A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary. It has brown feathers, a slender beak, and a characteristic strut like other doves. 



Compared to Cuba’s colorful parrots, it might seem unremarkable. However, this bird has long puzzled biologists. Scientists have struggled to determine its origins, how it arrived on the island, or what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> it is related to.



For the first time, researchers have sequenced the bird’s DNA to uncover its history. Instead of clear answers, they found more confusion.



“This species has been an ornithological enigma for a very long time,” said Jessica Oswald, a Florida Museum of Natural History consultant staff affiliate and lead author of the study. 



“We focused on this dove species because we were anticipating an odd result that may help us understand the complex biogeography of the Caribbean. We did not anticipate it being so unique from an evolutionary perspective relative to anything else.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-evolutionary-lineage">A unique evolutionary lineage</h2>



Scientists once believed the blue-headed quail dove was related to doves and pigeons from Central and South America. Some features, however, seemed more similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-undisturbed-forests-support-greater-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> from Australasia. Recent genetic analysis has disproved both theories.



The study shows that this dove is not closely related to species in Australia or the Americas. Instead, it stands apart from all known doves and pigeons.



“This species is even more evolutionarily distinct than the dodo was,” Oswald said. The dodo, also a type of dove, had at least one close relative, the Rodrigues solitaire, before both went extinct.



DNA evidence, along with fossil analysis, suggests that the blue-headed quail dove’s lineage may be as old as 50 million years. In comparison, humans and chimpanzees diverged just 5 to 6 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-history-of-caribbean-extinctions">The history of Caribbean extinctions</h2>



Oswald conducted this research as part of a broader <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> initiative to understand bird extinctions in the Caribbean.



About 12% of all Caribbean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> have disappeared since humans arrived. These include a nearly four-foot-tall giant owl, over a dozen parrot species, a raptor larger than a bald eagle, a flightless ibis that fought with its wings, and a condor with a powerful bite.



Scientists have struggled to determine how these extinct birds relate to modern species. Oswald developed new methods to extract and sequence DNA from fossils, helping connect extinct and living birds.



Early tests on a Caribbean cave rail fossil revealed a previously unknown evolutionary link to birds in Africa, New Guinea, and New Zealand. A later study showed that a parrot, now restricted to Hispaniola, once lived across the Caribbean before human activity reduced its range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-is-nearing-extinction">Cuban dove is nearing extinction</h2>



Though not extinct, the blue-headed quail dove faces serious threats.



“There are 1,000 mature individuals of this species left in Cuba. It is threatened by overhunting by people, habitat loss and invasive species like cats. It’s very much on the brink,” Oswald said.



Due to its rarity, no one had sequenced its DNA before. Most specimens in North American museums were collected decades ago, making DNA extraction difficult. 



Oswald used a technique she developed for fossils, applying it to a toe pad from a specimen collected in 1958, and anxiously awaited the DNA results.



“She called me up and said, ‘Are you sitting down?’ I thought she was going to tell me they didn’t get any good sequencing and had no data, but it was just the opposite,” said study co-author David Steadman, former curator of ornithology at the Florida Museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-value-of-museum-specimens">Value of museum specimens</h2>



Steadman spent decades witnessing advancements in DNA technology. He sees this study as proof that museum collections remain vital for modern research.



“It’s another instance of the importance of museums and the long-term maintenance of specimens. As ancient DNA techniques have improved, we find that fossils, historical and modern specimens are even more useful than before.”



Oswald and Steadman were surprised by the results. Other Caribbean doves have known origins, with ancestors from North, Central, or South America. The blue-headed quail dove, however, remains a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-may-be-the-last-of-its-kind">Cuban dove may be the last of its kind</h2>



“It’s a relictual species and has probably been in the Caribbean for a long time. Cuba is an old island,” Steadman said.



The dove's origins remain uncertain. It may be the last survivor of an ancient lineage, as genetic evidence suggests, or an isolated offshoot of another dove species stranded in Cuba long ago.



Despite its preference for ground living, its ancestors likely had the strong flight ability that allows doves and pigeons to spread across vast distances.



“There are some groups of birds that are spectacular dispersers, one being pigeons and doves. They just get up and go,” Oswald said. “Many are particularly good dispersers because they eat a lot of fruit and sometimes have to move large distances to look for fruiting trees.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-the-cuban-dove">The future of the Cuban dove</h2>



The blue-headed quail dove remains an evolutionary puzzle. While its origins are uncertain, its future is even more precarious. 



With its population dwindling, conservation efforts may be the only way to prevent it from following the dodo into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>.



Researchers from multiple institutions contributed to this study, including Bret Boyd from&nbsp;<a href="https://lifesciences.vcu.edu/directory/boyd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Commonwealth University</a>, Avery Szewczak and Julie Allen from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biol.vt.edu/People/Faculty.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, Michelle LeFebvre and Rob Guralnick from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, and Brian Stucky from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0464" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Image Credit: Florida Museum photo by Kristen Grace.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rare dove is not related to any other birds we know today

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary....

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees, the most self-aware of the great apes. However, new research suggests that gorillas may possess similar levels of self-awareness, even though they typically fail the well-known mirror test.



A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>, the University of Vienna, and the University of Amsterdam studied chimpanzees and gorillas at Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem.



The study indicates that gorillas are able to identify their own bodies as barriers, similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-gorillas-can-form-lasting-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-mirror-test">Rethinking the mirror test</h2>



One of the most common ways scientists measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-awareness</a> is through the mirror test. In this test, an animal receives a small mark on its body that it can only see by looking in a mirror. If the animal touches or tries to remove the mark, it suggests they recognize their reflection.



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mirror test</a> works well, but it's not suitable for all animals," said study co-author Jorg Massen. "Some animals don't rely much on vision and may dislike looking at faces. These species might fail the mirror test even if they are self-aware."



Gorillas are one such species. They usually score poorly on the mirror test, possibly because they tend to avoid direct eye contact. 



Looking in a mirror may feel unnatural or uncomfortable for them. But does this mean they lack self-awareness? Massen and his team decided to find out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-seem-to-be-self-aware">Gorillas seem to be self-aware</h2>



To explore body awareness in gorillas, the researchers designed a new test. In the experiment, both gorillas and chimpanzees had to open a box lid to retrieve food.



However, in some cases, the box was placed on a pole, forcing the animal to sit on the lid itself. To get to the food, they had to realize their own body was blocking access.



"This is a basic form of body awareness. In humans, this develops at around 1.5 years old," explained Massen.



The results were striking. Both gorillas and chimpanzees figured out the task equally well. "What stood out was that both species quickly realized they needed to move off the box to open it," said Massen.



"This shows they were aware of their own bodies as an obstacle. So the fact that gorillas usually perform poorly in mirror tests doesn't mean they lack self-awareness."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-self-aware-gorillas">Significance of self-aware gorillas </h2>



Massen and his team argue that scientists should expand their approach to studying self-awareness in animals. 



"Thanks to this body awareness test, we now know more about the inner life of gorillas, which may be richer than we previously thought, or at least had scientific evidence for," said Massen.



Using different types of tests could also shed light on how self-awareness evolved. Some scientists believe self-awareness emerged early in the common ancestors of humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. 



Others think it may have developed separately in different ape species. Ongoing studies aim to determine whether chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-have-the-cognitive-ability-to-make-and-use-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, and other primates share the same kind of self-awareness.



"It's possible that apes have a similar type of self-awareness, but it could also be quite different. By combining different tests, we can better understand these differences," noted Massen.



This study also challenges how we define self-awareness. "Animals we often consider 'less intelligent' may actually have more complex thoughts than we imagine," Massen added.



By looking beyond the mirror test, scientists may uncover deeper insights into how animals understand themselves - and, ultimately, how human self-awareness evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-self-awareness-in-apes">Evolution of self-awareness in apes</h2>



The results of this research generate new questions regarding the development of self-awareness in great apes.



If gorillas are able to exhibit body awareness comparable to chimpanzees, yet fail mirror tests, then it may be that various species present self-awareness in different ways. This questions the long-standing theory that mirror recognition is the absolute indicator of an animal’s self-awareness.



Some experts propose that self-awareness is a spectrum, not an all-or-nothing personality. While chimpanzees might be expert visual self-recognizers, gorillas may be more dependent on spatial and physical self-awareness, which would just be as crucial for survival in their native habitats.



By expanding the ways that research is conducted, scientists can get a better idea of how various species perceive themselves and their environment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.70010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Primatolog</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Are gorillas self-aware? New research challenges old assumptions

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees,...

It started as another exoplanet in a group labeled "ordinary." No one expected that a world, once thought to be a mini-Neptune, would reveal traits of a super-Venus and change how we see certain planetary types.



Astronomers used <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST data</a> to learn more about an unusual place called Enaiposha, that orbits a red dwarf star about 47 light-years away from the Sun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-super-venus">A surprising "super-Venus"</h2>



Enaiposha, that also goes by the identifier <a href="https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/overview/GJ%201214%20b#planet_GJ-1214-b_collapsible" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GJ 1214 b</a>, was first placed in a category that normally describes small, gas-rich worlds. New observations, however, suggest that it is more like Venus but on a bigger scale.



Researchers propose calling it a super-<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/super-venus-artist-concept/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venus</a> because it appears to have a thick atmosphere composed of hydrogen, helium, water, methane and carbon dioxide.



This finding came from recent measurements that showed faint traces of molecules at key parts of the spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-enaiposha-breaks-the-mold">Why Enaiposha breaks the mold</h2>



Sub-Neptune planets that are smaller than Neptune in size are the most common type of planet known to exist in the Milky Way, but they are absent from the solar system. 



They have atmospheres that consist of a variety of gases and atmospheric spectroscopy is used to analyze what gases are present.



Enaiposha differs from a typical <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/neptune-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sub-neptune</a> in that its upper layers are blanketed by haze and aerosols. 



This makes it very difficult to analyze the atmosphere spectroscopically to establish which gases form the atmosphere on the exoplanet.



Venus also has clouds that block most views of its surface, but Enaiposha takes this phenomenon further. It is bigger, hotter, and enveloped by layers that make it especially hard to examine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-air-that-dims-the-light">An air that dims the light</h2>



When Enaiposha crossed between its star and Earth, tiny dips occurred at points on the spectrograph where certain gases absorb starlight. 



The data hinted at a metal-rich atmosphere with less hydrogen floating around than scientists had expected.



One portion of the team’s work pointed that water vapor was present in the atmosphere, but that alone was not the big story. 



Small signs of complex metals emerged, which is odd for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-planets-may-be-the-place-to-look-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> once categorized in a simpler way.



Furthermore, as starlight passed through Enaiposha's outer layers (atmosphere), certain wavelengths of light were also absorbed that indicated the signatures of carbon dioxide and methane. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-may-be-present-on-enaiposha">CO2 may be present on Enaiposha</h2>



The <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ada02c" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> was led by astronomers Everett Schlawin from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/website-kohno/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kazumasa Ohno</a> from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (<a href="https://www.nao.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NAOJ</a>).



The scientists got a faint clue that carbon dioxide may exist in concentrations akin to those found on Venus. They saw how light changed as it went through Enaiposha’s thick skies.



“The detected CO2 signal from the first study is tiny, and so it required careful statistical analysis to ensure that it is real,” noted Ohno, the team member leading the theoretical investigations.



Experts sometimes place <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-planet-system-hd110067-discovered-that-moves-in-perfect-mathematical-harmony/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> slightly bigger than Earth in the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/super-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-earth</a> bracket. Those even larger but still under Neptune’s mass sit in the mini-Neptune group.



This planet seems to occupy a weird middle zone. The findings have driven some scientists to propose that Enaiposha represents a new sub-type of exoplanet, or at least a neat twist on the usual groupings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-gets-in-the-way">Haze gets in the way</h2>



Research on Enaiposha, a super-Venus, is still tough because of the haze. Observations pick up only subtle signals from deeper parts of its atmosphere.



A single measurement can be overwhelmed by the star’s brightness. Multiple follow-up sessions and new instruments may be needed to confirm all of these ingredients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Some wonder whether similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-planets-are-more-habitable-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> hide in other star systems. It may be risky to assume that everything beyond our Sun fits neatly into known boxes.



Astronomers have found thousands of strange worlds. This one stands out for defying what was presumed normal in the mini-Neptune category of exoplanets.



One encouraging aspect is how these methods might apply to places that could harbor life. Enaiposha is scorching, so it is not a promising location for habitability.



Still, the process of analyzing its hazes and thick skies could help scientists interpret atmospheres around other exoplanets in less extreme locations. That matters for anyone seeking to detect breathable air anywhere beyond our own system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enaiposha-and-future-exploration">Enaiposha and future exploration</h2>



Some want to see whether metals in Enaiposha’s air, as a super-Venus, can form droplets or complex clouds. That might explain why so little light passes through its atmosphere. 



Others suspect it could be a stepping stone for modeling how thick atmospheres evolve. It might also show that sub-Neptunes can morph into something else with time.



In future, further modeling of the planet's atmosphere, interior structure and origins will provide valuable insights about how sub-Neptunes like GJ 1214 b form and evolve.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad7fef" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New planet named Enaiposha is unlike anything in our solar system

It started as another exoplanet in a group labeled "ordinary."...

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are showing a surprising genetic resistance to a virus that has weakened their species for generations. 



Scientists have discovered that some of these koalas have developed a unique genomic immunity to the retrovirus that suppresses their immune system and makes them more vulnerable to infections like chlamydia and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-infected-with-a-virus-that-causes-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a>.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> and UMass Chan Medical School made the discovery while studying koala populations in different regions. 



The findings, published in the journal Cell, could be a key step in efforts to protect one of Australia’s most iconic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-hidden-immunity">Koalas’ hidden immunity</h2>



Koalas infected with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-retroviruses-have-been-found-in-koalas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retrovirus</a> are at a higher risk of chlamydia, which has devastated populations in Queensland and New South Wales. 



The virus has also been linked to lymphomas that have caused significant mortality in captive koalas. 



However, scientists found that about 30% of koalas in the Sunshine Coast hinterland have a genetic adaptation that suppresses the virus.



“What we found is that there is a single genetic switch that has been activated in about 30% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-now-officially-listed-as-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">koala population</a> in the Sunshine Coast hinterland, suppressing the retrovirus,” said Professor Keith Chappell, a virologist at the Australian Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology. 



“This is in contrast to what we found in the population on the Gold Coast, where this adaptation is almost completely absent.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-defense-spreading-over-time">A natural defense spreading over time</h2>



The study, led by research fellow Dr. Michaela Blyton, suggests that this adaptive genomic immunity functions similarly to how an immune system strengthens after exposure to pathogens. 



“Because this 'genomic immunity' can be inherited, the discovery suggests koalas with the trait could be used in breeding programs to reduce the susceptibility of other populations to the retrovirus, like on the Gold Coast,” said Dr. Blyton.



The researchers also found evidence that this adaptation is spreading through the northern koala population, though it will take generations to fully establish itself across the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-opportunity-to-study-evolution">A rare opportunity to study evolution </h2>



Professor Chappell explained that retroviruses can alter the genetic code of a species over time. In humans, about 8% of DNA comes from retroviral infections that occurred over millions of years.



In contrast, the koala retrovirus only entered the marsupial’s genome a few thousand years ago, which is considered very recent in evolutionary terms.



“Out of all the species on the planet, this is the only one where we can see a genetic response to a retrovirus in real time, rather than looking at responses to things that got into the genome millions of years ago,” said Professor Chappell.



“This allows the researchers to study exactly how these iconic critters are responding - it’s actually a pretty amazing situation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-adaptations-of-koalas">Genetic adaptations of koalas</h2>



At the University of Massachusetts, Professor William Theurkauf had spent decades studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a> and their genetic responses to genome invaders. 



When he learned about the koala research, Professor Theurkauf saw clear parallels with his work and an opportunity for collaboration.



Despite the vast differences between fruit flies and marsupials, both studies shed light on how species develop genetic defenses against viral threats.



This trans-Pacific partnership has helped scientists gain deeper insight into how koalas are adapting at the genetic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-stronger-koala-populations">Building stronger koala populations</h2>



The researchers caution that while the retrovirus is not the most immediate threat to koalas, understanding this genetic adaptation could improve conservation efforts. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat destruction</a> and climate change remain the biggest dangers to koala populations.



By identifying populations with a natural resistance to the retrovirus, conservationists can develop targeted strategies to enhance the species' resilience against disease.



Koalas with this trait may be better suited for repopulation efforts in areas where disease has significantly reduced their numbers.



This discovery could lead to breeding programs that prioritize koalas with this genetic resistance, helping to build stronger populations that are less vulnerable to disease. 



Scientists are now eager to explore whether similar adaptations exist in other koala populations across Australia, potentially opening new doors for conservation strategies in the years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425001916" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Koalas in Queensland show signs of immunity to deadly retrovirus

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are...

Jay Falk and Scott Taylor first spotted the white-necked Jacobin hummingbird chick deep in Panama’s rainforest. The tiny bird, smaller than a pinky finger, was covered in brown fuzz. 



When they approached, the chick twitched and shook its head, displaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-found-nesting-in-colonies-have-completely-defied-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> they had never seen in birds before. This movement resembled a poisonous caterpillar found in the same region.



Taylor, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>, and his team described this mimicry in a paper published in the journal Ecology.



“We know so little about what nesting birds do in the tropics,” said Falk, the paper’s first author and a postdoctoral fellow in Taylor’s lab. "But this could be a very common thing if we had dedicated more efforts to observe and discover new things about the natural world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-survival-strategies">Hidden survival strategies</h2>



White-necked Jacobin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> are common in Central and South America. Males have shimmering blue and green feathers, while females have muted green plumage.



The tropical rainforest poses many dangers for small birds, with predators such as snakes, monkeys, birds, and insects. Studies suggest bird chicks in the tropics face higher predation risks than those in temperate forests.



During a trip to Soberanía National Park in 2024, Falk might have uncovered how these tiny hummingbird chicks survive. Despite regularly observing adult Jacobins at his feeders, he had never seen their chicks or nests. 



That changed when co-authors Michael Castaño and Sebastian Gallan-Giraldo found a female Jacobin incubating an egg near a forest trail. The nest, no bigger than Falk’s palm, blended seamlessly with its surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-chick-moves-like-a-caterpillar">Hummingbird chick moves like a caterpillar</h2>



The researchers observed the nest for a month and saw the chick hatch. 



Unlike most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a>, which are born naked, this chick had long brown feathers that made it resemble the nest material. Then, they noticed its strange jerking behavior. Scientists had never recorded such behavior in any hummingbird species.



“I started texting a video to people and asking them, ‘What does this look like?’” said Taylor. “And invariably, they said, ‘That looks like a caterpillar.’ It was very exciting.”



