orange cats but not in others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-orange-fur">Origins of orange fur</h2>



Where did this mutation come from? Kaelin believes it emerged early in domestication. Ancient paintings dating back to the 12th century depict calico cats, suggesting the mutation is centuries old.



“This is something that arose in the domestic cat, probably early on in the domestication process,” Kaelin said.



Sasaki wants to dig deeper. He plans to study ancient Egyptian cat mummies, searching for the orange gene. The goal? To pinpoint when and where the mutation first appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-gene-beyond-fur">Looking at the gene beyond fur</h2>



Arhgap36 isn’t just about orange fur. In other animals, it’s linked to cancer and nerve development. Could it affect more than just a cat’s coat? Sasaki thinks so.



“For example, many cat owners swear by the idea that different coat colors and patterns are linked with different personalities,” he said. “There’s no scientific evidence for this yet, but it’s an intriguing idea and one I’d love to explore further.”



The gene could also impact brain and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-holds-the-keys-to-both-your-heart-and-your-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hormone</a> function. Sasaki’s team found the gene active in several tissues, not just skin cells. Whether this activity alters behavior or health is still a mystery.



The discovery of Arhgap36 as the orange gene is just the beginning. Sasaki and Kaelin plan to investigate how the gene influences pigment production. 



The experts are also exploring its role in cancer and skin conditions, hoping to uncover broader implications for both cats and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orange-cat-mystery-solved">Orange cat mystery solved</h2>



For over a century, the orange gene remained a mystery, hiding in plain sight. Now, with the discovery of Arhgap36, scientists are one step closer to understanding how cats get their colors. But the story isn’t over.



Sasaki’s ultimate goal is to recreate the mutation in cat cell cultures, observing its effects in real time. Meanwhile, Kaelin wants to map out the entire molecular pathway, tracing how a simple gene deletion transforms a basic pigment cell into a beacon of orange fur.



From the dusty streets of ancient Egypt to the modern lab, orange cats have carried this genetic quirk for centuries. And as researchers continue to peel back the layers of DNA, the secrets of these fiery felines may prove to be more profound than anyone imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00391-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Why are some cats orange? Scientists have finally found the answer

Orange cats are everywhere, from the iconic character Garfield to...

Every third Friday of May, we pause to recognize the fragile existence of endangered species. We share the planet with countless animals, plants, and insects. Yet, many of them are vanishing right before our eyes. National Endangered Species Day urges us to take action before it’s too late.



The day was established in 2006 by the U.S. Congress to raise awareness about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> at risk of extinction. But the issue goes back decades. Laws to protect endangered species have been around for over 40 years.



Today, the urgency remains the same. Species are still disappearing, and their habitats are under threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-species-endangered">What makes a species endangered?</h2>



When the last of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-earths-most-endangered-plants-from-extinction-proving-difficult-botanic-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> vanishes, it’s gone forever. Endangered species hover dangerously close to that fate. Their numbers are so low that every birth counts, every death matters. Some hover in the thousands, others in the hundreds, and a few are down to mere tens.



Why do species disappear? The reasons are many. Habitat loss drives some to extinction. Climate change alters their environment, making it uninhabitable. Poaching and illegal trade push animals like rhinos and elephants to the brink.



Pollution seeps into ecosystems, poisoning marine life and birds. And sometimes, humans disrupt delicate ecosystems without realizing the consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ripple-effect-of-extinction">The ripple effect of extinction</h2>



When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> vanishes, it doesn’t go quietly. The loss ripples through ecosystems. A predator disappears, and prey populations explode. Plants die off, and animals lose their food source. The web of life is fragile, and every species has a role.



Take pollinators, for instance. Bees, butterflies, and bats help plants reproduce. If they disappear, crops fail, and food chains collapse. The same goes for apex predators. 



When wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone, they restored balance by controlling deer populations. When keystone species vanish, chaos follows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-past">Learning from the past</h2>



In the early 1970s, the Endangered Species Act set strict guidelines for protecting at-risk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-the-largest-threat-to-u-s-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> in the United States. It prohibited activities that could harm these animals and their habitats. It also laid the groundwork for conservation efforts worldwide.



Since then, thousands of species have been added to endangered lists. Some, like the bald eagle, have made remarkable recoveries. Others, like the vaquita porpoise, remain on the brink.



Today, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) tracks endangered species globally. Its Red List reveals a grim reality. Over 41,000 species face extinction. That includes more than a quarter of all mammals, one in eight birds, and a staggering 40% of amphibians.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-action-on-endangered-species-day">Taking action on Endangered Species Day</h2>



National Endangered Species Day isn’t just about learning facts and figures. It’s about taking action. Conservation organizations host events, workshops, and fundraisers. Many zoos and nature centers offer guided tours, showing visitors how they care for endangered animals.



Some activities are simple yet impactful. Share photos of endangered species on social media. Spread the word about why these creatures matter. Support local conservation projects. 



Even small actions, like planting native flowers for bees or reducing plastic waste, can help protect fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-endangered-species-with-tech">Exploring endangered species with tech</h2>



Technology brings endangered species closer to home. Apps like <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a> engage people in documenting local wildlife, creating snapshots of biodiversity in real time.



With EarthSnap, users can photograph plants and animals to identify species, contributing to a growing database of endangered life forms. This information becomes valuable data for conservationists tracking population changes and habitat loss. 



Meanwhile, virtual reality experiences transport people to remote habitats, offering immersive glimpses of endangered ecosystems. By bringing these distant worlds closer, technology fosters connection and urgency - reminding us of what’s at stake if species continue to vanish.



Online databases like the IUCN Red List provide up-to-date information on endangered species. They reveal how many individuals remain, what threats they face, and what’s being done to save them. The goal is to make people aware - and inspire them to act.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-global-conservation-efforts">Supporting global conservation efforts</h2>



Conservation requires resources, time, and unwavering commitment. Organizations like the World Wildlife Federation and the <a href="https://janegoodall.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Goodall Institute</a> work tirelessly to protect endangered species. They fund anti-poaching efforts, rehabilitate injured animals, and restore habitats.



Individuals can help too. Donate to wildlife organizations. Volunteer at local conservation centers. Adopt sustainable habits such as using less plastic or buying sustainably sourced products. Every choice, no matter how small, can make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-worth-protecting">A future worth protecting</h2>



National Endangered Species Day reminds us that time is running out for many species. The fate of these animals, plants, and insects isn’t set in stone. We have the power to change their stories.



Saving endangered species isn’t just about protecting animals. It’s about preserving ecosystems, supporting biodiversity, and ensuring a balanced, thriving planet for future generations. And that future starts with us.



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National Endangered Species Day: Protecting life on the brink

Every third Friday of May, we pause to recognize the...

The discovery of a fossilized femur belonging to a cerapodan dinosaur has caused a stir, mainly because of its great age. The discovery team credits the fossilized partial left femur for rewriting the timeline of cerapodan evolution. 



Many dinosaur fans have heard of Tyrannosaurus, Velociraptor, and the famed Triceratops. Few people, however, know about the <a href="https://www.dinochecker.com/dinosaurfaqs/what-is-cerapoda" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cerapoda</a>, a group of plant-eating dinosaurs that once included creatures as varied as duck-billed hadrosaurs and horned ceratopsians. The new fossil find from Morocco may change that.



