A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Many people know dogs have an amazing sense of smell. It helps them find lost hikers, sniff out contraband, and detect health issues. Their noses pick up odors we barely notice, offering an invisible map of the world around them.



Scientists have taken a closer look at this skill by scanning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-smell-human-stress-and-it-makes-them-feel-gloomy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine brains</a> while they work their sniffing magic. The study was led by Professor Zeev Zalevsky from the Kofkin Faculty of Engineering at <a href="https://engineering.biu.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a>. 



The researchers found key insights in the <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24894-amygdala" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amygdala</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482171/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampus</a>, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11158/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">olfactory bulb</a> of four dog breeds, which shed light on how dogs separate one odor from another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-read-smells-with-their-brain">Dogs read smells with their brain</h2>



Dogs have a larger set of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/mid/NIHMS22337/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odor receptor genes</a> than humans, allowing them to detect scents in trace amounts. 



Their noses send signals to the olfactory bulb, where initial processing happens. Next, the signals reach deeper regions of the brain linked to memory, motivation, and emotion.



The research team used a remote optical sensor that could scan a dog’s brain activity while it took in four different smells. Experts say this approach might open the door for observing real-time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-detect-scents-better-than-the-most-advanced-lab-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine</a> responses without bulky equipment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-amygdala-matters">Why the amygdala matters</h2>



“The findings show that the amygdala is crucial in the way dogs process and react to odors, with specific scents triggering distinct emotional and memory responses, and we are capable of optically detecting their brain activity in this region,” said Professor Zalevsky.&nbsp;



”This discovery could be the first step toward creating a device that enables us to better understand and interpret the unique way dogs perceive and differentiate smells.”



The amygdala is often associated with emotion and survival instincts. The researchers saw this region activate differently when the dogs sampled each odor, highlighting why some smells bring about strong behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-the-smell-response-of-dogs">Tracking the smell response of dogs</h2>



“Our next step is to develop a portable, Wi-Fi-controlled device equipped with a mini camera and laser system, which could be mounted on a dog’s head and used to monitor its olfactory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trained-dogs-can-detect-bladder-cancer-in-other-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a> in real time,” said Dr. Yafim Beiderman, an expert in Professor Zalevsky’s Optical Research Lab at Bar-Ilan University.



This technology could potentially transform how dogs are used in substance detection or medical diagnosis.



Some experts have looked at dogs for <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/329/7468/712" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer screening</a> and diabetes alerts. A deeper understanding of their scent processing could speed up these efforts, making it possible to gather data without waiting for canine training to finish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scanning-from-a-distance">Scanning from a distance</h2>



Using lasers to pick up tiny vibrations on the surface of the skull may sound out of the ordinary. Yet <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263224123007145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that such non-invasive methods can sense blood flow and neural activity in humans. 



The researchers adapted that idea for dogs, focusing on specific brain zones where odor signals land.



Data from the sensor was processed by a machine-learning system, revealing that each area of the brain responded in unique ways. This led to the conclusion that the emotional center is a heavyweight in scent separation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-health-and-safety">Implications for health and safety</h2>



Police often rely on K9 units to sniff out drugs and other illegal substances. A remote brain scanner might help them interpret the dog’s recognition of a target odor without confusion or guesswork. 



In medical fields, a quick read of a dog’s amygdala response may one day spot an illness before a patient notices symptoms.



Teams that conduct search-and-rescue missions also stand to gain. Any gadget that clarifies what a dog is smelling could guide them toward trapped individuals more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-how-we-see-dogs">A shift in how we see dogs</h2>



The research emphasizes that dogs are more than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">loyal companions</a>. Their noses have been described as sophisticated analyzers that monitor odors for emotion-based clues. 



Decoding those responses may add new dimensions to how people partner with animals in daily tasks.



A deeper look at the hippocampus in dogs may also reveal how memories of smells guide their actions. The research team noted that future studies could expand to more breeds and more scents, refining the technology along the way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subtle-scent-triggers-from-a-dog-s-brain">Subtle scent triggers from a dog's brain</h2>



Some individuals rely on service dogs for anxiety or panic disorders. Interpreting real-time signals from the dog’s brain might uncover subtle scent triggers that a person hasn’t recognized. 



This concept extends to therapy animals, especially if professionals want to measure how dogs respond to stressful environments.



Researchers have found that dog noses can often detect changes in body chemistry, sometimes months or years before medical tests confirm a disease. Real-time tracking of this skill could produce a fast approach for problem detection, bridging the communication gap between species.



Scientists plan to explore broader ways to translate canine brainwaves into easy-to-read data. There might come a time when a single device reveals how dogs process everything from everyday household smells to suspicious substances. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jbio.202400501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Biophotonics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How dogs are able to "feel" smells may help keep us safe

Many people know dogs have an amazing sense of smell....

Governments, international organizations, and researchers depend on global population data for essential decision-making. These datasets help allocate resources, plan infrastructure, track disease epidemiology, and manage disaster risks. 



However, recent research reveals that rural population figures have been systematically underestimated, raising concerns about the accuracy of decades’ worth of data that inform global policy and planning.



A new study from Aalto University in Finland exposes the severe extent of this undercounting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rural-populations-are-vastly-underreported">Rural populations are vastly underreported</h2>



"For the first time, our study provides evidence that a significant proportion of the rural population may be missing from global population datasets," said postdoctoral researcher Josias Láng-Ritter from Aalto University.



The study compared five of the most widely used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-population-will-peak-at-10-3-billion-by-2085/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global population</a> datasets - maps that break the world into high-resolution grid cells based on census data - with resettlement figures from more than 300 rural dam projects across 35 countries. 



The results were striking. Depending on the dataset, rural populations were underestimated by 53% to 84% over the study period.



"We were surprised to find that the actual population living in rural areas is much higher than the global population data indicates," said Láng-Ritter.



"The results are remarkable, as these datasets have been used in thousands of studies and extensively support decision-making, yet their accuracy has not been systematically evaluated."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dam-resettlement-data-offers-a-comparison">Dam resettlement data offers a comparison</h2>



To assess the accuracy of global datasets, the team turned to an unconventional but reliable source - resettlement data from <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/dam-collapse-in-south-africa-has-left-behind-devastation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dam</a> projects.



"When dams are built, large areas are flooded and people need to be relocated," noted Láng-Ritter. "The relocated population is usually counted precisely because dam companies pay compensation to those affected." 



"Unlike global population datasets, such local impact statements provide comprehensive, on-the-ground population counts that are not skewed by administrative boundaries. We then combined these with spatial information from satellite imagery."



The discrepancies in rural population data were particularly noticeable in China, Brazil, Australia, Poland, and Colombia, where more independent data was available for comparison.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-population-censuses-create-biases">How population censuses create biases</h2>



One major reason for these discrepancies is that population censuses - the primary data source for global datasets - often fail to capture accurate numbers in rural areas.



Some countries lack the resources for comprehensive data collection, and vast rural landscapes make travel difficult for census workers. Sparse populations spread across large areas further complicate the process.



To assess the extent of the issue, the researchers examined data from 1975 to 2010, as dam resettlement records were available for these years.



The analysis showed that, while accuracy improved slightly over time, even the 2010 datasets missed between one-third (32%) and three-quarters (77%) of rural residents.



Newer datasets from 2015 and 2020 likely still contain similar biases, but no dam resettlement records were available for these years.



"While our study shows accuracy has somewhat improved over decades, the trend is clear:  global population datasets miss a significant portion of the rural population," said Láng-Ritter.



"With the same basic practices in place, it’s unlikely that slightly improved input data could correct for this level of bias. And even if the most recent population maps reflected reality, earlier datasets have influenced decision-making for decades and are still used to monitor change, for instance providing a distorted picture of movement over time from the countryside to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-nature-affect-human-health-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban areas</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-consequences-of-underreporting">The consequences of underreporting</h2>



Currently, about 43% of the world's 8.2 billion people live in rural areas, according to official estimates. However, these figures may be misleading if rural populations have been significantly undercounted. 



Global decision-makers, including the UN and the World Bank, rely on the same flawed census data used to create population maps. This means essential services, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-health-gap-between-rural-and-urban-men-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthcare</a> to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transportation</a>, may not be adequately planned for rural areas.



"In many countries, there may not be sufficient data available on a national level, so they rely on global population maps to support their decision-making: Do we need an asphalted road or a hospital? How much medicine is required in a particular area? How many people could be affected by natural disasters such as earthquakes or floods?" Láng-Ritter explained.



The need for improved rural population data is especially pressing in crisis-hit regions, where transitioning to digital population records could take years.



"For example here in Finland, the population data is nowadays very reliable even in rural regions, as we were the second country in the world to start keeping digital population records already in 1990. But especially in crisis-hit countries, the shift towards digital population registers could take years, even decades," Láng-Ritter added.



"To provide rural communities with equal access to services and other resources, we need to have a critical discussion about the past and future applications of these population maps."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-we-count-rural-populations">Rethinking how we count rural populations</h2>



Accurate population data is essential for governments and international organizations to make informed decisions about resource allocation, infrastructure, and disaster preparedness. This new study highlights the urgent need to reassess how rural populations are counted to ensure that global datasets reflect reality.



If rural communities continue to be undercounted, they risk being overlooked in critical planning efforts, from healthcare access to climate adaptation strategies. The findings emphasize the importance of improving data collection methods, particularly in areas where traditional census methods fall short. 



Without change, the missing millions in rural areas will remain invisible to decision-makers worldwide.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56906-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Millions of people in rural areas are missing from global population data

Governments, international organizations, and researchers depend on global population data...

Saturn has always commanded a sense of wonder. Its famous rings glimmer in countless images, but experts say there is more going on than meets the eye. In a surprising twist, astronomers have announced that Saturn boasts 274 known moons.



Researcher Dr. Edward Ashton, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.asiaa.sinica.edu.tw/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics</a> in Taiwan, played a major role in bringing these new objects to light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturn-and-its-many-moons">Saturn and its many moons</h2>



This sudden jump in numbers has placed Saturn well ahead of <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/overview/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a>, which has 95 known moons.



The worldwide group responsible for certifying these findings, the <a href="https://www.iau.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Astronomical Union</a>, gave the official nod after tracking each object’s path around the gas giant.



“You need to be able to prove that the object is in orbit around the planet,” said Dr. Ashton, who also led a similar search two years ago. The team’s revelation happened through careful observations with the <a href="https://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canada France Hawaii Telescope</a> in 2023.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moons-with-odd-orbits">Moons with odd orbits</h2>



Observers describe these bodies as <a href="https://oursolarsystem.fandom.com/wiki/Irregular_moon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">irregular moons</a> because they move along tilted orbits and often circle Saturn backward. Many are no more than a few miles across.



Some are so faint that astronomers used a special <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2024/mit-astronomers-find-smallest-asteroids-ever-detected-main-belt-1209" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“shift and stack” method</a> to tease out their dim light. The approach lines up multiple images to expose the subtle trails left by these elusive travelers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-cosmic-collisions">Tracing cosmic collisions</h2>



Scientists suggest the irregular moons reveal a history of cosmic smashups. One event may have occurred around 100 million years ago, flinging debris outward and creating clumps of smaller bodies.



Fragments could also include bits of objects that originally formed elsewhere in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-majestic-rings-will-vanish-in-just-six-months-from-now-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>. These shards might have ended up around Saturn after giant impacts near or within the planet’s orbit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-norse-mythology-in-space">Norse mythology in space</h2>



A handful of these newly confirmed satellites belong to a group called <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/saturn/moons/mundilfari/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mundilfari</a>, named for a Norse deity. Astronomers link 47 of the latest discoveries to this cluster.



“This is implying we could be having collisional events, and we’re seeing the shrapnel in the population of tiny moons,” said Michele Bannister, an astronomer at the University of Canterbury in New Zealand.



The astronomers suspect these fragments all broke off from a moon tens of miles across, which may have collided with another object during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-planets-will-align-this-week-during-a-rare-nighttime-spectacle-heres-how-to-see-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn</a>’s more chaotic past.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-glimpse-into-the-early-solar-system">A glimpse into the early solar system</h2>



Each batch of small, oddly shaped moons adds more clues about shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-rain-to-saturns-rings-new-equations-push-the-boundaries-of-fluid-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary dynamics</a>. 



Team member Brett Gladman, an astronomer at the University of British Columbia, contributed to identifying possible families linked to these fragments.



He and others compare the process to mapping out a family tree of lost moons. Researchers look at subtle patterns in orbital characteristics to figure out if certain groups share a common ancestor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possibility-of-undiscovered-moons">Possibility of undiscovered moons</h2>



Experts believe that numerous undiscovered moons could still linger beyond <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturnfact.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn’s rings</a>, spread out as far as 18 million miles (29 million kilometers) from the planet’s center. Some might measure only a fraction of a mile across.



Probing them with powerful instruments like the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> may offer rare details, though the objects are incredibly small and dim. 



Even so, each speck has the potential to refine scientists’ understanding of Saturn’s environment and its turbulent past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-saturn-s-new-moons">Naming Saturn’s new moons</h2>



The newly identified moons currently have temporary labels consisting of numbers and letters. “Whoever discovers them gets the right to name them,” said Dr. Mike Alexandersen, who works with the International Astronomical Union.



“Maybe at some point they’ll have to expand the naming scheme further,” he added. Saturn’s naming system calls for mythological figures, drawing from Norse, Gallic, and Inuit folklore.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturn-s-upgraded-moon-roster">Saturn's upgraded moon roster </h2>



All of the newcomers sit outside the orbit of <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Cassini-Huygens/Facts_about_Titan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Titan</a>, Saturn’s largest moon which is 3,200 miles (5,100 kilometers) across. Titan is even bigger than Mercury, but these fresh finds are minuscule by comparison.



Their size does not make them any less intriguing, though. Many revolve at dramatic angles and in eccentric loops, serving as cosmic markers for what might have happened long ago in the outer solar system.



Saturn’s upgraded moon roster captures attention from both professional astronomers and casual stargazers. Each discovery sparks new questions about planetary formation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-rings-beautiful-iconic-will-disappear-this-weekend-ring-plane-crossing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ring origins</a>, and the complicated dance of objects around a giant world.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2515-5172/adbf87#rnaasadbf87fn1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Saturn has 128 new moons with odd orbits and mysterious origins

Saturn has always commanded a sense of wonder. Its famous...

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in the Southern Ocean, where any moment a torpedo-shaped penguin could appear, devouring thousands of your fellow krill at lightning speed. Now, new research suggests that even the faintest hint of penguin droppings in the water is enough to prompt krill into escape behavior.



“Here we show for the first time that a small amount of penguin guano causes a sudden change in the feeding and swimming behaviors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-satellites-track-antarctic-krill-are-these-tiny-ocean-shrimp-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic krill</a>,” said Nicole Hellessey, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.bigelow.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences</a> in Maine.



Antarctic krill play a vital role in the Southern Ocean. They serve as a major carbon sink and provide food for a large array of species, from penguins to whales. 



By some estimates, approximately 700 trillion adult Antarctic krill still swim these frigid waters, though their populations have drifted further south over time, likely due to climate change, diminishing sea ice, and acidifying ocean conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-penguin-poop-to-krill-behavior">Linking penguin poop to krill behavior</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-poop-can-be-used-to-store-carbon-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zooplankton</a> are highly sensitive to chemical cues - from signals guiding them to food or potential mates to indicators of pollution. Hellessey and her colleagues sought to determine whether krill also react to the scent of predators. 



Their study zeroed in on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelie-penguins-use-sea-ice-to-migrate-thousands-of-miles-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adélie penguins</a>, the southernmost-breeding penguin species, which depend on Antarctic krill for 99.6% of their diet. An adult Adélie can consume as much as 1.6 kilograms of krill each day, and the global Adélie population collectively devours around 1.5 million tons per year.



Researchers aboard the vessels Laurence M Gould and Nathaniel B Palmer in the Bransfield Strait in late 2022 netted live Antarctic krill, which they then placed in aquaria at Palmer Station. 



Meanwhile, bird researchers had collected 78 grams of Adélie guano from a colony on Torgersen Island off the Antarctic Peninsula near Palmer Station. “Smells like rotten shellfish. Not pleasant to handle,” said Hellessey, describing the guano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abrupt-behavior-shifts-in-krill">Abrupt behavior shifts in krill</h2>



To test the krill’s reaction to the guano, the scientists ran trials using six to eight krill per five-minute session in a flume tank held at 1.5°C, with lights dimmed to simulate conditions at about 40 meters below the surface - the most productive layer in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Ocean</a>. 



Water flowed through the flume at either 3 centimeters or 5.9 centimeters per second, and it contained either algae alone, penguin guano alone, or both combined. Each setup was tested four times.



The researchers used two automated cameras to record the movements of four krill during each trial, capturing precise data on each animal’s 3D position as well as speed and swimming direction.



The data revealed that in control settings, krill generally practiced “rheotaxis,” swimming straight upstream against the current. 



But in the presence of Adélie guano, their behavior shifted abruptly: they began to vary their swimming speed more, reaching between 1.2 and 1.5 times their usual pace, and they performed three times as many turns - over an angle that was on average 1.4 times greater than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-make-sacrifices-to-avoid-penguins">Krill make sacrifices to avoid penguins</h2>



A second experiment showed that guano in the water caused krill to reduce their algae consumption by 64%, plunging from 12.7 micrograms of carbon per hour per krill to 4.6 micrograms. 



This indicates that the frequent changes in swimming direction came at a cost, making them less efficient at feeding.



The researchers interpreted these dramatic differences in speed and direction as part of an avoidance response. 



“Such behavior to escape from nearby penguins would greatly increase the krill’s odds of survival. And these odds would increase exponentially in a swarm, if their neighbors could detect the same cues and communicate the danger to each other,” Hellessey said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-chemical-trigger">Investigating the chemical trigger</h2>



Though the team uncovered the behavioral shift, it is still unclear which specific compounds from penguin guano set off these alarms for krill.&nbsp;



“We hypothesize that Antarctic krill are avoiding the odor of ground-up krill and fish in the penguins’ guano. We thus expect krill to show similar swimming behaviors and suppressed feeding around seals, whales, and other types of krill predators in Antarctica,” Hellessey noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-signals-in-a-warming-ocean">Krill signals in a warming ocean</h2>



Given that these signals and their resulting behaviors occur in the often vast Southern Ocean, open-water conditions could dilute the cues and alter how krill respond. Moreover, warming oceans and acidification may alter how effectively these cues travel or how quickly the krill can respond.&nbsp;



“We don’t yet know how the ability of krill to sense these chemical cues and their escape behavior towards them might vary when diluted in open waters, or under global warming or ocean acidification conditions," said Hellessey. 



"Any changes to krill’s behavior could have major impacts on the future Southern Ocean, as Antarctic krill are a keystone species in this ecosystem."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-broader-ecological-shifts">Predicting broader ecological shifts</h2>



Ultimately, this study adds an important layer to our knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey interactions</a> in polar waters. As climate shifts reshape the Southern Ocean, understanding how krill perceive and react to predator signals may help predict broader ecological shifts.&nbsp;



If krill alter their movements and feeding drastically, it could influence entire marine food webs and carbon cycling processes - a reminder that even simple chemical cues can produce outsized effects on oceanic ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1508287" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Just a whiff of penguin poop can send krill into a frenzy

Imagine the world as if you are a krill in...

Trees and parks not only add open, pleasant spaces to cities but also boost human health in multiple ways, from filtering air pollution to providing shade and cooling down hot urban areas. 



Many governments worldwide have announced bold plans to plant more trees over the coming years, partly due to climate change and rising temperatures. However, in heavily built-up cities, finding room for additional green spaces remains a pressing challenge.&nbsp;



The question becomes: How can municipalities best arrange trees in existing green zones to achieve maximum benefit?



That question has drawn the attention of researchers and city planners alike, who must factor in specific local conditions such as geography and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-trees-and-human-health">Linking trees and human health</h2>



Investigators at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a> have turned their focus to this issue not just within Switzerland, but also across Asia.&nbsp;



Through the work of a team from the <a href="https://fcl.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Future Cities Lab</a>, a program run in Singapore by ETH Zurich and the <a href="https://www.nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National University of Singapore</a> (NUS), researchers uncovered surprising connections between the way cities manage their trees and the general health status of residents.



The researchers’ first step involved analyzing high-resolution data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-cities-lack-sufficient-canopy-cover-despite-visible-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree canopy</a> coverage within a 500-meter radius of each person’s home.&nbsp;



Beyond calculating the total area of tree clusters, they assessed how near these clusters were to each other, how they connected, how complex their shapes were, and how fragmented they appeared.



They then linked these details to survival data - specifically, the time to natural-cause deaths (due to age or disease) - for more than six million adults.&nbsp;



The records were provided by the Swiss Federal Statistical Office, which covered a decade from 2010 to 2019. To maintain privacy, the Federal Statistical Office had rounded each individual’s home coordinates to the nearest 50 meters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-canopy-cover-and-mortality-rates-nbsp">Tree canopy cover and mortality rates&nbsp;</h2>



Through careful data analysis, the researchers discovered that the extent of a neighborhood’s tree canopy and its layout were associated with mortality rates.&nbsp;



The study showed a significantly lower risk of death among residents living in areas with larger, more cohesive, and better-connected tree coverage, compared to those where the coverage was more fragmented or exhibited complex shapes.&nbsp;



This link was particularly clear in densely populated peri-urban or urban zones marked by poor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-quality-in-europe-has-improved-over-the-past-two-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> and high temperatures. In such environments, efficiently structured forested spaces might deliver stronger health advantages than in more dispersed contexts.