On the chick’s second day, a predatory wasp hovered over the nest while the mother was away. The chick twitched its body and swung its head from side to side, mimicking a caterpillar. A few seconds later, the wasp flew away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-other-species">Lessons from other species</h2>



Falk and Taylor couldn’t help but think of another study. That one was about a bird, the cinereous mourner chick, living in the Amazon. It didn’t just look different - it had an unusual trick.



Covered in bright orange feathers, it closely resembled a toxic caterpillar. When disturbed, it shook its head just like the real thing.



Curious, the researchers turned their attention to Panama’s caterpillars. What they found was striking. Many were covered in brown hairs that weren’t just for show. Those tiny spikes could cause excruciating pain, even death, to predators. 



And just like the hummingbird chick, some of these caterpillars had a habit of shaking their heads when they sensed danger. Was the tiny bird copying them? It certainly seemed possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-mimics-a-caterpillar">Hummingbird mimics a caterpillar </h2>



This mimicry strategy, where a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harmless species</a> imitates a dangerous one, is called Batesian mimicry. It is common in butterflies and snakes. For instance, non-venomous milk snakes resemble venomous coral snakes to deter predators.



“A lot of these really classic examples of Batesian mimicry involve butterflies mimicking other butterflies, or snakes mimicking other snakes. But here, we have a bird potentially mimicking an insect, a vertebrate mimicking an invertebrate,” Taylor said.



Though the study was based on a single observation, the team hopes to test their theory by placing artificial chicks with different appearances and behaviors in nests to see which ones avoid predation. They also encourage birdwatchers and citizen scientists to document more hummingbird nests.



“Our perception of the natural world is very biased by our own thoughts about what could be possible,” Taylor said. “It’s incredible what we can discover, but we really have to think broadly.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70060" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hummingbird chick mimics a toxic caterpillar to evade predators

Jay Falk and Scott Taylor first spotted the white-necked Jacobin...

Hurricanes cause extensive damage on land and to offshore platforms - effects that scientists understand well. However, their impacts on deep ocean environments remains largely unexplored.



These storms stir up ocean layers, influencing marine ecosystems in ways that are difficult to study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-and-ocean-changes">Hurricane and ocean changes</h2>



A deep-sea observatory southeast of Bermuda is shedding light on this mystery. This platform, anchored to the ocean floor, collects sediment, microplankton shells, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hurricane-activity-will-change-over-the-next-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutants</a>. 



The station has recorded environmental changes for nearly five decades. The Oceanic Flux Program (<a href="https://www.mbl.edu/research/research-centers/ecosystems-center/research-projects/oceanic-flux-program-ofp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OFP</a>) at the Marine Biological Laboratory (<a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBL</a>) operates this mooring.



Recently, the observatory provided crucial data on how hurricanes affect deep-sea ecosystems. The findings show that these storms move massive amounts of material from shallow reefs into deeper waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-impact-of-hurricanes">Deep-sea impact of hurricanes</h2>



A team led by Rut Pedrosa-Pamies, an assistant research investigator at MBL, examined sediments from Hurricanes Fabian (2003) and Igor (2010). 



These storms transported large amounts of carbonate-rich material from Bermuda’s shallow reefs into the deep ocean. The researchers found that these sediments remained in the ecosystem for weeks.



Fabian moved as much sediment in two weeks as would normally accumulate in a year. This material helps trap carbon for millennia and buffers ocean acidification caused by rising CO2 levels.



“This is the first time that a study has demonstrated, in near real time, this hurricane-induced transport from a shallow carbonate platform to the deep ocean,” said Pedrosa-Pamies.



“And it’s not just carbonate; [a hurricane] also transports a lot of other materials like phosphorus, lithogenic minerals, and also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-amplified-hurricane-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutants</a>, such as lead.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-driven-ocean-particles">Hurricane-driven ocean particles </h2>



“I’ve been interested in extreme weather events for a long time now,” said Pedrosa-Pamies. 



When a hurricane passes through, there is an upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters that nourish bacteria and plankton in the ocean’s upper layers, stimulating their productivity.



But how hurricanes can impact the deep-ocean water column that surrounds shallow-water reefs has not been well studied.



Hurricane Fabian’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sediments</a> settled quickly, but those from Igor remained suspended for weeks. This suggests that storm-driven sediment transport lasts much longer than expected.



“That’s a key finding, because it proves that particles that get suspended from these extreme weather events can last for a long time in the ecosystem and the water column,” noted Pedrosa-Pamies.



“And I’m sure this has implications for the microbiome at different water depths, and also in terms of sedimentation rates and how the particles are aggregating.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-shallow-water-reefs">Role of shallow-water reefs</h2>



Shallow-water reefs exist worldwide and create extensive carbonate platforms. These platforms shape ocean sedimentary processes and influence the carbon cycle. 



They generate about half of all shallow-water carbonate and contribute more than a quarter of the carbonate buried in the deep ocean.



While Fabian and Igor’s effects are small on a global scale, the study revealed how storms transport <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sediment</a>. This knowledge helps researchers understand how major storms influence carbon storage and ocean acidification.



"This study demonstrates, for the first time, hurricane-induced transport of deep sediments from reef carbonate platforms to the deep ocean in near-real time," wrote the researchers.



"This phenomenon has important implications for the marine carbon cycle because carbonate platform-derived carbonates may dissolve in the deep ocean and contribute to its buffering and carbon storage capacities."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-deep-sea-monitoring">Decades of deep-sea monitoring</h2>



The OFP has collected deep-sea data continuously since 1978. 



“Without having this time series, studying episodic events, like hurricanes in this case, would not be possible. You cannot sit out there when there is a storm passing and collect particles, while you have wind and big waves,” said Pedrosa-Pamies.



Bermuda’s location makes it ideal for such research. Bermuda is the northernmost subtropical coral reef and carbonate platform in the world, and it’s frequently impacted by hurricanes, noted Pedrosa-Pamies.



Retrieving the OFP’s samples is a complex, day-long process. Every six months, scientists pull up the mooring line to analyze the trapped particles.



“I just cannot reinforce enough how important the team effort is in a time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-helene-a-glimpse-into-the-future-of-natural-disasters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">series</a> like this. It would not be possible with help of the entire crew,” said Pedrosa-Pamies. "And they are all fantastic, and we’ve been working with them for a long time.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JC020500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How hurricanes help oceans fight climate change

Hurricanes cause extensive damage on land and to offshore platforms...

The universe is full of surprises, with each new discovery reshaping our understanding and offering astonishing new perspectives on space objects such as galaxies.



The James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>), launched just over three years ago, has already exceeded expectations. It peers deep into space, revealing galaxies from the dawn of time and answering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-found-in-the-early-universe-that-shouldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">questions</a> once thought impossible.



A recent study from <a href="https://www.k-state.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kansas State University</a> has revealed something strange. The way galaxies rotate isn’t as random as scientists once believed. 



Instead, JWST images suggest a hidden pattern - one that challenges fundamental assumptions about the cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-galaxies-spin-the-same-way">Most galaxies spin the same way</h2>



Lior Shamir, an associate professor of computer science at Kansas State University, examined images from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/01GKT0RRJBP5ZMJRMCQNPT8SXP" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JADES</a>). 



His research focused on spiral galaxies and the direction in which they rotate. Logically, their spin should be evenly distributed. Half should turn one way, half the other - but that is not what Professor Shamir found.



Out of 263 galaxies with clearly identifiable rotation, about two-thirds spun clockwise. The remaining third rotated counterclockwise.



This imbalance suggests that the universe might not be as random as we think. It could have a built-in rotation - something baked into its very structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galaxy-spin-pattern">The galaxy spin pattern </h2>



"The analysis of the galaxies was done by quantitative analysis of their shapes, but the difference is so obvious that any person looking at the image can see it," said Professor Shamir.



"There is no need for special skills or knowledge to see that the numbers are different. With the power of the James Webb Space Telescope, anyone can see it."



This isn’t a discovery buried in complex equations. No advanced training is needed to spot the difference. The pattern is right there, staring back from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colliding-galaxy-clusters-stir-up-hot-sloshing-gas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depths of space</a>. That makes the finding even more surprising.



If something so clear has gone unnoticed until now, what else have astronomers missed?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-the-universe-itself-be-spinning">Could the universe itself be spinning?</h2>



There are two possible explanations for this anomaly. 



The first is radical: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-shows-signs-of-violent-past-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> itself might have been born spinning. If true, this would support the controversial black hole cosmology theory, which suggests that everything we see exists inside a black hole. 



It’s an idea that challenges conventional thinking. But if galaxies across the cosmos follow a consistent rotation, it may not be so far-fetched.



If the universe does have a preferred direction of spin, it would mean something fundamental about physics has been overlooked. The laws governing the cosmos might not be as neutral as we thought. 



Instead, they could carry the fingerprint of a primordial motion - one set in place since the very beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-motion-and-galaxy-spin-data">Earth's motion and galaxy spin data</h2>



Not all solutions need to be extraordinary. Professor Shamir suggests another, more grounded possibility. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-signals-from-the-center-of-our-galaxy-hint-at-a-new-kind-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> itself rotates, and the Earth moves within it.



Because of this motion, light from galaxies spinning in the opposite direction might appear slightly brighter due to the Doppler effect. 



If this is the case, JWST’s observations are not revealing a cosmic imbalance. They are simply highlighting an observational bias caused by our own movement through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-the-universe-spinning-strange-galaxy-motion-suggests-that-it-is/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/galaxies_deep-universe_rotate-same-direction_puzzling_JWST_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/galaxies_deep-universe_rotate-same-direction_puzzling_JWST_1s.webp" alt="Spiral galaxies imaged by JWST that rotate in the same direction relative to the Milky Way (red) and in the opposite direction relative to the Milky Way (blue). The number of galaxies rotating in the opposite direction relative to the Milky Way as observed from Earth is far higher. Credit: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (2025)." class="wp-image-1962612"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Spiral galaxies imaged by JWST that rotate in the same direction relative to the Milky Way (red) and in the opposite direction relative to the Milky Way (blue). The number of galaxies rotating in the opposite direction relative to the Milky Way as observed from Earth is far higher. Credit: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (2025).</figcaption></figure>



If this explanation holds, it would mean astronomers have been overlooking an important factor when studying deep-space images. 



The rotational motion of the Milky Way, once thought too slow to influence observations, could be subtly affecting how we measure light from distant galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-distance-in-the-universe">Rethinking distance in the universe</h2>



"If that is indeed the case, we will need to re-calibrate our distance measurements for the deep universe," noted Professor Shamir.



That statement carries enormous implications. If astronomers have miscalculated distances because of unnoticed rotational effects, then our understanding of the universe’s size and structure may need adjustment. 



Some galaxies, which appear to be impossibly old under current models, might be much closer than assumed.



This could also help resolve one of cosmology’s biggest puzzles: the conflicting measurements of the universe’s expansion rate. 



The Hubble constant, which describes how fast space is stretching, has been the subject of debate for years. Different methods produce different results, leading to what scientists call the “Hubble tension.” 



If Shamir’s findings require astronomers to adjust their distance measurements, they might also provide a solution to this longstanding mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-previous-assumptions">Challenging previous assumptions</h2>



If the findings hold, the consequences could be enormous. The assumption that the universe has no preferred direction has been a cornerstone of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-the-violent-history-of-our-closest-cosmic-neighbor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmology</a> for decades. 



If JWST’s images suggest otherwise, then some of the most fundamental theories about the cosmos may need revision.



More research is needed. Future studies will have to confirm whether this pattern is real or just an illusion created by observational biases. 



Other telescopes, both space-based and ground-based, will likely be used to analyze additional galaxies.



If the pattern persists, scientists will have no choice but to rethink how the universe operates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The James Webb Space Telescope continues to push the boundaries of what we know. Each new observation brings fresh questions.



Professor Shamir’s study is a reminder that even the simplest observations can upend decades of scientific understanding.



If the universe does have a built-in spin, it could change everything we know about cosmic evolution. If the anomaly is due to observational bias, it will still force astronomers to refine their tools and methods. 



Either way, one thing is certain: the cosmos isn’t done surprising us yet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/538/1/76/8019798?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Galaxies in the deep universe all rotate in the same direction, leaving scientists baffled

The universe is full of surprises, with each new discovery...

Iguanas have often been observed drifting on vegetation in the Caribbean, including a past 600-mile journey from Central America to the Galapagos.&nbsp;



However, when it comes to extremely long-distance travel, Fiji’s iguanas surpass all others, according to new work by biologists at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and the <a href="https://www.usfca.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of San Francisco</a> (USF).



The study shows that, at some point after approximately 34 million years ago, the ancestors of the Fiji <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/calotes-wangi-new-iguana-species-identified-in-china/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iguanas</a> arrived on the South Pacific islands following a 5,000-mile voyage from the western coast of North America. This feat stands as the longest recorded oceanic journey by any land vertebrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overwater-dispersal-and-its-significance">Overwater dispersal and its significance</h2>



Overwater dispersal is the primary means by which newly formed islands become populated by plants and animals, paving the way for the emergence of new species and distinct ecosystems.&nbsp;



This puzzle of how life colonizes distant islands has intrigued scientists since the time of Charles Darwin, who put forth the theory of evolution by natural selection.



According to the experts, the arrival of these iguana ancestors likely coincided with the volcanic origins of the Fiji archipelago.&nbsp;



The researchers estimate that the iguanas’ landing time - 34 million years ago or slightly later - matches the date of the genetic split between Fiji’s Brachylophus iguanas and their nearest relatives, Dipsosaurus desert iguanas in North America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-fiji-s-iguanas-nbsp">Mystery of Fiji’s iguanas&nbsp;</h2>



In earlier work, scientists speculated that Fiji iguanas might hail from an older lineage once spanning the Pacific, leaving Brachylophus as the single iguana genus in the western Pacific after the rest died out.&nbsp;



Some theorized they could have traveled by land and sea from South America or via Australia, but genetic and fossil data offered no support for that. The new research dismisses those ideas.&nbsp;



Study lead author Simon Scarpetta is a herpetologist and paleontologist who is a former postdoctoral fellow at UC Berkeley.



“We found that the Fiji iguanas are most closely related to the North American desert iguanas, something that hadn’t been figured out before, and that the lineage of Fiji iguanas split from their sister lineage relatively recently, much closer to 30 million years ago, either post-dating or at about the same time that there was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-giant-volcanic-eruptions-alter-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> that could have produced land,” said Scarpetta.&nbsp;



“That they reached Fiji directly from North America seems crazy,” said co-author Jimmy McGuire, a UC Berkeley professor of integrative biology and herpetology curator at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. "But alternative models involving colonization from adjacent land areas don’t really work for the time frame, since we know that they arrived in Fiji within the last 34 million years or so." 



"This suggests that as soon as land appeared where Fiji now resides, these iguanas may have colonized it. Regardless of the actual timing of dispersal, the event itself was spectacular.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-iguanas-voyage-to-fiji">The iguanas’ voyage to Fiji</h2>



Whereas modern sailors can harness favorable winds to travel from California to Fiji in about a month, an iguana (or a group of them) would probably have drifted for far longer on uprooted plant life, crossing the doldrums and equator to arrive in Fiji and neighboring Tonga, where these iguanas live.&nbsp;



Luckily, iguanas are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-are-not-always-harmful-in-new-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a> adept at going without food or water for extended periods - and vegetation rafts may have provided them with nourishment.



“You could imagine some kind of cyclone knocking over trees where there were a bunch of iguanas and maybe their eggs, and then they caught the ocean currents and rafted over,” Scarpetta said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiji-iguanas-as-an-evolutionary-outlier">Fiji iguanas as an evolutionary outlier</h2>



Altogether, more than 2,100 species populate the suborder Iguania, comprising creatures such as chameleons, anoles, bearded dragons, and horned lizards.&nbsp;



The term “iguanas” typically refers to the Western Hemisphere lizards in the family Iguanidae, which includes the familiar green iguana. Forty-five iguanid species live in the Caribbean and in tropical, subtropical, and desert regions of the Americas - including the marine iguanas of the Galapagos and the chuckwallas of the American Southwest.



The Fiji iguanas stand apart, marooned in the Pacific. Four species live on Fiji and Tonga, all listed as endangered because of habitat destruction, invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-greater-sticknest-rat-uses-invasive-weed-african-boxthorn-food-shelter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a>, and illegal exploitation for the pet trade.



In the past, some researchers suggested that a now-lost iguana population once ranged widely around the Pacific Rim, eventually reaching the central Pacific through island-hopping.&nbsp;



They may have traveled by land and sea along the Pacific coast of the Americas, passing through Antarctica, or perhaps they rafted on the Humboldt Current from South America into the South Pacific.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-origins-of-fiji-iguanas-nbsp">Genetic origins of Fiji iguanas&nbsp;</h2>



Previous genetic analyses of a few selected genes proved inconclusive about how Fiji iguanas relate to other iguanids. Then, while a postdoctoral fellow with McGuire, Scarpetta launched a comprehensive survey of all genera in Iguania to clarify the group’s phylogeny.



“Different relationships have been inferred in these various analyses, none with particularly strong support,” McGuire noted. “So there was still this uncertainty about where Brachylophus really fits within the iguanid phylogeny. Simon’s data really nailed this thing.”



Collecting genome-wide sequences from over 4,000 genes, along with tissue samples from more than 200 iguanian specimens archived in museums worldwide, Scarpetta found that Fiji iguanas are most closely aligned with the Dipsosaurus genus.&nbsp;



Their best-known member, the North American desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis, endures the scorching conditions of the American Southwest and northern Mexico, with another related species confined to Santa Catalina Island in the Sea of Cortez.



“Iguanas and desert iguanas, in particular, are resistant to starvation and dehydration, so my thought process is, if there had to be any group of vertebrate or any group of lizard that really could make an 8,000 kilometer journey across the Pacific on a mass of vegetation, a desert iguana-like ancestor would be the one,” Scarpetta said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genomic-data-reveals-dispersal-patterns">Genomic data reveals dispersal patterns</h2>



This genetic evidence clarifies that Brachylophus and Dipsosaurus diverged around 34 million years ago - ruling out earlier conjectures about older Pacific lineages or a South American origin. 



Moreover, since the Fiji Islands also formed near that time, the iguanas’ extraordinary journey aligns neatly with the emergence of volcanic land.



“When you don’t really know where Brachylophus fits at the base of the tree, then where they came from can also be almost anywhere,” McGuire added. 



“So it was much easier to imagine that Brachylophus originated from South America, since we already have marine and land iguanas in the Galapagos that almost certainly dispersed to the islands from the mainland.”