<a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/people/susannah-maidment.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Susannah Maidment</a>, a paleontologist with the Natural History Museum, London, and the University of Birmingham, contributed to the analysis and presented an in-depth look at the significance of this dinosaur fossil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-a-hidden-dinosaur-chapter">Uncovering a hidden dinosaur chapter</h2>



Scientists have known cerapodans existed during the Late Jurassic Period and beyond, but older specimens were scarce. 



This new partial femur is about 165 million years old, making it the earliest body fossil of a cerapodan ever documented.



Paleontologists spotted unique features on the femur that matched traits seen only in cerapodans. They identified its distinct femoral head and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1017/S1477201907002271" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trochanter arrangement</a>, which suggests this dinosaur belongs in the same lineage as hadrosaurs and ceratopsians.&nbsp;



“Cerapoda is a diverse clade of ornithischian dinosaurs with a global distribution,” said Dr. Maidment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



Some of the footprints left in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234025996_Dinosaur_Distribution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middle Jurassic</a> rocks belong to cerapodans, indicating that they existed at that time. 



Yet the dinosaur fossils have mostly remained elusive. Now, a well-dated femur supports the idea that these dinosaurs had branched out sooner than once believed.



This single bone is important for another reason. It could fill in gaps about early cerapodan adaptations such as stance, limb structure, and herbivorous feeding strategies, which shaped the success of later forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-fossil-femur-s-age">Confirming the fossil femur's age</h2>



Scientists examined the rock layers from the region. They used established geological markers to link the deposit to the Middle Jurassic, specifically around 165 million years ago. 



They then compared that data with previous knowledge of dinosaur-bearing rock layers, worldwide, to confirm the femur’s antiquity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_cerapode_femur_worlds-oldest_credit_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_ornithischian_small-herbivorous_fossil-bones_credit-Royal-Society_1s-1.webp" alt="The proximal femur of a cerapodan dinosaur from the El Mers III Formation of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Image credit: Maidment et al." class="wp-image-1969937"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The proximal femur of a cerapodan dinosaur from the El Mers III Formation of the Middle Atlas Mountains, Morocco. Click image to enlarge. Image credit: Maidment et al.</figcaption></figure>



Paleontologists also matched the bone’s shape to known cerapodan traits. They ruled out earlier, or more primitive, ornithischians by analyzing the femoral head and trochanteric region. 



Their results support this dinosaur's place among the cerapodans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hoping-for-more-dinosaur-fossil-finds">Hoping for more dinosaur fossil finds</h2>



Experts suggest this find may be just the start. As field teams continue to search underexplored strata in Morocco, more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collagen-discovered-in-70-million-year-old-dinosaur-fossil/">remnants</a> of dinosaurs from the same era may emerge.



Hopes run high that better-preserved fossils will be discovered. Then scientists can figure out how these dinosaurs evolved from lean, bipedal ancestors into large-bodied herbivores with remarkable jaw structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots">Connecting the dots</h2>



<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/ornithischia/ornithischia.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithischian</a> dinosaurs, which include cerapodans, are recognized for having a hip structure distinct from other dinosaur groups. Their broad distribution hints at early adaptability in numerous environments worldwide.



But many segments of cerapodan history remain poorly understood. 



Each fossil from the Middle Jurassic helps scientists piece together their branching family tree, and bridges the gap between smaller, older ornithischians and the famous giants that came later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-insights-on-dinosaur-diversity">Fresh insights on dinosaur diversity</h2>



The Moroccan femur gives a rare glimpse into dinosaurs that laid groundwork for entire herds of plant-eaters in the Cretaceous. 



Researchers see these early cerapodans as nimble browsers that paved the way for the robust quadrupeds of later ages.



The new evidence also suggests multiple herbivorous lineages diversified simultaneously. That might explain why cerapodans, alongside other plant-eating groups, grew so common in certain ancient ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-fossil-femur">Beyond the fossil femur</h2>



Paleontologists note how a single fossil can answer questions about dinosaur dispersal. North Africa likely served as a corridor for many species, showing how some lineages reached global prominence by the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270692144_Paleobiology_of_Herbivorous_Dinosaurs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Jurassic</a>.



Though naming a new species from one fragment is impossible, the fossil stands as a teaser. Further excavations could reveal a fossilized skeleton with jaws, spine, or limb bones that clarify how these dinosaurs thrived in shifting environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-evolutionary-gaps">Bridging evolutionary gaps</h2>



This earliest-known cerapodan challenges assumptions about the tempo of dinosaur evolution. Until recently, the group’s best-dated fossils were usually found in younger rocks. 



The gap between the earliest cerapodans and their later, more famous relatives had proved a mystery.



A femur alone does not tell the whole story. Yet it indicates that cerapodan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/">dinosaurs</a> were expanding long before the Late Jurassic, and it pushes their known origins far deeper back in time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-behavior-and-biology">Dinosaur behavior and biology</h2>



Cerapodans likely shared early traits like bipedal posture. Some later subgroups became quadrupeds, and evolved specialized jaws for processing tough vegetation. 



How they shifted their limb posture and feeding methods remains one of paleontology’s key puzzles.



Continued study of limb bones could reveal transitional features. It might even show how rapidly cerapodans increased in size compared with their ancestors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-picture-of-jurassic-ecosystems">Bigger picture of Jurassic ecosystems</h2>



Each new fossil offers a snapshot of environments that existed roughly 165 million years ago. This cerapodan bone indicates that certain ecological niches were already available to specialized plant-eaters at that time.



Paleontologists see the Middle Jurassic as a stage of experimentation among dinosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-eggs-found-in-utah-belong-to-multiple-species/">lineages</a>. The Moroccan femur provides evidence that these animals were more widespread and varied than previously thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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World's oldest ceropode has been found: A 165-million-year-old femur

The discovery of a fossilized femur belonging to a cerapodan...

Bees don’t just huddle together and hope for the best in winter - they constantly prepare. Bees rely on the right kind of food to keep them going, but it’s not just about how much pollen they store. It’s about how many different plants that pollen comes from.



Researchers at Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (<a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JMU</a>) have been digging into this idea. They’ve been looking at how pollen variety affects honeybee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a> when the temperature drops.



The study, part of the <a href="https://www.ictagrifood.eu/sites/default/files/BeeConnected%20-%20Project%20Seminar%202024%20presentation.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BeeConnected project</a>, reveals something surprising - more diverse pollen can mean the difference between life and death for bees in the winter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-pollen-as-a-lifeline-for-bees">Diverse pollen as a lifeline for bees</h2>



Think bees just eat anything sweet? Think again. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bees</a> need a balanced diet just like we do - proteins, vitamins, fats, and minerals. Pollen is packed with these nutrients, but not all pollen is the same.



“A rich and balanced diet not only ensures successful brood development, but it also promotes the overall health of the bee colony - and healthy bees are more resistant to stressors,” says Giulia Mainardi, a PhD student at JMU.