Even though the findings offer an insightful initial glimpse, the researchers maintain that it is premature to pinpoint specific causes. They cannot yet say with certainty how tree canopy configuration positively affects people’s well-being.&nbsp;



Still, at the individual level, their outcomes broadly align with similar studies performed at the community level in Philadelphia, Tehran, and Taipei.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-isolated-green-spaces">Connecting isolated green spaces</h2>



Dengkai Chi is a postdoctoral researcher at the ETH Future Cities Lab and the study’s first author.



“Although we can’t yet define a direct causal link, when we have addressed factors such as age, gender and socio-economic status, the data shows clear correlations. Our results provide plausible indications that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human health</a> may be influenced not only by the quantity of trees but also by their spatial distribution,” said Chi.



These results demonstrate the value of considering carefully how trees are arranged. By deliberately planning a city’s green areas, officials can possibly extract greater health benefits for residents. 



“In order to fully exploit trees’ potential to support human health, cities should strive to not only increase the number of trees but also to connect isolated green spaces - including by creating tree-lined boulevards,” Chi said.



Interestingly, the study indicates that simpler, more compact patches of tree canopy - for instance, circular or rectangular shapes - might have a more beneficial health effect compared to complex, scattered forms.&nbsp;



One plausible reason is that simpler geometries yield bigger central zones, encourage ecological diversity, and possibly spur people to visit these green spaces more frequently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-standards-for-urban-greening-initiatives-nbsp">Standards for urban greening initiatives&nbsp;</h2>



Despite these early observations, the researchers acknowledge that significant work remains. "We’re still at the very outset of this research,” Chi said. 



Multiple important factors could not be included in the study, such as pre-existing illnesses, smoking status, or whether individuals actually use local parks. Furthermore, the results apply to neighborhood scales and might not hold uniformly for an entire city.



Initial clues suggest that across a broader city, the effect on health might correlate with how fairly green spaces are distributed, ensuring that a large share of the population can reach them easily.&nbsp;



The team hopes to explore these aspects in further research, aiming to clarify the relationships between green space organization and health.



Chi points out that in developing policy suggestions for officials and planners, the research team will need to produce more quantitative assessments and identify precise thresholds. Such work could help define actionable standards for urban greening initiatives.



Overall, the study provides further confirmation that green infrastructure does not solely beautify urban settings but may also be tied to tangible health benefits.&nbsp;



As climate change urges administrators to plant more trees and as cities become increasingly crowded, focusing on the strategic placement and design of tree canopies may become just as critical as planting them in the first place.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(25)00022-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Urban tree layout influences human health and mortality rates

Trees and parks not only add open, pleasant spaces to...

New research highlights how certain storms can briefly transform parts of the Sahara into watery landscapes. Scientists have long been curious about occasional lakes in this desert, which is usually considered too dry to sustain these features for long.



The study involved meticulous analysis of rare flooding patterns in northwestern Algeria.



The research was led by Dr. Moshe Armon from the Institute of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.studyinjerusalem.com/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=US+ALO+Google+Search&amp;utm_content=Brand&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwnPS-BhBxEiwAZjMF0oGGYSkwUHMUnpDuPfeYKd8UHEwdldQR_xZB8s7sLLV6EnQ-UqrOsRoCz1gQAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University</a> and Dr. Franziska Aemisegger from <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>, in collaboration with colleagues at University of Haifa and ETH Zurich.



The team investigated how strong rainfall events can temporarily fill a usually empty lake called <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/36093/sebkhat-el-melah-tunisia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sebkha el Melah</a>, challenging older ideas about how moisture used to reach the desert in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saudi-arabia-is-turning-degraded-desert-sand-into-blooming-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-causes-rare-desert-lakes">What causes rare desert lakes?</h2>



Rain rarely falls in this region. The researchers wanted to see why short-lived lakes still appear now and then. They collected satellite data on heavy-precipitation events (<a href="https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-heavy-precipitation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HPEs</a>) and mapped out when those storms coincided with significant increases in lake volume. 



“Results show that hundreds of HPEs occurred between 2000 and 2021, but only six LFEs (Lake-Filling Events) eventuated,” noted the study authors. 



These episodes involved exceptionally intense storms that bypassed the usual rain shadow of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlas-Mountains" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlas Mountains</a> and carried oceanic moisture deep into the desert.



The scientists observed that <a href="https://www.undrr.org/understanding-disaster-risk/terminology/hips/mh0031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extratropical cyclones</a> along the Atlantic coast are an important driver. These weather patterns can pull in huge amounts of water vapor and direct it around the high terrain.



The moisture sometimes bounces through the Sahara, where it evaporates from falling raindrops that never reach the ground. The damp air then travels on, leading to a domino effect that amplifies water availability over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-storms-fill-the-desert-lake">Intense storms fill the desert lake</h2>



Most rain systems lose intensity over the Atlas Mountains. When these storms are powerful enough and last for several days, the wind can navigate around higher ground before dropping rainfall into the normally parched basin. 



Slower-moving cyclones can create heavier precipitation by allowing more moisture to flow into the desert.



Climate experts say such storms are more common during autumn and winter, though they occasionally happen in other seasons. The repeated appearance of these systems is crucial. A single day of light showers is not enough to fill a desert lake. 



Multiple days of downpours, mixed with local convection and large-scale air lifting, seem necessary to generate the runoff that finally pools into Sebkha el Melah.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-warming-scenarios">Future warming scenarios </h2>



The researchers also considered how rising temperatures might affect storm behavior. Some models predict an increase in moisture transport toward the Sahara under certain warming scenarios.



Any uptick in storm frequency or intensity could temporarily boost the region’s water resources. This does not promise permanent greenery, but it raises questions about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert habitats</a> and human activities might adapt if such precipitation patterns become more frequent.



Another surprise is that the rare flooding of Sebkha el Melah in September 2024 aligns with the same large-scale <a href="https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/atmospheric-circulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric patterns</a>. 



Landsat imagery from <a href="https://worldview.earthdata.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Worldview</a> confirmed that heavy rainfall again pushed Atlantic moisture far into the desert, mirroring what had been seen in previous lake-filling events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-long-term-climate-shifts">Implications for long-term climate shifts</h2>



The researchers note that rainfall alone does not explain historical wet periods. They think massive storms, along with more frequent short-term flood events, may have shaped past moisture levels in the Sahara.



These findings add depth to the debate over how certain parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-desert-moss-might-help-humans-live-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> were once dotted with wetland habitats. The research also emphasizes the importance of understanding not just annual rainfall, but the specific kinds of storms likely to deliver enough water all at once.



The team calculated how each flood event translated into changes in the lake’s volume. Despite hundreds of storms over two decades, only the most powerful ones made a real difference.



This suggests that future projections about water availability should focus on both storm intensity and the pathways moisture takes, rather than looking solely at average rainfall statistics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grasping-changes-in-harsh-environments">Grasping changes in harsh environments</h2>



The team applied meteorological reanalysis, satellite data, and field expertise to confirm that mixing science disciplines is necessary to grasp changes in harsh environments. 



There is a sense of urgency when thinking about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-desert-plants-are-not-immune-to-crop-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert</a> communities and the fragile ecosystems relying on sporadic water sources. Shifts in storm patterns could mean more frequent floods in certain pockets of the Sahara, offering hints of how water cycles might respond to a warming planet.



There is still an open question of whether these insights apply to other deserts with similar climates. The authors see value in investigating the synergy between large-scale atmospheric flows and local geographical features in regions where storms appear elusive. 



The researchers also suggest that future climate models need higher resolution to capture these fleeting, powerful rainfall events to improve forecasts for <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/1-4020-4497-6_59" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert hydrology</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/29/1395/2025/#section14" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hydrology and Earth System Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rare storms create temporary lakes in the Sahara desert

New research highlights how certain storms can briefly transform parts...

Earth’s modern biosphere teems with plants, animals, and many other organisms that breathe oxygen to break down sugars into carbon dioxide and water. This process yields ATP - the universal “energy currency” essential for life’s biochemical reactions.&nbsp;



But early in our planet’s history, oxygen was absent from the atmosphere, raising the question of how organisms generated ATP in those conditions.



New research now provides an answer by closely examining primordial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-discovered-in-2-billion-year-old-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> that inhabit present-day, oxygen-free ecosystems such as deep-sea hot springs.&nbsp;



These ancient microbes illustrate a particular kind of respiration in which carbon dioxide and hydrogen are combined to form acetic acid, and the findings explain how that reaction is harnessed to generate ATP.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-oxygen-free-metabolism">Significance of oxygen-free metabolism</h2>



Although life today often revolves around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oxygen-supply-may-have-been-kick-started-by-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a>-based respiration, many habitats on early Earth - and even some modern extreme environments - lack this gas entirely. Instead, microorganisms living there rely on alternative energy-producing pathways, one of which uses CO₂ and hydrogen.&nbsp;



Understanding such processes is vital for reconstructing how life might have functioned billions of years ago when oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere, and also for potentially developing new biotechnologies.



These ancient microbes perform a known reaction: combining carbon dioxide and hydrogen to yield acetic acid. 



The precise mechanism for producing ATP, however, remained unclear until a research team led by professor Volker Müller, Chair of molecular microbiology and bioenergetics at <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/en?locale=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University Frankfurt</a>, worked out the details.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ion-based-energy-system">An ion-based energy system </h2>



According to Müller, the team was able to show that the production of acetic acid itself activates a sophisticated mechanism as part of which sodium ions are pumped out of the bacterial cell into the environment.



“This reduces the sodium concentration inside the cell, whereby the cell envelope acts like a kind of dam for the ions. Once this dam is opened, the sodium ions flow back into the cell, driving a kind of molecular turbine that generates ATP," explained Müller.



In essence, the ancient microbes devised an ion-based energy system. Instead of using oxygen to drive electron transport, they rely on a pathway that pumps sodium ions out, creating a gradient that can be exploited for ATP production. 



This approach parallels how many other organisms use proton gradients for ATP synthesis, underlining the remarkable plasticity of life’s energy strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-network-in-ancient-microbes">Protein network in ancient microbes</h2>



At the heart of the mechanism is a large, membrane-embedded collection of proteins called the Rnf complex. These proteins shunt electrons from hydrogen to carbon dioxide, forming acetic acid in the process.&nbsp;



However, Rnf’s delicate structure made it extremely difficult to isolate. Researchers only managed to do so a few years ago, demonstrating just how challenging it is to study such ancient systems in the lab.



When carbon dioxide and hydrogen come together, electrons move through several intermediates.&nbsp;



The Rnf complex mediates the final leg of that journey, ensuring that each electron is properly transferred. This procedure led to the question: how exactly is electron flow coupled to pumping out sodium ions?



Using cryo-electron microscopy, the scientists created detailed, high-resolution snapshots of the Rnf complex from the bacterium Acetobacterium woodii.&nbsp;



During the imaging process, the purified complex was rapidly frozen, forming a thin film of ice that preserved it in near-native condition.&nbsp;



By looking at Rnf from various angles, the team constructed 3D models that reveal which parts of the proteins physically interact to enable electron flow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sodium-ion-pumping-in-ancient-microbes">Sodium ion pumping in ancient microbes</h2>



Still, knowledge of the protein structures did not fully explain how moving electrons expels sodium ions. That puzzle was partially solved by a molecular dynamics simulation conducted by Professor Ville Kaila’s group at <a href="https://www.su.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stockholm University</a>.&nbsp;



The team's simulation highlighted a crucial iron-sulfur cluster stationed in the middle of the membrane. As soon as the cluster takes on an electron, it becomes negatively charged, attracting sodium ions from within the cell like a magnet.



“The positively charged sodium ions from inside the cell are drawn to this cluster, just like a magnet,” said Jennifer Roth, a doctoral candidate in Müller’s research group.&nbsp;



“This attraction in turn causes the proteins to shift around the iron-sulfur cluster, much like a rocker switch: they create an opening leading to the outside of the membrane, through which the sodium ions are once again released.”



That shift completes a full cycle: by “locking in” a sodium ion, toggling the cluster, and then releasing the ion externally, the cell effectively pumps sodium outward.&nbsp;



An abundant sodium gradient accumulates, and the bacteria later allow ions to flow back in, spinning the molecular turbine (ATP synthase) that synthesizes ATP.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-respiration-without-oxygen">Understanding respiration without oxygen</h2>



Though the spotlight is on ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-metabolism-has-evolved-to-become-energetically-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, this discovery could have pragmatic uses in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-capture-technology-faces-uncertainty-despite-heavy-investment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon capture</a>. These microbes seize carbon dioxide to create acetic acid.&nbsp;



With deeper understanding, industries may be able to harness bacteria to remove greenhouse gases from emissions or to produce high-value chemicals.&nbsp;



“Once we know how the bacteria generate energy in the process, we may be able to optimize this process in a manner that would allow us to produce even higher-quality end products,” said Müller.



Furthermore, similar respiratory enzymes are found in some pathogens, raising the prospect of drug design that targets these crucial proteins to combat bacterial diseases.



By explaining a novel system for respiration without oxygen, the study has revealed another facet of life’s resilience.&nbsp;



Such findings reveal how the earliest life forms innovated to harness energy, demonstrating the creative adaptations that allowed Earth’s diverse biosphere to flourish - even under seemingly inhospitable conditions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.21.599731" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Breathing without oxygen: How ancient microbes powered early life

Earth’s modern biosphere teems with plants, animals, and many other...

Our view of the Universe’s first galaxies is changing fast. Once, astronomers believed early galaxies were slow to mature, lacking heavy elements like oxygen.



Now, a discovery made in a remote desert has flipped that idea. At the heart of this revelation is JADES-GS-z14-0 - the most distant confirmed galaxy ever found. It glows not only with ancient light but also with unexpected chemical complexity.



The detection of oxygen in this galaxy has forced astronomers to reconsider how fast galaxies took shape after the Big Bang. These new findings have emerged from two separate research teams using one of the world’s most powerful telescopes. 



Their work, built on years of observations, is helping reshape our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-found-in-the-early-universe-that-shouldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic history</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-window-into-the-early-universe">Window into the early Universe</h2>



JADES-GS-z14-0 lies so far away that its light took 13.4 billion years to reach us. That means we’re seeing it as it looked when the Universe was just 300 million years old - a mere 2% of its current age. Despite its youth, this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-signals-from-the-center-of-our-galaxy-hint-at-a-new-kind-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> shows signs of advanced development.



​The&nbsp;European Southern Observatory (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESO</a>), which&nbsp;collaborates with the&nbsp;Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (<a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>)&nbsp;in Chile, played a key role in observing the distant galaxy.​



ALMA, with its location in the Atacama Desert, continues to uncover cosmic details that other telescopes can’t reach. Its latest achievement? Detecting oxygen in JADES-GS-z14-0.



“It is like finding an adolescent where you would only expect babies,” said Sander Schouws, a PhD candidate at Leiden Observatory, the Netherlands, and first author of the Dutch-led study.



“The results show the galaxy has formed very rapidly and is also maturing rapidly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mature-galaxy-in-an-infant-universe">Mature galaxy in an infant Universe</h2>



Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-shows-signs-of-violent-past-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> were thought to consist mostly of hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements like oxygen were expected to emerge later, after multiple generations of stars lived and died. 



Oxygen is forged in the cores of stars and then scattered across space by stellar explosions. Until now, researchers believed this process hadn’t occurred much by the 300-million-year mark.



Yet JADES-GS-z14-0 has about ten times more heavy elements than previously thought possible for such an early galaxy. This surprising chemical richness points to a much faster rate of star formation and death than earlier models allowed.



“I was astonished by the unexpected results because they opened a new view on the first phases of galaxy evolution,” said Stefano Carniani of the Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa, Italy.



“The evidence that a galaxy is already mature in the infant Universe raises questions about when and how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies formed</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-pinpoints-galaxy-location">Oxygen pinpoints galaxy location</h2>



The oxygen detection didn’t just reveal new information about the galaxy’s makeup. It also gave astronomers a better way to measure the galaxy’s distance. 



ALMA’s detection of oxygen allowed researchers to estimate the galaxy’s location in the cosmos with unprecedented accuracy.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oxygen_early-galaxy_discovery-graphic_JADES-GS-z14-0_ESO_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/oxygen_early-galaxy_discovery-graphic_JADES-GS-z14-0_ESO_1s.webp" alt="The inset in this image shows JADES-GS-z14-0 –– the most distant known galaxy as of today –– as seen with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The two spectra shown here result from independent analysis of ALMA data by two teams of astronomers. Both found an emission line of oxygen, making this the most distant detection of oxygen, when the Universe was only 300 million years old. Credit: ALMA/ESO" class="wp-image-1962941"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The inset in this image shows JADES-GS-z14-0 –– the most distant known galaxy as of today –– as seen with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). The two spectra shown here result from independent analysis of ALMA data by two teams of astronomers. Both found an emission line of oxygen, making this the most distant detection of oxygen, when the Universe was only 300 million years old. Credit: ALMA/ESO</figcaption></figure>



​Eleonora Parlanti, a PhD student at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sns.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa</a> and co-author of the study, explained the significance of the finding.



“The ALMA detection offers an extraordinarily precise measurement of the galaxy’s distance down to an uncertainty of just 0.005 percent. This level of precision - analogous to being accurate within 5 cm over a distance of 1 km - helps refine our understanding of distant galaxy properties,” said Parlanti.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-our-view-of-the-early-universe">Enhancing our view of the early Universe</h2>



While ALMA provided the final confirmation, the galaxy’s story began with the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>). 



JWST’s powerful infrared sensors first spotted JADES-GS-z14-0 and marked it as a candidate for further study. That’s when ALMA stepped in to provide deeper insight and validation.



“While the galaxy was originally discovered with the James Webb Space Telescope, it took ALMA to confirm and precisely determine its enormous distance,” noted Professor Rychard Bouwens, a member of the team at <a href="https://local.strw.leidenuniv.nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden Observatory</a>.



“This shows the amazing synergy between ALMA and JWST to reveal the formation and evolution of the first galaxies.”



The combined power of these two telescopes makes it possible to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spherex-will-scan-the-galaxy-to-look-for-lifes-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> not just by their light but by their chemical fingerprints. Together, they allow astronomers to build a more complete picture of the early Universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-formation-after-the-big-bang">Galaxy formation after the Big Bang</h2>



The detection of oxygen in such a young galaxy suggests the early Universe evolved more quickly than expected. 



Galaxies might not have needed as much time to grow complex structures and develop rich oxygen-based chemical diversity. This finding challenges earlier models that assumed slower progress.



Gergö Popping, an ESO astronomer at the <a href="https://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/alma/arc.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European ALMA Regional Centre</a> who did not take part in the research, shares the same sense of wonder.



"I was really surprised by this clear detection of oxygen in JADES-GS-z14-0. It suggests galaxies can form more rapidly after the Big Bang than had previously been thought," said Popping.



"This result showcases the important role ALMA plays in unraveling the conditions under which the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bullseye-galaxy-reveals-stunning-rings-after-galactic-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in our Universe formed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-rich-galaxy-raises-new-questions">Oxygen-rich galaxy raises new questions</h2>



This discovery leaves astronomers with more questions than answers. How did such a young galaxy become chemically mature so quickly? 



Are there more galaxies like JADES-GS-z14-0 out there, waiting to be found? And if so, what does that mean for our theories about galaxy formation?



As ALMA and JWST continue their joint work, scientists hope to uncover more early galaxies and gather stronger evidence. Each new detection brings us closer to understanding the first chapters of our cosmic story. 



The early Universe may be far more dynamic than we ever imagined.



Image Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

"Astonishing" discovery: Oxygen is found in the universe where it shouldn't be

Our view of the Universe’s first galaxies is changing fast....

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife behavior. A new study published in the journal Animal Behaviour reveals that Galápagos yellow warblers (Setophaga petechia aureola) grow more aggressive in response to traffic noise. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, found only on the islands, respond differently based on their proximity to roads.



​The study was led by researchers from <a href="https://www.aru.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anglia Ruskin University</a> and the <a href="https://klf.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konrad Lorenz Research Centre</a> at the University of Vienna. Using recorded bird songs and simulated traffic sounds, the team observed how warblers reacted in different territories.​



The results showed birds living near roads exhibited more aggression, while those farther away behaved more passively when exposed to the same noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-human-impact-on-islands">Growing human impact on islands</h2>



The Galápagos Islands lie over 500 miles off Ecuador’s coast. Once a quiet haven of biodiversity, the region now feels the strain of human presence. 



A rapid rise in population and tourism has increased the number of vehicles on roads. This shift transforms the once-isolated environment, bringing unexpected consequences for its native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>.



The Galápagos yellow warbler, a subspecies genetically distinct from its mainland relatives, serves as a biological indicator of this change. The researchers studied the birds on the islands of Floreana and Santa Cruz.