With the new analysis, a South American path can be dismissed. And as the volcanic Fiji Islands appeared roughly 34 million years ago, iguanas possibly found them not long afterward. 



Other South Pacific islands might have supported iguanas at some point, but ephemeral volcanic islands can vanish as fast as they appear, erasing any trace of past populations.



Scarpetta, who has studied reptiles and amphibians from a young age, is continuing to utilize genome-wide data to further unravel the evolutionary relationships and dispersal patterns of iguanian lizards over time.



Image Credit: Nicholas Hess



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Iguanas traveled 5,000 miles from North America to Fiji

Iguanas have often been observed drifting on vegetation in the...

In a busy city or a remote countryside, a sudden bright light sometimes shows up overhead. It streaks across the sky, then fades fast, leaving people with a jolt of excitement and plenty of questions.



These blazing objects are often <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/fireballs/intro.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bolides</a> - meteors that burn especially brightly as they pass through Earth's atmosphere. 



According to <a href="https://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/people/bios/marc-d-fries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marc Fries</a> and <a href="https://jeffreyfriesen.me/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jeffrey Fries</a>, researchers affiliated with NASA, such events can be tracked even when the glow ends, thanks to certain weather radars that happen to catch them in action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-radar-matters">Why radar matters</h2>



Weather radars like NEXRAD have served as powerful observation systems for decades. They sweep the skies and collect data on raindrops and other particles in constant motion. 



They can detect birds migrating and bats that move around at night.



A bolide enters the atmosphere at tremendous speed, generating intense heat and light. 



Most of its material burns up, yet small fragments known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/he-thought-it-was-gold-but-inside-this-4-6-billion-year-old-meteorite-he-found-something-even-stranger/">meteorites</a> can continue falling long after the glow disappears. Weather radars can detect these falling objects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-meteors-by-day-or-night">Seeing meteors by day or night</h2>



Many people think meteor-watching is all about scanning the sky after sunset. In reality, these systems operate 24/7, so they can pick up meteorites even in daylight when our eyes are less likely to spot them.



By detecting these fragments in their dark flight stage, scientists learn exactly where to search on the ground. This leads to faster recoveries of space rocks that can teach us about the early solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-falling-rocks">The science behind falling rocks</h2>



When these objects enter our airspace, they first blaze as friction ionizes the surrounding gas. After that luminous phase, they slow below a critical speed and stop glowing.



At that point, radar beams bouncing off the descending fragments show up as reflections on a computer screen. 



The resulting data help experts gauge where the fragments might land, how big they are, and how fast they are traveling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-the-final-drop">Modeling the final drop</h2>



Experts often use specialized tools to map out a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12447433/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strewn field</a>, which is the area scattered with meteorites of different sizes. 



Calculations rely on wind data from weather balloons, along with velocity estimates gleaned from radar sweeps.



In the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/blog/breakup-lasting-impact-meteorites-470-million-year-old-split" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2003 Park Forest meteorite event</a>, weather radar returns guided local search efforts and led to successful recoveries. 



The final yield offered a valuable set of samples that provided further insight into asteroid collisions and fragmentation patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staying-clear-of-confusion">Staying clear of confusion</h2>



Radar picks up birds, insects, and even dust, which makes singling out real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/">meteorites</a> more tricky. Scientists look for specific traits - like brief, strong signals high above the ground and away from typical rain clouds.



For a daytime bolide, infrasound or eyewitness accounts can confirm that a meteor fall occurred. Researchers then check radar archives to pinpoint the location of possible fragments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-advantages-of-open-data">Unique advantages of open data</h2>



In the United States, radar data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>) is openly shared, which enables quick searches when an unexpected event lights up the sky. This open format simplifies collaboration across different fields.



Similar radar networks around the planet could track bolides everywhere. Widespread data access might boost annual meteorite recoveries and spark fresh discoveries related to planetary science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-it-down-to-earth">Bringing it down to earth</h2>



Because these rocks are fragments from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/27500-hidden-near-earth-asteroids-discovered-using-google-cloud/">asteroids</a> or comets, every recovered piece reveals new clues about our cosmic backyard. Some may carry organic compounds, while others hold records of ancient impacts.



When scientists retrieve them quickly, the specimens are less contaminated. This boosts the quality of lab studies, and allows for more accurate chemical and structural examinations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-detection-methods">Improving detection methods</h2>



Machine learning may soon assist in separating meteorite signals from the usual radar chatter. Large sample sets help train algorithms to recognize distinct patterns or shapes.



Limited examples slow down progress. But as more bolides are recorded and recovered, patterns should emerge that allow software to flag potential meteorite drops as they happen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-potential">Global potential</h2>



Many nations rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-timing-is-drastically-changing-due-to-extreme-weather/">weather</a> radars operating at different frequencies, such as S-band, C-band, or X-band. 



The variations can influence whether smaller or larger fragments are picked up, and this brings different science opportunities in each region.



Coordinated radar networks across continents could fill current data gaps. Whether it’s a small rock that survives or a larger one that breaks apart in the atmosphere, the worldwide community stands to benefit from shared findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-time-rescue-of-rare-objects">Real-time rescue of rare objects</h2>



Groups like the <a href="https://www.amsmeteors.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Meteor Society</a> gather eyewitness accounts, and these tips often confirm a bright fireball. Once that alert goes out, radar data can guide volunteers to search possible fall sites within hours.



People in local areas sometimes have no idea that a valuable specimen has just landed on their doorstep. Sharing timely maps of predicted impact zones can lead to swift recoveries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



The more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iron-meteorites-reveal-unexpected-metal-distribution-in-solar-system/">meteorites</a> we collect, the closer we get to answering big questions about our planet and solar system. 



Efforts to refine radar detection and search strategies are on the rise, helping scientists assemble a clearer picture of near-Earth space objects.



When a shining streak appears overhead, curiosity is natural. If weather radars confirm that fragments have indeed fallen to Earth, the new evidence may soon be safely in a research lab. 



This would help us learn more about where we came from and where we might be headed next.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/aa/3041760" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Astronomy</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Weather radar systems can detect meteorite falls

In a busy city or a remote countryside, a sudden...

Over the last 20 years, the Gulf of Maine has turned into a hotspot for invasive species, many of which arrive in ship ballast water.&nbsp; These invaders - and the changing environmental conditions that favor them - have reshaped coastal ecosystems, including tidal snail populations.



A recent study has examined how two common snail species (Nucella lapillus and Littorina obtusata) have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snails-defy-death-and-revive-through-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> in response to a major predator: the invasive green crab (Carcinus maenas). 



The key finding is that snails have developed thicker shells, reflecting a shift from short-term, plastic defenses to more durable, genetic adaptations.



The research was co-authored by Geoffrey Trussell, an evolutionary biologist at <a href="https://cos.northeastern.edu/marinescience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University’s Marine Science Center</a> and his collaborator James Corbett.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-invasion-by-a-voracious-predator">Rapid invasion by a voracious predator</h2>



Originally thriving in more southern waters, green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-crabs-help-heat-stressed-corals-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabs</a> have steadily moved north up the Atlantic coast. They feed aggressively on tidal snails, among other prey, and their recent establishment in the Gulf of Maine has placed new pressure on native species.&nbsp;



“Lots of invasive species have arrived on our shores, mostly through ship ballast,” Trussell said. “So you have this confluence of significant environmental changes.”



By comparing snail data collected 20 years apart - first in 1998, when green crabs were still new arrivals, and again in 2018 - the researchers documented a striking shift. Snail shells had become not only thicker, but also less able to adapt flexibly to varying predator threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-nature-of-snail-defenses">The nature of snail defenses</h2>



Previously, many tidal snails displayed phenotypic plasticity: they would grow thicker shells if they detected “risk cues” from predators in their environment, such as chemical signals and hormones emitted by crabs.&nbsp;



In lab tests, snails reared in water near green crabs ended up with a protective, thicker armor compared to those in predator-free tanks.



As green crabs grew more common, this on-demand defense began to shift toward permanent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/subtle-dna-changes-shaped-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic changes</a>. Over generations, snails started producing thicker shells without relying as much on situational cues. While effective at deterring predators, it comes at a cost.&nbsp;



“Back in the early days, if a snail had a thick shell, they had very little soft body mass,” Trussell noted. “If they had a thin shell, they had a lot of body mass.”



Because snails require adequate body mass to carry out vital functions - particularly reproduction - the move toward bigger, heavier shells may reduce their reproductive output.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-behavioral-flexibility">Decline in behavioral flexibility</h2>



In ecology, “plasticity” refers to an organism’s ability to adjust traits in real time based on its environment. In the 1990s, snails in the Gulf of Maine possessed more of this short-term adaptability.&nbsp;



Two decades later, genetic evolution is overshadowing plasticity, suggesting that constant predator pressure and environmental change have steered snails toward more fixed physical traits.



“That body mass has direct effects on things like how many offspring they’re able to produce,” Trussell said. “So that [decreased] behavioral plasticity has huge consequences, not only for how these [snail] communities are structured, but also potentially how their ecosystem functions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-snail-defenses-nbsp">Complexity of snail defenses&nbsp;</h2>



This study underscores the significance of multi-decade ecological monitoring.&nbsp;



“This work highlights the value of going back and revisiting experiments and populations to understand how things have changed,” Trussell explained.&nbsp;



He noted that the new round of experiments repeated the same procedures - and sometimes used the same containers - he relied on in graduate school.



The new data also reveal unexpected complexity within snail species. In some cases, individuals from the same species and sex, collected in the same location, displayed notably different levels of UV reflectance or shell thickness.



This discovery hints at underlying genetic variability and the intricate interplay between environment and heredity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-the-future">Looking toward the future</h2>



Trussell and Corbett plan to repeat the study in 2028, extending the project’s timeline to 30 years. They aim to explore how snail defenses and population structures continue to shift, as both climate change and the green crab invasion persist.



By documenting how these tidal snails evolve, the research offers a broader window into how coastal systems transform under invasive pressure and environmental change.&nbsp;



As certain traits become genetically “locked in,” they reshape the dynamics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey interactions</a> - while also reminding ecologists that prolonged, in-depth observations are often the only way to grasp the full evolution of ecosystems in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr6947" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea snails evolved defenses against invasive predators

Over the last 20 years, the Gulf of Maine has...

One of the most profound questions about human history is when language, as we know it, first emerged. 



A new analysis of genetic studies proposes that the cognitive capacity for language was already present at least 135,000 years ago, with language likely becoming a social tool around 100,000 years ago.



The study challenges long-standing debates about the timing of language emergence. 



The research was conducted by a team led by Shigeru Miyagawa, a linguist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), alongside Rob DeSalle and Ian Tattersall from the American Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMNH</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-and-human-language-evolution">Genetics and human language evolution</h2>



Previous attempts to determine the origins of language have relied on fossil records, cultural artifacts, or linguistic reconstruction. This study took a different approach.



The team examined genetic evidence to trace the earliest known divergence of human populations, reasoning that all human languages likely share a common origin.



“The logic is very simple. Every population branching across the globe has human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a>, and all languages are related," Miyagawa explained.



"I think we can say with a fair amount of certainty that the first split occurred about 135,000 years ago, so human language capacity must have been present by then, or before.”



The study systematically reviewed 15 genetic studies conducted over the past 18 years. 



These studies included: Y chromosome analysis (which traces paternal lineage), mitochondrial DNA studies (which track maternal ancestry), as well as whole-genome studies (which examine broader genetic variation).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-populations-branched-out">Human populations branched out</h2>



Together, these genetic studies suggest that human populations began splitting around 135,000 years ago, meaning that before this divergence, Homo sapiens was a single, undivided population.&nbsp;



Since every group that branched out maintained the ability to communicate through language, this strongly suggests that language had already developed by this time.



A 2017 study attempted a similar genetic approach but had access to fewer datasets. With more recent genetic research available, the current study provides a more precise estimate for when language capacity was present.



“Quantity-wise, we have more studies, and quality-wise, it's a narrower window [of time],” said Miyagawa, who is also affiliated with the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-as-a-unique-human-trait">Language as a unique human trait</h2>



Miyagawa has long argued that all human languages share fundamental similarities, making it likely that they evolved from a common source. 



His past research has explored unexpected linguistic connections, such as similarities between English, Japanese, and Bantu languages.



Some scholars propose that language capacity dates back millions of years, based on the vocal abilities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-chimpanzees-and-humans-learn-to-communicate-in-the-same-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>.&nbsp;



However, Miyagawa believes this perspective is flawed. He emphasizes that human language is unique, not just because of vocal ability, but because of its combination of words and grammar, which creates an infinitely generative system of communication.



“Human language is qualitatively different because there are two things - words and syntax - working together to create this very complex system,” he explained.&nbsp;



“No other animal has a parallel structure in their communication system. And that gives us the ability to generate very sophisticated thoughts and to communicate them to others.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-transition-from-thought-to-communication">The transition from thought to communication</h2>



The study also suggests that language did not begin as a social tool but instead may have first developed as an internal cognitive system.



“Language is both a cognitive system and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-cells-have-a-fascinating-and-unexpected-communication-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication system</a>,” Miyagawa said. “My guess is that prior to 135,000 years ago, it did start out as a private cognitive system, but relatively quickly that turned into a communications system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-use-of-social-language-nbsp">Human use of social language&nbsp;</h2>



If language was cognitively present before 135,000 years ago, when did it become an active part of human social life? The archaeological record offers clues.



Around 100,000 years ago, early humans began engaging in symbolic activities, such as making meaningful markings on objects and using fire to produce ocher, a decorative red pigment.



Such behaviors suggest that humans were using symbols to convey meaning - a crucial aspect of language. 



These findings reinforce the argument that language was the driving force behind the emergence of modern human behavior.



“Behaviors compatible with language and the consistent exercise of symbolic thinking are detectable only in the archaeological record of Homo sapiens,” the authors said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-catalyst-for-human-advancement">A catalyst for human advancement</h2>



One of the study's co-authors, Ian Tattersall, has previously proposed that language played a transformative role in human evolution. 



He argues that once language emerged, it triggered a cascade of innovations, from symbolic art to more complex social structures.



“Language was the trigger for modern human behavior. Somehow, it stimulated human thinking and helped create these kinds of behaviors," Miyaga notes.



"If we are right, people were learning from each other [due to language] and encouraging innovations of the types we saw 100,000 years ago.”



However, not all researchers agree. Some scholars propose a gradual development of complex behaviors, arguing that language was just one of many factors shaping human evolution.&nbsp;



Others believe that cultural changes - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tool use</a> and social coordination - may have influenced linguistic development rather than the other way around.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-origins-of-human-language-nbsp">The origins of human language&nbsp;</h2>



Despite the ongoing debate, Miyagawa and his colleagues believe their study marks an important step forward in understanding how and when language emerged.



“Our approach is very empirically based, grounded in the latest genetic understanding of early Homo sapiens,” Miyagawa concluded. 



“I think we are on a good research arc, and I hope this will encourage people to look more at human language and evolution.”



By integrating genetic evidence with archaeological findings, this research provides a clearer timeline for when language capacity emerged.&nbsp;



While many questions remain, the study reinforces the idea that language was central to shaping human history, allowing our ancestors to develop complex cultures, communicate across generations, and ultimately, create the societies we live in today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1503900" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



Image Credit: CC0 Public Domain&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

When did humans first develop language? Scientists think they know

One of the most profound questions about human history is...

A team of scientists has recently found an unexpected social twist in the behavior of certain Andean hummingbirds. 



Contrary to their usual reputation for aggressive territoriality, these small, high-energy birds are sometimes nesting close together in a communal fashion. The finding has sparked fascination among ornithologists worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-hummingbird-nesting">Rethinking hummingbird nesting</h2>



Typically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> are highly aggressive and territorial. But the researchers found that in the harsh environment of the Andes Mountains, a particular species - the Chimborazo Hillstar - appears to forgo territorial aggression and cluster its nests instead.&nbsp;



“It was mind-boggling,” said Gustavo Cañas-Valle, an ornithologist and <a href="https://www.bgsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bowling Green State University</a> (BGSU) alumnus. “I knew hummingbirds were usually very aggressive to each other, so finding them nesting in the same location was amazing.”



The surprising finding left Cañas-Valle’s colleague and co-author Juan Bouzat, a BGSU evolutionary biologist, initially skeptical.&nbsp;



“Hummingbirds are not a species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> where you see hundreds of them together,” Bouzat said. “These are hummingbirds that live in the High Andes, above 10,000 feet, in a very, very harsh environment above the tree line.”&nbsp;



Yet after years of research, the experts have produced data that demonstrate this unusual social nesting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constraints-of-hummingbird-nesting-sites">Constraints of hummingbird nesting sites</h2>



In seeking to understand this communal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-secrets-of-wild-turkey-nesting-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nesting</a>, the researchers hypothesized that perhaps the Chimborazo Hillstars were simply forced into shared spaces due to limited safe nesting areas in the rugged high-altitude environment.&nbsp;



“The first intuition was to say there might not be enough space - the landscape doesn’t offer them suitable locations to nest in safe, protected places,” Bouzat explained.



To test this hypothesis, Cañas-Valle meticulously surveyed the region, including the possibility that birds might nest alone in ravines or in human-made culverts. If scarcity of safe spots were the only factor, those solitary sites should be fully occupied. But that was not the case.&nbsp;



While some birds did nest alone in culverts, many were left unused. Meanwhile, over 80% of the observed active nests were grouped in colonies with roosting birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-reasons-for-communal-nesting">Evolutionary reasons for communal nesting</h2>



The results point to factors beyond simple habitat shortages. According to the scientists, colonies usually evolve over a long period of time and become socially cohesive, in some cases leading to complex cooperation among individuals.&nbsp;



This suggests that close nesting may enhance reproductive success, the key measure of success in adaptive evolution.



“There is a theory of information exchange as one of the potential explanations for coloniality,” Cañas-Valle said. “This is only speculation right now, but hummingbirds may get easier access to mates and food resources by an exchange of information between members of a colony.”&nbsp;



“Those are the two most important things the hummingbirds gain, while also gaining a safe place to sleep that is slightly away from the harsh winds of the Chimborazo volcano region.”



Getting these findings recognized was not straightforward. Before the paper was accepted for publication, Cañas-Valle had to convince Bouzat, his advisor, that this “colony” of hummingbirds was real.&nbsp;



“It took me probably two years for Juan to say, ‘Well, Gustavo, you convinced me. We can call this gathering of nests a colony from now on,’” Cañas-Valle said. “That was a priceless moment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-evolutionary-adaptations">A window into evolutionary adaptations</h2>



Beyond explaining the immediate puzzle - why hummingbirds would nest together in the Andes - this study may illuminate how harsh environmental pressures can drive unconventional adaptations.&nbsp;



Rather than typical one-on-one territorial aggression, these hummingbirds appear to have adopted a semi-cooperative strategy, enabling them to endure cold, windy conditions above 10,000 feet.