Bees in the study that feasted on a wide range of pollen in spring and autumn? They had a better shot at surviving the winter. It wasn’t just how much they ate - it was what they ate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-winter-bees-survive-harsh-months">How winter bees survive harsh months</h2>



Not all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> are built for the cold. Summer bees live fast and die young. Winter bees are tough. They emerge in autumn, store more fat, and last through the cold months. But they need the right nutrition to develop strong bodies.



The researchers found that bees with access to diverse pollen sources before winter had stronger, healthier winter bees. 



These bees were more likely to keep the hive warm and resist diseases. It’s like a bee training camp - and the more diverse the diet, the better the soldiers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-blooming-and-where">What’s blooming and where?</h2>



The researchers didn’t just look at pollen. They looked at where it was coming from - farms, forests, cities. They tracked pollen collection in Germany, France, and Greece. They wanted to see how landscapes shaped pollen diversity.



In autumn, agricultural areas shined. Farmers planting flower strips, cover crops, and using organic methods provided a surprising variety of pollen.



“We found that areas with high agricultural use provide bees with a higher diversity of pollen in autumn. This is probably also due to agro-environmental measures such as organic farming, flower strips and intercropping,” said Mainardi.



But in summer, the story flipped. Semi-natural areas, full of wild plants, had the edge. Bees foraging in these zones found a richer mix of pollen. Agricultural lands, by then, were tapped out - fields harvested, flowers gone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pollen-diversity-matters-for-bees">Why pollen diversity matters for bees</h2>



It wasn’t all about pollen, though. The researchers also looked at weather. Could more foraging days in warmer weather boost survival? Not as much as they thought.



The real game changer was pollen diversity. Even when the weather was harsh, bees with access to varied pollen survived better than those without.



“Our results underpin that the survival of colonies during winter depends not only on parasites like the Varroa mite and bad weather conditions but also on the quality of food resources,” said Steffan-Dewenter.



Warm winters might seem like a good thing. But for bees, it can be a double-edged sword. More mild days mean more foraging - but also more food burned through. Bees need enough pollen stored to handle those extra days of activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-can-provide-essential-pollen">Farms can provide essential pollen</h2>



When people think of farms, they don’t always think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinator</a> havens. But the study found something surprising - farms can actually help bees, especially in autumn.



In agricultural landscapes, diverse flowering plants provided crucial late-season pollen. Organic farms, cover crops, and flower strips acted like a bee buffet, serving up a mix of nutrient-rich pollen just when bees needed it most.



But summer told a different story. Bees in semi-natural areas had the upper hand, with wild plants blooming after crops had finished flowering. It was a stark reminder - what works in one season may not work in another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-pollen-benefits-beyond-bees">Diverse pollen benefits beyond bees</h2>



Honeybees aren’t the only ones that benefit from diverse pollen. Other pollinators - bumblebees, butterflies, and solitary bees - need varied food sources too. Diverse landscapes feed them all, keeping pollinator populations strong.



Farmers stand to gain, too. Pollinators are essential for crops. No bees, no fruit. No bees, fewer seeds. Ensuring a steady supply of diverse pollen keeps bees healthy and helps farmers harvest better crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-it-and-they-will-thrive">Plant it and they will thrive</h2>



So, what now? The researchers’ advice is simple - plant more flowers, and plant more kinds of them. Not just in spring, not just in summer - bees need variety all year long.



Beekeepers should choose locations with diverse floral landscapes. Farmers can add cover crops and flower strips. For conservationists, protecting wild habitats can boost plant diversity.



Winter survival is more than just weathering the cold. It’s about what bees eat before the snow falls. And the more variety they get, the better their chances of seeing spring.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>. 



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Bee survival depends on more than just pollen abundance

Bees don’t just huddle together and hope for the best...

Ancient fossils are challenging what we thought we knew about the evolution of tree frogs in the Southern Hemisphere. The tiny creature, unearthed from southeastern Queensland, is changing the estimated timeline by tens of millions of years.



Scientists at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a> have identified Litoria tylerantiqua as Australia’s earliest known tree frog, pushing the family’s history back to around 55 million years ago.



This is far earlier than the previously accepted date of 33 million years for when Australian and South American tree frogs were believed to have split on the evolutionary tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-tree-frog-history">Rewriting tree frog history</h2>



Back when Litoria tylerantiqua was alive, Australia, Antarctica, and South America were still connected by the remnants of the ancient supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>. The world was warmer. Forests stretched between continents, giving animals room to spread across vast, green corridors.



Until now, the earliest known Australian tree frogs came from the Late Oligocene (about 26 million years ago) and the Early Miocene (around 23 million years ago). 



Fossils found at Kangaroo Well in the Northern Territory, Lake Palankarinna in South Australia, and the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in Queensland supported this timeline.



But the Murgon fossils - discovered on the traditional lands of the Waka Waka people - tell a different story. They show that these frogs were hopping around Australia 30 million years earlier than previously thought.



“Our research indicates that that date is at least 22 million years too young,” said Dr. Roy Farman. 



“While molecular studies are important for understanding the evolutionary relationships of different groups of animals, these studies should be calibrated using knowledge from the fossil record and in this case the fossil record provides a more accurate time for separation of the southern world’s tree frogs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-tree-frog-with-honor">Naming the tree frog with honor</h2>



The new species was named Litoria tylerantiqua to honor the late Michael Tyler, one of the first experts to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/color-evolution-ginger-pigment-found-in-10-million-year-old-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog fossils</a> in the country.



“It is only fitting to name Australia’s earliest tree frog in honor of a man who was a giant in Australian frog research and in particular the first to explore the fossil record for Australian frogs,” said Dr. Farman.



To figure out where this ancient frog fits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, the researchers had to overcome a major hurdle. The frog’s pelvic bones, key to identifying species, were not visible in preserved specimens.



“We had a real problem at the start of this study because the pelvic bones of most living frogs were invisible inside whole pickled frogs rather than available for study as skeletons,” noted Dr. Farman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-models-of-museum-specimens">Models of museum specimens</h2>



Most museums want to keep specimens intact for DNA studies, which meant the team couldn’t just remove and study the bones. Instead, they turned to technology. 



Using CT scans, the experts created 3D models of museum specimens, revealing hidden skeletons without harming the frogs.



“Using these cutting-edge investigative methods, we were able to determine from the shape of the fossil ilia - one of three bones that make up each side of the pelvis - that this new Murgon species of frog is more closely related to the Australian tree frogs (pelodryadids) than the South American tree frogs (phyllomedusids),” said Dr. Farman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-past">Lessons from the past</h2>



Litoria tylerantiqua now joins Platyplectrum casca (formerly Lechriodus casca), another Murgon fossil, as one of the oldest frogs ever found in Australia. Both have modern relatives still living today in Australia and New Guinea.



“Despite their delicate nature, frogs have been surprisingly successful at surviving several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass extinction</a> events since their origins about 250 million years ago, including the mass extinction 66 million years ago that took out the non-flying dinosaurs,” said Dr. Farman.



Today, many frogs face serious threats. Climate change, habitat loss, and diseases like chytrid fungus are wiping out populations. But understanding how frogs adapted and survived in the past might help scientists protect them now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-trees-frogs-survived">Understanding how trees frogs survived</h2>



“Although global extinction events triggered by human activities - such as rapid climate change and the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chytrid fungus</a> - may be among the worst challenges frogs have had to face, the fossil record could reveal how some frog groups overcame previous challenges, perhaps by adapting to new, less-threatening habitats," said Dr. Farman. 