In both regions, vehicle noise prompted warblers to behave more aggressively, even on Floreana, where only around 10 vehicles are in use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-change-their-songs-near-traffic">Birds change their songs near traffic</h2>



The scientists tested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-moving-north-and-breeding-earlier-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird responses</a> by playing songs through a speaker, simulating a territorial intruder. Sometimes the sounds were paired with traffic noise. 



When this occurred near roads, birds became more aggressive - flying near the speaker and singing longer. In quieter areas, birds became less confrontational when noise accompanied the song.



This pattern suggests that long-term exposure matters. Warblers with more experience around noise adjusted their behavior in ways that could help maintain territorial control despite sound interference.



“Birds use song during territorial defense as an aggressive signal. However, if external noise such as traffic interferes with the signaling, effectively blocking this communication channel, increasing physical aggression would be an appropriate response,” noted Dr. Caglar Akcay, senior lecturer in behavioural ecology at Anglia Ruskin University.



The research suggests these birds are learning to adapt. Changes in song length and pitch help their calls rise above low-frequency traffic sounds. 



In all territories, birds raised the minimum frequency of their songs when traffic was present. This adjustment could improve their chances of being heard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-flexibility-and-conservation">Behavioral flexibility and conservation</h2>



The findings shed light on the unexpected reach of human activity. Even in the Galápagos - long seen as a sanctuary for natural evolution - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-breathing-in-plastic-what-does-that-mean-for-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> now must compete with the noise of progress.



“Our results show that the change in aggressive responses in yellow warblers occurred mainly near roads. Birds occupying roadside territories on both islands, and therefore having regular experience of traffic noise, may have learned to increase physical aggression when the territorial intrusion was accompanied by traffic noise,” said Dr. Akcay.



Beyond aggression, warblers demonstrate flexibility. They tweak their songs to cut through the clamor. These subtle changes show nature’s resilience, but they also signal a need for reflection.



“Our study shows the importance of considering behavioral plasticity in conservation efforts and developing strategies to mitigate the effects of noise pollution on wildlife. It also highlights the significant impact of human activities on wildlife behavior, even in relatively remote locations such as the Galápagos Islands,” noted Dr. Akcay.



Understanding this behavioral flexibility may guide future conservation. It reminds us that protecting biodiversity requires more than preserving land - it demands attention to the noise we bring with us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traffic-noise-changes-birds-behavior">Traffic noise changes birds’ behavior</h2>



This study urges conservationists and policymakers to look beyond visible damage. Roads, buildings, and pollution are easy to spot. Noise, on the other hand, slips in silently, altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-birds-can-handle-climate-variability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> in less obvious ways. 



Yet its effects are clear. For the Galápagos yellow warbler, this may mean adjusting song and behavior just to be heard and understood.



The warbler’s story is a quiet warning: the modern world reaches even the most distant corners. If we are to protect these natural wonders, we must consider not only what we build, but what we sound like as we do.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000466" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some birds get 'road rage' when exposed to traffic noise

Human activity in the Galápagos Islands is quietly reshaping wildlife...

For decades, scientists believed modern humans descended from a single ancestral lineage. However, new research has not only challenged this view, it has simultaneously spawned a new mystery surrounding human evolution.



Using full genome sequencing, researchers discovered that modern humans originated from two distinct populations that diverged around 1.5 million years ago and later merged.



This genetic reunion, occurring roughly 300,000 years ago, resulted in one group contributing 80% of modern human DNA, while the other provided the remaining 20%. 



These findings suggest human evolution was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far more intricate</a> than previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-mixing-and-complex-evolution">Genetic mixing and complex evolution</h2>



“The question of where we come from is one that has fascinated humans for centuries,” said Dr. Trevor Cousins from the University of Cambridge <a href="https://www.gen.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Genetics</a>.



He emphasized that while a single continuous lineage was the dominant theory, genetic evidence now reveals a more complicated history.



Professor Richard Durbin, co-author of the study, noted that these ancient groups remained separate for over a million years before recombining to form the genetic foundation of modern humans. 



This suggests our species' origins were shaped by deep evolutionary interactions rather than a straightforward lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-neanderthals-the-basics">Humans and Neanderthals - the basics</h2>



Humans and Neanderthals didn’t just coexist - they mingled, competed, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-analysis-reveals-most-recent-modern-human-to-interbreed-with-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">had children together</a>. 



Neanderthals lived in Europe and Asia for hundreds of thousands of years before modern humans migrated out of Africa around 60,000–70,000 years ago. 



For at least 5,000–10,000 years, the two species overlapped, sharing landscapes, caves, and possibly even knowledge. 



Archaeological evidence suggests Neanderthals created tools, used fire, and may have practiced symbolic behaviors like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tinshemet-cave-more-evidence-neanderthals-and-early-humans-interacted-socially/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">burying their dead</a>. 



Some of their cultural traits look strikingly similar to those of early humans, which hints at possible interactions - maybe even trade or shared ideas.



However, this new research highlights an earlier, more significant genetic mixing event around 300,000 years ago. 



Unlike Neanderthal DNA, which comprises roughly 2% of non-African modern human genomes, this earlier event contributed up to 20% of the genetic makeup found in all humans today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-past-with-dna">Decoding the past with DNA</h2>



The research team used modern human DNA rather than ancient fossils to reconstruct this evolutionary history. 



They analyzed data from the <a href="https://www.internationalgenome.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1000 Genomes Project</a>, which includes genetic samples from populations worldwide. 



Their approach enabled them to infer the presence of ancestral populations that left no direct fossil evidence.



By developing an advanced computational tool called cobraa, the researchers modeled how human populations split and later merged. 



They first tested the algorithm on simulated data before applying it to real human genetic sequences.



This method provided fresh insights into the genetic diversity of early humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-human-population-nearly-disappeared">One human population nearly disappeared</h2>



“Immediately after the two ancestral populations split, we see a severe bottleneck in one of them - suggesting it shrank to a very small size before slowly growing over a period of one million years,” said Professor Aylwyn Scally from the Department of Genetics.



This smaller group later contributed most of the genetic material found in modern humans and was also the ancestral population from which Neanderthals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a> evolved.



Meanwhile, the second population, which contributed a minority of modern human DNA, carried genes related to brain function and neural processing. 



“Some of the genes from the population which contributed a minority of our genetic material may have played a crucial role in human evolution,” said Cousins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-selection-and-genetic-compatibility">Natural selection and genetic compatibility</h2>



The experts found that genes inherited from the second <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> were often located in regions of the genome unrelated to primary gene functions. This suggests natural selection filtered out less compatible genetic traits over time.



The process, known as purifying selection, gradually removed harmful mutations, ensuring only beneficial genetic changes persisted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-study-beyond-humans">Expanding the study beyond humans</h2>



Beyond human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-homo-erectus-thrived-in-extreme-desert-landscapes-1-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, the researchers applied their computational model to genetic data from species such as bats, dolphins, chimpanzees, and gorillas.



They found evidence of similar ancestral population structures in some species, reinforcing the idea that evolutionary history is more intertwined than previously thought.



“What’s becoming clear is that the idea of species evolving in clean, distinct lineages is too simplistic,” Cousins explained. 



He suggested that interbreeding and genetic exchange likely influenced species development across the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-our-ancestral-candidates">Identifying our ancestral candidates</h2>



The identities of these ancestral human populations remain uncertain. 



Fossil evidence indicates that species such as Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis lived in Africa and other regions during this period. 



These species could be potential candidates for the populations identified in the genetic study, but more research is needed.



Future studies aim to refine the genetic model to account for gradual genetic exchanges rather than abrupt splits and reunions. 



Scientists also plan to integrate their findings with fossil records to build a clearer picture of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-lived-in-rainforests-80000-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human diversity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-understanding-of-human-evolution">Our understanding of human evolution</h2>



“The fact that we can reconstruct events from hundreds of thousands or millions of years ago just by looking at DNA today is astonishing,” said Scally. 



He emphasized that our evolutionary history is far richer and more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex</a> than previously imagined.



This remarkable research reshapes our understanding of human origins, proving that our past was shaped by intricate genetic interconnections rather than a single ancestral line. 



The findings open new avenues for studying evolutionary history across multiple species, offering a deeper appreciation of the forces that shaped modern life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-025-02117-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Genetics</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

"Mystery ancestors" gave humans 20% of our current DNA, but who were they?

For decades, scientists believed modern humans descended from a single...

Scientists who study our planet’s energy imbalance have noticed Earth now holds onto more energy than it sends away. This extra heat is raising global temperatures, warming the planet, and sparking questions about how changes in clouds and oceans might hasten climate shifts.



<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adb448" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have discovered surprising cloud patterns that no longer bounce as much light back into space. This effect makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> from greenhouse gases worse and could speed up changes in weather, sea levels, and marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-reflect-less-sunlight">Clouds reflect less sunlight </h2>



“Think of Earth as a mirror reflecting sunlight back to space,” said Professor Richard Allan from the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>, who is the lead author of the study.



This is now referred to as a "dirty mirror" because certain clouds, especially over the ocean, have become less reflective than in past decades.



When cloud layers fade or become thin, more solar energy travels through into the water below. Warmer oceans then release <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> into the air, which boosts temperatures in a cycle that can reshape wind and precipitation patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cloud-changes-matter">Why cloud changes matter</h2>



Any decrease in cloud brightness increases the total heat that Earth keeps enclosed within the atmosphere. This, in turn, intensifies storms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-the-mass-extinction-that-reshaped-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves</a>, and heavy rainfall. Scientists have traced these changes to areas off California and Namibia, where <a href="https://weather.metoffice.gov.uk/learn-about/weather/types-of-weather/clouds/low-level-clouds/stratocumulus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratocumulus clouds</a> once helped bounce more light back into space.



Ongoing reductions in sea ice near Antarctica also matter. Darker seas absorb extra warmth, reinforcing the heating that <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> already cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-oceans-trap-heat-shift-clouds">Warm oceans trap heat, shift clouds</h2>



The top few hundred feet of the ocean, sometimes called the <a href="https://timescavengers.org/climate-change/ocean-layers-mixing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean mixed layer</a>, quickly absorb incoming heat. Warm water can then sink or shift horizontally, making temperature changes at the surface look unpredictable.



A shallower mixed layer warms up more rapidly when clouds let in extra solar radiation. This explains why we sometimes see abrupt spikes in ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-meltdown-is-accelerating-global-warming-already-changing-earth-in-unimaginable-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a>, followed by shifts in global weather patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-air-pollution-shifts">Air pollution shifts</h2>



Reduced <a href="https://earth.gsfc.nasa.gov/climate/data/deep-blue/aerosols" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a> in certain parts of Asia have also let more sunlight pass through, adding to the warming effect. Cleaner air is healthier for people but also contains fewer of the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reflective particles</a> that once helped cool some regions.



Scientists noticed that eastern China now sends less light away than expected, which may reflect better pollution controls. This change can interact with greenhouse gases to disturb cloud patterns and ocean currents over the north Pacific.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-climate-action">Implications for climate action</h2>



We rely on satellites, ocean floats, and climate models to see how much sunlight our planet reflects or stores. These systems reveal a steady increase in Earth’s net heat gain, prompting governments to plan for possible extremes.



Less reflective clouds - combined with increasing greenhouse gas buildup - could lead to bigger challenges for agriculture, fisheries, and coastal safety. Understanding the dirty mirror effect can guide policies that balance cleaner air with stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-complex-chain-of-events">A complex chain of events</h2>



When sea surfaces get warmer, entire ecosystems shift, as species must adapt or move. Extra heat in the ocean can supercharge storms or disrupt currents that carry nutrients around the globe.



Cycles like <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ninonina.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> push heated water around the Pacific, which can heighten the overall warming signal. This motion highlights why temperature jumps might feel sudden but are actually part of a complex chain of events.



Experts note that the dirty mirror effect may keep evolving as aerosol policies shift worldwide. Future data will show whether lower pollution levels, combined with thinning clouds, will accelerate warming faster than current forecasts suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-clouds-and-global-warming">Tracking clouds and global warming</h2>



Long-term solutions require better insights into how clouds respond to rising ocean heat. Every region contributes to the bigger story, whether through pollution regulations, carbon cuts, or monitoring local seas.



Although this cycle looks complicated, careful tracking of clouds, aerosols, and ocean temperatures offers hope for action. Some of the same steps that protect human health may also shape how much sunlight gets reflected back into space.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adb448" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Clouds are trapping more heat and making global warming worse

Scientists who study our planet’s energy imbalance have noticed Earth...

High in the Andes Mountains, glaciers have fed life for centuries. Their frozen stores of water support millions of people across six countries - Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. These towering ice reserves aren’t just symbols of beauty and endurance. They’re critical lifelines.



But those lifelines are now unraveling. Global warming is melting these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> at an alarming pace. Scientists report that Andean glaciers are thinning by 0.7 meters each year - 35 percent faster than the global average.



Glacier retreat threatens to dry up rivers, weaken farming systems, limit drinking water, and destabilize power supplies.



At the heart of this crisis is the basic human need for water. In South America, more than 90 million people rely on glacier-fed sources for daily survival. This is not a distant problem for the next generation. 



This is unfolding now. And it is doing so more rapidly than many expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-loss-threatens-water-supply">Glacier loss threatens water supply</h2>



On March 21 2025, scientists from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a> and <a href="https://www.newcastle.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Newcastle</a> will issue a direct warning to global policymakers.



The occasion is the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, hosted by UNESCO in Paris. Their policy brief, titled The Future of the Andean Water Towers, outlines how the glaciers are vanishing and what that means for water and food security across the region.



The document draws on years of research and satellite observations. It presents the reality that some feared but hoped would not come so soon. The ice loss in the Tropical Andes could reach near-total collapse, while other parts of the mountain range may lose over half their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> coverage if current trends continue.



“Our brief shows that what scientists have been predicting for years is now coming true, and swift action needs to be taken if we stand any hope of saving and preserving the glaciers that so many people rely on as a source of water,” noted Dr. Jeremy Ely, a researcher at the University of Sheffield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-perfect-storm-of-climatic-pressures">A perfect storm of climatic pressures</h2>



The causes are complex but deeply connected to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-glaciers-unleashed-floods-that-reshaped-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Rising air temperatures, more frequent droughts, decreased snowfall, and erratic weather patterns have combined to weaken the glaciers’ ability to regenerate. 



Since the year 2000, the pace of ice loss has reached levels never seen before. This acceleration aligns with rising greenhouse gas emissions around the globe.



The Andes are especially vulnerable. Many of the glaciers exist at lower elevations compared to other mountain ranges. That makes them more sensitive to even modest temperature increases. 



As warming continues, the glaciers no longer act as natural regulators of water flow. They melt too quickly in hot seasons and can’t replenish during colder months.



The results are clear: unstable water supplies, dry farming lands, energy shortages, and rising tensions over resources. These changes threaten to alter life for both rural communities and sprawling cities that rely on glacial meltwater downstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-loss-of-glaciers-and-water">Rapid loss of glaciers and water</h2>



The Paris Agreement of 2015 brought a measure of hope. Countries agreed to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 



Scientists warned that exceeding this target would cause serious harm, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-age-cycles-are-predictable-but-humans-may-change-that/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>, lower crop yields, economic damage, and water scarcity.



However, that 1.5°C ceiling was already surpassed for several months in 2024. Projections now suggest that we are moving toward a world that will warm by more than 2°C. In that future, large swaths of the Andes could become completely ice-free before the century ends.



This raises troubling questions. How will countries adapt to rapid glacier loss? What happens to communities that have relied on consistent freshwater from melting snow and ice for generations? And how can international agreements hold weight when their benchmarks are already being missed?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-water-loss">Consequences of water loss</h2>



As glacier-fed rivers weaken, governments will need to act fast. One likely response is to build large-scale water storage systems, such as dams. 



These structures can store water during rainy seasons and release it during dry periods. But such infrastructure requires huge investments. Many of the countries most affected may not have the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-that-thrives-on-ice-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-glacier-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a> to afford them.



Without alternatives, rural areas may face food shortages. Crops that rely on irrigation could fail. Livestock may suffer. Urban areas might experience water rationing, which can spark unrest. The loss of water also limits hydropower production, which fuels industries and homes throughout the continent.



“Such a loss of ice across the Andes needs urgent attention as it will increase the stress on freshwater resources relied upon by communities and major cities downstream of the glaciers,” said Dr. Ely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closing-window-for-global-cooperation">A closing window for global cooperation</h2>



Global coordination is not just helpful - it’s essential. As glaciers shrink, so does the margin for error. Scientists agree that curbing carbon emissions is the only reliable way to slow the damage. No amount of policy writing will reverse the melting unless it’s backed by action.



The longer the world waits, the harder it will be to reverse or even manage the crisis. Temperature increases of up to 4.5°C by 2100 are not just theoretical - they’re becoming real possibilities. If that happens, water and food security will deteriorate for millions.



“All the targets that have been set have already been missed and failed,” Dr Ely said. "Yet the only way to preserve glaciers is to drastically reduce carbon emissions once and for all. 



"The situation is serious, and it will take global cooperation to tackle climate change and make meaningful difference for the communities around the world most vulnerable from the effects of climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next-matters-most">What happens next matters most</h2>



The Andean glacier crisis is a climate emergency in motion. It touches agriculture, energy, urban life, and rural survival. It is not a regional issue - it is a global one. 



The science is clear, the warnings have been given, and the time for delay has passed.



Whether the glaciers remain or vanish now depends on how quickly and how boldly the world responds.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Millions could run out of water if glaciers continue to melt

High in the Andes Mountains, glaciers have fed life for...

Coral reefs face threats from many sources, but the crown-of-thorns starfish is often singled out for its ability to chomp through living coral at staggering rates.



<a href="https://scispace.com/pdf/the-acanthaster-phenomenon-1fnwsb66cy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> have puzzled over this starfish’s boom-and-bust population cycles, which can leave once-colorful coral communities in serious trouble.



Crown-of-thorns starfish numbers can spike quickly, damaging reefs from Australia to other parts of the Indo-Pacific. 



Previous explanations have focused on shifting ocean conditions or lack of predators, yet a recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424560122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> highlights a surprising group that appears to gobble up young starfish before they mature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-crabs-help-control-starfish-numbers">Small crabs help control starfish numbers</h2>



“Using our newly developed eDNA techniques to detect COTS, we found COTS DNA in the guts of seven species of decapod caught across more than 1,000 km of the Great Barrier Reef. Plus we found fewer crabs in areas prone to COTS outbreaks,” said study senior author Dr. Sven Uthicke from the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a>. 



Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> seem to carry pockets of these small <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/decapod" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decapod creatures</a>, which are ten-legged crustaceans that often lurk in cracks and under rubble. 



The researchers found that their absence in certain spots matched places where starfish outbreaks flared up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crabs-eat-young-starfish">Crabs eat young starfish </h2>



“Consuming <a href="https://www.gbrbiology.com/2022/05/26/juvenile-crown-of-thorns-starfish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">juvenile COTS</a> is a highly effective way to reduce COTS populations because, not only are they removed before they can start feeding on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a>, but they can be removed in large numbers because they are so small,” said Dr. Uthicke. 



Small starfish tend to spend time hiding in rubble and among broken coral fragments. The researchers discovered that crusty guardians live in those same hiding spots, and their diets sometimes include juvenile starfish.



“It’s a numbers game. Some of the crabs can eat 20 juveniles a day, whereas fish or triton may eat one adult every few days or per week,” said Dr. Uthicke. 



Differences in how often these crabs show up across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> may explain why some sections avoid major starfish invasions.



By using <a href="https://iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/environmental-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA</a> (environmental DNA) methods, scientists found proof of starfish consumption without needing direct observation. Targeting scraps of genetic material helps capture hidden feeding patterns that traditional surveys might overlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-reef-implications">Wider reef implications</h2>



Scientists suspect that fewer small cryptic predators could give young starfish a better chance of surviving to adulthood. Removing juveniles early on may hold the key to keeping starfish populations in check.



A single decapod crab might appear harmless, yet large groups can collectively remove countless baby starfish. This kind of steady predation could halt population spikes before they cause coral damage.



Hidden crabs bring renewed attention to natural pest control on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a>. Managers usually track adult starfish as they munch their way across corals, but juveniles slip below the radar and can later emerge en masse.



Marine experts believe many reef inhabitants remain poorly understood. The study suggests these overlooked animals could influence overall coral health by feeding on starfish in ways that bigger predators might not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-crab-populations">Protecting crab populations </h2>



Decapod crabs rely on healthy, structurally complex habitats. When reefs degrade, key crab hideouts disappear, leading to fewer opportunities for them to find and eat juvenile starfish.



Scientists note that preserving coral rubble habitat might help maintain crab populations. Extra protective measures could make a difference, especially in places that have experienced intense fishing or widespread coral decline.



Future work may look at what drives crab populations up or down and whether certain types of rubble or coral attract more crabs. Researchers might also see if artificial reefs provide enough shelter for these decapods to flourish.



Insights like these can improve management. Rather than focusing solely on adult starfish, officials could encourage conditions where small crustaceans thrive and reduce problems before they start.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sign-of-hidden-connections">A sign of hidden connections</h2>



Crustaceans are not the only puzzling factor in starfish control, yet their impact sparks curiosity about other nooks and crannies of reef life. Everything from tiny worms to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-barrier-reef-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> bacteria may hold clues.