By showing how extreme habitats can shape social behaviors that seem out of character for a species, the BGSU team’s research also opens the door for broader discussions about communal nesting and the ways in which different species can adapt to harsh climates.



For now, the Chimborazo Hillstar stands as a striking example of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-flexibility-unique-traits-help-mammals-survive-mass-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary flexibility</a>, reminding ecologists that even among famously territorial creatures, cooperation can occasionally win out in the face of nature’s most daunting challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ornithology/ukae063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hummingbirds found nesting in colonies have completely defied expectations

A team of scientists has recently found an unexpected social...

A predator must eat, but sometimes its meal comes at the cost of livestock. This conflict often leads to the predator’s death. Conservationists have long searched for solutions that protect both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bastetodon-fearsome-predator-was-once-king-of-the-ancient-egyptian-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> and livestock owners.



In Tanzania, fortified enclosures help protect livestock from predators like lions, leopards, and hyenas. 



A recent study by Colorado State University (<a href="https://www.colostate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSU</a>) found that these enclosures do more than just shield animals inside them. 



Instead of seeking easier meals next door, predators avoid entire neighborhoods when chain-link fences replace traditional thorny bomas.



These findings mark a significant breakthrough. The study shows that proactive, non-lethal strategies can reduce human-wildlife conflicts. 



Preserving large carnivores is essential for maintaining ecological balance. Losing apex predators disrupts food chains and harms the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coexistence-of-humans-and-carnivores">Coexistence of humans and carnivores </h2>



Study co-author Kevin Crooks is the director of the CSU Center for Human-Carnivore Coexistence (<a href="https://sites.warnercnr.colostate.edu/centerforhumancarnivorecoexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHCC</a>).



"Coexistence between humans and carnivores is a global challenge, and conflict resulting from carnivores attacking livestock is among the most important coexistence threats globally, including here in the Rocky Mountain West and Colorado specifically,” said Crooks.



“Our results provide important evidence of the effectiveness of proactive, non-lethal tools to prevent livestock predation by carnivores, benefiting not just the target household but potentially neighboring households as well.”



Jonathan Salerno, an associate professor at CSU, emphasized that while this method may not work in every location, understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-use-invisible-colors-to-outsmart-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> is crucial.



"Understanding these dynamics can help guide effective use of conservation resources and support better outcomes for people, livestock and threatened species," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chain-link-fences-reduce-losses">Chain-link fences reduce losses</h2>



A prior study in January revealed that chain-link enclosures significantly lowered livestock losses in areas around Ruaha National Park. This region houses 10% of the world’s African lions, making it vital for conservation efforts.



Predation remains a major threat to small-scale farmers. Those living near the park face a 30% chance of losing livestock to predators each year. Recognizing this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">issue</a>, Lion Landscapes subsidized 75% of the cost of chain-link fences, with livestock keepers covering the rest.



The study’s cost-benefit analysis showed that within five years, livestock owners saved three to seven times their investment in enclosures.



"The break-even point is anywhere from three months to two years, given that the loss of one cow is a substantial amount of wealth,” Salerno said. “So, you reduce the risk enough that the fortified enclosure actually pays for itself relatively quickly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighboring-households-benefit-too">Neighboring households benefit too</h2>



The researchers analyzed 25,000 monthly reports from livestock keepers. The results confirmed that households near those with fortified enclosures also reported fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-when-an-apex-predator-goes-missing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> attacks. 



This marks the first time such a beneficial spillover effect has been recorded.



“This research provides scientific evidence about the effectiveness of antipredation interventions, which not only reduce livestock losses but also have positive spillover effects, fostering coexistence between humans and carnivores,” said co-author Joseph Francis Kaduma of <a href="https://www.lionlandscapes.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lion Landscapes</a>. 



“By demonstrating how non-lethal methods can benefit both people and wildlife, the study offers practical conservation solutions that can be scaled to other regions facing similar conflicts worldwide.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predators-nbsp-avoid-fenced-nbsp-areas">Predators&nbsp;avoid fenced&nbsp;areas</h2>



The study does not pinpoint the exact reason why predators avoid these areas. However, Salerno suggested that fortified enclosures make hunting livestock more difficult.



“The neighborhood with three or four enclosures is going to represent more risk or more effort for the carnivore, because they know they can't pull livestock out of the fortified enclosures, though a few leopards will try with a goat or sheep,” he said. 



“It reduces the availability; the night-time livestock buffet is simply less accessible and attractive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-the-livestock-predator-nbsp-balance">Maintaining the livestock-predator&nbsp;balance</h2>



Some may wonder why large parks like Ruaha are not entirely fenced. 



However, enclosing such a vast area would isolate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> and disrupt migration patterns. It would also increase conflicts between conservationists and local communities.



Instead, targeted interventions like fortified corrals present a more practical solution. They reduce livestock losses while allowing carnivores to thrive in their natural habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-global-conservation">A model for global conservation</h2>



Lion Landscapes has worked closely with livestock keepers to collect extensive data for these studies. Salerno stressed that gathering similar data from other regions would help conservationists design effective solutions.



“If we gather these data, we can understand what factors are contributing to predation events on a particular ranch, and by accounting for the complexity of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger system</a>, we can start to understand what methods are going to be effective,” he said.



This research highlights how innovative, data-driven strategies can benefit both people and wildlife. By reducing conflict, conservationists can help ensure a future where humans, livestock and predators coexist peacefully.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.13085" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Helping predators and livestock become better neighbors

A predator must eat, but sometimes its meal comes at...

The deep sea has long fascinated scientists and explorers alike. It stretches across more than half of Earth's surface, yet much of it remains a mystery. For years, researchers believed that life at extreme depths was nearly impossible.



The immense pressure, near-freezing temperatures, and lack of sunlight seemed too hostile for survival. The hadal zone, which lies beyond 6,000 meters, was once thought to be a biological desert, devoid of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-shrimp-evolved-an-extraordinary-skill-that-lets-them-see-in-the-dark/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex ecosystems</a>.



Recent advances in deep-sea exploration have changed this perception. Remarkable discoveries have revealed thriving marine life in one of the most inhospitable places on the planet. 



Scientists are now unraveling the secrets of these resilient organisms, learning how they survive and adapt to extreme conditions.



A recent study led by Professor He Shunping and his team at the Institute of Hydrobiology (<a href="http://english.ihb.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IHB</a>), Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAS</a>), sheds light on the evolutionary history of deep-sea fish and their genetic adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-the-hadal-zone">A new perspective on the hadal zone</h2>



For a long time, the deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> was considered an isolated and lifeless abyss. The crushing pressure at these depths exceeds one ton per square centimeter. 



Temperatures hover just above freezing, and oxygen levels remain critically low. The complete absence of sunlight makes photosynthesis impossible, leaving organisms to rely on alternative sources of energy.



Despite these harsh conditions, researchers have discovered that the hadal zone is not barren. Instead, it is home to a variety of unique creatures, including the hadal snailfish. 



These fish have evolved to survive where few other species can. Their presence challenges the traditional view of the deep ocean and highlights the incredible resilience of life in extreme environments.



The discovery of these deep-sea ecosystems was made possible by China's rapidly advancing deep-sea exploration technology. Sophisticated submersibles and research vessels have allowed scientists to explore regions that were previously inaccessible. 



As a result, they have uncovered thriving biological communities in some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-debate-intensifies-as-opponents-face-a-setback/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deepest parts of the ocean</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-ecosystems-in-the-deep-sea">Hidden ecosystems in the deep sea</h2>



To better understand how deep-sea fish survive, the researchers conducted extensive sampling missions. The missions were carried out using the motherships Tansuo Yihao (Exploration I) and Tansuo Erhao (Exploration II).



These vessels were equipped with manned submersibles, Shenhai Yongshi (Deep-Sea Warrior) and Fendouzhe (Striver), which allowed scientists to collect valuable specimens from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean floor</a>.



The sampling spanned across the western Pacific and the central Indian Ocean. Scientists explored a range of geological features, including deep-sea trenches, basins, fracture zones, and hydrothermal vents.



These regions provide diverse habitats for deep-sea species, each with its own unique environmental conditions.



Over the course of the study, the researchers collected 11 deep-sea fish species from six major groups. These fish were found at depths ranging from 1,218 meters (3,996 feet) to an astonishing 7,730 meters (25,367 feet).



By analyzing genetic material from the fish, the scientists were able to reconstruct their evolutionary history and gain new insights into how vertebrates adapted to life in the deep sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-paths-of-deep-sea-fish">Evolutionary paths of deep-sea fish</h2>



The scientists uncovered a key piece of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaw-dropping-deep-sea-oil-find-talos-energy-sparks-global-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea puzzle</a> - fish took two different evolutionary paths to survive.



Some, called "ancient survivors," settled the deep before the Cretaceous mass extinction and have been there ever since. Others, the "new immigrants," arrived after the mass extinction 60 million years ago, adapting through entirely different genetic mechanisms.



This discovery changes how we understand deep-sea evolution. Life in the depths isn’t the result of a single process - it’s a story of old bloodlines holding on and newcomers finding their way in a world of crushing pressure and darkness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questioning-a-long-standing-theory">Questioning a long-standing theory</h2>



For decades, scientists believed that deep-sea fish relied on trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) to survive under extreme pressure.



This compound was thought to help stabilize proteins, preventing them from being damaged by high-pressure environments. Previous research showed that TMAO levels increase with depth in fish living between 0 and 6,000 meters. However, this new study challenges that assumption.



The researchers found that beyond 6,000 meters, TMAO levels do not continue to rise as previously expected. This finding suggests that deep-sea fish use alternative mechanisms to withstand pressure at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-rocks-upends-centuries-of-scientific-beliefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme depths</a>.



The discovery opens new questions about the biochemical adaptations that enable life to persist in the hadal zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newly-identified-genetic-mechanism">Newly identified genetic mechanism</h2>



One of the most surprising discoveries? A tiny genetic tweak that makes survival at extreme depths possible.



Scientists found a mutation in the&nbsp;rtf1&nbsp;gene - present in all deep-sea fish living below 3,000 meters (9,842 feet). It boosts transcription efficiency, helping cells function under crushing pressure.



This wasn’t just a minor finding. It revealed an entirely new way fish adapt to the deep. By decoding these hidden genetic tools, researchers are piecing together the story of how vertebrates conquered the ocean’s most hostile environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-reaches-the-deepest-trenches">Pollution reaches the deepest trenches</h2>



This study didn’t just uncover how deep-sea fish evolved - it found something far more troubling.



Scientists detected toxic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the liver tissues of hadal snailfish from the Mariana Trench and the Philippine Sea Basin. These industrial pollutants, banned long ago, have somehow seeped into the ocean’s most remote depths.



Pollution has reached places humans have never even set foot in. If contaminants can travel this far, what else is being affected? The deep sea is no longer untouched, and that realization raises urgent questions about conservation and the future of marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-deep-sea-exploration">New era of deep-sea exploration</h2>



The research was conducted as part of the Global Deep-Sea Trenches Exploration Program (Global TREnD).



This study is one of the most detailed looks at how deep-sea fish survive. Scientists are piecing together the puzzle - mixing genetics, ecology, and environmental data to understand life in the ocean’s darkest corners.



The discoveries go beyond science textbooks. They could help protect fragile deep-sea ecosystems from pollution and climate change. The more we learn, the more we realize how connected everything is.



But there’s more to uncover. Every dive, every new species, every unexpected finding pushes the boundaries of what we know. The deep sea is still a mystery, and its biggest secrets remain hidden - at least for now.



Each expedition brings us closer to understanding the incredible diversity of life that thrives beneath the waves.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00031-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How deep-sea fish survive the crushing depths of the ocean

The deep sea has long fascinated scientists and explorers alike....

Brown trout have long been considered vulnerable to beaver dams, which have traditionally been seen as obstacles to fish migration. 



A new study refutes this idea, revealing that these resourceful fish can actually make their way through such obstacles in certain conditions.



Dams often trap fish in low water levels, preventing or delaying access to key spawning grounds. Researchers warn that global warming, with its extended periods of dryness, could intensify these issues in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-brown-trout-movement">Tracking brown trout movement</h2>



In the current study, researchers studied trout movement in two Scottish streams - one modified by four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beaver-dams-mitigate-the-effects-of-climate-change-on-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beaver dams</a> and the other unaltered.



Using telemetry technology, they tracked how the fish responded to these natural barriers during the critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spawning-fish-generate-ocean-mixing-help-sustain-a-healthy-ecosystem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spawning</a> season from October to December. 



The method involved tagging trout with microchips, which were then detected by antennae placed across the dam structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-overcoming-beaver-dams">Fish overcoming beaver dams </h2>



The results showed that high river flows, often triggered by rainfall, significantly increased the likelihood of successful upstream passage. Larger fish also had better chances of overcoming the dams. 



On the other hand, low water flow created more substantial obstacles, sometimes preventing migration altogether.



Dr. Robert Needham is the restoration manager at Beaver Trust and former researcher at the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a>.



"Our findings highlight how adaptable brown trout are under favorable conditions, regularly passing beaver dams and with certain individuals making multiple repeat passes," said Dr. Needham. 



"However, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-migrating-towards-poles-escape-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> continues to bring warmer and drier weather, the risk of migratory barriers may become a concern on certain rivers."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-return-of-beavers-to-britain">The return of beavers to Britain</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beavers-are-key-allies-in-the-fight-against-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beavers</a> were once widespread across Great Britain, but were hunted to extinction by the 16th century. Their recent reintroduction has been hailed as a conservation success, with around 1.2 million beavers now found across Europe.



In Great Britain, populations remain much smaller, with the largest groups in Scotland and some isolated populations in southern England. 



Recently, DEFRA authorized the licensed release of beavers into the wild in England.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-beaver-activity">Concerns about beaver activity</h2>



Beaver activity creates biodiversity benefits, but concerns remain about its impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fisheries</a>. 



The construction of dams can potentially block rivers and contribute to localized flooding. This research highlights the need for proactive management strategies to balance conservation efforts with the needs of fish populations.



"Our findings indicate how fish response to river modification through the construction of dams by beaver can be nuanced," said Professor Paul Kemp, the project lead at the University of Southampton.



"In general, and if rivers are allowed to respond naturally, the benefits of beaver activity can be substantial from an ecological perspective. However, under some circumstances, beaver dams can pose barriers to fish movement, particularly under low flows."



"More research is now needed to understand how beaver dams might impede fish movements in more modified lowland rivers, such as in the south of England."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-changing-landscape">A changing landscape </h2>



This study was conducted in collaboration with the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust (GWCT), Trout and Salmon Association, and NatureScot. 



Understanding how beaver reintroduction affects migratory fish like trout and salmon is crucial for conservation planning.



"Beavers are now back in England and Scotland, but the landscape is very different to when they were last here 500 years ago," said Dylan Roberts, head of GWCT Fisheries.



"With populations of many migratory fish, which need free passage up and downstream to access spawning areas and the sea, now at crisis point and classified as endangered. Such studies are crucial to better understand the interactions between beavers and migratory fish like brown trout and salmon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debate-over-beaver-dams-and-fish">Debate over beaver dams and fish</h2>



Dr. Martin Gaywood, Species Projects Manager at NatureScot, noted that the interactions between beavers and fish have been the subject of great debate over many years, especially within Scotland. 



"We were pleased to support this work, which makes another important contribution to our understanding of these complex relationships," said Dr. Gaywood.



"This kind of evidence is vital in helping us and others to plan the continued restoration of beavers to Scotland, including how we use appropriate management and mitigation when necessary."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-fisheries-management">Conservation and fisheries management</h2>



This research highlights the importance of balancing conservation with practical fisheries management.



As beavers continue to reshape aquatic ecosystems, understanding their impact on fish migration will be crucial. 



Scientists emphasize the need for further studies, particularly in lowland rivers where environmental conditions differ from the study areas in Scotland. 



With climate change affecting water levels, future conservation efforts must consider how both beavers and fish can thrive in shared ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0313648" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Brown trout prove that beaver dams don't always limit fish movement

Brown trout have long been considered vulnerable to beaver dams,...

Misha was a beloved zoo elephant that lived a long and well-documented life. When she passed away in 2008, her remains provided an unexpected opportunity for scientists studying how large animals move across landscapes.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> have developed a method that uses strontium isotopes in tooth enamel to track animal migration. 



This technique could help scientists understand the movements of extinct species like mastodons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-made-woolly-mammoths-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoths</a>. It may also aid conservationists in tracing the origins of modern wildlife, including victims of the illegal ivory trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-history-through-elephant-teeth">Unlocking history through elephant teeth</h2>



Strontium, a naturally occurring element, accumulates in teeth and bones as animals eat and drink. 



Since different geographic regions have distinct isotope signatures, analyzing strontium ratios can reveal where an animal has lived.



“Our study not only adds to our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-provides-insights-into-the-lives-of-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth enamel</a> records an animal’s Sr isotope exposure, but also helps to reconstruct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal migrations</a> from Sr isotope analysis,” said lead author Deming Yang. 



“It can be applied to studies of paleobiology, to answer how megaherbivores migrated in the past. It can also be applied to studies of modern conservation and forensics, to trace the origins of illegal ivory trade and other forms of wildlife trafficking.”



Misha, a female elephant, was acquired by Salt Lake City’s Hogle Zoo in 2005. Before that, she lived at Six Flags Discovery Kingdom in Vallejo, California. Her well-documented history made her an ideal subject for testing this method.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-strontium-tracking">The science behind strontium tracking</h2>



Strontium behaves like calcium in the body, incorporating into bones and teeth over time. The isotope 87Sr is radiogenic, meaning it is formed by the decay of rubidium, an element with a half-life of over 49 billion years.



While 87Sr levels increase over time, other strontium isotopes remain stable. This means that different regions have unique isotope ratios, which animals absorb through their diet.



“As animals eat and drink, they pick up this environmental signature and store it in their teeth, preserving a series of environmental exposures like historic archives,” noted Yang.



“We use other elements, but in this case, we’re focusing on strontium, which has proven to be really useful because of its strong link to geology,” said study co-author Gabe Bowen.



“Ultimately it comes down to where that element comes from, how the animal gets it into their body and from what sources.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-an-elephant-s-past-with-teeth">Tracking an elephant’s past with teeth</h2>



When Misha passed away, Professor Thure Cerling saw an opportunity. He reached out to Hogle Zoo for permission to recover her teeth before burial. The detailed veterinary records of Misha’s life allowed scientists to compare her tooth enamel’s isotope signatures to her known movements.