"This could provide clues about how we might be able to help by translocating some threatened frogs into more future-secure habitats."



One example is the southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australians-are-unaware-of-their-most-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corroboree frog</a>, now struggling in its current environment. If fossil records show similar frogs once thrived in different settings, scientists may be able to relocate modern frogs to safer places.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2025.2477815" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Fossil discovery pushes tree frog origins back 55 million years

Ancient fossils are challenging what we thought we knew about...

In Uganda’s Budongo Forest, chimpanzees are doing more than just surviving. They’re treating their wounds with plants, cleaning each other’s injuries, and pulling snares off their companions’ limbs. 



These behaviors, documented in a new study, hint at something profound. Perhaps the roots of human medicine run deeper than we thought.



Elodie Freymann, a researcher from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the study’s lead author, believes these findings offer a fresh perspective on how our ancestors might have first learned to care for wounds. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-mix-vocal-calls-to-create-new-meanings-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a> are helping each other out. They’re capable of identifying others in need and then addressing those specific needs,” Freymann said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-treat-wounds">How chimpanzees treat wounds</h2>



For eight months, researchers watched two chimpanzee communities in Budongo - Sonso and Waibira. Injuries were common, from bites and scratches to deadly snares left by humans.



In Sonso alone, nearly 40% of the chimps bore snare scars. Freymann and her team saw twelve injuries in Sonso and five in Waibira during the study period. The injured chimps weren’t just tending to their own wounds. They were also helping each other.



A male chimp named KT managed to pull a nylon snare off his wrist. Another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzee</a>, HW, licked the wound of a female after she had been attacked. 



In yet another case, a juvenile female chewed leaves, dabbed them onto her mother’s wounds, then licked her fingers and pressed them onto the injured area. This behavior wasn’t isolated to relatives. In four instances, chimps helped others unrelated to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-recognize-medicinal-plants">Chimpanzees recognize medicinal plants </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-wild-chimpanzees-can-teach-us-about-parenting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimpanzees</a> don’t just grab any leaf when they get hurt. They seem to know which plants help wounds heal. 



Freymann’s team documented several plant species used in wound care. Acalypha sp., for example, is known for its antimicrobial properties. Pseudospondias microcarpa has a reputation for soothing pain and reducing inflammation.



One chimp chewed Acalypha leaves, then pressed the pulp onto a cut. Another used Lasiodiscus pervillei leaves to wipe away dirt and blood. 



A juvenile male named KO even mashed the stem bark of Argomuellera macrophylla and rubbed it into a wound on his leg. The behavior mirrored traditional African medicine, where these plants treat everything from skin infections to digestive issues.



“It’s likely that our shared common ancestor also would have been capable of these care behaviors as well,” Freymann noted. If chimps know which plants heal wounds, maybe early humans learned from them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-social-side-of-care">The social side of care</h2>



Prosocial care - helping others - is rare among non-human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. But Budongo’s chimps are doing it. During the study, researchers documented seven cases of one chimp helping another. In three of these instances, the caregiver and the injured chimp were unrelated.



A male chimp named ZG licked the blood off a female’s wound after she was attacked by other chimps. In another case, NT, a juvenile female, watched her mother chew leaves and press them onto a wound. NT then did the same, imitating her mother’s technique.



Freymann sees this as evidence that chimps aren’t just mimicking; they’re actively learning. 



“Our research helps illuminate the evolutionary roots of human medicine and healthcare systems,” said Freymann. “By documenting how chimpanzees identify and utilize medicinal plants and provide care to others, we gain insight into the cognitive and social foundations of human healthcare behaviors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-chimpanzee-healthcare">Threats to chimpanzee healthcare</h2>



Chimpanzees in Budongo face a constant threat from human snares. Nearly 40% of the Sonso chimps bear scars from these traps. 



Freymann’s team observed multiple instances of snare removal, some self-directed and others involving help from group members. But the danger remains.



The findings also suggest that chimpanzees in Budongo, Gabon, and other regions might share similar care behaviors. This could mean that these practices are widespread, not isolated. But there’s still much to learn.



For Freymann, the implications extend beyond chimpanzees and their use of plants. Observing how these primates use plants for healing might provide clues for new medicinal compounds. 



“If we want to hone in on these amazing medicinal resources, watching and learning from the animals is an incredibly effective way to do it if it’s done ethically and responsibly,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-plant-medicine-from-chimpanzees">Learning plant medicine from chimpanzees</h2>



The study doesn’t just document chimpanzee healthcare. It challenges how we think about the origins of medicine. Watching chimps chew leaves and press them onto wounds, it’s easy to imagine early humans doing the same. Maybe they learned from the chimps. Maybe they figured it out together.



Budongo’s chimpanzees aren’t doctors, but they are healers. And in their actions, we might find the echoes of our own ancient medical traditions.



Freymann’s work reminds us that medicine is not just a human invention. It might be a shared legacy, passed down from ancestors who walked the forests long before us.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2025.1540922/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Evolution and Ecology</a>.



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Chimpanzees know which plants to use for healing wounds

In Uganda’s Budongo Forest, chimpanzees are doing more than just...

Yellowstone’s seething terraces and steaming pools draw visitors for their color and heat, but to microbiologists they offer something else: a peek at the sort of place where the earliest stirrings of life may have taken hold in the form of giant viruses.



One acidic creek in the park, forever gurgling around 112 °F, has now revealed an unexpected cast of microbial giants that could have nudged evolution along.



Giant viruses found in Yellowstone's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-springs-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-emergence-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hot springs</a> - organisms so large they sometimes escape standard filters - have been turning up in many odd corners of the planet. Yet their role in shaping early ecosystems has remained hazy. 



A fresh look at a green algal mat in Yellowstone suggests these outsized invaders were not latecomers but long-standing residents whose presence dates back a billion-plus years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-s-living-time-capsules">Yellowstone’s living time capsules</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shanay-timpishka-river-amazon-rainforest-is-so-hot-that-it-literally-boils-destroying-nearby-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hot springs</a> change, dry up and reappear over geological time, but each one preserves chemical and physical traits once common on early Earth. 



The creek known as Lemonade runs through a narrow channel lined with bright-green filaments of red algae, or Rhodophyta. In water that hits pH 2, those algae thrive alongside sulfur-loving microbes that shrug off toxins such as arsenic.



After skimming DNA from the mat, nearby soil and the spaces between stones, researchers filtered out familiar bacterial, archaeal and algal sequences. 



Roughly 3,700 potential viral fragments remained, and almost two-thirds belonged to the giant class. Computer sleuthing pieced together most of the genomes of about 25 distinct viruses. 



“The connections between the viruses and [their hosts] are ancient,” <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rutgers University</a> genome scientist Debashish Bhattacharya explains, pointing to proteins whose tightly packed shapes suit a habitat that seldom cools below 112 °F.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-viruses-and-yellowstone-hot-springs">Giant viruses and Yellowstone hot springs</h2>



Giant-virus DNA carries the same three-letter code preferences as other creek dwellers, signaling a long residence rather than a recent arrival from cooler pools. 