Each new finding reminds us that reefs are webs of interactions with many unsung heroes. Understanding these links may be essential for long-term reef survival.



Researchers suggest that bolstering small predator populations could be a smart tactic in starfish management. Keeping these animal communities strong may help reefs bounce back faster when facing constant stress.



Local conservation groups already invest in large-scale starfish culls, but it may be easier to back up that work by maintaining conditions for crabs and other protective critters. The goal is to strike a balance that curbs harmful sea star numbers without disrupting other species.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424560122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny crabs protect reefs by eating baby crown-of-thorns starfish

Coral reefs face threats from many sources, but the crown-of-thorns...

Biologging sensors attached to animals help researchers collect valuable data about marine environments. This data helps monitor human activities, such as fishing, pollution, and noise disturbances from boats and construction, providing insights into their impact on marine life.



A recent study from Kobe University highlights the importance of integrating data from different sources to create an “Internet of Animals” with open-access standards.



Human activities affect marine life in multiple ways. Fishing, industrial waste, and underwater construction alter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> and disrupt ecosystems. 



“There is a wealth of oceanographic data from research vessels, drifting buoys and satellites," said Professor IWATA Takashi, an animal ecologist at <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>.



"But due to technological and economic constraints, there are many observation gaps and some areas are inaccessible to humans, such as under sea ice or during harsh weather.” 



Understanding how these changes impact individual animals is difficult, making it challenging to design effective conservation strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biologging-window-into-animal-experiences">Biologging: Window into animal experiences</h2>



Attaching small sensors, cameras, or tracking devices to wild animals is known as biologging. Scientists originally used biologging to study animal behavior and movement patterns. Now, it also helps analyze environmental changes affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>.



“We try to minimize the impact this has on the animals by keeping the overall weight of the devices to less than 3% of the animal’s body weight, or even less than 1% for larger animals, and many researchers keep developing smaller and smaller devices," explained Iwata.



This method allows researchers to gather data without disturbing natural behaviors.



Biologging follows a Lagrangian observational method, meaning it moves with the animals, offering insights that fixed observation platforms like satellites or buoys cannot provide. It records a variety of environmental parameters, including temperature, salinity, and oxygen levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancements-in-biologging-research">Advancements in biologging research</h2>



The researchers reviewed the latest advancements in biologging. Their analysis showed that biologging has improved typhoon forecasts, revealed differences in how turtle species react to plastic waste, exposed illegal fishing, and influenced the design of bird-friendly offshore wind farms.



“This review showed that while biologging alone is insufficient, it can fill in the gaps in existing knowledge," said Iwata.



"It provides a new type of data that differs from the wide-area environmental information obtained from earth observation satellites and other sources to tackle a broad range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental issues</a>."



Combining biologging with other research methods offers a more complete understanding of marine ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-ocean-warming-and-pollution">Tackling ocean warming and pollution</h2>



Biologging offers a crucial tool for tracking ocean warming. By attaching GPS loggers to seabirds and marine mammals, scientists can measure ocean currents, wind patterns, and temperature changes over time. These observations have helped improve climate models and typhoon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tracking</a>.



Plastic pollution remains a major concern, especially its impact on marine life. Cameras attached to sea turtles have captured floating plastic bags, providing direct evidence of pollution in marine habitats. 



Loggerhead turtles swim past plastic, while green turtles sometimes mistake it for food. Such species-specific behaviors help shape targeted conservation strategies.



Chemical pollution also threatens marine ecosystems. Persistent organic pollutants accumulate in seabirds and marine mammals, serving as bio-indicators of contamination. Tracking these animals allows scientists to monitor pollution levels across different ocean regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-fishery-management">Challenges in fishery management</h2>



Overfishing and bycatch pose significant threats to marine biodiversity. Biologging helps identify migration routes and breeding grounds for fish species like tuna and cod. This information supports more sustainable fishing policies.



Additionally, biologging has revealed that some marine animals, such as seals and whales, actively seek out fishing vessels to feed on discarded fish. This behavior increases the risk of entanglement and vessel collisions. 



Understanding these interactions can help develop better deterrent strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-marine-protected-areas">Conservation and marine protected areas</h2>



Noise pollution from shipping and offshore wind farms disrupts marine animals, particularly cetaceans that rely on echolocation. 



Biologging has demonstrated that naval sonar and shipping noise affect whale behavior, influencing feeding and migration patterns. Some studies have proposed raising turbine heights to minimize risks for seabirds.



Biologging also plays a key role in marine protected area (MPA) management. Data collected from tagged predators such as sharks and seals help determine whether existing MPAs effectively cover important habitats. 



Studies in the Ross Sea and British Indian Ocean Territory have confirmed that MPAs contribute to the conservation of top marine predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-internet-of-animals">A global "Internet of Animals"</h2>



The full potential of biologging depends on worldwide cooperation. 



“The full potential of biologging can only be realized through increased global collaboration and data sharing, enabling the integration of data across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-size-and-cancer-risk-surprising-new-details-have-emerged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, regions, and environmental contexts,” noted Iwata.



The researchers propose creating an “Internet of Animals,” where experts worldwide share biologging data to study marine life on a larger scale.



However, global data access and standardization remain major challenges. The Japanese research team calls for greater collaboration among scientists and data-sharing platforms to overcome these barriers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-biologging-s-reach">Expanding biologging’s reach</h2>



Iwata hopes this research will encourage more scientists to explore biologging. 



“If we can promote the sharing of biologging data through this paper, I hope to not only recruit more researchers to this field but also to so open up new angles that we haven’t yet envisioned,” he said.



“Researchers are not experts in social implementation, but in recent years, I have seen various issues being solved by sharing data in a data-driven society. It was an enjoyable task to think of ways to return the power of data to society.”



This study was conducted in collaboration with a researcher from <a href="https://www.waseda.jp/top/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Waseda University</a>. By promoting biologging and data-sharing, researchers hope to build a stronger foundation for marine conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2772735125000265?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Water Biology and Security</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Biologging: Animals are recording human impact on the ocean

Biologging sensors attached to animals help researchers collect valuable data...

Australia’s landscapes are home to one of nature’s most fascinating creatures - the kangaroo. Unique among large animals, kangaroos depend on hopping as their main form of locomotion.



This method of locomotion, known as saltation, allows them to cover vast distances with efficiency and speed. But how did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-kangaroos-changed-their-diets-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> develop this distinctive way of moving?



Understanding their evolutionary history requires looking at their ancestors, particularly the musky rat-kangaroo, the only macropodoid that does not hop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kangaroo-relatives-that-don-t-hop">Kangaroo relatives that don't hop</h2>



Amy Tschirn is a PhD student and researcher in the <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/college-science-engineering" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Science and Engineering</a> at Flinders University, and co-lead author of the study.



"The musky rat-kangaroo, as the most primitive living macropodoid (a group that includes kangaroos, wallabies, potoroos and bettongs), can offer insight into evolution within the group, including the origin of bipedal hopping locomotion,” said Tschim.



“As the only living macropodoid that doesn’t hop, the musky rat-kangaroo provides a crucial insight into how and when the iconic hopping form of locomotion evolved in Australia.”



Studying the musky rat-kangaroo helps scientists understand how early macropodoids moved before developing bipedal hopping. 



This tiny marsupial, found in the dense rainforests of Queensland, may hold the key to unlocking the evolutionary steps that led to modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protemnodon-kangaroo-fossils-may-explain-their-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-musky-rat-kangaroos-in-the-wild">Musky rat-kangaroos in the wild</h2>



To study the movement of musky rat-kangaroos, researchers observed them in their natural habitat in the Atherton Tableland, a region in far-northern Queensland. 



By filming adult muskies in the wild, they documented how these animals move and whether any form of hopping appeared in their locomotion. The findings revealed something remarkable.



Unlike any other marsupial that moves on all fours, musky rat-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-kangaroos-of-the-past-didnt-hop-they-walked-on-all-fours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kangaroos</a> use a distinct style of movement called a "bound" or "half-bound" gait. This means their hindfeet move together in synchrony rather than alternating as in most quadrupedal animals. 



This movement pattern is unusual among marsupials and could provide crucial insight into how macropodoids transitioned toward hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-quadrupedal-movement">Role of quadrupedal movement</h2>



Observations also confirmed that musky rat-kangaroos never hop, even when moving at their fastest speeds. This means that hopping likely developed later in macropodoid evolution.



“There remains no evidence of hopping in this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-wallace-line-a-natural-border-that-no-species-crosses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. Even when travelling at high speeds, muskies always use quadrupedal gaits, never rearing up on just their back legs,” said Harvard’s Dr. Peter Bishop, co-lead author of the research paper.



“These results support the hypothesis that a shift to an asymmetric-gait-dominant locomotor repertoire was a functional prerequisite in the evolution of bipedal hopping in macropodoids.”



Since musky rat-kangaroos lack the ability to hop, scientists believe that the transition toward bipedal movement must have started with an intermediary stage. The bounding gait of these small marsupials may represent a stepping stone in this evolutionary process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bounding-led-to-hopping-in-kangaroos">Bounding led to hopping in kangaroos</h2>



The musky rat-kangaroo's movement patterns align with previous studies on quadrupedal Australian marsupials. 



Many use symmetric gaits at lower speeds and shift to asymmetric gaits at higher speeds. Unlike most, however, the musky rat-kangaroo exclusively uses asymmetric gaits, even at slow speeds.



Research suggests that early macropodoids likely adopted a bounding gait before transitioning to bipedal hopping. Small potoroids, close relatives of kangaroos, demonstrate this transition by using both quadrupedal bounding and bipedal hopping at different speeds. 



This pattern hints that bounding could have been the crucial precursor to the hopping behavior seen in modern kangaroos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-structure-and-the-kangaroo-hop">Body structure and the kangaroo hop</h2>



The musky rat-kangaroo also retains several physical traits that distinguish it from true hopping macropodoids. Its forelimbs and hindlimbs are proportionally closer in size compared to kangaroos, which have much longer hindlimbs adapted for hopping. 



The musky rat-kangaroo also has a mobile first toe, something absent in larger macropodoids. These features suggest that its anatomy is better suited for quadrupedal movement, making it unlikely to develop hopping.



Studies on limb proportions across marsupials and rodents indicate that animals capable of bipedal locomotion generally have shorter forelimbs relative to their hindlimbs. 



The musky rat-kangaroo falls somewhere in between, suggesting it represents an early stage in macropodoid evolution before the full transition to bipedal hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-bounding-to-hopping">From bounding to hopping</h2>



The transition from quadrupedal movement to bipedal hopping remains one of the most intriguing mysteries of kangaroo evolution. By studying the musky rat-kangaroo’s anatomy and locomotion, researchers can piece together the story of how hopping emerged.



“These results signal a potential pathway to how bipedal hopping evolved in kangaroos. Perhaps it started with an ancestor that moved about on all fours like other marsupials, then an animal that bounded like the muskies, and finally evolved into the iconic hopping kangaroos we see in Australia today.”



This suggests that early macropodoids may have first adopted bounding gaits, allowing them to generate forward momentum using their powerful hind legs. 



Over time, as these animals became more specialized, they may have started relying solely on their back legs, leading to the development of true hopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-kangaroo-evolution-studies">Future of kangaroo evolution studies</h2>



The research, published in Australian Mammalogy, provides an important foundation for future studies on kangaroo evolution. 



While the mystery of hopping is still being unraveled, fossil discoveries from early macropodoids could provide more clues about how and when kangaroos made the final leap into bipedal hopping.



Scientists also hope to answer another key question: why did hopping kangaroos grow so much larger than rodents, which also use saltation? Understanding this could reveal more about the evolutionary pressures that shaped Australia’s unique wildlife.



By continuing to study living species like the musky rat-kangaroo and examining fossils from early kangaroo ancestors, researchers move closer to understanding one of the most distinctive adaptations in the animal kingdom.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/AM/AM24050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Mammalogy</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How did the kangaroo learn to hop? Insights from its smallest relative

Australia’s landscapes are home to one of nature’s most fascinating...

World Frog Day is more than just a date on the calendar - it’s a global wake-up call. For 265 million years, frogs have hopped through Earth’s ever-changing landscapes. 



They outlived dinosaurs, weathered ice ages, and adapted to shifting climates. Yet today, despite their incredible resilience, frogs stand on the brink of disaster.



These small, unassuming creatures do far more than fill the air with their evening croaks. They control insect populations, provide food for countless predators, and serve as nature’s bioindicators because they are sensitive to environmental changes long before these become crises. 



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> start disappearing from an ecosystem, it’s a sign that something is deeply wrong.



Pollution, deforestation, climate change, and the deadly chytrid fungus are driving entire species to extinction at an alarming rate. 



If frog populations continue to decline, the consequences will be catastrophic. Ecosystems will become unbalanced, food chains may collapse, and Earth will lose one of its most ancient inhabitants.



That’s why&nbsp;World Frog Day, observed every&nbsp;March 20&nbsp;since&nbsp;2014, is important. It shines a spotlight on these amphibians, raises awareness about their plight and urges action before time runs out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-frogs-matter">Why frogs matter</h2>



Frogs are key players in natural ecosystems. As predators, they feast on mosquitoes, flies, and agricultural pests, helping control populations that could otherwise spiral out of balance.



Without them, farmers would struggle with increased infestations, and diseases spread by insects could become even harder to manage.



On the flip side, frogs themselves are prey for countless creatures; birds, fish, reptiles, and even some mammals rely on them as a food source. If frogs disappear, so do many of the animals that depend on them, which would trigger a domino effect throughout the ecosystem.



Then there’s their role as bioindicators. Healthy frog populations signal healthy environments. But declining frog populations indicate bigger issues - polluted waters, rising temperatures, or habitat destruction, for example. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-are-facing-many-threats">Frogs are facing many threats </h2>



Despite their adaptability, frogs face an uphill battle for survival, with habitat destruction being the primary threat.



Wetlands are commonly drained for urban expansion and forests are cut down to make way for agriculture. Rivers and lakes are polluted with industrial waste and pesticides. Every time humans encroach on these habitats, frog populations shrink a little more.



Pollution is another major issue. Since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-on-water-cricket-frogs-redefine-aquatic-locomotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> absorb water directly through their porous skin, they have no defense against toxins in their environment. Pesticides used in farming leach into nearby ponds and streams, poisoning frogs from the outside in.



Then there’s the chytrid fungus, a disease that has devastated amphibian populations worldwide. It attacks their skin, and prevents them from absorbing water and essential nutrients. Entire species have been wiped out in mere decades by this devastating fungus. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-making-things-worse">Climate change is making things worse</h2>



As if habitat loss and pollution weren’t enough, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-saunas-hot-solution-to-fighting-global-amphibian-extinction-apocalypse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> are also battling the effects of climate change. 



Rising temperatures have thrown off their breeding cycles, causing unpredictable shifts in their life stages. Some species, accustomed to stable seasonal patterns, now struggle to find mates or lay eggs at the right time.



Extreme weather events have also taken a toll. In some areas, prolonged droughts have dried up breeding ponds before tadpoles have had a chance to develop. In others, flooding has swept away entire populations. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fight-to-save-the-frogs">The fight to save the frogs</h2>



Despite the grim outlook, conservationists aren’t giving up. Around the world, dedicated researchers and volunteers are working to preserve frog habitats, restore wetlands, and develop captive breeding programs for endangered species. 



In some cases, frogs have been reintroduced into the wild after their populations were nearly wiped out - a small but hopeful sign that efforts can make a difference.



One of the most effective strategies has been the creation of protected areas where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-exposed-to-radiation-show-no-signs-of-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a> can thrive without human interference. These conservation zones shield frogs from pollution, deforestation, and urban expansion, giving them a fighting chance at survival. 



Scientists are also working to combat the chytrid fungus, testing anti-fungal treatments that could slow or stop the spread of infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-frog-day">Take action on World Frog Day</h2>



World Frog Day 2025 presents us with a chance to take action. Across the globe, events will highlight the importance of frog conservation, from educational programs at zoos, to hands-on habitat restoration projects.



The Little Rock Zoo in Arkansas, for example, is set to host special exhibits and talks about amphibian protection. Schools and nature organizations will also join in, organizing workshops and field trips to explore local frog populations.



But you don’t need to attend an event to make a difference. Learning about the different species of frogs in your region is a good start. Avoiding pesticides and herbicides in your garden helps protect their habitats. Creating a frog-friendly space with native plants, small ponds, or log shelters can provide much-needed refuge.



If you want to do more, consider supporting conservation organizations. Donations help fund research, breeding programs, and habitat restoration efforts. Volunteering for local environmental groups can also put you on the frontlines of conservation work.



You can even virtually adopt a tree frog through the <a href="https://gifts.worldwildlife.org/gift-center/gifts/species-adoptions/red-eyed-tree-frog?srsltid=AfmBOorRwjDH5ydXRC_2hQV_O2f5MO1PjHWAutpoeSOhQp7kn7mTcs6P" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-world-without-frogs">A world without frogs?</h2>



The loss of frogs isn’t just an ecological disaster - it’s a warning. Their decline signals deeper problems in our environment, problems that will eventually affect humans too. 



If frogs disappear, it means our water is more polluted, our ecosystems are out of balance, and the natural world is in crisis.



World Frog Day reminds us that their survival is tied to our own. By protecting them, we protect ourselves and the planet we share. Whether it’s through education, activism, or simple everyday choices, everyone can contribute to this effort. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Frog Day 2025: Protecting nature’s tiny guardians

World Frog Day is more than just a date on...

A recent study has discovered a surprising behavior in lemon leafcutter ants (Atta sexdens). These ants not only exhibit social immunity - the ability to detect and remove pathogens to protect their colony - but also appear to remember past infections and respond more aggressively to familiar threats.



The research, led by <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo State University</a> (UNESP), reveals that leafcutter ants can recognize a pathogenic fungus they have previously encountered, even 30 days after the initial exposure. 



When re-exposed, they intensify their cleaning behaviors and recruit more workers, a phenomenon researchers suggest could be considered a form of “social immune memory.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-superorganism-s-defense-mechanism">A superorganism’s defense mechanism</h2>



“If we think of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a> as a superorganism, these behaviors would be like the immune system,” said first author Aryel Goes, a former bioscience student at UNESP. “In the same way that our defense cells attack invaders, such as viruses and bacteria, the workers fight infections that could harm the colony.”



The study shows that, unlike individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdowns-weakened-our-immune-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune systems</a> in animals, ants respond to infections collectively.&nbsp;



“What we’re showing is that the social immune system of ants can store information about previous infections with the same pathogen, a phenomenon seen in our immune cells, but which occurs at a behavioral level in ant colonies,” Goes said.



To test this idea, the researchers conducted several experiments to observe how ants responded to repeated exposures to the same pathogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-stronger-response-to-familiar-threats">A stronger response to familiar threats</h2>



In one experiment, the team exposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant colonies</a> to a pathogen, then reintroduced it after seven days and again after a month. The ants' response became significantly stronger over time, with the most intense reaction occurring at the 30-day mark. 



More ants participated in cleaning activities, both grooming themselves and removing the harmful fungus from the fungi they cultivate for food.



Lemon leafcutters belong to a group of ants that maintain a mutualistic relationship with fungi, cultivating them inside their colonies as a food source. In return, the fungi provide essential nutrients for the ants.



As part of the study, researchers tested four different pathogens - two harmful to the ants themselves and two that targeted their cultivated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>.&nbsp;



In another experiment, the scientists exposed separate colonies to a pathogen, then reintroduced it after seven days and again after 60 days. This time, the ants' responses were noticeably weaker compared to those that encountered the pathogen after 30 days.



“Unlike our immune system, which in some cases responds expressively to a specific pathogen even many years after initial exposure, ants’ social immune memory has a shorter time frame, so they need to be constantly exposed to the pathogen for the information to persist,” explained Goes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-ants-recognize-specific-pathogens">Do ants recognize specific pathogens?</h2>



The researchers also tested whether the ants' memory-like response was pathogen-specific. In a third experiment, they exposed the ants to one pathogen, then introduced a different pathogen after seven days. The ants' response to the second pathogen was much weaker than their reaction to the original one.



The following week, the researchers reintroduced the first pathogen. While the ants reacted, their response was only moderate - similar to their first encounter with the pathogen, but far less intense than when the pathogen had been reintroduced after 30 days.



Rodrigues suggested that this behavior could be a strategy to prevent accidentally spreading a new pathogen within the colony. “One hypothesis is that the lemon leafcutter reduced its hygienic response to avoid spreading the new pathogen to the rest of the colony.&nbsp;



This is because cleaning altruism, in which ants lick each other to get rid of pathogens, can also spread new contaminants. That’s why they would have been more careful with a second infection that was completely new to the colony,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-ants-respond-to-unknown-substance">Do ants respond to unknown substance?</h2>



To ensure that the ants’ response was indeed triggered by pathogens and not simply by exposure to an unfamiliar substance, the researchers applied a harmless solution to five colonies as a control.&nbsp;



The ants in this group showed the weakest response of all the experiments, suggesting that the ants can distinguish between different substances and respond more aggressively to harmful pathogens.