As a postdoctoral researcher, Yang led the effort to analyze Misha’s tusk and teeth to see how well they recorded her past environments. 



The experts used laser ablation to sample different layers of enamel and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-secrets-revealed-about-the-evolution-of-mammal-tusks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tusk</a>. They then measured the samples with a mass spectrometer to determine their strontium isotope composition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-recorded-in-tooth-enamel">Movement recorded in tooth enamel</h2>



“It’s a very simple movement history. She lived in one location for a decade or more, and then moved here [to Salt Lake City], and we know the date of that move,” Bowen said. “We don’t have a lot of opportunities to see these kinds of natural experiments.”



The researchers found that the innermost enamel layer provided the most accurate record of isotope exposure, making it the best location for sampling.



Study co-author Diego Fernandez is an expert in the Department of Geology and Geophysics who operates the university’s mass spectrometry lab.



“We determined the strontium isotopes from the top to the bottom of the tooth in different parallel lines and those represent different times in the growth of Misha,” said Fernandez. “It captured the time where Misha was moved from California to Utah.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-learning-experience">A learning experience</h2>



Undergraduate student Katya Podkovyroff assisted in refining lab procedures for analyzing bioapatite, the mineral that makes up enamel and bone.



“It was in this lab where I got my first hands-on experience with scientific research, and I immediately fell in love. One of the most thrilling aspects of the job was learning that each sample carried a history, a mystery waiting to be unraveled through chemical signatures,” said Podkovyroff, now a graduate student at the University of Oregon.



“This research was both exciting and challenging: sampling ivory required extreme precision, as even minor contamination could alter results, and isotope purification is a meticulous and time-consuming process,” she continued. 



“The most rewarding aspect of this project was its broader implications beyond a single case study: it has applications in modern conservation efforts, with the ability to trace the origins of illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-vikings-traveled-great-distances-to-hunt-walruses-for-ivory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ivory trade</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-elephant-teeth">Beyond elephant teeth</h2>



The success of the method used to analyze Misha’s teeth suggests that similar analyses could be applied to fossils, helping scientists learn how ancient animals migrated.



The technique could also play a role in conservation, identifying where modern animals come from and helping to track illegal wildlife trade.



By using nature’s own chemical records, such as those found in elephant teeth, researchers are gaining a clearer picture of the past while providing valuable tools for protecting animals today.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07686-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Brian Maffly, University of Utah



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How an elephant's teeth can help us track animal movements

Misha was a beloved zoo elephant that lived a long...

People have wondered for centuries how dogs branched off from wild wolves. Some suspect that humans selectively bred the friendliest wolves, while others argue that canines chose to linger near people for steady snacks.



Modern science is analyzing this question by looking at genetic and archaeological records. Recent findings from a statistical study hint that ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reintroducing-wolves-could-help-scotland-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> might have shaped their own domestication if they stayed in human territory, where leftovers gave them a reliable food supply.



Alex Capaldi, a mathematician and statistician from <a href="https://www.jmu.edu/index.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Madison University</a> in Virginia, is one of the researchers behind this modeling effort.



“When females were selecting mates, they also had to select males that had a similar tameness to themselves,” said Capaldi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appetite-of-early-dogs">Appetite of early dogs</h2>



This concept of self-domestication revolves around the idea that some wolves drifted toward settlements for discarded scraps. 



By sticking close to humans, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> cut down on the dangers of hunting and gained an edge in survival.



Scientists have observed a similar dynamic in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1095335" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early feline domestication</a>, where wild cats gravitated toward places with abundant rodents. 



Over time, that arrangement led to a mutual benefit: farmers got pest control and the felines got predictable meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-wolves-became-dogs">How wolves became dogs</h2>



The research team used an <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/population-health-methods/agent-based-modeling" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agent-based model</a>, a method that simulates each wolf or dog as an individual with unique traits and behaviors. 



By crunching survival odds, mating preferences, and competition over resources, the simulation maps out how certain wolves might have morphed into early dogs.



The experts tested different scenarios, including whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-are-rebuilding-forests-and-restoring-ecosystem-balance-in-yellowstone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> that remained near humans would thrive if they also picked mates with similar temperaments.



After many simulated years, the model showed that mild-mannered wolves could become a separate group if there was enough leftover food available.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-timeline">Unraveling the timeline</h2>



Scholars generally agree that dogs emerged from gray wolves between roughly 30,000 and 15,000 years ago, though the exact timing is still debated. 



The second major phase of domestication, starting about 15,000 years ago, likely involved humans deliberately breeding canines for tasks like hunting or herding.



The earlier phase remains more puzzling because there is less evidence that prehistoric people intentionally bred wolves. 



Instead, some scientists suspect that a portion of the wolf population shifted toward a calmer demeanor all on its own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deeper-connection-with-humans">A deeper connection with humans</h2>



This new <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2646" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">model</a> offers a potential explanation for how dogs might have emerged without human oversight in the distant past. 



It also suggests that creatures capable of forming alliances with humans could gain unique evolutionary advantages.



Most domestic dog breeds we know today were refined by artificial selection. Yet the original taming process may have been more self-directed, planting the seeds for our enduring relationship.



Experts point out that dogs did more than share our campsites. Historical evidence shows they guarded settlements, aided in hunting, and accompanied people across new lands, shaping the course of human expansion.



Working side by side, dogs and humans built a mutual trust that has carried forward into the modern age. 



The consistent presence of these animals in archaeological sites highlights how both species adapted to each other’s quirks and needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-human-animal-interactions">The future of human-animal interactions</h2>



Researchers are now exploring how mate choice, resource availability, and social tolerance might influence the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ethiopian-wolves-feed-on-nectar-and-pollinate-flowers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a>-human interactions. 



They hope that understanding dog domestication could reveal patterns relevant to other species that live near us.



By analyzing different variables, scientists can see if similar self-domestication pathways occur when wildlife takes advantage of human-generated resources. These investigations might explain how certain species adapt to urban settings and find alternative ways to survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doubts-about-wolf-to-dog-evolution">Doubts about wolf-to-dog evolution</h2>



Some skeptics say humans might not have produced enough leftovers for wolves or would have killed them off. Yet this model argues that even modest scraps could still support a very small, tamer wolf group.



Critics also question whether wolves would choose docile mates without direct human help. The simulation suggests that tamer traits might sometimes spread if those wolves thrived near people.



The research team plans to refine these simulations by including climate shifts and disease. Spatial data could reveal how some wolf groups became isolated and evolved gentler traits. 



Computer modeling is giving us new ways to think about how dogs may have emerged from wolves without human breeding.&nbsp;



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2646" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

From wolves to man's best friend: Did domestication begin without human help?

People have wondered for centuries how dogs branched off from...

Megalodon,Attacks,Humpback,Whale,3d,Illustration,-,A,Megalodon,Shark

The megalodon has fascinated people for generations. Massive teeth and scattered skeletal remains once led to depictions of a stocky predator, but new research suggests the megalodon was longer and more streamlined than the than the classic great white shark-like appearance that many of us imagined.



Phillip Sternes, who completed his doctorate at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Riverside</a> and now works in shark conservation, has helped to reveal a fresher perspective on the megalodon.



He and an international team examined vertebrae and compared them with more than one hundred modern and ancient shark species to learn more about the extinct predator’s form and potential swimming style.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-lean-and-built-for-travel">Long, lean, and built for travel</h2>



Taking a new approach, the team measured the megalodon’s body in segments rather than relying on tooth size. 



This helped the researchers estimate the head, trunk, and tail in a more balanced way, giving us a shark that might stretch about 80 feet from nose to tail.



The experts found that megladons may have weighed around 94 tons, matching a large whale’s bulk in many respects. 



Yet, the weight was arranged along a longer torso, allowing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shark</a> to move with less drag than a shorter, wider shape would cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-megladon-shape">New insights into megladon shape</h2>



The researchers describe a body more akin to a lemon shark’s proportions. 



The study suggests that megalodon had a slimmer trunk and a smoother taper that could have been practical for traveling over long stretches of ocean without burning through too much energy.



“This study provides the most robust analysis yet of megalodon’s body size and shape,” said Sternes. This means prior images of a round midsection need updating.



“You lead with your head when you swim because it’s more efficient than leading with your stomach,” said Tim Higham, a UC Riverside biologist involved in the project.



In other words, a <a href="https://bpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/sites.harvard.edu/dist/6/58/files/2022/03/Lauder.2015.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long, cylindrical shape</a> can help reduce water resistance, similar to well-built swimmers.&nbsp;



“The physics of swimming limit how stocky or stretched out a massive predator can be,” said Higham, adding that physical limits steer the evolution of large swimmers.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megalodon-balanced-speed-and-endurance">Megalodon balanced speed and endurance</h2>



Many big ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-fishing-is-making-coral-reefs-collapse-in-an-unexpected-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> use bursts of speed to hunt, then settle into an easier pace the rest of the time. 



The megalodon’s shape would fit this pattern, giving it a middle-range cruising speed but still enough power for a quick strike.



Sharks like the great white are swift over <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icb/article-abstract/55/1/6/618209?redirectedFrom=PDF" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">short bursts</a>, yet they aren’t known for long-distance economy in the same way as certain larger whales. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/megaladon_much-different-appearance_revised-depiction_credit-UCR_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A more elongated megalodon</a> likely balanced moderate speed with a steady swimming style that was efficient over wide areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-size-and-hunting">Birth size and hunting</h2>



“It is entirely possible that megalodon pups were already taking down marine mammals shortly after being born,” said Sternes. The study also explored how big baby megalodons might have been upon entering the ocean.



If so, these pups would be imposing from day one, perhaps around 13 feet long. That’s roughly the size of an average adult great white shark, giving young megalodons an immediate advantage against smaller prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megladon-s-similarity-to-lemon-sharks">Megladon's similarity to lemon sharks</h2>



Modern lemon sharks are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22497412/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">built</a> to glide gently through water while still mustering enough speed for an ambush. 



The research group recognized parallels in the vertebral patterns of megalodon and lemon sharks, raising the possibility that the extinct giant combined large-whale heft with a body style known for efficient travel.



Their analysis ruled out the typical notion that megalodon resembled an overblown great white. Instead, the skeletal measurements support a sleeker overall profile, challenging long-held views of a barrel-chested sea monster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-and-shark-evolution">Speed and shark evolution</h2>



In giant fish, <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.1201/b11867/biology-sharks-relatives-jeffrey-carrier-john-musick-michael-heithaus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shape</a> can matter more than size when it comes to swimming economics. A thick girth can generate drag, but a straighter trunk lets water pass more smoothly.



Whale sharks and basking sharks also show that immense size does not always mean <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/brv.12839" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clumsy movement</a>. Researchers point to megalodon’s design as an example of similar engineering, though on an even grander scale.



Gigantic sharks appear rarely in the fossil record, implying that certain conditions must align for them to thrive. A well-proportioned body may have been key to megalodon’s success in patrolling vast habitats for prey.



Yet, eventual climate shifts and possible competition from other fierce hunters like early great whites likely added pressures. Over time, those combined forces might have spelled the end for megalodon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megalodon-s-design-and-ocean-evolution">Megalodon’s design and ocean evolution</h2>



The new understanding of megalodon speaks to broader ocean dynamics. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-dropped-to-record-low-in-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large animals</a> often follow recurring patterns in body outlines, whether they’re sharks or whales.



While speed and stamina vary, they’re still shaped by the same drag-reducing principles. That shared design echoes through millions of years of vertebrate history.



The study is published in <a href="https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2025/5450-biology-of-otodus-megalodon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontologia Electronica</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Megalodon looked much different than how humans have imagined

The megalodon has fascinated people for generations. Massive teeth and...

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely eradicated any original organic molecules in ancient remains.&nbsp;



Now, scientists at the University of Liverpool have discovered that some Mesozoic fossils still preserve vestiges of their original organic compounds. 



The findings shed light on how proteins like collagen may survive for millions of years within dinosaur bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-skepticism-to-discovery">From skepticism to discovery</h2>



The research was focused on a well-preserved hip bone from an Edmontosaurus - a duck-billed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaur</a> excavated from the Hell Creek Formation in South Dakota. 



The fossil, weighing roughly 50 pounds (23 kilograms), is part of the University of Liverpool’s collections.&nbsp;



The researchers used advanced mass spectrometry and protein sequencing to detect and analyze signs of bone collagen in the sample. 



The results contradict the long-held assumption that any organic material found in fossils must be modern contamination.



“This research shows beyond doubt that organic biomolecules, such as proteins like collagen, appear to be present in some fossils,” said Professor Steve Taylor, chair of the Mass Spectrometry Research Group at the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a>.



“Our results have far-reaching implications. Firstly, it refutes the hypothesis that any organics found in fossils must result from contamination.”&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dinosaur-collagen-survived-the-test-of-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> remnants offer a rare glimpse into dinosaur biology, opening up new questions about what biochemical information might still be gleaned from well-preserved fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-collagen-the-basics">Understanding collagen - the basics</h2>



Collagen is the glue that holds animal bones together - literally. It’s the most abundant protein in bones, giving them structure, flexibility, and strength. 



Without collagen, bones would be brittle and more likely to snap under pressure. This protein forms a tight mesh within the bone, creating a balance between rigidity and resilience. 



When you cook bones - like in bone broth - that collagen breaks down into gelatin, which gives the broth that rich, silky texture. 



That’s also why bone-in meats tend to be juicier and more tender when slow-cooked; the collagen melts into the meat, making it extra flavorful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-molecules-survive-fossilization-nbsp">Ancient molecules survive fossilization&nbsp;</h2>



Collagen is the primary structural protein in the bones of living organisms. After millions of years, one would expect it to be replaced by minerals or otherwise degraded.&nbsp;



However, the study demonstrates that not only can collagen molecules survive fossilization but they can also remain detectable if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> is of exceptional quality.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_1s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958814"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



The team’s analyses involved a combination of protein sequencing, tandem mass spectrometry, and imaging techniques to characterize the Edmontosaurus bone.&nbsp;



These methods allowed the experts to pinpoint markers of collagen and confirm that the protein fragments were indeed vestiges from the ancient organism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-record-of-dinosaur-physiology-nbsp">Hidden record of dinosaur physiology&nbsp;</h2>



The discovery suggests the value of re-examining historical fossil collections for similarly overlooked molecular structures. 



Fossils previously dismissed as fully mineralized may still contain pockets of original organic material, offering a wealth of new insights.



Taylor emphasized the potential of cross-polarized light microscopy images that have been archived for decades.&nbsp;



“These images may reveal intact patches of bone collagen, potentially offering a ready-made trove of fossil candidates for further protein analysis,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



The potential to reanalyze these images with modern techniques could reveal a hidden record of dinosaur physiology, including growth rates and metabolic traits.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-dinosaur-research">Implications for dinosaur research</h2>



This breakthrough has major implications for paleontology and molecular biology. With access to ancient proteins, scientists can refine dinosaur phylogenies by comparing molecular signatures.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/dinosaur-fossil_collagen-discovery_credit-ULiverpool_2s.webp" alt="Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1958816"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Edmontosaurus sp. sacrum (UOL GEO.1) from Harding County, SD, Hell Creek formation, main fragment shown. Credit: University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



Furthermore, experts could uncover the biochemical pathways that enabled the preservation of organic compounds over millions of years.



“The findings inform the intriguing mystery of how these proteins have managed to persist in fossils for so long,” said Taylor.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-presence-of-dinosaur-collagen-nbsp">Confirming the presence of dinosaur collagen&nbsp;</h2>



For the investigation, researchers from multiple institutions specialized in different analytic methods.&nbsp;



The Mass Spectrometry Research Group performed in-depth protein sequencing, while other collaborators contributed to high-resolution imaging, additional data verification, and advanced mass spectrometry.&nbsp;



These collective efforts reinforced the conclusion that the collagen was not a result of contamination, but an ancient molecular relic.



In addition, the successful detection of collagen alpha-1 fragments - one of the most fundamental protein forms in bone - came from the Center for Proteome Research at the University of Liverpool.&nbsp;



Experts at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> contributed tandem mass spectrometry capabilities to detect and quantify markers that definitively establish the presence of ancient collagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions-nbsp">Future research directions&nbsp;</h2>



Even though the study resolves a long-standing debate about the possibility of finding original organic molecules in dinosaur fossils, it also opens new avenues for research.&nbsp;



By pinpointing the conditions under which these molecular remnants can remain stable, scientists might be able to target specific specimens or geological settings where surviving biomolecules are most likely to be found.



There is growing interest in how such data can illuminate dinosaur evolutionary pathways and relationships.&nbsp;



If collagen or other proteins can be consistently identified across a variety of specimens, it may become possible to conduct molecular-level comparisons between species.



Ultimately, these findings prompt reexamination of museum and field collections worldwide, suggesting that the deeper secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient life</a> - once deemed lost - may still lie hidden within the fossil record.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.4c03115#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Analytical Chemistry</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Discovery of organic molecules in 66-million-year-old dinosaur bones rocks paleontology

For many years, paleontologists believed that the fossilization process completely...

A new report reveals that more than one-third of all U.S. bird species stand in high or moderate conservation danger. Additionally, there are 112 “tipping point” species that have seen half or more of their populations vanish in the past 50 years.



The tipping point groups identified in the report include 42 red-alert species such as Allen’s Hummingbird, Tricolored Blackbird, and Saltmarsh Sparrow. These species are facing a high risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> unless swift interventions are made.



“Birds tell us that we have a full-on emergency across all habitats,” said Marshall Johnson, chief conservation officer at the <a href="https://www.audubon.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Audubon Society</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-state-of-the-birds-report-nbsp">State of the Birds report&nbsp;</h2>



The 2025 U.S. State of the Birds report was unveiled at the 90th annual North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference in Louisville, Kentucky.&nbsp;



Compiled by a coalition of top science and conservation organizations, the report documents sustained widespread losses in American bird populations across mainland and marine habitats, highlighting 229 species requiring urgent conservation measures.&nbsp;



The findings follow on from the influential 2019 study that found the loss of three billion birds in North America over five decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-america-s-birds">Significance of America's birds</h2>



In defending birds, the report emphasizes not just the ecological arguments but also the financial rewards for local economies. 



Nearly 100 million Americans take part in bird-related activities, from casual backyard birding to dedicated expeditions. 



The total economic output connected to bird watching activities is $279 billion, while birding related activities support 1.4 million jobs, the experts argued, referencing the latest <a href="https://www.fws.gov/program/national-survey-fishing-hunting-and-wildlife-associated-recreation-fhwar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation</a> data.