When the team built a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-microbial-ancestors-developed-virus-defenses-one-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viral family tree</a>, the Lemonade Creek line split near the very base, implying the partnership with red algae may stretch back 1.5 billion years. 



“Understanding ancient virus evolution may be key to our understanding of [life’s] early developments,” notes Simon Roux, a microbiologist at the Department of Energy’s <a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joint Genome Institute</a> who was not involved in the work.



Many hot-spring inhabitants borrow genes to cope with heat and toxins. Exactly how a complex eukaryote such as algae grabs DNA from simple bacteria has puzzled biochemists. 



Andreas Weber, a biochemist at <a href="https://www.hhu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf</a>, calls hot springs “time capsules that provide a window into early eukaryotic life.” 



He suspects giant viruses act as middlemen, grabbing genes from bacteria or archaea, then handing them to the algae they infect. 



In that shuttle role, “the viruses likely play an important role in the long-term stability of the hot spring communities,” he adds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-separate-worlds-inches-apart">Separate worlds inches apart</h2>



Sampling revealed three viral neighborhoods: one on the algal mat, one in adjacent soil and one wedged between rocks. 



“I would have thought that there would be more exchange between neighboring sites that are sometimes only a few centimeters apart,” Weber admits. 



Their isolation “points out how little we really know about the diversity and role of viruses in microbial communities,” observes Mark Young, an environmental virologist emeritus at <a href="https://www.montana.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Montana State University</a> who was not involved with the work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-yellowstone-s-giant-viruses-matter">Why Yellowstone's giant viruses matter</h2>



Giant viruses are not the only curiosities to surface in the park. Scientists George Rice and Mark Young spotted another virus drifting among heat-loving archaea in the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/places/000/midway-geyser-basin-trailhead.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Midway Geyser Basin</a>. 



Archaea are thermophiles that flourish in pools between 158 °F and 197 °F and at pH values as low as 1; they have yielded just 36 viruses out of more than 5,000 known. 



"Anywhere there's life, we expect viruses," Young says, stressing how protected reserves aid such finds. 



"This is a stellar example of why we need places that are protected for scientists to come in and look for new discoveries," park geologist Hank Heasler agrees.



Rice’s team reported that the Yellowstone virus’s protein shell resembles coats from viruses that infect bacteria and animals. 



"Thermophiles are deeply rooted in the tree of life," Young notes, hinting that the virus predates the split between bacteria, archaea and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oldest-organisms-ever-discovered-show-dazzling-diversity-and-complexity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eukaryotes</a> roughly 3.5 billion years ago. Genetic work backs the idea. 



"The genes look different [from those of other viruses] so they probably do different things," Rice says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viruses-and-the-search-for-alien-life">Viruses and the search for alien life</h2>



Viruses shuttle genes with abandon. "They're not just a passenger," Young emphasizes. "They are the major source of biological material on this planet. They have a huge role in moving genes around." 



That talent intrigues astrobiologists: "If we're going to go to non-Earth-based bodies to look for life, this discovery gives <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> an approach for looking for life in hot-temperature environments, which we know to exist off of Earth," Young points out. 



Enzymes that stay stable in boiling water could also feed medical diagnostics or industrial reactions that now falter under heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-learned-from-yellowstone-s-giant-viruses">Lessons learned from Yellowstone's giant viruses</h2>



The story flowing from a modest creek in Yellowstone widens our picture of life’s early days. 



Giant viruses, once dismissed as curiosities, appear to have stood shoulder to shoulder with the first eukaryotes, swapping genes, recycling nutrients and carving out niches even when resources were scarce. 



On a planet where every drop of hot water seems to shelter a unique community, each discovery reminds us how much more waits beneath the steam.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-05931-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Giant viruses found in Yellowstone's hot springs may be near the root of all life on Earth

Yellowstone’s seething terraces and steaming pools draw visitors for their...

The origin of reptiles on Earth has been pushed back by an astonishing 40 million years. Fossilized tracks unearthed in Australia provide compelling evidence that reptile-like animals existed far earlier than previously thought. 



This finding challenges long-held assumptions about the evolution of tetrapods, the group that includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



A team led by John Long, a professor at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, discovered fossilized tracks of an amniote with clawed feet, dating to approximately 350 million years ago.



The tracks, found in the Mansfield district of northern Victoria, indicate that amniotes – a group that includes reptiles – were present in the Carboniferous period, much earlier than established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">records</a> in the Northern Hemisphere.



“Once we identified this, we realised this is the oldest evidence in the world of reptile-like animals walking around on land – and it pushes their evolution back by 35-to-40 million years older than the previous records in the Northern Hemisphere,” said Professor Long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-clawed-reptile-tracks-in-gondwana">First clawed reptile tracks in Gondwana</h2>



The track-bearing slab, discovered in Taungurung Country, belonged to the Snowy Plains Formation. 



The animal that left these tracks likely resembled a small, stumpy Goanna-like creature. With its clawed feet, this primitive sauropsid walked across what was once part of the ancient southern supercontinent, Gondwana.



“The implications of this discovery for the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of tetrapods are profound,” noted Professor Long. The finding suggests that stem-tetrapod and stem-amniote lineages began evolving in the Devonian period, much earlier than previously thought.



The rapid evolution of tetrapods during this period, combined with an incomplete fossil record, has obscured the true timeline of their emergence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-evolution-timeline-shifts-nbsp">Reptile evolution timeline shifts&nbsp;</h2>



The fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossil-contains-soft-tissue-preserved-for-183-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> of crown-group amniotes, which includes modern reptiles, birds, and mammals, was previously thought to begin in the Late Carboniferous, around 318 million years ago. 



Earlier estimates placed the emergence of crown-group tetrapods at 334 million years ago, with the oldest trackways dating back 353 million years.



However, the newly discovered Australian tracks, securely dated to the early Tournaisian, push the origin of crown-group amniotes back by 35 to 40 million years. This revised timeline suggests that tetrapod evolution proceeded faster and earlier than previously thought.



“We now present new trackway data from Australia that falsify this widely accepted timeline,” said Professor Long. The implications extend beyond the Australian site, challenging assumptions about the broader evolutionary history of tetrapods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-slab-holds-oldest-reptile-tracks">Fossil slab holds oldest reptile tracks</h2>



The sandstone slab, measuring about 50 cm across, carries the oldest known clawed footprints. The slab was discovered by two amateur palaeontologists, Craig Eury and John Eason, who initially thought the tracks belonged to early amphibians.



“When I saw this specimen for the first time, I was very surprised. After just a few seconds, I noticed that there were clearly preserved claw marks,” said Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki of <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>, co-author of the study.



According to Niedźwiedzki, claws are a distinct feature of early amniotes, almost never seen in other tetrapod groups. This characteristic suggests the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> that left these tracks was a primitive reptile, marking the earliest known evidence of clawed feet among tetrapods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-tracks-in-australia-and-poland">Reptile tracks in Australia and Poland</h2>



In addition to the Australian tracks, similar trackways have been identified in Silesia, Poland. These tracks, dated to the mid-Serpukhovian to early Bashkirian, are slightly younger than the Australian finds but also display claw impressions.