The study raises the possibility that social immunity in leafcutter ants could increase the efficiency of pathogen removal, improving the colony’s overall survival. However, more research is needed to determine whether this actually qualifies as a form of immune memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-pest-control">Implications for pest control</h2>



Leafcutter ants, including Atta sexdens, thrive in open environments and have adapted well to agricultural landscapes, making them a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-need-to-protect-earths-forests-from-non-native-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest</a> in monoculture farming.&nbsp;



Their strong cleaning behaviors pose a challenge to biological control methods that rely on natural pathogens rather than chemical pesticides.



“Lemon leafcutters are adapted to open areas, so they benefit from monocultures and are a pest. Their cleaning behavior is one of the obstacles to effective biological control without the use of chemical insecticides. Understanding the social immunity of leafcutters can help to develop more effective and ecologically correct controls,” Rodrigues concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.1097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Leafcutter ants remember past infections, strengthening colony defenses

A recent study has discovered a surprising behavior in lemon...

For more than 20 years, scientists have puzzled over an unusual trait in thorny skates in the North Atlantic. 



In some parts of their range, these fish appear in two distinctly different sizes, regardless of their sex. Researchers were unable to determine the cause of this phenomenon - until now.



A new study led by Jeff Kneebone and a team from the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a> has finally solved the mystery, thanks in part to unexpected disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-longstanding-conservation-puzzle">A longstanding conservation puzzle</h2>



The size discrepancy among thorny skates has been noted for nearly a century, but the issue became especially significant in the 1970s when their populations began to plummet. Suspecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overfishing</a> as the main culprit, authorities implemented a strict fishing ban on thorny skates and barndoor skates in 2003.



“The barndoor skate rebounded to the point where they’re now allowed to be harvested again, but for whatever reason, the thorny skate has remained low, despite 20 years of protection,” said Kneebone, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.neaq.org/conservation-and-research/anderson-cabot-center-for-ocean-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anderson Cabot Center for Ocean Life</a> at the New England Aquarium.



Data from the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> indicates that thorny skate populations have declined by 80% to 95% in some regions, particularly in the Gulf of Maine and Canadian waters off the Scotian Shelf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-thorny-skates">The mystery of thorny skates </h2>



Thorny skates have an extensive distribution, ranging from South Carolina to the Arctic Circle and across to Europe and Russia. However, the size variation appears to be unique to North American waters; in the Arctic and Europe, thorny skates only appear in one size.



“No one could understand what the deal was with these skates,” said study co-author Gavin Naylor, director of the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/sharks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Program for Shark Research</a> at the Florida Museum of Natural History. 



Researchers had previously analyzed thorny skate DNA, searching for genetic differences between the two size variants, but found nothing.&nbsp;



“The big forms are twice the size, and it takes them 11 years to reach adulthood. The small forms are mature by the time they’re six years old. There’s got to be genetic differences.”



Naylor believed a more detailed genetic analysis could uncover the answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-samples-from-hundreds-of-thorny-skates">Samples from hundreds of thorny skates </h2>



Previous attempts to solve the mystery involved sequencing short DNA fragments from a small number of individuals.&nbsp;



While a reasonable approach, Naylor suspected it had failed because not enough of the genome had been examined. Instead, he proposed a gene capture method, an intensive approach that collects DNA sequences from thousands of genes across an organism’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-genome-size-impact-evolutionary-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>.&nbsp;



This would require analyzing samples from hundreds of thorny skates to gather a comprehensive dataset.



Researchers from around the world responded to Naylor’s request for samples, providing more than 600 tissue specimens spanning much of the Northern Hemisphere and helping him prepare for an extensive lab analysis.



Then, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-death-toll-of-covid-19-pandemic-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 pandemic</a> shut down lab operations, halting their work indefinitely.



At that point, postdoctoral researcher Shannon Corrigan devised an alternative plan. Instead of conducting a labor-intensive gene capture study on hundreds of skates, they would sequence the full genome of just a handful - four or five individuals. While less comprehensive, it would still allow them to search for significant genetic differences.



It was a gamble. If the genome sequencing approach failed, the team would have used up their funding with no results.



“It was a Hail Mary,” Naylor said. But it paid off. In fact, had they stuck with the original plan, “we would have missed it entirely.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-key-genetic-difference">A key genetic difference</h2>



The breakthrough came when lead author Pierre Lesturgie analyzed the genome - comprising 2.5 billion base pairs. As he sifted through the data, he noticed something unusual.



“There was a large region on chromosome two that we thought was weird. Since it was behaving in a way we didn’t understand, we considered removing it from the analysis,” Lesturgie said.



Initially, he suspected the anomaly was a sequencing error and worried it might skew their results. But before discarding it, Naylor recognized a pattern - it resembled a gene inversion, where a segment of DNA is flipped in the opposite direction.



Gene inversions are common across many species, including humans, but they rarely result in such dramatic physical differences. Still, the team decided to check if this inverted DNA sequence was present in both small and large thorny skates.



It wasn’t. Only the larger skates had the inversion. They had finally uncovered the genetic basis for the size difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Now that scientists understand why thorny skates appear in two distinct sizes, Kneebone believes they can develop more effective conservation strategies.&nbsp;



The next step is to study the skates' life histories more closely - something that has been challenging due to the difficulty of distinguishing between the two types.



“We could identify the large males and females because they’re bigger than anything else,” Naylor said. Both large and small males develop distinctive long claspers on either side of their tails when they reach maturity.&nbsp;



“So when you’ve got a small male with large claspers, we know it’s an adult. But we can’t do anything with the small females because we don’t know whether they’re just babies on their way to getting big.”



This has complicated research on the species. “The big question has always been, what do the life histories of the two morphs look like? Currently, they’re not discriminated in the stock assessment, so a thorny skate is a thorny skate is a thorny skate,” Kneebone said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-climate-change">The role of climate change</h2>



Even with this discovery, thorny skates are still struggling in parts of their range, particularly in the Gulf of Maine. One potential factor is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



Current evidence suggests that the two size variants may have difficulty interbreeding in areas where populations are declining. Warming ocean temperatures could be exacerbating this natural reproductive barrier.



The Gulf of Maine has experienced some of the fastest ocean warming on the planet, with sea surface temperatures rising at a rate faster than 99% of the world's oceans. This has already led to significant ecological changes, such as the collapse of cod fisheries.



Scientists are now investigating whether climate change is disproportionately affecting thorny skates compared to other skate species in the region.



“We’re trying to use the best available science to make decisions about how to best manage and sustain populations,” Kneebone concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56126-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Illustration by Jorge Machuski



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

DNA twist reveals why some thorny skates grow twice as large

For more than 20 years, scientists have puzzled over an...

Stress can be exhausting, making even simple tasks feel like a chore. College life piles on exams and assignments, leaving many people feeling overwhelmed. A new study shows that playing with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendly dog</a> for just 15 minutes can lighten that emotional load.



The research was led by senior investigator Dr. Jaruwan Khonmee from <a href="https://www.cmu.ac.th/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chiang Mai University</a> in Thailand and included 122 students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-help-lower-stress">Dogs help lower stress</h2>



<a href="https://archive.org/details/psychologicalstr0000laza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stress</a> is a feeling of mental tension triggered by tough situations, and it can drain your energy before you realize it. Over time, stress can harm your mood, focus, and physical health in multiple ways.



College students often juggle challenging courses, part-time work, and new social circles. When responsibilities pile up, anxiety can creep in and catch people off guard.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2485862/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cortisol</a> is a hormone that climbs when you’re tense and goes down when you’re relaxed. Lowering it can support better heart function and clearer thinking under pressure.



That’s where a quick session of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-breed-does-not-define-performance-and-ability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine interaction</a> steps in to break the cycle. A wagging tail or a nudge from a friendly snout can act like a natural mood lifter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dogs-helped-students">How dogs helped students</h2>



In this project, students had their heart rates, saliva samples, and stress surveys measured before and after interacting with dogs. The researchers observed significant drops in both physical and emotional stress markers once the session ended.



Compared to just moments earlier, students’ self-reported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress levels</a> decreased by 33.5% after hanging out with the pup. This quick drop demonstrates how a little interaction can go a long way.



Some participants chose to cuddle or chat with the dog, while others offered treats or toys. Even short bursts of play were enough to see a noticeable shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-reduce-stress-levels">Dogs reduce stress levels</h2>



“Even brief interactions with dogs can significantly reduce stress levels among university undergraduate students,” concluded the researchers. They noted that stress hormones in the dogs themselves appeared to drop over time, suggesting shared benefits.



Fecal tests indicated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-share-genes-linked-to-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pups</a> had lower cortisol a week after these sessions. This finding points to the possibility that dogs might also feel relaxed when spending time with attentive humans.



Crucially, none of the six dogs used were certified therapy animals. Their friendly nature alone seemed enough to help students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-relief-through-genuine-connection">Stress relief through genuine connection </h2>



Researchers have spent years examining the human-animal bond. One <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279314X14072268687808" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> found that petting a calm dog cannot only slow heart rate but also quiet the mind.



A good-natured pup provides social interaction without the same judgment people fear in formal therapy settings. Students can feel understood without having to explain every feeling or worry.



These canine sessions may work in part because they tap into <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/co-regulation-helping-children-and-teens-navigate-big-emotions-202404033030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional co-regulation</a>, where two living beings calm each other. It’s less about a clinical approach and more about genuine connection.



That sense of warmth can reassure students who hesitate to seek human counseling. A dog’s presence often feels comforting, making it easier to let go of anxious thoughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-encouraging-outcomes-for-students">Encouraging outcomes for students</h2>



Not every campus has the resources to bring in certified therapy animals. This study shows that friendly, well-behaved pets might offer help even if they lack formal training.



Some universities have started hosting dog visits during final exams to give frazzled students a break. In many cases, just a few minutes can revive a tired mind.



Researchers stress the importance of ensuring dogs enjoy the interaction. Signs of anxiety or discomfort in pets could prevent the positive effects.



Preparing a calm environment, offering treats, and supervising the sessions can keep everyone happy. It’s a balancing act that respects both human and canine comfort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-stress-with-dog-visits">Managing stress with dog visits</h2>



Experts want to know if repeated dog sessions can bring lasting improvements. Longer studies might track stress relief over entire semesters to see if the benefits accumulate.



Some researchers wonder if these visits spark additional gains, like boosted motivation or a steadier mindset. Others are curious whether multiple short sessions are better than one extended visit. 



Further studies are needed to determine the ideal balance for ongoing stress management.



College life is not about to slow down, but dog visits seem promising for easing at least some of the mental load. Quick, simple sessions can offer a breather when books and deadlines pile high.



These findings encourage schools and organizations to consider how a wagging tail might bring calm to busy people. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0318777" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Petting a dog might be the easiest way to reduce stress

Stress can be exhausting, making even simple tasks feel like...

Extreme heat is taking a toll on livestock agriculture. A new study from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign examines how heat stress affects U.S. dairy farms. 



The researchers found that high temperatures and humidity lead to a 1% annual decline in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk yield</a>. Smaller farms suffer more than large ones, which can adopt management strategies to reduce the effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-heat-on-dairy-cows">Impact of heat on dairy cows</h2>



Study co-author Marin Skidmore is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics at the <a href="https://illinois.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a>.



“Cows are mammals like us, and they experience heat stress just like we do. When cows are exposed to extreme heat, it can have a range of negative physical effects,” explained Professor Skidmore.



"There is an increased risk of infection, restlessness, and decreased appetite, which leads to a decline in milk yield. For dairy producers, the heat impact is a direct hit on their revenue.”



The team studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-types-of-plant-based-milk-are-linked-to-mental-disorders-like-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk production</a> data from nine Midwest states. They analyzed over 56 million cow-level records from 18,000 dairy farms between 2012 and 2016. The researchers adjusted milk data for protein and fat content to better assess milk quality, which determines its market value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-stress-and-dairy-quality">Heat stress and dairy quality</h2>



“Previous studies have focused on fluid milk yield. But in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dairy</a> marketing system, milk is sold on components. When you calculate revenue, it’s not just about how many gallons of milk, but whether it’s high-quality milk with high protein and fat content,” Skidmore said.



The researchers linked milk production records with daily temperature and humidity data. They used temperature-humidity index measurements to gauge how much heat stress cows experience. High heat and humidity make it harder for cows to cool down, leading to reduced milk production.



On average, 1% of annual milk yield is lost to heat stress. That translates to about 1.4 billion pounds of milk over five years for the farms in the study. Based on average milk prices, these losses amount to roughly $245 million in revenue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-farms-suffer-more">Smaller farms suffer more</h2>



Most of the losses occur on low- and moderate-stress days, which happen more often. 



However, extreme heat days have a much greater impact, causing more than twice the dairy milk loss per cow compared to moderate-stress days.



Smaller farms experience the greatest financial burden. The researchers found that herds with fewer than 100 cows lost an average of 1.6% of their annual milk yield. Though these farms contributed less than 20% of the total output in the study, they accounted for 27% of total damages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-combat-heat-stress">Strategies to combat heat stress</h2>



Producers can take steps to reduce heat stress. Open barn sides, fans, and sprinklers can help cool cows. 



“There are a number of different adaptive methods, but there is no silver bullet. You can install more sprinklers and sophisticated ventilation systems. You could change the timing of calving to avoid these warmer periods, but that incurs other risks, and it is a complex issue,” noted Professor Skidmore.



Lower levels of heat stress can be managed with current techniques. Large farms experience minimal losses at those levels. However, when temperatures and humidity rise beyond a certain point, no mitigation strategy is fully effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-projections-and-policy-needs">Future projections and policy needs</h2>



The researchers projected milk yield losses through 2050 using predictions from 22 climate models. The findings suggest extreme heat days will become more common, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-may-transmit-bird-flu-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> yield losses could increase by 30%.



If dairy production remains a priority, small farms will need additional support. Professor Skidmore emphasized the importance of financial incentives to help farmers adopt heat mitigation strategies. Further research will also be necessary to manage extreme heat stress.



“If there's interest in continuing to have a healthy and robust small dairy production presence in the U.S., that probably will require financial incentives to help farmers implement mitigation strategies, as well as investments in further research on how to manage the highest levels of heat stress,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306919225000259?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Policy</a>. The research was funded by a Center for the Economics of Sustainability Seed Grant.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Extreme heat makes dairy cows produce less milk

Extreme heat is taking a toll on livestock agriculture. A...

The spotted lanternfly has become a growing concern across the United States. Since its first detection in 2014, this invasive pest has spread across at least 18 states, wreaking havoc on vineyards, orchards, and nursery industries. 



The damage caused by lanternflies threatens agricultural businesses and the environment, pushing scientists to find effective management strategies.



Traditionally, chemical insecticides have been the primary tool for controlling these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>. However, reliance on chemical solutions comes with risks, including pesticide resistance and unintended harm to beneficial species. 



Researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have been exploring alternative solutions, looking toward nature’s own pest controllers for answers. 



Their study highlights the role of native insect predators in reducing spotted lanternfly populations. The findings suggest that these natural enemies could provide a sustainable and long-term approach to managing the infestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-predators-of-spotted-lanternflies">Natural predators of spotted lanternflies</h2>



Scientists at Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences conducted extensive research to determine which natural predators could help control spotted lanternflies. 



They focused on insects already present in the United States, hoping to identify species that could effectively hunt and reduce lanternfly numbers without the need for chemical intervention.



The team examined the feeding behavior of various predators, including spined soldier bugs, Carolina mantises, and Chinese mantises.



These insects, already known for preying on agricultural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-birds-lose-the-ability-to-fly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>, showed promise in targeting spotted lanternflies. The research suggests that conserving these beneficial predators could serve as a natural and environmentally friendly method for reducing lanternfly populations.



“Our study shows that several native and naturalized predators can consume spotted lanternflies effectively,” said lead researcher and doctoral candidate Anne Johnson, who conducted the study with Kelli Hoover, professor of entomology. 



“By leveraging natural enemies already in the environment, we hope to develop a sustainable, low-impact approach to managing this invasive species that will complement other control methods.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-with-chemical-control-methods">Challenges with chemical control methods</h2>



Current efforts to control spotted lanternflies primarily rely on insecticides. While effective in the short term, these chemicals pose significant risks. 



Over time, pests can develop resistance, making chemical treatments less effective. Additionally, insecticides can harm non-target species, including beneficial insects essential for maintaining ecological balance.



Johnson emphasized that biological control, which utilizes natural predators to regulate pest populations, offers a more sustainable alternative. 



By promoting predator populations, researchers hope to reduce dependence on chemical interventions and create a longer-lasting solution to the lanternfly problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-defenses-of-the-spotted-lanternfly">Natural defenses of the spotted lanternfly</h2>



In its native habitat in southeastern Asia, the spotted lanternfly has natural predators, including parasitic wasps that help regulate its numbers. 



However, introducing foreign species into a new environment requires extensive environmental impact studies and regulatory approvals, which can take years to complete. The <a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> and university researchers are currently conducting these studies to assess potential risks and benefits.



One of the challenges researchers faced was understanding whether U.S. predators could effectively hunt lanternflies. Some invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> develop natural defenses that make them unappealing or even toxic to potential predators.



“The spotted lanternfly’s ability to sequester toxins from its preferred host, the tree of heaven, raises concerns about its vulnerability to predators,” Johnson said. 



“We hypothesized that the spotted lanternfly might harness the tree’s bitter-tasting chemical compounds as a defense mechanism that could protect them against predation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predator-efficiency-in-controlled-settings">Predator efficiency in controlled settings</h2>



To evaluate the effectiveness of different predators, Johnson and Hoover tested ten generalist species, including spined soldier bugs, praying mantises, wheel bugs, lady beetles, and lacewings. Each predator was placed in an enclosure with either 25 spotted lanternfly nymphs or 10 adults for a week.



The results showed that spined soldier bugs and two praying mantis species were the most successful at reducing lanternfly populations. Regardless of the lanternflies’ life stage, these predators actively hunted and consumed them.



Eight-spined soldier bugs proved particularly efficient. They hunt in groups, allowing them to attack and consume prey more effectively. In controlled experiments, these bugs eliminated all lanternflies in their enclosures within three to four days. 



Additionally, researchers found that the predators consumed spotted lanternflies regardless of whether they had fed on tree of heaven or alternative host plants.



“These findings are fascinating because they suggest that natural predators could be incorporated into integrated pest management strategies,” Johnson said. “By conserving and encouraging populations of these beneficial insects, we may be able to reduce the use of chemical controls.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-lanternfly-predators">Observations of lanternfly predators </h2>



Before conducting their controlled experiments, researchers gathered data from community science efforts. 



From 2020 to 2022, Johnson invited the public to report sightings of birds and insects preying on spotted lanternflies. Through social media platforms like Facebook, nearly 2,000 reports were collected. These observations provided scientists with valuable clues about which predators to study in greater detail.



This collaboration between researchers and the public helped confirm that native insects could be effective in spotted lanternfly control. While anecdotal reports do not replace laboratory testing, they offer useful insights that can guide future research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-standalone-solution">Not a standalone solution</h2>



While the study’s findings are promising, Johnson and Hoover stress that predator-based control methods should not be seen as a standalone solution. 



The next phase of research will involve field experiments to assess how well these predators perform in natural environments where variables such as weather, prey availability, and habitat conditions play a role.



“While these insects could help keep spotted lanternfly populations in check someday, we recognize that their impact may be limited by consistent presence of sufficient prey and the use of insecticides that can also kill these generalist predators,” Hoover said. 



“Therefore, they should be considered part of a broader integrated pest management strategy rather than a standalone solution.”



Johnson recommends that those interested in additional management techniques consult Penn State Extension’s Spotted Lanternfly Management Guide, which provides practical solutions for controlling the pest. The guide is available for download from the extension website.



The research was a collaborative effort, bringing together experts in entomology and ecology. The study was co-authored by Sara Hermann, a professor of arthropod ecology at Penn State.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11829-025-10138-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arthropod-Plant Interactions</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Native insects can lead the battle against the spotted lanternfly

The spotted lanternfly has become a growing concern across the...

The natural world faces a biodiversity crisis, but conservation efforts have shown promising results. A major review of over 67,000 animal species highlights both the successes and the urgent need for action. 



The study, based on data from the IUCN Red List, emphasizes that targeted measures can bring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-earths-biodiversity-can-be-tracked-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> back from the brink of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-needs-urgent-conservation-efforts">Biodiversity needs urgent conservation efforts</h2>



The world is losing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-must-reconnect-with-nature-now-to-save-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> at an alarming rate. About 28% of over 160,000 assessed species are threatened with extinction.



Human activities have put nearly one million species at risk. However, conservation efforts can succeed when backed by evidence-based strategies.



A team led by the University of Cambridge, in collaboration with IUCN, BirdLife International, and other institutions, examined whether conservation measures improved species' survival.



They found that efforts such as habitat protection, breeding programs, and legal protections have helped many species recover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-boosts-biodiversity-recovery">Conservation boosts biodiversity recovery</h2>



“We found that almost all the species that have moved from a more threatened category to a less threatened category have benefitted from some sort of conservation measures. It’s a strong signal that conservation works," said lead author Ashley Simkins, a PhD candidate at Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Zoology</a>.



While no single solution fits all cases, some patterns emerge in successful conservation stories. Many recovering species live in isolated areas, such as islands, where conservation efforts can be fully implemented. 