The study emphasizes that birds are also central to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-americans-have-lost-years-of-time-to-poor-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental health</a> benefits. By citing existing research, the authors explain that daily or weekly encounters with birds and nature help relieve stress and diminish symptoms of anxiety and depression - an added incentive to strengthen conservation programs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-trends-in-bird-habitats">Disturbing trends in bird habitats</h2>



In analyzing bird populations across America, the authors warn that nearly every type of ecosystem is witnessing declines. Even ducks, which had been a bright spot in past reports, are trending downward in more recent tallies.



“The rapid declines in birds signal the intensifying stressors that wildlife and people alike are experiencing around the world because of habitat loss, environmental degradation, and extreme weather events,” noted Amanda Rodewald, faculty director of the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>’s Center for Avian Population Studies.&nbsp;



“When we see declines like those outlined in the report, we need to remember that if conditions are not healthy for birds, they’re unlikely to be healthy for us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cause-for-both-alarm-and-hope">Cause for both alarm and hope</h2>



“There is no doubt that the 2025 State of the Birds report is cause for alarm, but it is also cause for hope. Public interest in birds and the economic benefits from birding are at unprecedented levels, as is the information available about the status of each and every one of our bird species,” said Jeff Walters, conservation committee co-chair at the <a href="https://americanornithology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Ornithological Society</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/bird-populations_united-states_rapid-decline_graph_credit-Cornell_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/bird-populations_united-states_rapid-decline_graph_credit-Cornell_1s.webp" alt="Long-term population trends for America's birds. Credit: State of the Birds long-term population trends, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology." class="wp-image-1962322"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Long-term population trends for America's birds. Credit: State of the Birds long-term population trends, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology.</figcaption></figure>



Strategies for reversing these declines emerge throughout the document. The authors highlight conservation success stories and methods that have proven effective for waterfowl, waterbirds, and other avian groups, indicating that more robust action could yield results on a larger scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effective-conservation-approaches">Effective conservation approaches</h2>



“Many bird populations are struggling. But a proven blueprint for success is science-based planning and collaborative investment in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitat-and-evolution-shape-the-unique-sounds-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat</a> conservation,” said Steve Adair, Ducks Unlimited chief scientist.



Beyond this, practical measures - like private lands programs, ranching partnerships, forest renewal projects, coastal restoration efforts, and seabird translocation - have all shown promise in reviving bird populations under stress.&nbsp;



Adair cited the strong cooperation among hunters, landowners, agencies, and corporations as having historically benefited waterfowl numbers, at least where suitable weather conditions apply.



“Decades of strategic and aggressive wetland habitat conservation from hunters, landowners, state and federal agencies, and corporations has boosted numerous waterfowl and waterbird species when weather conditions are favorable. We’ve shown it works. And we must do more,” Adair said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-america-s-bird-life">Protecting America's bird life</h2>



At the same time, the report makes clear that bird conservation has ripple effects for human communities and broader ecosystems.



“Fortunately, many of the actions that are good for birds are good for us. When we protect the habitats that birds rely upon, we also protect the ecosystem services that sustain us,” Rodewald said.



In other words, robust protections for wetlands, coasts, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-bird-song-can-help-scientists-make-smarter-forest-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>, and other key habitats not only safeguard bird life, but also maintain carbon storage, preserve water quality, and buffer cities and towns against natural disasters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-effective-solutions">Looking toward effective solutions</h2>



Michael J. Parr, President of <a href="https://abcbirds.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Bird Conservancy</a>, praised ongoing research but emphasized that more support is crucial:



“We have clear evidence that conservation works in halting declines,” said Parr. “What we now need more than ever are programs and funding that match the scale of the greatest challenges birds face today. The science is solid on how to reverse the damage done, but to succeed, these issues need to be taken seriously.”



Marshall Johnson of the National Audubon Society reinforced this need for prompt and inclusive measures. 



“Birds unite us across the hemisphere and across the political spectrum - there should be no hesitation as we move to protect them today and in the future,” he said.



Ultimately, the 2025 U.S. State of the Birds report highlights a stark warning but also underscores the possibility for saving countless bird species if deliberate policies and robust support meet the urgency of the crisis.&nbsp;



Humans stand to benefit economically and culturally from an environment where bird populations thrive, reminding all stakeholders of the vital connections between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife conservation</a> and broader social well-being.



The report can be found <a href="https://www.stateofthebirds.org/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists declare a "full-on emergency" to save US bird populations

A new report reveals that more than one-third of all...

For centuries, observers have been fascinated by the diverse fish inhabiting rivers, lakes, and oceans. Some dazzle with vibrant colors, while others surprise with unusual shapes and distinctive teeth.



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08612-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long studied the skeletal features of fish, especially their mouthparts, to unravel how different species adapt to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-evolution-in-the-baltic-sea-how-herring-became-fish-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing environments</a>.



After many years of investigation at the University of California, Davis, one scientist has discovered a new clue to how fish species branch out faster than most vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-teeth-help-fish-adapt">Unique teeth help fish adapt</h2>



These fish do not merely differ in color or size. Their teeth also display unique configurations that match the foods they eat and the places they inhabit.



Some sport single-pointed teeth, like little pegs, whereas others have multiple points tucked together in a single tooth. 



“This changes the way we think about key innovations,” said Nick Peoples, first author of the paper and a graduate student working with Professor Peter Wainwright at the <a href="https://biology.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> Department of Evolution and Ecology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlids-and-easy-switches">Cichlids and easy switches</h2>



The <a href="https://ronscichlids.com/collections/african-cichlid-breeder-groups?srsltid=AfmBOoouLZjnMMQ5bBuyEyJw2urqXuWKM56umolPjL4l3ObBqBP6gKCZ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cichlid group</a> in Africa’s great lakes is famous for its ability to adapt to different food sources. Some species nibble algae, some snap at small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/master-switch-controls-the-timing-of-fish-egg-hatching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic creatures</a>, and others snack on whatever drifts past.



“It’s not just the teeth, it’s how quickly they are gained or lost,” said Peoples. Scientists have noticed that cichlids can rapidly transition between simpler cone-shaped teeth and more complicated multi-cusped teeth. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-all-takes-shape">How it all takes shape</h2>



The researchers used a large dataset to pinpoint moments in fish history when tooth structures switched from one type to another. This reconstruction uncovered a pattern: lineages that can swap between simple and complex teeth form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new species</a> at an unusually fast pace.



The ability to shift tooth shapes without major roadblocks seems to give fish a trick up their sleeve. This trait has led to repeated bursts of speciation in different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-teeth-give-fish-an-advantage">Complex teeth give fish an advantage</h2>



“Complex teeth are one innovation that contributed to the evolutionary success of major vertebrate lineages,” noted the researchers. By examining ancient fossils and modern samples, the team confirmed that these structures appeared in multiple fish families through time.



Some gained a competitive edge in crowded waters, while others exploited new food resources that demanded extra tooth surfaces. Speciation rates are five times higher when transitions between simple and complex teeth occur rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genetic-toolkit">The genetic toolkit</h2>



Experts propose that certain fish keep the genetic instructions for both tooth types. That might explain how they switch back and forth more effortlessly than other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-find-new-ways-to-reproduce-in-response-to-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a>.



This switch happens faster in African lakes than in marine habitats. Rapid changes in water conditions or food availability could spark a swift rearrangement of tooth shapes in these cichlids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-african-lakes">Beyond African lakes</h2>



Although cichlids steal the spotlight, fish in other regions show hints of similar adaptability. Some reef-dwelling species can alter their mouthparts for scraping rocks or slicing algae.



Those that can revert to older tooth patterns appear better equipped to handle competition from other fish. This insight might encourage broader studies on how such elasticity influences diversification in other aquatic communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-evolutionary-patterns">Shaping evolutionary patterns</h2>



<a href="http://phytools.org/mexico2018/lec/Diversification.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lineage diversification</a> describes how species split into new forms. Factors like climate, mating behavior, and resource use drive these splits at different speeds.



In fast-evolving groups, minor genetic changes have outsized effects on survival and reproduction. That flexibility, once unleashed, boosts the odds of stumbling onto a successful new niche.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprises-in-ecological-roles">Surprises in ecological roles</h2>



African cichlids seem to exemplify this idea with their blend of opportunism and versatility. Shifting from a flesh-piercing tooth to a multi-cusped one can open up surprising new diets.



The abrupt changes may send fish into microhabitats that were off-limits before, adding more diversity to the lakes. This phenomenon highlights how even a small tweak in anatomy can reshape entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-summer-fishing-shrinks-atlantic-salmon-size-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-adaptability-and-fish-conservation">Teeth adaptability and fish conservation </h2>



Experts suspect similar processes might occur with other physical traits. <a href="https://phys.org/news/2012-06-sticky-gecko-toes-arose-independently.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sticky toe pads</a> in climbing reptiles or specialized beaks in birds can emerge repeatedly across distant groups.



Some lineages might keep the blueprint for these traits in their genetic code and resurface them under the right circumstances. Others might lose this genetic blueprint and hit a dead end for further innovations.



Conservationists who monitor threatened fish species could use this insight to identify groups with higher adaptability potential. If a fish can switch tooth structures quickly, it might cope better with sudden habitat changes.



That same fish could outcompete neighbors that lack this flexibility, altering the balance in fragile ecosystems. The researchers hope this knowledge will guide targeted protection efforts for vulnerable freshwater habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ideas-for-future-research">Ideas for future research</h2>



Scientists are now curious about the specific genes that let fish move easily between different tooth designs. Pinpointing those genes could unlock new ways of understanding variation in other vertebrates.



Engineers might also get ideas from these flexible tooth structures for designing tools that adapt to different tasks. Biology has often inspired clever technological concepts, and fish teeth are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-impact-of-cichlids">Cultural impact of cichlids</h2>



In some African communities, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17925206/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lake Victoria cichlids</a> feature prominently in local diets. Their adaptability keeps them abundant in markets, satisfying tastes for nutritious, locally sourced protein.



These same fish also intrigue aquarium enthusiasts around the globe, who admire their colors and unique behavior. Their popularity reinforces the bond between people and the underwater world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-drive-evolution">Small changes drive evolution</h2>



Observing how a physical feature shapes evolutionary paths prompts questions about other hidden traits. One simple switch could ripple through an entire lineage, setting off an explosion of new forms.



Cichlids stand out as a dramatic demonstration of that concept, suggesting that adaptability itself might be the real driver of rapid diversification. That concept may apply well beyond fish, shining light on a bigger story about how life branches out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-worth-following">A path worth following</h2>



Future work will likely take a deeper look at the ecological triggers that encourage these genetic possibilities. Many factors - from water acidity to seasonal migration of prey - might tip the balance in favor of a tooth switch.



Such findings add more dimension to our understanding of biodiversity. With each new piece of evidence, researchers gain a richer perspective on why certain groups flourish in unexpected ways.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08612-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fish evolve rapidly by switching between simple and complex teeth

For centuries, observers have been fascinated by the diverse fish...

March 16 honors one of the world’s most cherished animals - the giant panda. With their playful antics and unmistakable black-and-white fur, they’ve won hearts everywhere. But their charm hides a struggle. 



Habitat loss has pushed giant pandas to the edge, and their numbers have dwindled. 



National Panda Day is not just a celebration of their charm but a call to action. It raises awareness about the challenges they face and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-pandas-taste-for-bamboo-is-literally-written-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global efforts</a> needed to protect them.



Conservationists, animal lovers, and researchers work tirelessly to ensure that pandas have a future in the wild. This day reminds us of the responsibility we share in preserving their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-pandas-in-the-wild">Giant pandas in the wild </h2>



Native to the dense bamboo forests of China, giant pandas belong to the Bear (Ursidae) family. 



Despite their bear lineage, pandas have a diet that is vastly different from other species. While they have the digestive system of a carnivore, they survive almost entirely on bamboo.



To compensate for the low nutritional value, pandas spend most of their time eating - consuming up to 40 kilograms (88 pounds) of bamboo daily.



Unlike other bears, pandas do not hibernate. Their mountainous habitat provides food throughout the year, eliminating the need for long periods of sleep. 



They are also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-panda-day-recognizing-the-beauty-and-fragility-of-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solitary creatures</a>, avoiding interactions unless it is mating season. Pandas may look friendly, but in the wild, they prefer to keep to themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-on-the-brink">A species on the brink</h2>



Pandas have roamed the Earth for nearly 20 million years, making them one of the oldest bear species. However, their survival has been anything but easy.



For decades, giant pandas were classified as endangered due to habitat destruction and their difficulty in reproducing. With fewer than 2,000 left in the wild, the risk of extinction loomed large.



One of the biggest threats to panda populations has been deforestation. Expanding cities, agricultural development, and climate change have forced pandas into smaller areas, making it harder for them to find food and mates. 



Conservationists feared that without immediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intervention</a>, pandas would disappear forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-panda-day-and-conservation">National Panda Day and conservation </h2>



Efforts to protect pandas gained global attention in 1961 when the World Wide Fund for Nature (<a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WWF</a>) adopted the giant panda as its official logo. This decision highlighted the species' vulnerability and sparked worldwide initiatives to protect them. It was a turning point in conservation history.



In 1984, the United States placed pandas on the Endangered Species list, further emphasizing the need for protection. 



China also took significant steps, creating more reserves and implementing breeding programs to boost panda numbers. By 2006, the number of panda reserves had tripled, greatly improving their chances of survival.



Thanks to years of dedicated conservation work, a milestone was reached in 2016. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) downgraded pandas from “endangered” to “vulnerable.” 



This marked a rare success story in wildlife conservation, proving that global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-giant-pandas-born-with-brown-fur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a> can make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-panda-reproduction">Challenge of panda reproduction</h2>



Despite progress, pandas still face significant challenges. One of the biggest obstacles is reproduction. 



Female pandas are only fertile for a short window - about two to three days per year. This makes successful mating rare in the wild. Even in captivity, breeding programs have struggled with low birth rates.



To address this issue, China’s Chengdu Research Base for Giant Panda Breeding has played a key role in improving reproductive success. 



Scientists have developed techniques to increase the likelihood of pregnancy, including artificial insemination and improved care for newborn cubs.



These efforts have given hope that panda populations can continue to grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pandas-matter-to-the-ecosystem">Why pandas matter to the ecosystem</h2>



Pandas are more than just adorable animals - they play a vital role in maintaining their habitat. 



As they move through the forests, they help spread seeds, allowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancestors-of-giant-pandas-had-a-completely-different-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> to grow. Their presence supports biodiversity, benefiting countless other species in the region.



Protecting pandas means protecting entire ecosystems. Their survival ensures that the forests they inhabit continue to thrive. 



By conserving pandas, we also safeguard other endangered wildlife that depends on the same environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-national-panda-day">Celebrate National Panda Day</h2>



National Panda Day is an opportunity to learn more about these fascinating animals and support their conservation.



Visiting a zoo with a panda exhibit provides an up-close look at their behavior and daily routines. Zoos that house pandas often contribute to research and breeding programs, helping ensure their long-term survival. Observing pandas in person can deepen appreciation for the efforts needed to protect them.



For those who cannot visit a zoo, watching documentaries such as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4624970/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Born in China</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6676350/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pandas</a>&nbsp;offers an insightful look into their lives. These films showcase the challenges pandas face and the conservation efforts working to protect them.



Supporting organizations like the WWF by adopting a panda symbolically or donating to conservation programs also makes a real difference. Every contribution helps maintain research centers, preserve habitats, and fund rescue efforts.



Wearing panda-themed clothing or purchasing eco-friendly panda merchandise can also spread awareness. Many brands donate a portion of their profits to conservation, making it a fun way to support the cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-for-pandas">A future for pandas</h2>



Although pandas are no longer classified as endangered, their survival is far from guaranteed. Habitat destruction, climate change, and human expansion continue to threaten their future. 



National Panda Day serves as a reminder that continued conservation efforts are necessary. The progress made so far proves that with dedication and global support, species on the brink of extinction can recover. 



By protecting pandas, we contribute to a larger movement of wildlife conservation. Their story is one of resilience, but it is up to us to ensure that future generations can continue to admire these incredible animals.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

National Panda Day 2025: From the brink of extinction to hope

March 16 honors one of the world’s most cherished animals...

Makassar,Strait,Highlighted,On,A,Satellite,Image,Map

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something called the "Wallace Line," had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wallace-line-and-species-separation">Wallace Line and species separation</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-australasia">What is Australasia?</h2>



The region that includes Australia, New Zealand, and the islands of the surrounding Pacific is known as Australasia. 



It’s a place where you can find everything from vast deserts and lush rainforests to snowy mountains and stunning coral reefs. 



Australia dominates the region with its massive landmass, unique wildlife like kangaroos and koalas, and world-famous landmarks like the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru. 



Meanwhile, New Zealand brings its own magic with breathtaking fjords, rolling green hills, and a deep-rooted Māori culture. 



The islands of Australasia, including Papua New Guinea and parts of Indonesia, add even more diversity with rich indigenous traditions and some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utrecht</a> in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth has a natural border line that no species will cross - what is the Wallace Line?

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something...

For over a century, the early Paleocene mammal named Mixodectes pungens has remained an enigma. First identified in 1883, its remains consisted of small fragments of fossilized teeth and bones - not enough for paleontologists to be able to draw many conclusions.



Researchers at that time could only guess about the creature's habits and its position in evolutionary history. 



Recently, however, a far more complete fossilized skeleton of one of these ancient mammals has been analyzed, and this has shed light on aspects of the animal's anatomy, behavior, diet and evolutionary connections.



The research team found that this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-earliest-evidence-of-mammals-at-the-seashore/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early mammal</a>, that lived in western North America about 62 million years ago, was tree-dwelling, weighed around three pounds, and fed primarily on leaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixodectes-related-to-primates-and-colugos">Mixodectes related to primates and colugos</h2>



The researchers determined that Mixodectes was more closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a> and colugos - also known as flying lemurs - than previously thought.



"A 62-million-year-old skeleton of this quality and completeness offers novel insights into mixodectids, including a much clearer picture of their evolutionary relationships," said Eric Sargis, professor of anthropology in <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_illustration_credit-Stephen-Chester_1m1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_illustration_credit-Stephen-Chester_1s.webp" alt="Graphic illustration of Mixodectes pungens. New findings illuminate ancient species and its evolutionary connections to modern-day humans. Credit: Stephen Chester" class="wp-image-1962388"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Graphic illustration of Mixodectes pungens. New findings illuminate ancient species and its evolutionary connections to modern-day humans. Credit: Stephen Chester</figcaption></figure>



The skeleton, which includes a partial skull, teeth, spine, rib cage, and limbs, was discovered and excavated in New Mexico’s San Juan Basin, under a federal permit.