The Polish tracks extend the known range of Notalacerta into the early Carboniferous. This suggests that amniotes were present across both Gondwana and Euramerica much earlier than previously thought.



The Snowy Plains Formation likely dates to the early Tournaisian, approximately 358.9 to 354 million years ago. This pushes the origin of crown-group amniotes back significantly, indicating that tetrapods evolved more rapidly than previously estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-faster-reptile-evolution">Fossils reveal faster reptile evolution</h2>



To refine the evolutionary timeline, researchers combined fossil evidence with DNA analysis. Molecular data provide valuable insights into the relative timing of evolutionary events, particularly when the fossil record is incomplete.



“It’s all about the relative length of different branches in the tree,” said Per Ahlberg of Uppsala University. “This method helps us pinpoint evolutionary phases with a poor fossil record.”



By overlaying DNA branch lengths onto known fossil dates, the team estimated the age of the tetrapod crown-group node to be in the Devonian, contemporaneous with transitional 'fishapods' like Tiktaalik. This finding suggests that tetrapods diversified earlier and faster than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-previous-theories">Challenging previous theories</h2>



The Snowy Plains Formation trackway slab is more than just a piece of stone. It represents a pivotal moment in the history of life on Earth, a moment when reptiles first set clawed feet on land.



“A single track-bearing slab, which one person can lift, calls into question everything we thought we knew about when modern tetrapods evolved,” said Per Ahlberg. The slab, found in Taungurung Country, is now housed in Museums Victoria.



The tracks show a consistent foot morphology, with five slender digits splayed out in a fan shape. Claws are present on four digits, with the fifth digit carrying a shorter claw. 



The trackmaker’s hip-to-shoulder distance suggests a body length of approximately 80 cm, similar to that of a modern water monitor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-evidence-in-gondwana">Search for evidence in Gondwana</h2>



Mansfield, Victoria, has long been a hotspot for fossil discoveries. Since 1980, researchers have uncovered fossilized fish and sharks in the area, but finding terrestrial vertebrate tracks had remained elusive.



“The Mansfield area has produced many famous fossils, beginning with spectacular fossil fishes found 120 years ago, and ancient sharks. But the holy grail that we were always looking for was evidence of land animals,” explained Professor Long.



The Snowy Plains Formation trackways provide crucial evidence that reptiles and other amniotes were already present in Gondwana during the early Carboniferous. This challenges previous theories that placed the origin of amniotes solely in the Northern Hemisphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-evolution-a-broader-timeline">Reptile evolution: A broader timeline</h2>



The discovery of clawed tracks from the early Carboniferous has profound implications for the timeline of tetrapod evolution. It suggests that the tetrapod crown-group node must be located deep within the Devonian, not the Carboniferous as previously thought.



The findings also reveal that tetrapod evolution was a more rapid and complex process than previously recognized. The appearance of clawed amniotes in both Gondwana and Euramerica indicates that these groups may have evolved in parallel across different regions.



“This discovery rewrites this part of evolutionary history,” said Dr. Jillian Garvey of La Trobe University. “It indicates there is so much that has happened in Australia and Gondwana that we are still yet to uncover.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-fossil-research">The future of fossil research </h2>



While the Australian tracks provide valuable insights, they also raise new questions about the evolutionary history of reptiles. The fossil record in Gondwana remains incomplete, and future discoveries may further alter our understanding of when and where reptiles first emerged.



“The most interesting discoveries are yet to come and that there is still much to be found in the field,” said Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki. “These footprints from Australia are just one example of this.”



The Snowy Plains Formation slab stands as a powerful reminder that even a single piece of rock can reshape our understanding of the past. 



As researchers continue to search the Devonian and Carboniferous formations of Gondwana, the story of reptile evolution may undergo even more dramatic revisions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Marcin Ambrozik.



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Animal evolution theory turned upside down by new fossil discovery

The origin of reptiles on Earth has been pushed back...

A Middle Jurassic dinosaur has been unearthed 166 million years after it died. It was the size of a large dog and ate a vegetarian diet. The newly-uncovered juvenile from Scottish rocks is making waves among paleontology fans. 



This skeleton was first noticed decades ago but stayed in place due to tricky access along the Isle of Skye. It ended up being the first and most complete partial dinosaur <a href="http://earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skeleton</a> yet recognized from Scotland.



No one expected such an important specimen to lie overlooked for so long. Yet its remote position made collection efforts difficult until more recent years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tough-spot-for-fossil-hunting">A tough spot for fossil hunting</h2>



Getting this fossil out wasn’t easy. The skeleton was wedged into hard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-microbes-burrowed-into-rock-millions-of-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">limestone</a> along a rocky coastline, in a spot that is only reachable at low tide.



It took ropes, wedges, and even a motorboat to haul the block safely to a harbor. The team had to work under strict permits since the area is part of a protected <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/protected-areas-sites-of-special-scientific-interest" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-curious-middle-jurassic-vegetarian-dinosaur">A curious, Middle Jurassic vegetarian dinosaur</h2>



Researchers have pieced together enough fossils to suggest that this creature reached roughly the size of a large dog and followed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-high-body-temperatures-often-become-herbivores/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivorous diet</a>. Its fragmentary but well-preserved bones indicate that it likely moved around on sturdy legs and feasted on vegetation.



“Dinosaurs from the Triassic and Early Jurassic were generally small, bipedal carnivores and omnivores, but by the Late Jurassic they had radiated into a highly diverse range of species that included some of the largest terrestrial vertebrates to ever walk the Earth,” observed <a href="https://www.nms.ac.uk/profile/dr-elsa-panciroli" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Elsa Panciroli</a>, a paleobiologist at National Museums Scotland. 



Although this creature remained modest in size, it lived during a period in which some dinosaurs were rapidly branching into new forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tapping-into-scarce-middle-jurassic-secrets">Tapping into scarce Middle Jurassic secrets</h2>



These <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/timeline/mid-jurassic/gallery.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middle Jurassic</a> deposits rarely give up well-preserved dinosaur skeletons. Many known specimens from that stretch of prehistory consist simply of fragmentary teeth or broken limb bones.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_ornithischian_small-herbivorous_extraction-process-montage_credit-Royal-Society_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/dinosaur_ornithischian_small-herbivorous_extraction-process-montage_credit-Royal-Society_1s.webp" alt="The process of extracting the dinosaur-bearing block: (a) the area of interest was supported by expanding eye bolts attached to a static anchor by slings, and a series of 25 mm diameter holes were drilled around this area; (b), plug-and-feather steel expanding wedges were inserted into the drill holes and struck with hammers in order to propagate cracks that separated the block from the rest of the pinnacle; (c–e) the detached block was lowered to the next level using a ratchet winch, and guided onto a board on a ramp constructed from 100 mm fencing posts onto the limestone pavement beneath; (f) the block was then secured to a wooden cradle by ratchet straps and carried over the beach to be loaded onto a rigid inflatable dinghy, which was towed (g) through Loch Scavaig to the landing jetty at Elgol; (h) the excavation team, from left to right: Roger Close, Brett Crawford, Stig Walsh (top), Andrzej Wolniewicz (bottom), Matt Fair, Elsa Panciroli, Richard Butler and Roger Benson. Photographs a-g by Elsa Panciroli." class="wp-image-1969758"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Click image to enlarge. The process of extracting the dinosaur-bearing block: (a) the area of interest was supported by expanding eye bolts attached to a static anchor by slings, and a series of 25 mm diameter holes were drilled around this area; (b), plug-and-feather steel expanding wedges were inserted into the drill holes and struck with hammers in order to propagate cracks that separated the block from the rest of the pinnacle; (c–e) the detached block was lowered to the next level using a ratchet winch, and guided onto a board on a ramp constructed from 100 mm fencing posts onto the limestone pavement beneath; (f) the block was then secured to a wooden cradle by ratchet straps and carried over the beach to be loaded onto a rigid inflatable dinghy, which was towed (g) through Loch Scavaig to the landing jetty at Elgol; (h) the excavation team, from left to right: Roger Close, Brett Crawford, Stig Walsh (top), Andrzej Wolniewicz (bottom), Matt Fair, Elsa Panciroli, Richard Butler and Roger Benson. Photographs a-g by Elsa Panciroli.</figcaption></figure>