These strategies include habitat restoration, breeding programs, and reintroductions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-success-stories-in-wildlife-recovery">Success stories in wildlife recovery</h2>



Despite the biodiversity crisis, several species have made remarkable recoveries through conservation efforts. The Iberian lynx, once the world’s most endangered cat, has grown from a few hundred individuals to a few thousand. 



The kākāpō, a flightless parrot from New Zealand, has benefitted from dedicated recovery programs. The European bison, which was hunted to extinction in the wild in the early 20th century, now roams parts of Eastern Europe due to sustained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



Marine species have also seen dramatic recoveries. Humpback and blue whales, once on the brink of extinction due to commercial whaling, have made a comeback following international bans on whaling. 



Challenges remain, however, considering that six times more species are currently declining than improving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventative-conservation-measures">Preventative conservation measures</h2>



Conservation researchers stress the importance of proactive measures over emergency interventions. 



“Humans have gotten pretty good at what could be considered ‘A&amp;E’ conservation – focusing on species at very high risk of extinction,” said Simkins. 



“What we’re less good at is preventing species from becoming threatened in the first place. We need to move beyond treating the symptoms of biodiversity loss and start addressing the root causes.”



Preventative conservation is often more cost-effective and successful in the long term. Protecting habitats, controlling invasive species, and regulating human activities can help species before they reach critical endangerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-community-led-conservation-efforts">Community-led conservation efforts</h2>



Researchers emphasize the importance of collaborative conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landscapes-with-a-mix-of-habitats-are-biodiversity-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a>.



In Papua New Guinea, conservationists worked with local communities to replace tree kangaroo hunting with sustainable farming and fishing. This approach benefited both people and wildlife.



“It’s vital that we as conservationists are working with stakeholders, rather than dictating to them, whether that’s an Indigenous community in Papua New Guinea or a farmer in Somerset,” said Simkins. 



“Conservation doesn’t have to be a zero-sum game – there are compromises that can benefit both the natural world and human society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-to-save-biodiversity">Conservation to save biodiversity </h2>



Despite constant reports of wildlife decline, conservation efforts continue to make a real impact. 



“In this climate of constant stories about wildlife declines and insufficient political action to protect nature, it’s important to realise that there are also many success stories and that conservation efforts are making a real, demonstrable impact in the world,” said co-senior author Dr. Silviu Petrovan. "Conservation works if given the chance.”



Study co-author Dr. Stuart Butchart, Chief Scientist at <a href="https://www.birdlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdLife International</a>, noted that this research sheds light on which actions to save species have been effective, and what interventions are needed.



“Governments need to turn their words into actions and rapidly scale up efforts to save species from extinction and help populations to recover. Safeguarding our natural heritage for future generations depends upon this," said Dr. Butchart.



“Almost everyone will have their own favourite example of a conservation success story, whether it’s the bald eagle in North America or the red kite in the UK,” said Simkins. 



“We need joint action to ensure these positive stories aren’t the exception – they’re the norm.”



The research received support from the Natural Environment Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/nerc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NERC</a>), part of UK Research and Innovation (<a href="https://www.ukri.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKRI</a>).



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003051" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Conservation success stories offer hope for biodiversity

The natural world faces a biodiversity crisis, but conservation efforts...

While dogs may be man's best friend, poultry is often his favorite meal. From backyard coops to commercial farms, poultry farming has shaped human civilization and food culture. National Poultry Day, celebrated every year on March 19, is a tribute to the industry, the farmers, and, of course, the birds themselves. 



Whether you enjoy a hearty chicken dinner or prefer eggs at breakfast, this day highlights the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-has-killed-20-million-chickens-in-the-u-s/">role of poultry</a> in daily life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-and-importance-of-poultry">Origins and importance of poultry</h2>



Poultry farming has deep historical roots, dating back thousands of years. Chickens are believed to have originated from wild jungle fowl in Southeast Asia and were domesticated over 8,000 years ago. 



Early civilizations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, recognized the value of these birds for their meat and eggs. As trade routes expanded, poultry spread across the globe, becoming a crucial food source in many cultures.



In the United States, poultry farming began with European settlers in the 16th century. Chickens, turkeys, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> were raised in small flocks to provide eggs and meat for families. 



During World War II, poultry became even more significant as beef and pork were rationed, leading to an increase in chicken consumption. 



Over time, poultry farming evolved from small backyard operations to a massive industry that feeds millions of people worldwide. Today, poultry remains a primary source of affordable, high-protein food, with the U.S. producing nearly nine billion chickens annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-day-to-celebrate-poultry-in-every-form">A day to celebrate poultry in every form</h2>



National Poultry Day is the perfect occasion to enjoy a variety of poultry dishes. Breakfast can start with eggs, omelets, or turkey bacon. Lunchtime offers opportunities to indulge in chicken sandwiches, grilled turkey, or duck salads. 



By dinnertime, options expand to roast chicken, fried chicken, or even a flavorful pheasant stew. Poultry is one of the most versatile meats, prepared in countless ways, including grilling, roasting, frying, sautéing, steaming, and baking.



Beyond its culinary appeal, poultry is also a healthier alternative to red meat. Chicken and turkey, in particular, are lower in fat and cholesterol, making them excellent choices for those looking to maintain a balanced diet. 



The high protein content supports muscle growth, while essential nutrients like B vitamins, iron, and zinc contribute to overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fun-facts-about-poultry">Fun facts about poultry </h2>



Poultry is more than just food - it’s a world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-preservation-method-slows-down-bacterial-growth-in-meat-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fascinating creatures</a> with unique traits. Chickens may not be known for their flying abilities, but they can take short, low flights to escape predators. 



Ducks, on the other hand, are built for water, with waterproof feathers coated in a special waxy oil. This natural adaptation allows them to stay dry even while floating for hours.



Male and female poultry also have distinct names. A male duck is called a drake, while a female is a hen. Similarly, a male chicken is a rooster, and a female is a hen. 



Groups of birds have unique collective names as well. A group of chickens is known as a brood or peep, while a group of ducks in the water is called a paddling.



If ducks take flight, they form a flock, and once they land on the ground, they may be referred to as a brace or badling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-celebrate-national-poultry-day">How to celebrate National Poultry Day</h2>



People celebrate National Poultry Day in various ways, depending on their love for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>. Some take the opportunity to cook their favorite poultry dishes, while others use the day to try new recipes. 



Traditional meals like herb-roasted turkey, chicken enchiladas, and turkey pot pie gain popularity as people experiment with flavors. Those interested in sustainable living might consider visiting a local poultry farm to see firsthand how these birds are raised.



Restaurants and food establishments also join the celebrations, offering special poultry-themed menus. Some communities organize events where people can learn about poultry farming, nutrition, and even backyard chicken keeping. 



On social media, food lovers share their best poultry meals with the hashtag #NationalPoultryDay, showcasing creative ways to prepare chicken, duck, and turkey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legendary-poultry-festival">A legendary poultry festival</h2>



One of the biggest National Poultry Day celebrations happens in Versailles, Ohio. 



This small town has hosted a Poultry Festival since 1951, transforming what began as a local event into a nationally recognized celebration. Originally a one-day gathering, the festival expanded into a weekend-long event by 1962.



Each year, thousands of visitors flock to Versailles to indulge in delicious poultry dishes, enjoy live music, and participate in fun activities. 



One of the festival’s highlights is the world's largest omelet cook-off, where chefs prepare an enormous omelet using hundreds of eggs. The event also features barbecue pits, beer tents, and poultry-themed contests.



Beyond the festivities, the <a href="https://www.versaillespoultrydays.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Versailles Poultry</a> Festival plays an important role in the local community. The event generates funds for maintaining Heritage Park, a 40-acre space with sports fields, ponds, and shelter houses. 



Over the past decade, the festival has donated more than $700,000 to various charities, making it a celebration that gives back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-national-poultry-day-matters">Why National Poultry Day matters</h2>



National Poultry Day is more than just an excuse to enjoy a good meal. It is a day to recognize the farmers who dedicate their lives to raising poultry, ensuring a steady supply of eggs and meat for people around the world. 



It also highlights the importance of sustainable farming practices, humane animal care, and the nutritional benefits of poultry consumption.



As the global population continues to grow, poultry farming will remain a crucial part of food security. The efficiency of poultry production compared to other livestock makes it a vital source of protein for millions of people. 



So, on March 19, take a moment to savor your favorite poultry dish, share your love for chicken, turkey, or duck, and celebrate the birds that have been feeding humanity for centuries.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

National Poultry Day 2025: Honoring the birds that feed the world

While dogs may be man's best friend, poultry is often...

Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that are found in diverse environments all over the world. They have long been considered to show fixed behavioral patterns, for example feeding on a diet of bacteria and other microbes.



However, new research has revealed that they switch to predatory behavior if suitable prey (such as other nematode worms) are available in the environment. This indicates that their behavior is far more adaptable than previously thought.



Over multiple generations, these tiny organisms demonstrated a striking ability to shift entirely to a predatory lifestyle, based on environmental exposure to suitable prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nematodes-develop-predatory-instincts">Nematodes develop predatory instincts</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.bio.mpg.de/2923/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Biology Tübingen</a> conducted an experiment spanning 101 generations of nematode worm lineages in which the worms were exposed to alternative food sources.



The dietary shift led to a complete transformation in their behavior, with all test lines adopting 100% predatory tendencies, and demonstrating an unprecedented level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-species-adaptability-shapes-long-term-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptability</a>. Interestingly, the change in diet was also accompanied by a change in the form of the mouth, with a wider mouth being associated with a predatory diet.



The rapid and consistent response contradicts the idea that predatory traits are fixed and highlights the profound role of environmental influence in shaping behavior and evolutionary pathways over extended periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nematodes-pass-down-predatory-traits">Nematodes pass down predatory traits</h2>



The study also explored how nematodes retain behavioral changes across generations. Researchers found that at least five generations of exposure were required to establish lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-early-animal-evolution-start-with-predatory-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predatory behavior</a>. 



This suggests that organisms can inherit environmental responses, which could have implications in other species beyond nematodes. It potentially reshapes perspectives on adaptation and the plasticity of behavioral traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-micrornas-and-adaptation">MicroRNAs and adaptation</h2>



A deeper look into the genetic mechanisms behind this shift revealed the involvement of microRNAs. The miR-35 family, in particular, played a key role in passing down behavioral traits by interacting with the EBAX-1 gene. 



This discovery links genetic regulation to behavioral shifts, and offers a new perspective on how species adapt and evolve over time.



“This research opens new avenues in the understanding of behavioural plasticity,” said Shiela Quiobe, doctoral researcher and first author of the study.



“This discovery was completely unexpected, and now it’s exciting as we’re just scratching the surface in understanding the microRNAs' mechanisms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-beyond-the-individual">Evolution beyond the individual</h2>



The implications of these findings extend beyond nematodes. Dr. Ralf Sommer, Director of the Department of Integrative Evolutionary Biology and lead author of the study, highlights the study's significance.



“The long-term environmental induction experiment is a novel approach in the context of phenotypic plasticity to show that environmental responses can be important for longer evolutionary periods.” 



“The fact that we see a phenomenon where you really need multi-generational exposure to induce such memory indicates that there might be more crosstalk between ecology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-law-of-nature-explains-the-evolution-of-everything-that-exists-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>,” he added.



These results challenge traditional views on evolution and predatory strategies, emphasizing the importance of ecological factors in shaping genetic adaptations. 



They suggest that environmental pressures play a more active role in guiding evolution than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-impact-of-environmental-changes">Lasting impact of environmental changes</h2>



The study raises intriguing questions about the mechanisms behind this inherited predatory behavior. 



Scientists plan to conduct follow-up research to investigate the molecular targets of microRNAs and identify the bacterial agents responsible for triggering this adaptation. 



Understanding these processes could provide new insights into the long-term impact of environmental changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nematodes-use-chemistry-to-survive-and-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-theory">Implications for evolutionary theory</h2>



The findings from this study challenge long-held assumptions about evolution, particularly the balance between genetic determinism and environmental influence. 



Traditionally, evolutionary changes have been viewed as slow, being driven by random mutations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> over thousands or millions of years. However, this research suggests that behavioral shifts can emerge much more rapidly when organisms experience sustained environmental pressure.



The discovery that nematodes require multiple generations of exposure before fully adopting a predatory lifestyle highlights the role of epigenetics in shaping evolutionary paths. 



It also raises the question of how other species might exhibit similar inherited behavioral adaptations in response to environmental changes. Could this mechanism explain shifts in feeding behaviors, migration patterns, or survival strategies in larger organisms?



Understanding how microRNAs contribute to behavioral plasticity could also have applications in biotechnology and medicine.



 If similar regulatory pathways exist in other species, scientists may be able to manipulate gene expression to influence adaptive traits, potentially aiding in conservation efforts or even addressing neurodevelopmental disorders linked to gene regulation.



This study paves the way for future research into the interplay between environment, genetics, and behavior, and offers new perspectives on how organisms evolve in response to their surroundings.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu0875">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nematodes can rapidly shift to predatory behavior for survival

Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that are found in diverse environments...

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary. It has brown feathers, a slender beak, and a characteristic strut like other doves. 



Compared to Cuba’s colorful parrots, it might seem unremarkable. However, this bird has long puzzled biologists. Scientists have struggled to determine its origins, how it arrived on the island, or what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> it is related to.



For the first time, researchers have sequenced the bird’s DNA to uncover its history. Instead of clear answers, they found more confusion.



“This species has been an ornithological enigma for a very long time,” said Jessica Oswald, a Florida Museum of Natural History consultant staff affiliate and lead author of the study. 



“We focused on this dove species because we were anticipating an odd result that may help us understand the complex biogeography of the Caribbean. We did not anticipate it being so unique from an evolutionary perspective relative to anything else.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-evolutionary-lineage">A unique evolutionary lineage</h2>



Scientists once believed the blue-headed quail dove was related to doves and pigeons from Central and South America. Some features, however, seemed more similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-undisturbed-forests-support-greater-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> from Australasia. Recent genetic analysis has disproved both theories.



The study shows that this dove is not closely related to species in Australia or the Americas. Instead, it stands apart from all known doves and pigeons.



“This species is even more evolutionarily distinct than the dodo was,” Oswald said. The dodo, also a type of dove, had at least one close relative, the Rodrigues solitaire, before both went extinct.



DNA evidence, along with fossil analysis, suggests that the blue-headed quail dove’s lineage may be as old as 50 million years. In comparison, humans and chimpanzees diverged just 5 to 6 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-history-of-caribbean-extinctions">The history of Caribbean extinctions</h2>



Oswald conducted this research as part of a broader <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> initiative to understand bird extinctions in the Caribbean.



About 12% of all Caribbean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-heliconia-species-are-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> have disappeared since humans arrived. These include a nearly four-foot-tall giant owl, over a dozen parrot species, a raptor larger than a bald eagle, a flightless ibis that fought with its wings, and a condor with a powerful bite.



Scientists have struggled to determine how these extinct birds relate to modern species. Oswald developed new methods to extract and sequence DNA from fossils, helping connect extinct and living birds.



Early tests on a Caribbean cave rail fossil revealed a previously unknown evolutionary link to birds in Africa, New Guinea, and New Zealand. A later study showed that a parrot, now restricted to Hispaniola, once lived across the Caribbean before human activity reduced its range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-is-nearing-extinction">Cuban dove is nearing extinction</h2>



Though not extinct, the blue-headed quail dove faces serious threats.



“There are 1,000 mature individuals of this species left in Cuba. It is threatened by overhunting by people, habitat loss and invasive species like cats. It’s very much on the brink,” Oswald said.



Due to its rarity, no one had sequenced its DNA before. Most specimens in North American museums were collected decades ago, making DNA extraction difficult. 



Oswald used a technique she developed for fossils, applying it to a toe pad from a specimen collected in 1958, and anxiously awaited the DNA results.



“She called me up and said, ‘Are you sitting down?’ I thought she was going to tell me they didn’t get any good sequencing and had no data, but it was just the opposite,” said study co-author David Steadman, former curator of ornithology at the Florida Museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-value-of-museum-specimens">Value of museum specimens</h2>



Steadman spent decades witnessing advancements in DNA technology. He sees this study as proof that museum collections remain vital for modern research.



“It’s another instance of the importance of museums and the long-term maintenance of specimens. As ancient DNA techniques have improved, we find that fossils, historical and modern specimens are even more useful than before.”



Oswald and Steadman were surprised by the results. Other Caribbean doves have known origins, with ancestors from North, Central, or South America. The blue-headed quail dove, however, remains a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuban-dove-may-be-the-last-of-its-kind">Cuban dove may be the last of its kind</h2>



“It’s a relictual species and has probably been in the Caribbean for a long time. Cuba is an old island,” Steadman said.



The dove's origins remain uncertain. It may be the last survivor of an ancient lineage, as genetic evidence suggests, or an isolated offshoot of another dove species stranded in Cuba long ago.



Despite its preference for ground living, its ancestors likely had the strong flight ability that allows doves and pigeons to spread across vast distances.



“There are some groups of birds that are spectacular dispersers, one being pigeons and doves. They just get up and go,” Oswald said. “Many are particularly good dispersers because they eat a lot of fruit and sometimes have to move large distances to look for fruiting trees.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-the-cuban-dove">The future of the Cuban dove</h2>



The blue-headed quail dove remains an evolutionary puzzle. While its origins are uncertain, its future is even more precarious. 



With its population dwindling, conservation efforts may be the only way to prevent it from following the dodo into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a>.



Researchers from multiple institutions contributed to this study, including Bret Boyd from&nbsp;<a href="https://lifesciences.vcu.edu/directory/boyd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Commonwealth University</a>, Avery Szewczak and Julie Allen from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biol.vt.edu/People/Faculty.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, Michelle LeFebvre and Rob Guralnick from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, and Brian Stucky from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0464" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Image Credit: Florida Museum photo by Kristen Grace.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rare dove is not related to any other birds we know today

At first glance, the Cuban blue-headed quail dove appears ordinary....

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees, the most self-aware of the great apes. However, new research suggests that gorillas may possess similar levels of self-awareness, even though they typically fail the well-known mirror test.



A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>, the University of Vienna, and the University of Amsterdam studied chimpanzees and gorillas at Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem.



The study indicates that gorillas are able to identify their own bodies as barriers, similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-gorillas-can-form-lasting-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-mirror-test">Rethinking the mirror test</h2>



One of the most common ways scientists measure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-awareness</a> is through the mirror test. In this test, an animal receives a small mark on its body that it can only see by looking in a mirror. If the animal touches or tries to remove the mark, it suggests they recognize their reflection.



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-baboons-fail-to-recognize-themselves-in-mirrors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mirror test</a> works well, but it's not suitable for all animals," said study co-author Jorg Massen. "Some animals don't rely much on vision and may dislike looking at faces. These species might fail the mirror test even if they are self-aware."



Gorillas are one such species. They usually score poorly on the mirror test, possibly because they tend to avoid direct eye contact. 



Looking in a mirror may feel unnatural or uncomfortable for them. But does this mean they lack self-awareness? Massen and his team decided to find out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-seem-to-be-self-aware">Gorillas seem to be self-aware</h2>



To explore body awareness in gorillas, the researchers designed a new test. In the experiment, both gorillas and chimpanzees had to open a box lid to retrieve food.



However, in some cases, the box was placed on a pole, forcing the animal to sit on the lid itself. To get to the food, they had to realize their own body was blocking access.



"This is a basic form of body awareness. In humans, this develops at around 1.5 years old," explained Massen.



The results were striking. Both gorillas and chimpanzees figured out the task equally well. "What stood out was that both species quickly realized they needed to move off the box to open it," said Massen.



"This shows they were aware of their own bodies as an obstacle. So the fact that gorillas usually perform poorly in mirror tests doesn't mean they lack self-awareness."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-self-aware-gorillas">Significance of self-aware gorillas </h2>



Massen and his team argue that scientists should expand their approach to studying self-awareness in animals. 



"Thanks to this body awareness test, we now know more about the inner life of gorillas, which may be richer than we previously thought, or at least had scientific evidence for," said Massen.



Using different types of tests could also shed light on how self-awareness evolved. Some scientists believe self-awareness emerged early in the common ancestors of humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-will-suffer-through-frequent-and-extreme-climate-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. 



Others think it may have developed separately in different ape species. Ongoing studies aim to determine whether chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-have-the-cognitive-ability-to-make-and-use-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, and other primates share the same kind of self-awareness.



"It's possible that apes have a similar type of self-awareness, but it could also be quite different. By combining different tests, we can better understand these differences," noted Massen.



This study also challenges how we define self-awareness. "Animals we often consider 'less intelligent' may actually have more complex thoughts than we imagine," Massen added.



By looking beyond the mirror test, scientists may uncover deeper insights into how animals understand themselves - and, ultimately, how human self-awareness evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-self-awareness-in-apes">Evolution of self-awareness in apes</h2>



The results of this research generate new questions regarding the development of self-awareness in great apes.



If gorillas are able to exhibit body awareness comparable to chimpanzees, yet fail mirror tests, then it may be that various species present self-awareness in different ways. This questions the long-standing theory that mirror recognition is the absolute indicator of an animal’s self-awareness.