The well-preserved remains have helped scientists reconstruct how the species, which roamed the Earth shortly after the extinction of the dinosaurs, moved, ate, and interacted with the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-built-for-climbing">Built for climbing</h2>



The study revealed that Mixodectes was built for life in the trees. Its limb structure and claws suggest that it could cling to almost vertical surfaces, much like modern primates.



Its molar teeth were shaped for breaking down tough plant material, indicating an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darwins-ground-sloth-was-not-fully-vegetarian/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">omnivorous</a> diet with a strong preference for leaves.



"This fossil skeleton provides new evidence concerning how placental mammals diversified ecologically, following the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction of the dinosaurs</a>," said  Stephen Chester, associate professor of anthropology at <a href="https://www.brooklyn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brooklyn College/CUNY</a> and lead author of the study.



"Characteristics such as a larger body mass and an increased reliance on leaves allowed Mixodectes to thrive in the same trees likely shared with other early primate relatives."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-ecological-niche">Unique ecological niche</h2>



At almost three pounds (.4 kilograms), Mixodectes was quite large for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-driving-tree-dwelling-primates-to-the-ground/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree-dwelling</a> mammal of its era. It was much larger than another small, forest-dwelling mammal, Torrejonia wilsoni, that was discovered with it. 



While Mixodectes ate primarily leaves, Torrejonia consumed mostly fruit, suggesting that the two species occupied different ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixodectes-and-the-evolutionary-tree">Mixodectes and the evolutionary tree</h2>



The researchers conducted two phylogenetic analyses to determine Mixodectes’ evolutionary placement. 



One analysis suggested it was an archaic primate, while the other classified it as a primatomorphan - part of a group that includes primates and colugos, but not tree shrews.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_skeleton_credit-scientific-Reports_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Mixodectes-pungens_skeleton_credit-scientific-Reports_1s.webp" alt="The skeleton, discovered in New Mexico’s San Juan Basin, is the most complete of its kind known to exist. Credit: Scientific Reports (2025)" class="wp-image-1962390"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The skeleton, discovered in New Mexico’s San Juan Basin, is the most complete of its kind known to exist. Credit: Scientific Reports (2025)</figcaption></figure>



"While the study doesn’t entirely resolve the debate over where mixodectids belong on the evolutionary tree, it significantly narrows it," commented Sargis.



These discoveries not only enhance our understanding of Mixodectes but also provide insight into how early mammals evolved and diversified in changing forest environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-back-at-the-post-dinosaur-world">Looking back at the post-dinosaur world</h2>



The finding of this Mixodectes fossil offers a glimpse into the ecosystems that arose in the aftermath of the mass extinction that eradicated the dinosaurs.



The initial Paleocene was an era of accelerated evolutionary transformation, as mammals started to diversify and utilize the ecological niches left vacant by the demise of the large reptiles.



During this time, the forests of North America were lush and humid, with plenty of room for arboreal mammals, such as Mixodectes, to flourish.



The fact that they had adapted claws for climbing indicates that they competed and coexisted with other arboreal species, such as early primate ancestors.



Their diet split - with Mixodectes being leaf specialists and other species preferring fruit - could have reduced direct competition and enabled several species to coexist in the same environment.



Apart from its role in ecology, the adaptation of Mixodectes as a specialist tree-dweller is in keeping with the wider pattern of mammals adapting to make use of tree habitats.



These initial experiments in climbing, grasping, and dietary specialization laid the foundation for the eventual emergence of primates, which set the stage for the evolutionary path that would eventually give rise to humans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-90203-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

62 million years ago this mysterious mammal called Earth home

For over a century, the early Paleocene mammal named Mixodectes...

The human immune system constantly adapts to the flu viruses it encounters. Throughout life, exposure to different flu strains builds a complex immune memory. Recent research suggests that this memory might help protect against emerging threats like the H5N1 avian influenza virus. 



Scientists at the Perelman School of Medicine at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a> have discovered that people exposed to certain flu viruses in childhood may have some level of immunity against H5N1.



Their findings, published in Nature Medicine, reveal that older adults, particularly those exposed to flu strains before 1968, possess antibodies that can recognize H5N1. 



These antibodies may not stop infection but could make H5N1 less severe. The findings show who is at risk and who needs the vaccine most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flu-exposure-in-childhood">Flu exposure in childhood </h2>



Scientists have long known that childhood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-mutations-found-in-first-severe-u-s-human-case/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flu</a> infections leave lasting imprints on the immune system. 



The body learns to recognize the flu strains it first encounters, creating antibodies that can last for decades. These antibodies are often most effective against flu viruses similar to those encountered in early life.



“We know that early childhood influenza exposures can elicit immune responses that last a lifetime,” said senior author Dr. Scott Hensley, a professor of microbiology.



“We found that antibody responses that were primed by H1N1 and H3N2 viruses decades ago can cross-react to H5N1 avian viruses circulating today. Most of these cross-reactive antibodies cannot prevent infections, but they will likely limit disease if we have an H5N1 pandemic.”



This means that people who were first exposed to H1N1 or H2N2 viruses before 1968 may have antibodies that can recognize the stalk of H5N1’s hemagglutinin protein. 



Since the stalk evolves more slowly than the head of the hemagglutinin protein, it remains more similar across different flu strains. However, younger individuals, who first encountered later flu viruses, may not have the same level of cross-protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-virus-is-changing-fast">Bird flu virus is changing fast</h2>



H5N1 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-has-killed-20-million-chickens-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> have been present in bird populations for decades, but a newer version, called clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1, has recently spread among cattle. 



So far, this virus does not easily infect humans, as it does not bind well to receptors in the upper respiratory tract. However, if it mutates to infect human airway cells more efficiently, it could potentially start spreading between people.



Influenza viruses are named after the two key proteins on their surface: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). These proteins allow the virus to enter and exit host cells. 



Current flu vaccines work by training the immune system to recognize the hemagglutinin head, preventing infection. 



However, the hemagglutinin head changes rapidly, making it difficult to develop long-lasting vaccines. The stalk of the hemagglutinin protein evolves more slowly, meaning antibodies that recognize it may offer broader protection across different flu strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prior-flu-exposure-and-h5n1-immunity">Prior flu exposure and H5N1 immunity </h2>



To understand how prior flu exposures influence immunity, the researchers analyzed blood samples from over 150 individuals born between 1927 and 2016. They looked at antibodies targeting the hemagglutinin stalk across multiple flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a>, including H5N1.



The analysis showed that people born before 1968 had more antibodies capable of binding to the H5N1 stalk. In contrast, younger individuals, who did not encounter earlier flu strains, had lower levels of these antibodies.



A person’s birth year appeared to strongly influence their ability to fight H5N1. Older adults had a greater number of cross-reactive antibodies, while children and younger adults had significantly fewer. 



This suggests that younger individuals may be at greater risk if H5N1 were to spread widely among humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaccines-can-protect-the-most-vulnerable">Vaccines can protect the most vulnerable</h2>



To further explore vaccine responses, the researchers examined another group of individuals born between 1918 and 2003.



These individuals received a 2004 H5N1 vaccine, which did not exactly match the clade 2.3.4.4b strain currently circulating. The experts took blood samples before and after vaccination to measure changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-flu-may-be-more-harmful-to-the-brain-than-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibody</a> levels.



The results aligned with their earlier findings. Older adults already had some antibodies that could recognize H5 stalks before vaccination. After receiving the vaccine, their antibody levels increased slightly. However, in children and younger adults, antibody levels increased much more significantly.



This suggests that while older individuals already have some degree of cross-protection, younger populations may gain the most from targeted vaccination efforts.



“In the event of an H5N1 pandemic, all age groups will likely be highly susceptible, but it is possible that the highest disease burden will be in children,” said Hensley. “If this is the case, children should be prioritized for H5N1 vaccinations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-a-possible-outbreak">Preparing for a possible outbreak</h2>



This study shows why knowing how past flu infections affect immunity is so important. Older adults might already have some protection against H5N1 because of flu viruses they encountered long ago. But younger people, who lack this exposure, could be at greater risk if H5N1 changes and starts spreading between humans.



Flu vaccines are still one of the best defenses, even when they don’t exactly match new virus strains. Scientists are closely watching H5N1 and working on vaccines that could protect more people if an outbreak happens.



Some researchers are also looking into universal flu vaccines. Instead of targeting fast-changing parts of the virus, these vaccines would focus on more stable regions, like the hemagglutinin stalk. If successful, they could provide longer-lasting protection against different flu types and help prevent severe illness from future flu threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-immunity-may-prevent-pandemics">Bird flu immunity may prevent pandemics</h2>



While H5N1 is not yet a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-virus-preparing-for-tomorrow-despite-minimal-risk-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health threat</a>, its continued circulation among birds and cattle raises concerns.



The possibility of mutations that allow it to infect humans more easily means that preparation is essential. Research like this study helps guide vaccination strategies, ensuring that those most at risk receive protection if an outbreak occurs.



By understanding how flu exposure shapes immunity, scientists can develop better vaccines and public health strategies to minimize the impact of future influenza pandemics.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-025-03599-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Medicine</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Adults may be more resistant to bird flu virus than children

The human immune system constantly adapts to the flu viruses...

Sharks have long been portrayed as fearsome predators, dominating the oceans with their sleek bodies and razor-sharp teeth. Movies and myths have painted them as threats to humans, but the reality is quite the opposite. Sharks have far more reason to fear us. 



Nearly one-third of all shark species are now threatened with extinction, primarily due to overfishing.



This is not just a loss for sharks but a significant disruption to marine ecosystems. As apex predators, sharks play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ocean life. Their decline can trigger chain reactions that affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-fishing-is-making-coral-reefs-collapse-in-an-unexpected-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish populations</a> and coral reefs.



A team of researchers at UC Santa Barbara recently examined whether current regulations, such as requiring fishermen to release captured sharks, are enough to protect them. 



The study reveals that these mandates alone will not be sufficient. To preserve these vital creatures, a combination of strategies is necessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-sharks-are-caught-accidentally">Many sharks are caught accidentally </h2>



Some sharks are specifically targeted by fisheries, but many others are caught unintentionally. This issue extends far beyond the species directly sought after by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> industry.



“More than half of sharks that are caught and killed in fisheries are captured incidentally and then discarded,” said Darcy Bradley, co-author of the study and adjunct faculty at the Bren School of Environmental Science &amp; Management.



Many fisheries operate under retention bans, which require fishermen to release certain species instead of keeping them. Currently, 17 oceanic shark species are protected under these bans in tuna fisheries. 



However, while these policies aim to reduce shark deaths, researchers questioned whether they truly prevent population decline. The team sought to understand the fate of sharks after they are released back into the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-mortality-rates">Shark mortality rates</h2>



To get a clearer picture of shark survival, the researchers analyzed over 150 published studies and reports on shark mortality. These studies documented the number of sharks that died either upon being hauled onto a fishing vessel or soon after being released.



The analysis covered nearly 150 different shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-dropped-to-record-low-in-2024/">species</a>, each caught using various fishing techniques. By examining this data, the team estimated mortality rates for an additional 341 species that lacked direct studies.



Certain sharks were far more vulnerable to death after capture. Small sharks and several threatened species, including thresher sharks and hammerheads, had particularly high mortality rates. Deep-sea species also fared poorly due to the extreme pressure changes they experienced when pulled from the depths.



“Mortality was surprisingly high for some species such as smoothhound sharks,” said co-lead author Leonardo Feitosa. “Ranging from 30 to 65%.” Deep-water species, like sleeper sharks, suffered from the trauma of rapid pressure shifts, making their survival after release unlikely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-retention-bans">Limits of retention bans</h2>



Simulating different policy scenarios, the researchers found that retention bans could reduce shark mortality by three times on average. However, this reduction was still not enough to ensure the sustainability of heavily fished species, such as mako and silky sharks.



“Retention bans are a beneficial first step towards addressing shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a>,” said Bradley. 



But he warned that these bans alone will not be enough. Additional conservation measures, such as restricting certain fishing areas, setting catch quotas, and regulating fishing gear, must be implemented to ensure long-term population stability.



Certain shark species, such as blue sharks, bonnetheads, and angel sharks, have a better chance of recovering due to their faster reproductive rates. However, even the blue shark, which is the most heavily fished shark species globally, remains vulnerable.



“While it is highly unlikely that retention bans will ever be implemented for such a commercially important species, our results show that this could be a relatively simple and impactful strategy if it becomes necessary to sustain populations," said Feitosa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-rules-are-needed-to-protect-sharks">More rules are needed to protect sharks</h2>



For many shark species, retention bans alone will not be enough. To make a real impact, conservation strategies must focus on reducing the number of sharks caught in the first place. 



One approach is to ban the use of steel wire on longlines, which increases the likelihood of sharks becoming entangled in fishing gear.



Spatial regulations could also help. Designating certain areas as shark nurseries and pupping grounds and restricting fishing in these zones would give young sharks a chance to grow and contribute to the population. 



Protecting these critical habitats could make a significant difference in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-shark-mating-behaviors-observed-for-the-first-time-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustaining species</a> that are struggling to recover.



Another challenge is the lack of data on other cartilaginous fish species, such as stingrays, skates, and chimaeras. 



“Fifty-seven percent of cartilaginous fishes threatened with extinction in the world are not sharks,” Caughman explained. The team could not include these species in their study due to insufficient data, highlighting the need for further research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-towards-a-sustainable-future">Towards a sustainable future</h2>



Shark conservation requires cooperation among governments, scientists, and fisheries. Members of The Nature Conservancy are currently collaborating with the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission’s scientific staff to find effective strategies for shark protection. 



These efforts aim to create well-informed policies that balance fishing needs with conservation goals.



The study serves as a call to action for the global community. Without stronger conservation strategies, shark populations will continue to decline, leading to widespread ecological consequences. 



By combining various management approaches and investing in better data collection, scientists and policymakers can work toward a future where sharks remain an essential part of the ocean’s ecosystem.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/faf.12892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish and Fisheries</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

One third of shark species face extinction despite fishing bans

Sharks have long been portrayed as fearsome predators, dominating the...

When thinking about why animals look the way they do, color is often front and center. However, humans are mostly limited to seeing a certain slice of the spectrum, ignoring the ultraviolet (UV) range that many animals use in their daily lives.&nbsp;



A recent study by scientists at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> (U-M) highlights the importance of UV coloration in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-group-of-snakes-has-a-new-evolutionary-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snakes</a>, showing that UV patterns are widespread and may play a significant role in evading predators such as birds.



The findings point to a broader issue in the study of color evolution: researchers tend to focus on colors we humans can detect.&nbsp;



“A lot of UV color work is done in systems that we consider traditionally bright and colorful, like birds, flowers and butterflies, but a lot of this color research is really biased by the human perception of color,” said Hayley Crowell, a doctoral student in the U-M Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-signals-in-the-uv-spectrum">Hidden signals in the UV spectrum</h2>



Crowell notes that much of the past work on UV color has concentrated on reproductive behaviors - things like UV ‘nectar guides’ in flowers that help steer insects to the part of the flower necessary for pollination.



In snakes, the team suspected UV coloration might be used for different reasons. Because snakes don’t typically rely on bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-system-takes-photos-in-the-same-colors-that-different-animals-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colors</a> to find mates, the scientists hypothesized that UV might be associated more with camouflage or environmental signaling.



The researchers analyzed 110 snake species, collected in various regions ranging from Colorado to Peru. Many of the species examined in the study can see UV light in ways that humans cannot.&nbsp;



Using a specialized camera lens and filters, they captured images of the snakes, searching for ultraviolet reflection patterns. Importantly, they did not rely on black lights to observe fluorescence; instead, they looked at the UV color that the snakes naturally reflect - colors invisible to the human eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-colors-of-snakes">The hidden colors of snakes</h2>



Next, the researchers tested how different factors - such as a snake’s age, sex, habitat, evolutionary background, and how visible the snake was to predators - might correlate with having more or less UV color.&nbsp;



To their surprise, the biggest driver of UV coloration turned out to be where and how the snakes live. Arboreal snakes that spend most of their time in trees and are active at night had the highest levels of UV reflection.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-snake-skins-in-their-nests-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a>, which can also see UV color, are one of snakes’ biggest predators,” Crowell explained.&nbsp;



For a nocturnal, tree-dwelling snake, sporting a heavy UV reflection might be inconsequential at night - but can provide camouflage during the day, when birds are actively hunting.&nbsp;



Leaves, lichens, and other vegetation are all known to reflect UV light. Thus, a snake displaying UV patterns could blend seamlessly into its sunlit habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-lack-of-sex-differences">Surprising lack of sex differences</h2>



One unexpected finding was that UV patterns did not differ substantially between male and female snakes.&nbsp;



“Because reproduction drives UV color evolution in so many other species, the lack of sexual differences in snakes was a surprise,” said study co-author Alison Davis Rabosky, an associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at U-M.&nbsp;



“But I don’t think snakes are actually some kind of outlier doing color ‘differently’ than other animals. I think we scientists have simply overlooked a lot of UV coloration in cryptically colored species, especially in insects. They are the next frontier.”



Snakes are closely related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-take-bigger-risks-when-they-are-hungry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>, and lizard species are known for strong sexual dimorphism - males often have flashier colors or bigger ornaments than females.&nbsp;



In contrast, the lack of color contrast between male and female snakes suggests that sexual selection may not drive color differences as much in snakes as it does in their lizard relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-individual-variations">Intriguing individual variations</h2>



The researchers also found that some snakes of the same species, same sex, and from the same location could differ dramatically in UV reflectance levels.&nbsp;



Two individuals might look nearly identical in the visible color spectrum, but one reflects UV strongly and the other does not. This highlights the complexity of color usage - humans simply cannot see it, so the reasons behind these differences remain obscure.



Similarly, evolutionary relationships among snakes didn’t always predict UV usage: some closely related species varied significantly in the presence or intensity of UV reflectance.&nbsp;



Even within the same genus, the team found both strongly UV-reflective and barely UV-reflective species or populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reassessing-our-vision-of-animal-color">Reassessing our vision of animal color</h2>



The new research underscores the concept that just focusing on colors visible to humans could hide a great deal of evolutionary strategy.&nbsp;



By revealing that snakes employ UV coloration widely - often for camouflage and not for sex-based selection - this study challenges assumptions about how color is used throughout the animal kingdom.&nbsp;



“I think what’s so exceptional about this study is that we got to look at patterns of UV color across so many species and individuals,” said co-author Hannah Weller, a postdoctoral research fellow at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>. 



“This amazing dataset really helped us start to understand just how variable a trait like this is, even in a group where we wouldn’t expect it.”



Ultimately, the researchers hope to inspire further investigations of UV coloration in other less-studied animal groups, especially among those perceived by humans as drab or colorless.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49506-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Snakes use invisible colors to outsmart predators

When thinking about why animals look the way they do,...