Scientists crave more fossils from this interval to help fill gaps in dinosaur family trees. Every new example helps them map out when plant-eaters and meat-eaters evolved novel traits or reached record sizes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-dinosaur-fossil-fragment-matters">Every dinosaur fossil fragment matters</h2>



Experts analyzed the dinosaur’s skeletal features and found hints that it could belong to a group called <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/ornithischia/ornithischia.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithischian</a> dinosaurs. 



This clade includes many plant-eating forms that left footprints and sporadic remains, but few skeletons, from this geological slice.



“If the specimen does represent an ornithischian, as tentatively suggested from the partial ilium and histological sectioning, it represents the geologically youngest known occurrence in Scotland, and first from the Kilmaluag Formation,” shared Dr. Panciroli. 



Researchers plan to compare these fossils with similar plant-munching species to confirm its family ties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-middle-jurassic-dinosaur-research">Looking ahead: Middle Jurassic dinosaur research</h2>



New finds do more than scratch scientific curiosity. They paint a picture of how life in the Jurassic Period thrived, long before famous beasts like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stegosaurus</a> and giant sauropods reached towering heights.



Additional fieldwork is in the works, with paleontologists combing Scottish shores in hopes of spotting more hidden remains. They suspect there may be other small herbivores tucked away in the rugged rock layers of Skye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-jurassic-dinosaur-bones-reveal">What the Jurassic dinosaur bones reveal</h2>



The fossilized bone tissue showed clear signs of cyclical growth marks - rings laid down each year like those in trees. At least eight of these marks were visible, which suggests the dinosaur was eight years old, or older, when it died.



Despite its age, the creature hadn't yet reached full size. Its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bones</a> were still actively growing, though at a slower pace. Researchers believe it was a subadult, probably approaching maturity but not quite there yet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-dinosaur-might-change-the-timeline">Why this dinosaur might change the timeline</h2>



If the team’s identification holds, this could be the earliest known example of an <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/body-shape/large-ornithopod/gallery.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithopod</a>, a group of herbivorous Jurassic dinosaurs that later produced well-known species like Iguanodon and Hadrosaurus. That would shift back the clock on when these animals first appeared in the fossil record.



There’s even a chance it could be the oldest body fossil of an <a href="https://geology.utah.gov/map-pub/survey-notes/the-iguanodontians-of-early-cretaceous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iguanodontian</a>, a subgroup within ornithopods. Footprints have hinted at their presence this early, but until now, no bones backed this up.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/first-and-most-complete-dinosaur-skeleton-from-the-middle-jurassic-of-scotland/A738B17F5A78106E6B8C75D211153333" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth and Environmental Science</a>.



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Dog-sized baby dinosaur unearthed after 166 million years

A Middle Jurassic dinosaur has been unearthed 166 million years...

Wildlife trafficking is a crime that extends far beyond the smuggling of charismatic species like elephants and rhinos. It involves the illegal trade of a wide range of animals, plants, and even insects. 



While public attention often focuses on large mammals, the trafficking of insects remains a lesser-known but equally significant threat.



Recently, four men were arrested in Kenya for attempting to smuggle over 5,000 ants. Their aim was to sell these ants as part of the exotic pet trade. The ants were stored in individual test tubes and syringes, cushioned with small amounts of cotton wool. 



This unusual method highlights the extreme lengths traffickers go to transport even the tiniest of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exotic-pet-trade-fuels-insect-smuggling">Exotic pet trade fuels insect smuggling</h2>



Some people collect rare and unusual insects as exotic pets or decorative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a>. These collectors are willing to pay high prices for insects that are hard to find, unique, or visually striking. 



For example, a rhino beetle’s shiny shell can attract buyers in Japan due to its unusual appearance. In Sri Lanka, butterflies with bright and delicate wings are sought after for collections. Praying mantis eggs are treated as curiosities in the United States, where people keep them as unusual pets or decorative items.



Traffickers take advantage of this demand. They collect insects and package them in small, everyday containers like crisp packets, candy boxes, or plastic tubes. These containers blend in with regular luggage or shipments, making the insects difficult to detect at airports or customs checks.



Once smuggled and sold, the insects end up in private collections or as exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pets</a>. Collectors may keep them in glass cases, display them as trophies, or breed them for further trade. Some insects become part of illegal markets where rare or endangered species are sold for profit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-trafficking-is-often-overlooked">Insect trafficking is often overlooked</h2>



When people think of wildlife trafficking, they picture poachers hunting elephants for ivory or rhinos for their horns. But insects? They hardly come to mind. Yet the trade in insects is just as destructive.



Unlike elephants or tigers, insects don’t get much media coverage. Conservationists focus on the big, charismatic animals while the smaller, less glamorous creatures slip through the cracks. 



The black market takes full advantage of this oversight, smuggling insects without drawing much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-insect-populations">Declining insect populations</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insects</a> are disappearing rapidly around the world. Pesticides used in farming and gardening poison them, killing large numbers of insects. 



Climate change disrupts their habitats, making it harder for them to find food, reproduce, or survive. Urban development also destroys natural areas, replacing forests, fields, and wetlands with buildings and roads. This leaves insects with fewer places to live.



While pesticides, climate change, and urban sprawl are widely recognized threats, another danger looms – trafficking. Insects that are already endangered become even more vulnerable as collectors and traffickers seek out rare species. These individuals capture and sell insects for profit, exploiting their scarcity.



Despite its impact, insect trafficking remains largely unnoticed. Unlike the illegal trade in elephants or tigers, insect smuggling often goes unreported. Insects are small, easy to hide, and less likely to attract attention. 



Law enforcement rarely prioritizes insect trafficking, leading to few arrests and seizures. As a result, the true scale of the problem remains unknown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anathema-ant-a-species-in-danger">Anathema ant: A species in danger</h2>



Some insects do get protection – at least on paper. The anathema ant, for instance, sits on the <a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> red list as an endangered species. Under international law, no one can capture, kill, or disturb it.



