A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Butterflies are slipping away from the British countryside. Yet hope may lie in some of its most familiar sights: thorny hedges, pocket-sized woods, even a single oak in the middle of a field.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> and <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/">Butterfly Conservation</a> shows that these modest features can lift <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-can-adapt-quickly-but-evolution-has-its-limits/">butterfly</a> numbers in ordinary farmland.



This gives species such as the Speckled Wood and Meadow Brown a fighting chance just as national counts have hit historic lows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-ten-year-countryside-snapshot">A ten-year countryside snapshot</h2>



The research team mined ten years of records from the <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/our-work/recording-and-monitoring/wider-countryside-butterfly-survey">Wider Countryside Butterfly Survey</a>, in which volunteers stroll one-kilometer routes around farmland and record every butterfly they see.



Altogether, they analyzed more than a thousand routes scattered across England. They then matched each one to habitat maps that reach three kilometers in every direction.



Wherever hedgerows, groves, or field trees took up more space on that map, the counts rose. The pattern was clearest in arable regions where otherwise tidy fields leave few wild corners.



Dr. Ruth Feber, lead author of the study, pointed out numbers told only part of the story. 



“As well as demonstrating the importance of trees and hedgerows for biodiversity on farmland, our results also highlighted the relatively lower numbers of butterflies on intensively managed grassland compared to arable land," said Dr. Feber.



Those silage pastures, cut and fertilized for maximum yield, now cover more than a quarter of the country. Even small changes in how they are managed could tip the scales for wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-want-to-help-and-need-support">Farmers want to help, and need support</h2>



The scientists also spoke with 31 farmers who manage land near the survey squares. Most recognized the upside of hedges and shade trees - from sheltering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-grazing-is-changing-soil-plants-and-insect-populations/">livestock</a> to soaking up floodwater.



But nearly expressed concern about the cost and commitment of planting, trimming, and replacing them. That tension sits at the heart of the study.



“It is clear that farmers recognize the importance of these crucial habitats," noted Dr. Feber. "But they need to be supported. We need to recognize that these trees and hedgerows provide public goods which benefit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/">wildlife</a> and people."



She noted that agri-environment payments must stretch beyond basic prescriptions and cover the true expense of keeping woody features healthy for decades. Otherwise, good intentions can wither the moment grain prices tighten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmland-hedges-are-butterfly-highways">Farmland hedges are butterfly highways</h2>



Hedges do more than mark a boundary. Their tangled branches serve as food plants for caterpillars and provide adult butterflies with a buffet of nectar. Thick growth breaks the wind, allowing butterflies to warm up and fly on cooler days. 



Above all, lines of woody cover act as green corridors, guiding insects from one flower-rich patch to another so that no colony becomes isolated.



That highway network is exactly what common butterflies need right now. Fresh figures show that 2024 ranks among the worst years on record. For the first time, more than half of U.K. species have slipped into long-term decline.



“We know that butterflies are in desperate trouble, including our common countryside species. Butterflies are important indicators of wider biodiversity, so actions that help butterflies will also help other declining wildlife,” said Dr. Feber.



“With 70 percent of the U.K.'s land area being farmland, our farmers and landowners play a vital role in helping these species recover, through protecting and restoring hedgerows and trees.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-with-butterflies-in-mind">Farming with butterflies in mind</h2>



Dr. Feber’s group is already probing one promising route. At Northfield Farm near Oxford, cattle are moved daily in a “mob grazing” system that leaves each paddock to regrow for weeks.



“My current project is investigating regenerative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-the-world-without-harming-nature-the-complex-balance-of-farming/">farming</a>, which uses livestock grazing and other practices to help promote soil health and increase soil carbon,” said Dr. Feber. 



“This is receiving increasing attention as an approach to grassland management that might contribute to tackling some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/">climate impacts of agriculture</a>."



Dr. Feber added that more research is needed on how this may impact biodiversity, particularly above-ground invertebrate groups, such as butterflies, moths, and other pollinators.



Early surveys will track whether butterflies bounce back when lush grass is replaced by more varied, flower-rich swards.



“In this system, areas of land are grazed for a short period of time before the cattle are moved on and the pasture allowed to recover,” Dr. Feber said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-need-better-farmland">Butterflies need better farmland</h2>



The study’s message is disarmingly simple: keep - or better yet, expand - the scruffy, butterfly-friendly edges of Britain’s farmlands. A single thorn hedge or an untidy willow clump can be enough to connect the dots for butterflies.