Some experts propose that self-awareness is a spectrum, not an all-or-nothing personality. While chimpanzees might be expert visual self-recognizers, gorillas may be more dependent on spatial and physical self-awareness, which would just be as crucial for survival in their native habitats.



By expanding the ways that research is conducted, scientists can get a better idea of how various species perceive themselves and their environment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.70010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Primatolog</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Are gorillas self-aware? New research challenges old assumptions

For years, scientists believed gorillas were less self-aware than chimpanzees,...

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are showing a surprising genetic resistance to a virus that has weakened their species for generations. 



Scientists have discovered that some of these koalas have developed a unique genomic immunity to the retrovirus that suppresses their immune system and makes them more vulnerable to infections like chlamydia and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-infected-with-a-virus-that-causes-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a>.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> and UMass Chan Medical School made the discovery while studying koala populations in different regions. 



The findings, published in the journal Cell, could be a key step in efforts to protect one of Australia’s most iconic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-hidden-immunity">Koalas’ hidden immunity</h2>



Koalas infected with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-retroviruses-have-been-found-in-koalas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retrovirus</a> are at a higher risk of chlamydia, which has devastated populations in Queensland and New South Wales. 



The virus has also been linked to lymphomas that have caused significant mortality in captive koalas. 



However, scientists found that about 30% of koalas in the Sunshine Coast hinterland have a genetic adaptation that suppresses the virus.



“What we found is that there is a single genetic switch that has been activated in about 30% of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-are-now-officially-listed-as-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">koala population</a> in the Sunshine Coast hinterland, suppressing the retrovirus,” said Professor Keith Chappell, a virologist at the Australian Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology. 



“This is in contrast to what we found in the population on the Gold Coast, where this adaptation is almost completely absent.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-defense-spreading-over-time">A natural defense spreading over time</h2>



The study, led by research fellow Dr. Michaela Blyton, suggests that this adaptive genomic immunity functions similarly to how an immune system strengthens after exposure to pathogens. 



“Because this 'genomic immunity' can be inherited, the discovery suggests koalas with the trait could be used in breeding programs to reduce the susceptibility of other populations to the retrovirus, like on the Gold Coast,” said Dr. Blyton.



The researchers also found evidence that this adaptation is spreading through the northern koala population, though it will take generations to fully establish itself across the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-opportunity-to-study-evolution">A rare opportunity to study evolution </h2>



Professor Chappell explained that retroviruses can alter the genetic code of a species over time. In humans, about 8% of DNA comes from retroviral infections that occurred over millions of years.



In contrast, the koala retrovirus only entered the marsupial’s genome a few thousand years ago, which is considered very recent in evolutionary terms.



“Out of all the species on the planet, this is the only one where we can see a genetic response to a retrovirus in real time, rather than looking at responses to things that got into the genome millions of years ago,” said Professor Chappell.



“This allows the researchers to study exactly how these iconic critters are responding - it’s actually a pretty amazing situation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-adaptations-of-koalas">Genetic adaptations of koalas</h2>



At the University of Massachusetts, Professor William Theurkauf had spent decades studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit flies</a> and their genetic responses to genome invaders. 



When he learned about the koala research, Professor Theurkauf saw clear parallels with his work and an opportunity for collaboration.



Despite the vast differences between fruit flies and marsupials, both studies shed light on how species develop genetic defenses against viral threats.



This trans-Pacific partnership has helped scientists gain deeper insight into how koalas are adapting at the genetic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-stronger-koala-populations">Building stronger koala populations</h2>



The researchers caution that while the retrovirus is not the most immediate threat to koalas, understanding this genetic adaptation could improve conservation efforts. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat destruction</a> and climate change remain the biggest dangers to koala populations.



By identifying populations with a natural resistance to the retrovirus, conservationists can develop targeted strategies to enhance the species' resilience against disease.



Koalas with this trait may be better suited for repopulation efforts in areas where disease has significantly reduced their numbers.



This discovery could lead to breeding programs that prioritize koalas with this genetic resistance, helping to build stronger populations that are less vulnerable to disease. 



Scientists are now eager to explore whether similar adaptations exist in other koala populations across Australia, potentially opening new doors for conservation strategies in the years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425001916" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Koalas in Queensland show signs of immunity to deadly retrovirus

Koalas in a population north of the Brisbane River are...

Jay Falk and Scott Taylor first spotted the white-necked Jacobin hummingbird chick deep in Panama’s rainforest. The tiny bird, smaller than a pinky finger, was covered in brown fuzz. 



When they approached, the chick twitched and shook its head, displaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-found-nesting-in-colonies-have-completely-defied-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> they had never seen in birds before. This movement resembled a poisonous caterpillar found in the same region.



Taylor, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>, and his team described this mimicry in a paper published in the journal Ecology.



“We know so little about what nesting birds do in the tropics,” said Falk, the paper’s first author and a postdoctoral fellow in Taylor’s lab. "But this could be a very common thing if we had dedicated more efforts to observe and discover new things about the natural world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-survival-strategies">Hidden survival strategies</h2>



White-necked Jacobin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> are common in Central and South America. Males have shimmering blue and green feathers, while females have muted green plumage.



The tropical rainforest poses many dangers for small birds, with predators such as snakes, monkeys, birds, and insects. Studies suggest bird chicks in the tropics face higher predation risks than those in temperate forests.



During a trip to Soberanía National Park in 2024, Falk might have uncovered how these tiny hummingbird chicks survive. Despite regularly observing adult Jacobins at his feeders, he had never seen their chicks or nests. 



That changed when co-authors Michael Castaño and Sebastian Gallan-Giraldo found a female Jacobin incubating an egg near a forest trail. The nest, no bigger than Falk’s palm, blended seamlessly with its surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-chick-moves-like-a-caterpillar">Hummingbird chick moves like a caterpillar</h2>



The researchers observed the nest for a month and saw the chick hatch. 



Unlike most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a>, which are born naked, this chick had long brown feathers that made it resemble the nest material. Then, they noticed its strange jerking behavior. Scientists had never recorded such behavior in any hummingbird species.



“I started texting a video to people and asking them, ‘What does this look like?’” said Taylor. “And invariably, they said, ‘That looks like a caterpillar.’ It was very exciting.”



On the chick’s second day, a predatory wasp hovered over the nest while the mother was away. The chick twitched its body and swung its head from side to side, mimicking a caterpillar. A few seconds later, the wasp flew away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-other-species">Lessons from other species</h2>



Falk and Taylor couldn’t help but think of another study. That one was about a bird, the cinereous mourner chick, living in the Amazon. It didn’t just look different - it had an unusual trick.



Covered in bright orange feathers, it closely resembled a toxic caterpillar. When disturbed, it shook its head just like the real thing.



Curious, the researchers turned their attention to Panama’s caterpillars. What they found was striking. Many were covered in brown hairs that weren’t just for show. Those tiny spikes could cause excruciating pain, even death, to predators. 



And just like the hummingbird chick, some of these caterpillars had a habit of shaking their heads when they sensed danger. Was the tiny bird copying them? It certainly seemed possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbird-mimics-a-caterpillar">Hummingbird mimics a caterpillar </h2>



This mimicry strategy, where a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harmless species</a> imitates a dangerous one, is called Batesian mimicry. It is common in butterflies and snakes. For instance, non-venomous milk snakes resemble venomous coral snakes to deter predators.



“A lot of these really classic examples of Batesian mimicry involve butterflies mimicking other butterflies, or snakes mimicking other snakes. But here, we have a bird potentially mimicking an insect, a vertebrate mimicking an invertebrate,” Taylor said.



Though the study was based on a single observation, the team hopes to test their theory by placing artificial chicks with different appearances and behaviors in nests to see which ones avoid predation. They also encourage birdwatchers and citizen scientists to document more hummingbird nests.



“Our perception of the natural world is very biased by our own thoughts about what could be possible,” Taylor said. “It’s incredible what we can discover, but we really have to think broadly.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70060" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hummingbird chick mimics a toxic caterpillar to evade predators

Jay Falk and Scott Taylor first spotted the white-necked Jacobin...

Iguanas have often been observed drifting on vegetation in the Caribbean, including a past 600-mile journey from Central America to the Galapagos.&nbsp;



However, when it comes to extremely long-distance travel, Fiji’s iguanas surpass all others, according to new work by biologists at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and the <a href="https://www.usfca.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of San Francisco</a> (USF).



The study shows that, at some point after approximately 34 million years ago, the ancestors of the Fiji <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/calotes-wangi-new-iguana-species-identified-in-china/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iguanas</a> arrived on the South Pacific islands following a 5,000-mile voyage from the western coast of North America. This feat stands as the longest recorded oceanic journey by any land vertebrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overwater-dispersal-and-its-significance">Overwater dispersal and its significance</h2>



Overwater dispersal is the primary means by which newly formed islands become populated by plants and animals, paving the way for the emergence of new species and distinct ecosystems.&nbsp;



This puzzle of how life colonizes distant islands has intrigued scientists since the time of Charles Darwin, who put forth the theory of evolution by natural selection.



According to the experts, the arrival of these iguana ancestors likely coincided with the volcanic origins of the Fiji archipelago.&nbsp;



The researchers estimate that the iguanas’ landing time - 34 million years ago or slightly later - matches the date of the genetic split between Fiji’s Brachylophus iguanas and their nearest relatives, Dipsosaurus desert iguanas in North America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-fiji-s-iguanas-nbsp">Mystery of Fiji’s iguanas&nbsp;</h2>



In earlier work, scientists speculated that Fiji iguanas might hail from an older lineage once spanning the Pacific, leaving Brachylophus as the single iguana genus in the western Pacific after the rest died out.&nbsp;



Some theorized they could have traveled by land and sea from South America or via Australia, but genetic and fossil data offered no support for that. The new research dismisses those ideas.&nbsp;



Study lead author Simon Scarpetta is a herpetologist and paleontologist who is a former postdoctoral fellow at UC Berkeley.



“We found that the Fiji iguanas are most closely related to the North American desert iguanas, something that hadn’t been figured out before, and that the lineage of Fiji iguanas split from their sister lineage relatively recently, much closer to 30 million years ago, either post-dating or at about the same time that there was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-giant-volcanic-eruptions-alter-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> that could have produced land,” said Scarpetta.&nbsp;



“That they reached Fiji directly from North America seems crazy,” said co-author Jimmy McGuire, a UC Berkeley professor of integrative biology and herpetology curator at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. "But alternative models involving colonization from adjacent land areas don’t really work for the time frame, since we know that they arrived in Fiji within the last 34 million years or so." 



"This suggests that as soon as land appeared where Fiji now resides, these iguanas may have colonized it. Regardless of the actual timing of dispersal, the event itself was spectacular.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-iguanas-voyage-to-fiji">The iguanas’ voyage to Fiji</h2>



Whereas modern sailors can harness favorable winds to travel from California to Fiji in about a month, an iguana (or a group of them) would probably have drifted for far longer on uprooted plant life, crossing the doldrums and equator to arrive in Fiji and neighboring Tonga, where these iguanas live.&nbsp;



Luckily, iguanas are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-are-not-always-harmful-in-new-territories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a> adept at going without food or water for extended periods - and vegetation rafts may have provided them with nourishment.



“You could imagine some kind of cyclone knocking over trees where there were a bunch of iguanas and maybe their eggs, and then they caught the ocean currents and rafted over,” Scarpetta said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiji-iguanas-as-an-evolutionary-outlier">Fiji iguanas as an evolutionary outlier</h2>



Altogether, more than 2,100 species populate the suborder Iguania, comprising creatures such as chameleons, anoles, bearded dragons, and horned lizards.&nbsp;



The term “iguanas” typically refers to the Western Hemisphere lizards in the family Iguanidae, which includes the familiar green iguana. Forty-five iguanid species live in the Caribbean and in tropical, subtropical, and desert regions of the Americas - including the marine iguanas of the Galapagos and the chuckwallas of the American Southwest.



The Fiji iguanas stand apart, marooned in the Pacific. Four species live on Fiji and Tonga, all listed as endangered because of habitat destruction, invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-greater-sticknest-rat-uses-invasive-weed-african-boxthorn-food-shelter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a>, and illegal exploitation for the pet trade.



In the past, some researchers suggested that a now-lost iguana population once ranged widely around the Pacific Rim, eventually reaching the central Pacific through island-hopping.&nbsp;



They may have traveled by land and sea along the Pacific coast of the Americas, passing through Antarctica, or perhaps they rafted on the Humboldt Current from South America into the South Pacific.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-origins-of-fiji-iguanas-nbsp">Genetic origins of Fiji iguanas&nbsp;</h2>



Previous genetic analyses of a few selected genes proved inconclusive about how Fiji iguanas relate to other iguanids. Then, while a postdoctoral fellow with McGuire, Scarpetta launched a comprehensive survey of all genera in Iguania to clarify the group’s phylogeny.



“Different relationships have been inferred in these various analyses, none with particularly strong support,” McGuire noted. “So there was still this uncertainty about where Brachylophus really fits within the iguanid phylogeny. Simon’s data really nailed this thing.”



Collecting genome-wide sequences from over 4,000 genes, along with tissue samples from more than 200 iguanian specimens archived in museums worldwide, Scarpetta found that Fiji iguanas are most closely aligned with the Dipsosaurus genus.&nbsp;



Their best-known member, the North American desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis, endures the scorching conditions of the American Southwest and northern Mexico, with another related species confined to Santa Catalina Island in the Sea of Cortez.



“Iguanas and desert iguanas, in particular, are resistant to starvation and dehydration, so my thought process is, if there had to be any group of vertebrate or any group of lizard that really could make an 8,000 kilometer journey across the Pacific on a mass of vegetation, a desert iguana-like ancestor would be the one,” Scarpetta said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genomic-data-reveals-dispersal-patterns">Genomic data reveals dispersal patterns</h2>



This genetic evidence clarifies that Brachylophus and Dipsosaurus diverged around 34 million years ago - ruling out earlier conjectures about older Pacific lineages or a South American origin. 



Moreover, since the Fiji Islands also formed near that time, the iguanas’ extraordinary journey aligns neatly with the emergence of volcanic land.



“When you don’t really know where Brachylophus fits at the base of the tree, then where they came from can also be almost anywhere,” McGuire added. 



“So it was much easier to imagine that Brachylophus originated from South America, since we already have marine and land iguanas in the Galapagos that almost certainly dispersed to the islands from the mainland.”



With the new analysis, a South American path can be dismissed. And as the volcanic Fiji Islands appeared roughly 34 million years ago, iguanas possibly found them not long afterward. 



Other South Pacific islands might have supported iguanas at some point, but ephemeral volcanic islands can vanish as fast as they appear, erasing any trace of past populations.



Scarpetta, who has studied reptiles and amphibians from a young age, is continuing to utilize genome-wide data to further unravel the evolutionary relationships and dispersal patterns of iguanian lizards over time.



Image Credit: Nicholas Hess



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Iguanas traveled 5,000 miles from North America to Fiji

Iguanas have often been observed drifting on vegetation in the...

Over the last 20 years, the Gulf of Maine has turned into a hotspot for invasive species, many of which arrive in ship ballast water.&nbsp; These invaders - and the changing environmental conditions that favor them - have reshaped coastal ecosystems, including tidal snail populations.



A recent study has examined how two common snail species (Nucella lapillus and Littorina obtusata) have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snails-defy-death-and-revive-through-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> in response to a major predator: the invasive green crab (Carcinus maenas). 



The key finding is that snails have developed thicker shells, reflecting a shift from short-term, plastic defenses to more durable, genetic adaptations.



The research was co-authored by Geoffrey Trussell, an evolutionary biologist at <a href="https://cos.northeastern.edu/marinescience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University’s Marine Science Center</a> and his collaborator James Corbett.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-invasion-by-a-voracious-predator">Rapid invasion by a voracious predator</h2>



Originally thriving in more southern waters, green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-crabs-help-heat-stressed-corals-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabs</a> have steadily moved north up the Atlantic coast. They feed aggressively on tidal snails, among other prey, and their recent establishment in the Gulf of Maine has placed new pressure on native species.&nbsp;



“Lots of invasive species have arrived on our shores, mostly through ship ballast,” Trussell said. “So you have this confluence of significant environmental changes.”



By comparing snail data collected 20 years apart - first in 1998, when green crabs were still new arrivals, and again in 2018 - the researchers documented a striking shift. Snail shells had become not only thicker, but also less able to adapt flexibly to varying predator threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-nature-of-snail-defenses">The nature of snail defenses</h2>



Previously, many tidal snails displayed phenotypic plasticity: they would grow thicker shells if they detected “risk cues” from predators in their environment, such as chemical signals and hormones emitted by crabs.&nbsp;



In lab tests, snails reared in water near green crabs ended up with a protective, thicker armor compared to those in predator-free tanks.



As green crabs grew more common, this on-demand defense began to shift toward permanent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/subtle-dna-changes-shaped-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic changes</a>. Over generations, snails started producing thicker shells without relying as much on situational cues. While effective at deterring predators, it comes at a cost.&nbsp;



“Back in the early days, if a snail had a thick shell, they had very little soft body mass,” Trussell noted. “If they had a thin shell, they had a lot of body mass.”



Because snails require adequate body mass to carry out vital functions - particularly reproduction - the move toward bigger, heavier shells may reduce their reproductive output.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-behavioral-flexibility">Decline in behavioral flexibility</h2>



In ecology, “plasticity” refers to an organism’s ability to adjust traits in real time based on its environment. In the 1990s, snails in the Gulf of Maine possessed more of this short-term adaptability.&nbsp;



Two decades later, genetic evolution is overshadowing plasticity, suggesting that constant predator pressure and environmental change have steered snails toward more fixed physical traits.



“That body mass has direct effects on things like how many offspring they’re able to produce,” Trussell said. “So that [decreased] behavioral plasticity has huge consequences, not only for how these [snail] communities are structured, but also potentially how their ecosystem functions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-snail-defenses-nbsp">Complexity of snail defenses&nbsp;</h2>



This study underscores the significance of multi-decade ecological monitoring.&nbsp;



“This work highlights the value of going back and revisiting experiments and populations to understand how things have changed,” Trussell explained.&nbsp;



He noted that the new round of experiments repeated the same procedures - and sometimes used the same containers - he relied on in graduate school.



The new data also reveal unexpected complexity within snail species. In some cases, individuals from the same species and sex, collected in the same location, displayed notably different levels of UV reflectance or shell thickness.



This discovery hints at underlying genetic variability and the intricate interplay between environment and heredity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-the-future">Looking toward the future</h2>



Trussell and Corbett plan to repeat the study in 2028, extending the project’s timeline to 30 years. They aim to explore how snail defenses and population structures continue to shift, as both climate change and the green crab invasion persist.



By documenting how these tidal snails evolve, the research offers a broader window into how coastal systems transform under invasive pressure and environmental change.&nbsp;



As certain traits become genetically “locked in,” they reshape the dynamics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey interactions</a> - while also reminding ecologists that prolonged, in-depth observations are often the only way to grasp the full evolution of ecosystems in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr6947" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Sea snails evolved defenses against invasive predators

Over the last 20 years, the Gulf of Maine has...

A team of scientists has recently found an unexpected social twist in the behavior of certain Andean hummingbirds. 



Contrary to their usual reputation for aggressive territoriality, these small, high-energy birds are sometimes nesting close together in a communal fashion. The finding has sparked fascination among ornithologists worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-hummingbird-nesting">Rethinking hummingbird nesting</h2>



Typically, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> are highly aggressive and territorial. But the researchers found that in the harsh environment of the Andes Mountains, a particular species - the Chimborazo Hillstar - appears to forgo territorial aggression and cluster its nests instead.&nbsp;



“It was mind-boggling,” said Gustavo Cañas-Valle, an ornithologist and <a href="https://www.bgsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bowling Green State University</a> (BGSU) alumnus. “I knew hummingbirds were usually very aggressive to each other, so finding them nesting in the same location was amazing.”



The surprising finding left Cañas-Valle’s colleague and co-author Juan Bouzat, a BGSU evolutionary biologist, initially skeptical.&nbsp;



“Hummingbirds are not a species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-are-struggling-to-survive-as-sea-ice-vanishes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">penguins</a> where you see hundreds of them together,” Bouzat said. “These are hummingbirds that live in the High Andes, above 10,000 feet, in a very, very harsh environment above the tree line.”&nbsp;



Yet after years of research, the experts have produced data that demonstrate this unusual social nesting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constraints-of-hummingbird-nesting-sites">Constraints of hummingbird nesting sites</h2>



In seeking to understand this communal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-secrets-of-wild-turkey-nesting-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nesting</a>, the researchers hypothesized that perhaps the Chimborazo Hillstars were simply forced into shared spaces due to limited safe nesting areas in the rugged high-altitude environment.&nbsp;



“The first intuition was to say there might not be enough space - the landscape doesn’t offer them suitable locations to nest in safe, protected places,” Bouzat explained.