But enforcing these protections is another story. Identifying insects is tricky. Thousands of species look similar. When customs officials intercept a box of ants, how do they tell if they’re dealing with endangered anathema ants or a common garden variety?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-trafficking-and-organized-crime">Insect trafficking and organized crime</h2>



Wildlife trafficking isn’t just the work of lone poachers. Organized crime syndicates have noticed the potential in insects. They’re small, easy to conceal, and cheap to transport.



At Los Angeles International Airport, customs agents discovered 37 rhino beetles stuffed into snack packets. They found them mixed with crisps and sweets, hidden in plain sight.



Why bother with beetles? The answer is simple: demand. Collectors pay top dollar for rare, exotic insects. Crime networks see an opportunity - and they seize it.



Wildlife crimes often sit low on law enforcement’s priority list. Officers focus on drugs, weapons, and human trafficking. Insect smuggling hardly registers.



Even when officials seize insects, prosecution can be difficult. Identifying a rare beetle or ant requires expertise. Misidentifications happen. Cases get dismissed. Traffickers walk free.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-species-an-unseen-consequence">Invasive species: An unseen consequence</h2>



Insect trafficking doesn’t just harm the smuggled insects. It threatens entire ecosystems. Smuggled insects can escape or get released. They breed, spread, and sometimes dominate.



In Hawaii, authorities spend millions each year battling the coconut rhinoceros beetle. It tears through crops, devastates local plants, and leaves economic ruin in its wake. 



Invasive species can cause irreversible damage, and trafficking is the door that lets them in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-ignoring-insect-trafficking">Cost of ignoring insect trafficking </h2>



Failing to address insect trafficking costs more than just money. It risks entire ecosystems. It drives endangered species closer to extinction. It helps organized crime networks thrive.



But change is possible. Raising awareness can shine a light on the hidden trade in insects. Stronger enforcement can close the loopholes traffickers exploit. And if more people start to care, the ants, beetles, and butterflies might stand a fighting chance.



Wildlife trafficking isn’t just about rhinos and tigers. It’s about ants in test tubes, beetles in crisp packets, and butterflies smuggled across borders. Insects might not get the spotlight, but they’re part of this story too. 



And unless action is taken, they will remain easy targets in a world where profit trumps preservation.



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Insect trafficking is a destructive trade that's been overlooked

Wildlife trafficking is a crime that extends far beyond the...

Coral reefs are some of the most colorful and diverse ecosystems on Earth. Much of this beauty comes from the tiny algae that live inside coral tissues. But the story doesn’t end there. 



The water surrounding coral reefs is filled with invisible life - bacteria, archaea, and other microscopic organisms. These microbes don’t just float around unnoticed; they react to changes in the environment and can tell us a lot about the health of coral reefs.



In a recent study by scientists from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) and <a href="https://www.gmu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">George Mason University</a>, researchers make the case for using these microbes as a valuable tool in coral reef monitoring and conservation.



The findings offer new hope for helping reefs recover from the increasing threats of climate change, pollution, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-important-reef-building-coral-habitats-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat destruction</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-coral-reef-health">New insights into coral reef health</h2>



Amy Apprill is an associate scientist in Marine Chemistry &amp; Geochemistry at WHOI and lead author of the study.



“Factoring in microbes is very helpful to understand more about overall reef health,” said Apprill. "My team has produced over a dozen detailed datasets that demonstrate these connections."



"Our goal with this new paper is to make this knowledge accessible to the programs and people interested in using microbes to diagnose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-can-mislead-scientists-about-reef-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef health</a> and ocean conditions.”



Traditionally, coral reef monitoring depends on what people can see - changes in coral color, signs of bleaching, or physical damage.



However, microbial sampling offers a different kind of insight. It can provide more immediate feedback and a clearer picture of what’s happening beneath the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-coral-reef-conservation">Improving coral reef conservation </h2>



These techniques aren’t just for scientists. The study explains how park managers, conservation groups, restoration teams, and policy makers can all benefit. 



Water samples can be collected without harming the reef. Analyzing the samples can be as simple as using a microscope or as complex as genetic sequencing. Costs and technical requirements vary, but that’s part of the appeal - this method can be adapted to many situations.



Study co-author Jennifer L. Salerno is a marine biologist and associate professor in the Department of Environmental Science and Policy at George Mason University.



“The utility of using microbes as meaningful indicators is increasing as our understanding of their roles in maintaining or destabilizing health and ecosystem function is growing,” explained Salemo.



“I think we have the science and accessible technology to take a more nuanced approach to coral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef conservation</a>, management, and policy decisions by deploying diagnostic tools like this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-microbes-tell-us">What microbes tell us</h2>



Microbes respond to all sorts of environmental cues - nutrients, oxygen levels, temperature, pH, and light.



For example, the presence of E. coli in reef water typically signals contamination from human or animal waste, which is bad news for the reef. On the flip side, certain photosynthetic microbes may suggest a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy ecosystem</a>.



This kind of data is more than just interesting. It can guide decision-making about where and when to intervene, and even how to design better reef restoration projects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-microbial-monitoring">Benefits of microbial monitoring </h2>



One strength of this approach is that it doesn’t require a one-size-fits-all solution. Some tools are inexpensive and easy to use, while others offer deeper insights but require more resources.



The authors of the study also urge the coral reef community to develop standard methods and share their findings.



“Because of the decline of coral reefs and the increased attention towards interventions such as restoration or rebuilding of a reef, it is important to bring all the relevant tools to the table to help restore, manage, and conserve reef ecosystems,” noted Aprill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-reefs-from-emerging-threats">Protecting reefs from emerging threats</h2>



With regular sampling, we can track how a reef’s microbial community changes over time. That opens the door to larger-scale monitoring efforts. 



Eventually, scientists hope to build open databases of microbial data from reefs around the world. These databases could be used with machine learning tools to predict reef health and create a kind of microbial health index for coral ecosystems.



“As coral reef scientists, we are very good at monitoring change and sometimes determining the root causes of the changes we are seeing on the reef,” Salerno said. 



“We aren't as well versed in mitigation and coordinated responses to emerging threats, but I would say as a community, we are improving." 



"If we can become better at predicting emerging threats through the use of diagnostic tools, perhaps we can also become better at preventing them from impacting reefs in the first place."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-coral-reef-bleaching-crisis">The coral reef bleaching crisis</h2>



Recent years have brought some of the worst <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-coral-bleaching-event-prompts-emergency-un-session/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral bleaching events</a> on record. This happens when corals lose their symbiotic algae due to heat stress or pollution. 



As oceans keep warming due to climate change, these events are becoming more frequent and severe. The researchers emphasize that we need every tool we can get to help coral reefs survive.



“We need to provide as much practical and accessible information as we can to the people making decisions,” Apprill said. “I think these microbes can enhance our knowledge of the ecosystem and elevate our framework for decision making." 



"I want people to get excited about this idea, and for current coral reef monitoring programs and management agencies to understand how this can make a difference to their programs.”



By listening to the tiniest voices in reef waters, we may be able to protect some of the ocean’s most vital ecosystems before it’s too late.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2949790625000990" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports Sustainability</a>.



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Microbes offer new ways to monitor coral reef health

Coral reefs are some of the most colorful and diverse...

species in Hyriidae

News coming your way