For farmers, the next step is clear financial backing that rewards the effort year after year. For policymakers, it means seeing hedges and field trees as green infrastructure every bit as vital as roads and drains.



Butterflies respond quickly; give them corridors and they will return. The countryside may look pared to the bone, but its recovery could begin with nothing fancier than a line of hawthorn left to bloom or a young oak allowed to stand. Recognizing that these small gestures stitch life back into the land is the first step.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.70042">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Simple farmland features can reverse butterfly declines

Butterflies are slipping away from the British countryside. Yet hope...

New scans of two small predatory dinosaurs reveal a pea-sized wrist bone once thought unique to birds. The research suggests that the engines of flight were revving inside dinosaur arms long before any creature flapped skyward.



The study was led by James Napoli of <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/">Stony Brook University</a> with colleagues at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> and the <a href="https://mas.ac.mn/en/">Mongolian Academy of Sciences</a>. 



The research overturns earlier claims that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/">theropods</a> lacked a bird-like pisiform and raises the possibility that the path to powered flight was, as the authors put it, “all in the wrist.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-wrist-bone-on-the-move">Dinosaur wrist bone on the move</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-modern-bird-lived-in-antarctica-69-million-years-ago/">Modern birds</a> fold their wings automatically when the elbow bends. The hinge works because a tiny carpal called the pisiform migrated from the edge of the wrist to replace another bone, the ulnare. 



Its new spot lets a V-shaped notch clamp the hand bones and stop them from popping loose during vigorous flapping.



For years, paleontologists assumed non-avian dinosaurs never made that switch. Napoli’s team tested the dogma by CT-scanning an exquisitely preserved troodontid, a quick, velociraptor-like hunter. They also scanned an oviraptorid, a beaked omnivore with a long neck.



Digital slices peeled away surrounding rock, isolating each pebble-sized carpal in three dimensions. The images showed a bead-like bone tucked where the pisiform sits in modern birds.



“We believe this is the first time a migrated pisiform in a non-bird meat-eating dinosaur has been identified,” Napoli said. 



The discovery pushes the joint’s redesign back to Pennaraptora, a diverse branch of feathered theropods that includes velociraptors, troodontids, and oviraptorosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flight-link-to-wrist-evolution">Flight link to wrist evolution</h2>



“While we currently do not know precisely how many times dinosaurs learned to fly, it is intriguing that experimentation with flight in these creatures appears only after the pisiform migrated into the wrist joint,” Napoli explained.



“Therefore, it is possible this established the automated mechanisms found in current living birds, though we would need to test this hypothesis with more research and analysis of dinosaur wrist bones.”



The scientists argue that the pisiform’s relocation was gradual. Early pennaraptorans still carried a small ulnare. Later species lost that bone entirely as the pisiform enlarged and took over its role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gradual-wrist-bone-replacement">Gradual wrist bone replacement</h2>



The replacement mirrors other avian traits - hollow bones, enlarged brains, filamentous feathers - that spread outward through theropod evolution before coalescing into true birds.



According to the authors of the study, the findings make clear that the topological and functional replacement of the ulnare by the pisiform occurred much deeper in theropod history than has been previously understood and was a stepwise process.



“Over the past few decades, our knowledge of theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">dinosaur</a> anatomy and evolution has increased exponentially, much of it revealing that classically ‘avian’ traits such as thin-walled bones, an enlarged brain, and feathers, all characterize more inclusive groups of theropod dinosaurs," noted the researchers.



"Our results suggest that the construction of the avian wrist is no exception and follows topological patterns laid down by the origin of Pennaraptora.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scans-reveals-hidden-features">Scans reveals hidden features</h2>



Identifying the bone took both luck and technology. The fossils - discovered in Mongolia’s Cretaceous rocks - had escaped crushing, so their wrist bones lay undisturbed. 



Micro-CT resolution below 50 microns allowed the researchers to trace delicate sutures, distinguishing the pisiform’s spoon-like head and its telltale notch. 



Without such scans, the structure would look like one of several nubs commonly lumped together as generic carpals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wrist-bone-shaped-evolution">Wrist bone shaped evolution</h2>



Flight appears to have evolved at least twice within Pennaraptora and perhaps as many as five times. If the pisiform swap predates those experiments, it may have primed the limb for aerial feats in separate lineages. 



That echoes convergent “upgrades” seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/">pterosaurs</a>, bats, and birds, where wrist and shoulder tweaks unleash new kinematic possibilities.



The finding also casts fresh light on grounded relatives like Velociraptor. Though too heavy to fly, such animals wielded feathered arms for display, brooding, or balance.