With spring approaching, many people are already considering which flowers to plant. Flowers do more than simply make gardens look nice. They are an important source of food for birds and insects, particularly wild bees.



In cities, the appropriate combination of flowers can be the difference between healthy bee populations and unhealthy ones.



A recent study has explored how the properties of flowers affect urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flower-strips-can-boost-wild-bee-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee populations</a>. 



The researchers discovered that a diverse range of flower sizes and shapes is crucial for supporting wild bee populations. A more varied floral landscape promotes a richer and more abundant bee community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-flower-shape-and-size-matter">Why flower shape and size matter</h2>



Study co-author Carly Ziter is an associate professor in the Department of Biology in the Faculty of Arts and Science at <a href="https://www.concordia.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Concordia University</a>.



"We know that flowers are an important source of nutrition for bees, but not all flowers are created equal," said Professor Ziter.



"Having a high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-secrets-of-flower-diversity-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of flowers</a> is a key to supporting bee populations, but our research goes one step further to show a possible mechanism: that having a diversity of floral species is important because they have different shapes and sizes."



Flowers store <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-carrying-nectar-avoid-overheating-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nectar</a> within their corolla - the tube-like structure formed by a ring of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-engineer-their-petals-to-be-visually-attractive-to-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">petals</a>. Different bee species have different tongue lengths, which means some bees can only access nectar from specific flower shapes.



"This follows the idea of size-matching, where corollas are the right size for a certain type of bee’s proboscis or tongue, allowing it to effectively connect to the flower’s nectar," noted Professor Ziter.



"So, whether a bee has a short or longer proboscis, they will be able to access the nutrition they need if there are multiple kinds of flower morphology nearby."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-bees-in-the-city">Tracking bees in the city</h2>



The team collected data in July 2020 from 16 sites across the Island of Montreal, including community gardens, nature parks, and cemeteries.



The researchers recorded nearly 2,000 bee samples and identified 150 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-90-of-flowering-plant-species-rely-on-animal-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of flowers</a> within small two-by-two-meter plots.



The density of flowers was measured, and the size of each corolla was documented using digital calipers.



A total of 94 different species of bees were observed during the study. While nectar samples were also collected, no firm connection was established between sugar content and bee diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-diversity-and-the-food-web">Plant diversity and the food web</h2>



"We wanted to see if there was an optimal value for corolla traits," said Professor Ziter. "Was it better to have small corollas, medium ones, or a diversity of them? The results showed quite strongly that having a diversity of corolla sizes was important."



Thriving bee populations play a vital role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a>, supporting entire ecosystems and sustaining food supplies.



According to Professor Ziter, the study supports the belief that a diversity of flowers impacts the next trophic level, which contributes to an ecosystem’s food web in a way that goes far beyond bees. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-make-your-garden-bee-friendly">How to make your garden bee-friendly</h2>



City planners, gardeners, and anyone interested in promoting biodiversity can apply these findings in practical ways.



"If you are planting, try to think about what makes these species different. Are they different colors? Are they different sizes? Do they bloom at different times? The more you can think about these different axes of variety in your own garden, the more you are likely to be better off in terms of supporting biodiversity," said Professor Ziter.



By planting a diverse mix of flowers, urban residents can play a small but significant role in sustaining local bee populations and contributing to a healthier environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-the-right-flowers-for-bees">Choosing the right flowers for bees</h2>



For a bee-friendly garden, native plants are often the best choice since they have co-evolved with local species and provide the most suitable nectar and pollen.



Flowers with open, accessible petals are ideal for short-tongued bees, while tubular flowers cater to species with longer proboscises.



Bloom timing is another crucial factor. By planting a variety of flowers that bloom at different times throughout the growing season, gardeners can ensure a steady food supply for bees from early spring to late fall. 



Perennial flowers such as coneflowers, milkweed, and goldenrod are excellent choices, as they return each year and require minimal maintenance.



Avoiding pesticide use and opting for organic gardening practices further enhances the bee-friendly environment. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.3067" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Applications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bee-friendly gardening: Why flower diversity is so important

With spring approaching, many people are already considering which flowers...

For the first time, researchers have conducted a year-round evaluation of bacteria and microbial eukaryotes - small marine organisms like phytoplankton - at two Antarctic bases.



By sampling through all the seasons and using the same methods repeatedly, the research provides a thorough picture of how microbial communities respond to climate change.



Between July 2013 and April 2014, researchers took seawater samples from the British Antarctic Survey's long-term ecological monitoring site at Rothera and from the Palmer research station, which is 400 kilometers to the north. 



The scientists employed DNA sequence analysis to identify the bacteria, protists, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> in the water.



Special statistical models were used to forecast microbial interactions - basically charting the "who eats whom" of the microscopic world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microorganisms-shape-marine-ecosystems">Microorganisms shape marine ecosystems</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-in-tasman-sea-is-melting-the-antarctic-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Peninsula</a> is warming at a rate faster than the global average, leading to unprecedented heatwaves and declining sea ice. However, regional variations exist. 



In the waters around Palmer, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-is-losing-its-cooling-power-making-the-earth-even-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea ice</a> has decreased significantly as temperatures have risen more rapidly when compared to Rothera. This divergence influences microbial community composition in unique ways. 



"At the warmer Palmer site, bacteria influenced microbial community structure by interacting with other microorganisms, while at Rothera, it was the microbial eukaryotes that played a stronger role in shaping community dynamics," explained Engelmann.



This&nbsp;trend&nbsp;towards&nbsp;increased bacterial prevalence in warming oceans might upset biological productivity. 



Phytoplankton are producers in marine food chains, so a reduction in phytoplankton translates to fewer nutrients available for higher organisms such as krill, fish, seabirds, and marine mammals.



“These findings have significant implications for understanding and predicting microbial ecosystem responses to climate change, and are therefore relevant for a broad group of researchers and even for humanity as a whole,” Engelmann stated.



Microorganisms, through tiny, far outnumber all marine animals in terms of biomass. 



Climate-driven changes in microbial food webs within the Southern Ocean could have far-reaching consequences that impact global marine ecosystems and nutrient cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-microbial-data-in-climate-models">The role of microbial data in climate models</h2>



Looking ahead, researchers hope to integrate microbial data into climate and ocean models. 



“The microbial food web is complex; bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-viruses-may-help-slow-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial eukaryotes</a> have different functions and there are a lot of interactions among and between these groups, but also with larger organisms, including animals,” Engelmann commented.



“At this point, it is difficult to predict the impact of climate change on microbial productivity. Our research provides crucial baseline data for understanding the complexity of microbial communities in coastal Antarctic ecosystems, but we need more data and a better understanding of marine microbial communities before we can include them in climate and ocean models,” added Engelmann.



Researchers acknowledge the need for more data to achieve this goal and stress that including data on microbial productivity would make predictive models more accurate in future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-research-timeline">Expanding the research timeline</h2>



The 2013-2014 study marks the first comprehensive seasonal analysis of both bacterial and microbial eukaryote communities in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acidity-levels-of-antarctic-waters-will-soon-double-harming-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic waters</a>. 



Future measurements will provide a clearer picture of long-term microbial trends.



"Now, we've drawn conclusions based on climate differences at two locations. We have samples ready from 2018-2019 and also from 2022. The more of these measurements we collect over time, the more we'll learn about Antarctic marine microbial communities, their interactions, and susceptibility to climate change," Engelmann explained.



Despite the valuable insights gained from these studies, conducting research in Antarctica presents significant logistical challenges. 



Sampling requires extensive coordination, specialized equipment, and considerable resources. Furthermore, international collaboration is key to conducting successful research.



"International cooperation, such as with the British Antarctic Survey and the colleagues in the U.S. who worked at Palmer station and their home universities, is therefore crucial," stressed Engelmann.



With continued efforts, these studies will help unravel the intricate role of microorganisms in the Antarctic ecosystem and their response to an ever-changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-shifts-and-global-ocean-health">Microbial shifts and global ocean health</h2>



The microbial alterations that have been observed in Antarctic waters are just a part of a larger pattern being seen across marine ecosystems globally.



With rising ocean temperatures, changes in microbial communities impact nutrient cycles, carbon sequestration, and food webs, and there are likely implications for marine biodiversity and ecosystem stability.



Phytoplankton, in particular, are responsible for sustaining marine life and governing atmospheric carbon. So shifts in microbial interactions may reorganize the effectiveness of carbon sequestration in the ocean, influencing climate regulation on Earth.



Disruptions to the microbial food web could also have indirect impacts on more complex organisms and possibly reconfigure the structure of polar ecosystems.



Monitoring these microbial dynamics over a period of time will enable researchers to improve climate models and estimate how ocean ecosystems will adjust to ongoing environmental changes. 



When the newly available data for the past years is analyzed, it will help scientists to better understand the long-term patterns that will guide the future of Antarctic marine ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://environmentalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40793-025-00663-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Microbiome</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Warming waters are dramatically changing microbial life in Antarctica

For the first time, researchers have conducted a year-round evaluation...

The eel trade is driven by high demand and a limited supply. This combination makes eel trading highly profitable, but also controversial due to concerns about sustainability, illegal trafficking, and the impact on endangered species.



Despite strict regulations on European eel exports, illegal trafficking persists. Juvenile eels are smuggled out of the EU to Asia, where they are farmed and sold as food.



Recent research has focused on the European eel (Anguilla anguilla), which is a critically endangered species. Although its trade outside of the EU is highly restricted, large numbers of juvenile eels continue to reach Asian markets.



However, new findings suggest a shift in the global eel trade, with another species increasingly appearing in the market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-the-american-eel">Targeting the American eel</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale-NUS College</a> conducted a study to investigate the presence of endangered eel species in Singapore’s markets. The team purchased 327 eel products from 86 retailers, including supermarkets, restaurants, and wholesalers.



DNA barcoding revealed an unexpected result. While a few samples contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-lack-critical-fish-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European eels</a>, 70% of the tested products were identified as Anguilla rostrata, commonly known as the American eel.



Unlike its European counterpart, the American eel is not critically endangered. However, it is still classified as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-future-of-the-endangered-species-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered species</a> and faces significant threats from overfishing and habitat loss. 



The study’s findings suggest that traders may be shifting focus from European eels to American eels due to increasing enforcement of EU export restrictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-need-for-urgent-action">The need for urgent action</h2>



These findings raise concerns about the future of the American eel population. Without stronger regulations, it could face the same fate as the European eel. 



The research team has called for greater enforcement and monitoring of the American eel trade to prevent further population declines.



The study was conducted as part of Yale-NUS alumnus Joshua Choo’s Environmental Studies capstone project, under the supervision of Professor Benjamin Wainwright.



“It was sad to connect Singaporean unagi with the history of anguillid eel exploitation - where a crash in one anguillid’s stock repeatedly leads to another’s overexploitation and crash," said Choo.



"It was, however, heartening to see so many researchers and Indigenous groups invested in anguillid recovery in Liverpool - from Japan to Aotearoa to the EU and UK."



"There’s room for Southeast Asian perspectives in eel science - it’s important to protect tropical anguillids from the endangerment plaguing their temperate cousins, and to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> solutions for our food that can bypass profit-driven overexploitation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mislabeling-and-wildlife-crime">Mislabeling and wildlife crime</h2>



The study highlights the widespread mislabeling of eel products, often sold as generic "eel" or "unagi," which obscures their true species identity. This deceptive practice not only threatens biodiversity but also poses potential risks to human health and fuels illegal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sunscreens-lose-effectiveness-and-become-harmful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife trade</a>.



“The trade in eels is described as the greatest wildlife crime on Earth; it supports vast criminal networks that illegally traffic many hundreds of millions of glass eels (juvenile eels) to Asia each year,” said Professor Wainwright.



“What we show with this work is a likely shift in trade; this shift could be the consequence of EU enforced rules and regulations making it harder to smuggle the European eel to Asia, consequently suppliers have now shifted their focus to the less regulated American eel." 



"If the American eel is to avoid a similar fate to that suffered by the European eels, it will be important to closely monitor the American eel trade and introduce rules and regulations designed to prevent overexploitation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eel-trade-and-wildlife-conservation">Eel trade and wildlife conservation</h2>



The study’s findings highlight the need for proactive conservation measures. Stricter monitoring, better labelling practices, and increased awareness among consumers can help curb the illegal eel trade. 



Consumers, researchers, and policymakers will need to work together to ensure that the global eel trade does not continue at the expense of biodiversity.



If no action is taken, the American eel could become the next critically endangered species, and follow the same tragic path as the European eel.



Choo presented the research at the 2024 International Eel Science Symposium in Liverpool, UK.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.70013" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Eel trade is pushing another species to the brink

The eel trade is driven by high demand and a...

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle for resources. Some Pseudomonas bacteria species use specialized microscopic membrane devices to fight back against competing bacteria.



According to new research, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> react to threats by assembling a precise injection tool inside their outer shell. 



This work comes from the lab of <a href="https://www.biozentrum.unibas.ch/about/administration/administration-a-z/overview/unit/research-group-marek-basler" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Marek Basler</a> at the Biozentrum, <a href="https://www.unibas.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basel</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-and-nano-spearguns">Pseudomonas bacteria and nano-spearguns</h2>



These weapon-like structures are known as the type VI secretion system (<a href="https://asm.org/articles/2023/april/type-vi-secretion-systems-weapons-of-bacterial-des" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T6SS</a>), and they allow bacteria to inject harmful molecules into rivals. 



They have been studied extensively because of their importance in bacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a> and survival.



“We knew that Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria uses its T6SS to fire back when attacked,” said Basler. Scientists had long <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18289922/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suspected</a> that external stress might activate these devices in <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/25164-pseudomonas-infection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>. 



One survey showed that T6SS genes occur in about a quarter of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538213/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gram-negative species</a>, highlighting their prevalence as a competitive strategy.



Some bacteria also direct T6SS at eukaryotic targets, affecting plant and animal hosts. This flexibility helps them adapt to diverse situations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-t6ss-genes-the-basics">Understanding T6SS genes - the basics</h2>



T6SS genes control the Type VI Secretion System (T6SS), an impressive molecular weapon that bacteria use to fight each other and sometimes even mess with host cells. 



Think of it as a microscopic harpoon gun - bacteria literally shoot toxic proteins into rival microbes to kill them or weaken their defenses. 



Some bacteria also use T6SS to interact with host organisms, either to establish infections or to outcompete other microbes in a shared environment. 



This system gives bacteria a serious advantage in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-that-love-to-kill-bacteria-could-help-fight-deadly-infections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microscopic battlefield</a>, whether they're battling it out in soil, water, or even inside a host’s gut.



Scientists are fascinated by T6SS because it plays a huge role in bacterial survival, competition, and even virulence. 



Some nasty pathogens, like Vibrio cholerae (which causes cholera) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (a major threat in hospitals), use T6SS to dominate their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanical-force-as-a-trigger">Mechanical force as a trigger</h2>



“Using AFM, we have been able to mimic a bacterial T6SS attack,” said Yves F Dufrêne, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17661630/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swiss Nanoscience Institute</a>. 



The team used atomic force microscopy (<a href="https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/atomic-force-microscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AFM</a>) to gently push on the bacterial surface with a very fine tip. 



By applying measured force, they found that the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8934262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outer membrane</a> damage alone could spur this injection tool into action. Once activated, the cells unleashed a burst of toxin-bearing elements to ward off intruders.



Studies from different labs have shown that surfaces with varied stiffness can influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> attachment. However, it was less clear how direct mechanical stress might activate a defensive tool like T6SS.



Laboratories investigating <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/vibrio" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vibrio species</a> observed T6SS responses to mechanical cues in marine environments. 



These clues paved the way for experiments focusing on Pseudomonas under controlled force measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pseudomonas-bacteria-attack-detection">Pseudomonas bacteria attack detection</h2>



The scientists discovered that the site of membrane rupture guided the T6SS to assemble at the exact spot of assault. This high precision helps reduce wasted energy and ensures toxins only hit the intended target.



“Our work clearly shows that breaking the outer membrane is necessary and sufficient to trigger T6SS assembly,” said Basler.



 Researchers believe this system works thanks to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phosphorylation-cascade" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphorylation cascade</a> that springs into action upon sensing disruption. 



Pinpointing the exact trigger site allows minimal resource expenditure while maximizing impact on an aggressor. This specificity keeps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> cell from randomly launching costly attacks.



Scientists are interested in finding the molecular components that link physical membrane disturbance to T6SS initiation. These details could open doors for inhibitors designed to neutralize this response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-assault-on-the-membrane">Chemical assault on the membrane</h2>



Interestingly, certain antibiotics or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/peptide-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peptide derivatives</a> also weaken the same barrier. This hints that chemical agents capable of penetrating the membrane can provoke a similar defensive strike.



The findings could be significant when considering <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/multiple-drug-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multidrug resistance</a> in clinical settings. If a damaged outer membrane leads to a swift T6SS reaction, it might alter how pathogens respond to various medications.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/polymyxin-derivative" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polymyxin derivatives</a>, often reserved for severe infections, disrupt the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. 



This disruption can unintentionally activate T6SS, giving the pathogen a countermeasure against rival organisms.



Understanding this dynamic may help clinicians refine how these drugs are applied in critical care. If T6SS ramps up under partial membrane stress, combination therapies might offer a more thorough strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-pseudomonas-bacteria-study">Next steps for Pseudomonas bacteria study</h2>



Much still needs to be clarified, such as how multiple T6SS assemblies are precisely regulated once the membrane is compromised. Different strains may also vary in how sensitive they are to mechanical or chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-lake-mendota-keep-evolving-but-never-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a>.



The bigger picture could involve a network of signals that prime bacteria to respond rapidly whenever their boundary is breached. 



Exploring these nuances might help researchers develop ways to disrupt this mechanism without harming beneficial microbes.



Researchers suspect that different bacterial species have unique thresholds for activating T6SS when threatened. 



This variation might determine which organisms thrive in complex environments like soil or aquatic habitats.



Experts are also investigating the role of protein partners that reset or limit T6SS after activation. 



Gaining clarity on the shutdown mechanism could lead to ways of blocking these assemblies and tackling antibiotic-resistant infections in the future.



-----



Featured image: Pseudomonas bacteria deploy their nano-spearguns when damaged by a sharp tip (15,000 x magnification). Credit: University of Basel, Biozentrum/<a href="https://nanoscience.unibas.ch/en/services/nano-imaging-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNI Nano Imaging Lab</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr1713" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bacteria build tiny 'nano-spearguns' to fight back against attacks

Bacterial neighbors can be fierce rivals in their daily scuffle...

species in Laonidae

News coming your way