To test this hypothesis, Cañas-Valle meticulously surveyed the region, including the possibility that birds might nest alone in ravines or in human-made culverts. If scarcity of safe spots were the only factor, those solitary sites should be fully occupied. But that was not the case.&nbsp;



While some birds did nest alone in culverts, many were left unused. Meanwhile, over 80% of the observed active nests were grouped in colonies with roosting birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-reasons-for-communal-nesting">Evolutionary reasons for communal nesting</h2>



The results point to factors beyond simple habitat shortages. According to the scientists, colonies usually evolve over a long period of time and become socially cohesive, in some cases leading to complex cooperation among individuals.&nbsp;



This suggests that close nesting may enhance reproductive success, the key measure of success in adaptive evolution.



“There is a theory of information exchange as one of the potential explanations for coloniality,” Cañas-Valle said. “This is only speculation right now, but hummingbirds may get easier access to mates and food resources by an exchange of information between members of a colony.”&nbsp;



“Those are the two most important things the hummingbirds gain, while also gaining a safe place to sleep that is slightly away from the harsh winds of the Chimborazo volcano region.”



Getting these findings recognized was not straightforward. Before the paper was accepted for publication, Cañas-Valle had to convince Bouzat, his advisor, that this “colony” of hummingbirds was real.&nbsp;



“It took me probably two years for Juan to say, ‘Well, Gustavo, you convinced me. We can call this gathering of nests a colony from now on,’” Cañas-Valle said. “That was a priceless moment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-evolutionary-adaptations">A window into evolutionary adaptations</h2>



Beyond explaining the immediate puzzle - why hummingbirds would nest together in the Andes - this study may illuminate how harsh environmental pressures can drive unconventional adaptations.&nbsp;



Rather than typical one-on-one territorial aggression, these hummingbirds appear to have adopted a semi-cooperative strategy, enabling them to endure cold, windy conditions above 10,000 feet.



By showing how extreme habitats can shape social behaviors that seem out of character for a species, the BGSU team’s research also opens the door for broader discussions about communal nesting and the ways in which different species can adapt to harsh climates.



For now, the Chimborazo Hillstar stands as a striking example of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-flexibility-unique-traits-help-mammals-survive-mass-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary flexibility</a>, reminding ecologists that even among famously territorial creatures, cooperation can occasionally win out in the face of nature’s most daunting challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ornithology/ukae063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ornithology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hummingbirds found nesting in colonies have completely defied expectations

A team of scientists has recently found an unexpected social...

A predator must eat, but sometimes its meal comes at the cost of livestock. This conflict often leads to the predator’s death. Conservationists have long searched for solutions that protect both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bastetodon-fearsome-predator-was-once-king-of-the-ancient-egyptian-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> and livestock owners.



In Tanzania, fortified enclosures help protect livestock from predators like lions, leopards, and hyenas. 



A recent study by Colorado State University (<a href="https://www.colostate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSU</a>) found that these enclosures do more than just shield animals inside them. 



Instead of seeking easier meals next door, predators avoid entire neighborhoods when chain-link fences replace traditional thorny bomas.



These findings mark a significant breakthrough. The study shows that proactive, non-lethal strategies can reduce human-wildlife conflicts. 



Preserving large carnivores is essential for maintaining ecological balance. Losing apex predators disrupts food chains and harms the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coexistence-of-humans-and-carnivores">Coexistence of humans and carnivores </h2>



Study co-author Kevin Crooks is the director of the CSU Center for Human-Carnivore Coexistence (<a href="https://sites.warnercnr.colostate.edu/centerforhumancarnivorecoexistence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHCC</a>).



"Coexistence between humans and carnivores is a global challenge, and conflict resulting from carnivores attacking livestock is among the most important coexistence threats globally, including here in the Rocky Mountain West and Colorado specifically,” said Crooks.



“Our results provide important evidence of the effectiveness of proactive, non-lethal tools to prevent livestock predation by carnivores, benefiting not just the target household but potentially neighboring households as well.”



Jonathan Salerno, an associate professor at CSU, emphasized that while this method may not work in every location, understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-use-invisible-colors-to-outsmart-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamics</a> is crucial.



"Understanding these dynamics can help guide effective use of conservation resources and support better outcomes for people, livestock and threatened species," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chain-link-fences-reduce-losses">Chain-link fences reduce losses</h2>



A prior study in January revealed that chain-link enclosures significantly lowered livestock losses in areas around Ruaha National Park. This region houses 10% of the world’s African lions, making it vital for conservation efforts.



Predation remains a major threat to small-scale farmers. Those living near the park face a 30% chance of losing livestock to predators each year. Recognizing this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">issue</a>, Lion Landscapes subsidized 75% of the cost of chain-link fences, with livestock keepers covering the rest.



The study’s cost-benefit analysis showed that within five years, livestock owners saved three to seven times their investment in enclosures.



"The break-even point is anywhere from three months to two years, given that the loss of one cow is a substantial amount of wealth,” Salerno said. “So, you reduce the risk enough that the fortified enclosure actually pays for itself relatively quickly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighboring-households-benefit-too">Neighboring households benefit too</h2>



The researchers analyzed 25,000 monthly reports from livestock keepers. The results confirmed that households near those with fortified enclosures also reported fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happens-when-an-apex-predator-goes-missing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> attacks. 



This marks the first time such a beneficial spillover effect has been recorded.



“This research provides scientific evidence about the effectiveness of antipredation interventions, which not only reduce livestock losses but also have positive spillover effects, fostering coexistence between humans and carnivores,” said co-author Joseph Francis Kaduma of <a href="https://www.lionlandscapes.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lion Landscapes</a>. 



“By demonstrating how non-lethal methods can benefit both people and wildlife, the study offers practical conservation solutions that can be scaled to other regions facing similar conflicts worldwide.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predators-nbsp-avoid-fenced-nbsp-areas">Predators&nbsp;avoid fenced&nbsp;areas</h2>



The study does not pinpoint the exact reason why predators avoid these areas. However, Salerno suggested that fortified enclosures make hunting livestock more difficult.



“The neighborhood with three or four enclosures is going to represent more risk or more effort for the carnivore, because they know they can't pull livestock out of the fortified enclosures, though a few leopards will try with a goat or sheep,” he said. 



“It reduces the availability; the night-time livestock buffet is simply less accessible and attractive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-the-livestock-predator-nbsp-balance">Maintaining the livestock-predator&nbsp;balance</h2>



Some may wonder why large parks like Ruaha are not entirely fenced. 



However, enclosing such a vast area would isolate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saber-toothed-predators-evolved-the-perfect-fangs-for-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> and disrupt migration patterns. It would also increase conflicts between conservationists and local communities.



Instead, targeted interventions like fortified corrals present a more practical solution. They reduce livestock losses while allowing carnivores to thrive in their natural habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-for-global-conservation">A model for global conservation</h2>



Lion Landscapes has worked closely with livestock keepers to collect extensive data for these studies. Salerno stressed that gathering similar data from other regions would help conservationists design effective solutions.



“If we gather these data, we can understand what factors are contributing to predation events on a particular ranch, and by accounting for the complexity of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predator-found-in-one-of-the-deepest-parts-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger system</a>, we can start to understand what methods are going to be effective,” he said.



This research highlights how innovative, data-driven strategies can benefit both people and wildlife. By reducing conflict, conservationists can help ensure a future where humans, livestock and predators coexist peacefully.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.13085" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Helping predators and livestock become better neighbors

A predator must eat, but sometimes its meal comes at...

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by comparing flightless species like chickens and ostriches, which walk on two hind legs, or predatory hawks and eagles with their keen senses and sharp talons, to small theropod dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Still, birds have diverged in crucial ways from their reptilian predecessors. One vital turning point was their development of larger brains, which spurred changes in skull size and shape.



Recent work by researchers at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a> demonstrates how these physical transformations affected how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-americas-birds-scientists-declare-a-full-on-emergency-in-the-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> move and utilize their beaks to eat and interact with the world - adaptations that helped them become one of the most diverse lineages on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-nature-of-a-wiggly-skull">Complex nature of a “wiggly” skull</h2>



Unlike many other animals, modern birds, along with certain snakes and fishes, have skulls whose jaws and palates are not firmly fixed in place.&nbsp;



Alec Wilken, a graduate student in integrative biology at the University of Chicago and lead author of this new study, calls this kind of flexible anatomy “wiggly.” He notes that such a trait complicates attempts to understand its function.&nbsp;



“Just because you have a joint there, that doesn’t mean that you know how it moves. So, you also have to think about how muscles are going to be pulling on the joint, what kind of torque they have, and how other joints in the head limit the mobility,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-how-bird-skulls-evolved">Investigating how bird skulls evolved</h2>



Wilken first became involved in this project in 2015 while studying at the University of Missouri. 



There, Casey Holliday, an associate professor of pathology and anatomical sciences, had received support from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) to investigate how bird skulls, jaw muscles, and feeding mechanics evolved from their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaur</a> lineage to modern birds.



Wilken contributed to the research by analyzing data from computer tomography (CT) scans of fossils and existing birds, as well as the skulls of other reptiles such as alligators. 



The gathered data then supported the creation of 3D models that track muscle positions, movements, and the physics of how they operate together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-modern-bird-skulls">Advantages of modern bird skulls</h2>



One distinctive feature of modern birds is referred to as “cranial kinesis,” which is the capacity to move different portions of the skull independently. This affords birds an evolutionary edge, letting them open or expand their palates and use their beaks in various ways.



“Having a wiggly head like this really gives them a lot of evolutionary benefits,” Wilken said. Parrots, for instance, employ their beaks to climb, while other birds break open tough seeds and nuts.&nbsp;



“In some ways, the beak functions like a surrogate hand, but being able to move the palate around while eating is also mission critical to helping them acquire food and survive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-from-dinosaurs-to-birds">The path from dinosaurs to birds</h2>



From analyzing these 3D models, the scientists observed that as non-avian theropod dinosaurs developed increasingly larger brains and skulls, muscles shifted into arrangements that allowed for more mobile palates and jaws.&nbsp;



Consequently, these transformations increased muscle force and supported cranial kinesis in the majority of today’s birds.



“We see this cascade of changes that happened along the dinosaur to bird transition,” said Holliday. “A large part of it hinges upon when birds evolved a relatively large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>. Just like in humans, bigger brains drive a lot of changes in the skull.”



Over time, paleontological findings have shown that the line between dinosaurs and birds is considerably blurred, especially since many dinosaurs sported feathers and some were capable of flight.&nbsp;



However, the scientists noted that truly flexible skulls and palates appeared later than species such as Archaeopteryx, leading them to speculate that cranial kinesis may turn out to be a key factor distinguishing modern birds from more primitive dinosaur-like birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-future-understanding">A blueprint for future understanding</h2>



While it is well established that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric reptiles</a> gave rise to the birds we now see flying overhead, the genetic and mechanical steps along that journey remain a topic of intense investigation.&nbsp;



This latest research strengthens the idea that the interplay between a bigger brain and skull modifications allowed birds to free up their jaws and palates, leading to vast ecological success.



Ultimately, the improved skull flexibility and diversified feeding methods among birds mirror the complicated interplay of evolutionary pressures that have continued since the time of dinosaurs.&nbsp;



The new study represents only one step in unravelling how birds learned to harness their beaks’ capabilities, and how earlier dinosaur species formed the foundation for today’s avian biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2411138122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

‘Wiggly’ skulls helped birds evolve from dinosaurs

Modern birds are closely related to dinosaurs, as seen by...

Scientists have identified a new fossil species of freshwater fish, Ferruaspis brocksi, from a site near Gulgong, in NSW, Australia.



This discovery, led by Dr. Matthew McCurry from the <a href="https://australian.museum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum</a> and <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a>, provides a rare glimpse into Australia’s ancient aquatic life. 



The fossil, which is estimated to be 15 million years old, preserves both the fish's stomach contents and its color patterns. The Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology has published the findings.



Ferruaspis brocksi belongs to the Osmeriformes order, which includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> like the Australian Grayling and Australian Smelt.



It is the first freshwater smelt fossil found in Australia. The species was named in honor of Professor Jochen J. Brocks from the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>, who contributed to fossil discoveries at McGraths Flat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-evolution-of-osmeriformes">Tracing the evolution of Osmeriformes</h2>



Dr. McCurry emphasized that before the discovery of this fossil, scientists lacked evidence to confirm when Osmeriformes first arrived in Australia.



“The discovery of the 15 million-year-old freshwater fish fossil offers us an unprecedented opportunity to understand Australia’s ancient ecosystems and the evolution of its fish species, specifically the Osmeriformes group during the Miocene epoch, 11-15 million years ago,” McCurry said.



Without fossils, researchers could not determine whether these fish had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktaalik-fossil-discovery-sheds-light-on-how-fish-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> significantly over time. This new find provides crucial evidence for understanding how they adapted to ancient Australian waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-the-fish-fossil-reveal">What did the fish fossil reveal?</h2>



The well-preserved fossil reveals fascinating details about the fish’s diet. The stomach contents show that it fed on various invertebrates, mainly small phantom midge larvae. 



This level of preservation is rare and helps scientists reconstruct past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossil-contains-soft-tissue-preserved-for-183-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> with greater accuracy.



“One of the fossils even shows a parasite attached to the tail of the fish. It’s a juvenile freshwater mussel called a glochidium. These juvenile mussels attach themselves to the gills or tails of fish to hitch rides up and down streams,” McCurry added.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_stomach-contents_15-million-years-old_credit-Salthy-Dingo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis_fossil_stomach-contents_15-million-years-old_credit-Salthy-Dingo_1s.webp" alt="A 15-million-year-old fish fossil, Ferruaspis brocksi, with preserved stomach contents. Credit: Salthy Dingo" class="wp-image-1962871"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A 15-million-year-old fish fossil, Ferruaspis brocksi, with preserved stomach contents. Credit: Salthy Dingo</figcaption></figure>



The species’ name reflects its discovery in iron-rich rock. “Ferru” comes from the Latin word “ferrum,” meaning iron, while “brocksi” honors Professor Brocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-scientific-contribution">Honoring a scientific contribution</h2>



Professor Brocks expressed excitement about having this fossil species named after him.



“Collecting fossils at McGrath Flat is a highlight for me every year. Splitting the rust-red slabs of rock is like opening an ancient book, revealing the creatures that inhabited an Australian oxbow lake some 15 million years ago," exclaimed Professor Brocks.



"This little fish is one of the most beautiful fossils there, and finding the first vertebrate among the abundant plant and insect fossils was a real surprise. Having F. brocksi named after me is a real joy.” 



The McGraths Flat fossil site continues to provide remarkable insights into prehistoric life, and contributes to a better understanding of Australia’s ecological past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-the-fish-s-coloration">Revealing the fish’s coloration</h2>



Dr. Michael Frese from the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Canberra</a> and <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a> highlighted another exciting aspect of the research - the ability to determine the fish’s color pattern.



“The fish was darker on its dorsal surface, lighter in color on its belly and had two lateral stripes running along its side,” Dr. Frese said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_illustration_15-million-years-old_credit-Alex-Boersma_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/fish_Ferruaspis-brocksi_fossil_illustration_15-million-years-old_credit-Alex-Boersma_1s.webp" alt="A school of Ferruaspis is chased by the extinct platypus, Obdurodon. Credit: Alex Boersma" class="wp-image-1962873"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A school of Ferruaspis is chased by the extinct platypus, Obdurodon. Credit: Alex Boersma</figcaption></figure>



Using a powerful microscope, scientists identified melanosomes, which are tiny structures responsible for producing color. 



While melanosomes have helped reconstruct the colors of ancient feathers, this is the first time they have been used to determine the color pattern of a long-extinct fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-site-of-exceptional-fossil-preservation">Site of exceptional fossil preservation</h2>



Professor Kris Helgen, Director and Chief Scientist at the Australian Museum Research Institute, praised the ongoing research at McGraths Flat.



“Dr. Matt McCurry’s work at the McGraths Flat fossil site has been outstanding. This is one of many discoveries made at this site, which continues to play a significant role in advancing our understanding of Australia’s evolution during the Miocene era.”



McGraths Flat is one of the rare fossil sites in Australia classified as a "Lagerstätte" - a site with exceptionally well-preserved fossils. 



Located in the Central Tablelands of NSW, it offers a unique window into an ancient rainforest ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-do-fish-fossils-reveal-about-ancient-australia">What do fish fossils reveal about ancient Australia?</h2>



Dr. McCurry explained that fossils from this site, dating back 11 to 16 million years, show that the region was once a temperate, wet rainforest teeming with life. 



These discoveries help scientists reconstruct ancient landscapes and understand the biodiversity of prehistoric Australia.



The initial McGraths Flat expedition in 2017 received funding from a descendant of Robert Etheridge, a renowned English palaeontologist who played a crucial role in developing the Australian Museum’s collections. 



Etheridge launched a series of scientific expeditions that continue today, ensuring that Australia’s rich fossil heritage remains a key focus for researchers.



The discovery of Ferruaspis brocksi is another milestone in understanding how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient species</a> thrived and adapted in Australia’s evolving landscapes.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445684" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>. 



Image Credit: Salthy Dingo



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Stomach contents preserved after 15 million years in fish fossil

Scientists have identified a new fossil species of freshwater fish,...

A new study has found that the H5N1 avian influenza virus is mutating to evade immune defenses in mammals following prior infection or vaccination.



The research, led by <a href="https://www.charlotte.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Charlotte</a>, emphasizes the growing threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">H5N1</a> to both agriculture and public health.



“H5N1 can infect avian and mammalian livestock and jump to humans,” the authors wrote. highlighting that new strains appear increasingly resistant to existing antibodies. This evolution, they caution, suggests that older vaccine formulas may lose effectiveness.



“This study shows a trend of weakening binding affinity of existing antibodies against H5 isolates over time, indicating that the H5N1 virus is evolving immune escape from our therapeutic and immunological defenses,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-shifts-in-bird-flu-virus">Rapid shifts in bird flu virus</h2>



By running large-scale computational models of specific viral proteins binding with neutralizing antibodies, the research team discovered “an overall worsening in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-have-found-powerful-antibodies-that-neutralize-all-covid-variants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibody</a> affinity to more recent H5N1 isolates.”&nbsp;



“If one makes an H5N1 vaccine with a previous vaccine candidate virus, the vaccine will have less efficacy, based on our measurements of how much the virus has evolved in recent years,” explained lead author Colby T. Ford, a visiting scholar at UNC Charlotte’s <a href="https://cipher.charlotte.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks</a> (CIPHER).



Conducted under the guidance of assistant professor Richard Allen White III, and CIPHER co-director Daniel Janies, the UNC Charlotte team joined forces with <a href="https://web.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) researchers Rafael Jaimes III and Phillip J. Tomezsko to explore how the H5N1 virus is adapting so quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mounting-zoonotic-risk">Mounting zoonotic risk</h2>



Analyzing 1,804 antigen-antibody interactions, the researchers examined how the virus’s hemagglutinin subunit changed from 1996 to 2018.&nbsp;



By applying high-performance computational techniques, they tracked the virus’s “antigenic drift” - small cumulative mutations that hamper the effectiveness of immune defenses from earlier infections or vaccines.



The new measurements of how much the bird flu virus has evolved in recent years confirmed that H5N1 is becoming less recognizable to established antibodies.



“These results indicate that the virus has potential to move from epidemic to pandemic status,” wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergence-across-multiple-species">Emergence across multiple species</h2>



Though H5N1 has primarily circulated in birds, it has jumped to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-influenza-h5n1-marine-mammals-spreading-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> and, rarely, to humans.&nbsp;



In the past year, the virus was found in dairy cattle in at least 17 U.S. states, and the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) reported 70 human cases, including one fatality, in the United States since January 2022.&nbsp;



Worldwide, according to the <a href="https://www.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a>, H5N1 has been linked to 466 human deaths since 2003.



Between January 2022 and March 2025, the CDC also documented 12,510 H5N1 outbreaks among wild birds within the U.S., virus detections in 51 jurisdictions and 166,417,923 affected poultry.



Such widespread, cross-species infections strongly indicate that avian influenza can be considered a pandemic among animal populations, raising fears of a future human pandemic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-flu-vaccination-and-public-health">Birds flu vaccination and public health</h2>



In discussing how to avert the looming threat, the authors argue that a new approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/">vaccine</a> development may be needed.&nbsp;



These findings indicate that once the bird flu virus modifies itself significantly, older vaccines will have less efficacy, making it essential to develop and regularly update H5N1 vaccines reflecting the virus’s continuous genetic changes.



Furthermore, the study’s results highlight the power of high-performance computing in mapping viral evolution. By integrating AI-based protein folding with physics-based simulations, researchers can anticipate changes in viral structure and better inform policy decisions.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-s-potential-for-pandemic-status">Bird flu’s potential for pandemic status</h2>



With H5N1 already widespread among wild birds and expanding its foothold in mammalian hosts, the virus’s cross-species jumps present a significant concern.&nbsp;



According to the experts, more robust monitoring, updated vaccination strategies, and ongoing computational analyses will be crucial in mitigating a potential outbreak.&nbsp;



As Janies concluded, computational modeling can help experts “tune our intuition to the right approaches” for vaccine design and intervention strategies before a fast-adapting virus gains an uncontrollable edge.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2025.105632" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eBioMedicine</a>.&nbsp;



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bird flu virus is rapidly evolving to evade immune defenses

A new study has found that the H5N1 avian influenza...

species in Neomphalidae

News coming your way