A bird-style pisiform would have let them tuck and unfurl their limbs with mechanical efficiency. This hints that the crouched, wing-guarding pose seen in some fossil nests used the same automatic folding action modern roosters employ.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-fossil-finds">Future fossil finds</h2>



Future work will scan additional fossils to see exactly when the pisiform first slid into place. The researchers want to investigate whether the move coincided with feather lengthening or muscle shifts.



They also hope to model forces across the joint to test how much stability the new bone adds during flapping or mantling motions.



For now, the lesson is clear: tiny parts can steer colossal evolutionary leaps. A marble-sized bone drifting a few millimeters may have set the stage for the skies to fill with beating wings. It began inside dinosaur wrists millions of years before the first true birds appeared.



Image credit: Henry Sharpe



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09232-3">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Flight may have started with a tiny dinosaur wrist bone

New scans of two small predatory dinosaurs reveal a pea-sized...

In 1960, a young woman walked into the forests of Gombe with a notebook and binoculars. Jane Goodall didn’t have formal scientific training, but she had a question: what are chimpanzees really like? Her observations would change science forever. 



On July 14 of that year, Goodall saw her first chimp using a stick to fish for termites. Until then, tool use was considered uniquely human. Today, we remember that moment with World Chimpanzee Day.



But this day is not just about honoring Jane’s legacy. It’s about recognizing who chimpanzees are and why they matter. They’re not just fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-curiosity-starts-young-and-helps-us-survive/">animals</a>. They are our closest living relatives, and they need our help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-day-to-focus-on-chimpanzees">A day to focus on chimpanzees </h2>



Chimpanzees don’t just live in the wild. They live full, emotional lives. They use tools, share food, form friendships, and sometimes even hold hands. 



In some places, chimps use leaves like sponges. In others, they sharpen sticks to hunt. Every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">group</a> has its own habits and culture, passed down through generations.



Chimpanzees care for their young for years. They play, tease, and comfort each other. And when a chimp dies, others mourn. One mother carried her infant’s body for days, unable to let go. 



These aren’t instincts on repeat. These are actions driven by memory, emotion, and thought. The more we watch chimps, the more familiar they feel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-chimpanzees">Threats to chimpanzees </h2>



Despite all this richness, chimpanzees are vanishing. Habitat loss is their biggest enemy. Forests are cleared for farming, roads, and mining. As the trees fall, so do the homes and feeding grounds of chimpanzees. 



Illegal hunting also takes a toll. Some chimps are killed for bushmeat. Others are captured and sold as pets or performers.



Diseases passed from humans spread quickly among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-chimpanzee-mothers-raise-babies-more-successfully/">chimps</a>. Unlike us, they don’t have the immunity to fight back. What feels like a harmless cold to a human can be deadly for them. 



Climate change adds pressure too, shrinking food sources and drying up water. Fewer than 200,000 wild chimpanzees remain, and that number is dropping fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jane-goodall-changed-everything">Jane Goodall changed everything</h2>



<a href="https://janegoodall.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Goodall</a> broke the rules of science. She named chimps instead of numbering them. She saw personalities, not data points. There was David Greybeard, the first chimp she saw using a tool. There was Flo, a strong mother, and Flint, her emotional son. 



Goodall didn’t just watch - she listened, and that made all the difference. Her compassionate approach lives on through the Jane Goodall Institute and conservation efforts around the world. 



These programs safeguard forests, support education, and empower future generations. Her legacy proves the power of one person who chooses to truly care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-chimpanzee-day">Take action on World Chimpanzee Day </h2>



You don’t have to be a scientist to make a difference. Start small - learn something new about chimpanzees. Watch a documentary, share a story, or tell a child that chimps laugh and grieve just like we do. The more we understand them, the harder it becomes to ignore their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-copy-strange-useless-trends-just-like-humans-do/">struggles</a>.



Supporting trusted conservation groups can help protect wild habitats. Speaking out against wildlife trade and unethical animal shows can also help. 



Even simple choices, like avoiding unsustainable palm oil, can reduce pressure on forests. Every action matters, no matter how small it seems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-places-new-beginnings">Safe places, new beginnings</h2>



Across Africa, sanctuaries now give rescued chimpanzees a second chance. In Uganda, Ngamba Island houses chimps rescued from illegal trade. 



In Liberia, hundreds of chimps once used in medical research now roam protected river islands. These places do more than provide safety. They offer peace, freedom, and healing.



Many of these chimpanzees arrive fearful and malnourished. With time, they climb again. They play again. They trust again. Sanctuaries remind us that healing is possible - not just for animals, but for the people who help them too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-day-still-matters">Why this day still matters</h2>



World Chimpanzee Day isn’t just a date on the calendar. It’s a moment to stop and remember that chimpanzees are still here - but they’re in danger. 



If we let them disappear, we lose more than animals. We lose their stories, their intelligence, and a part of our own history.



Chimpanzees are more than a species in decline - they’re a reflection of who we are and what we choose to value. World Chimpanzee Day isn’t about sympathy; it’s about connection, respect, and a promise to protect a future we still share.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Chimpanzee Day 2025: Protecting our closest relatives

In 1960, a young woman walked into the forests of...

Hearing,Sounds,Concept,With,Sound-wave,And,Era,Close-up

Roughly one in seven people worldwide hears a ringing, buzzing, or hissing that no one else can detect - a condition known as tinnitus. The sound can fade into the background for many, yet for millions it barges into meetings, movies, and moments of silence alike, stealing focus and fraying patience.



That constant noise often chips away at sleep, mood, and productivity. School-age kids may crank up earbuds to drown it out; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hearing-loss-linked-to-a-greater-risk-of-dementia/">older adults</a> sometimes skip dinners out because clattering dishes feel unbearable. 



By the time most folks reach a specialist, the phantom tone has already woven itself into daily routines, with no sign of moving out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-you-can-t-tune-out-tinnitus">You can't tune-out tinnitus</h2>



“Not being able to get away from tinnitus often results in clinically significant stress and anxiety," comments Christopher Cederroth, a researcher at the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology at the <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>. 



"Some people have problems sleeping, experience social difficulties, and struggle at work; the risk of sick leave and disability pension increases.” 



Every second person with tinnitus also wrestles with sound hypersensitivity that can turn a closing door into a jab of pain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-your-brain-rings">When your brain rings</h2>



The working theory of what causes tinnitus begins deep in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-hearing-loss-be-reversed-in-humans/">ear’s cochlea</a>. 



When hair cells tuned to high pitches die - after a loud concert, a blast, or decades of wear - the brain misses their usual input and cranks up its internal gain. That runaway activity zips along the auditory pathway. 



“Animal studies have shown increased activity in the brain’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10900/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auditory center</a>, but the emotional and cognitive areas of the brain can also contribute to reinforcing tinnitus," explains Cederroth. 



"If we feel stressed, anxious, or think about tinnitus, the activity in the brain’s auditory center increases and the burden accompanying tinnitus is exacerbated."



A <a href="https://ki.se/en/research/research-infrastructure-and-environments/core-facilities-for-research/the-swedish-twin-registry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish Twin Registry</a> study adds another layer: genes appear to carry as much weight as decibels. In men, bilateral tinnitus shows high heritability, hinting that biology can rival environment in shaping risk. 



That genetic backdrop may explain why two friends leave the same concert with different long-term fates - one fine, the other stuck with a whistle that never quits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-sleep-is-no-refuge">When sleep is no refuge</h2>



Many people with tinnitus describe thin, broken sleep. Lab recordings back them up, showing fewer deep sleep waves and more midnight awakenings than peers without the ringing. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-how-slow-waves-boost-memory-formation/">Slow-wave sleep</a> normally hushes large swaths of cortex, yet the relief rarely lasts past sunrise. Stripped of solid rest, the brain’s plasticity can slide in the wrong direction, further locking in the misfiring loops.



Unsurprisingly, those bleary mornings feed a feedback cycle. Fatigue heightens stress, stress heightens the ringing, and round it goes. 



“This ringing is a sign that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drugs-may-be-available-to-prevent-hearing-loss/">damage has occurred</a>, and repeated exposure to noise can result in permanent tinnitus. This even applies to music that you listen to at a moderate volume, because it’s also a question of how often you listen,” Cederroth explains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimizing-the-impact-of-tinnitus">Minimizing the impact of tinnitus</h2>



Avoiding fresh injury is step one. “Many people listen to earphones at high volume in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-gamers-may-be-at-risk-of-irreversible-hearing-loss/">noisy environments</a>, even though their phones warn them with a red indicator when the sound exceeds 85 decibels. This is not good, especially if you are young,” Cederroth adds. 



A single fireworks mishap can do lasting harm, yet everyday habits matter too. Occupational safety experts point out that eight hours at 85 decibels, roughly the roar of heavy traffic a few feet away, already flirts with danger. 



Drop just 3 decibels and the safe exposure time doubles; climb 3 decibels and it is cut in half. The math favors earplugs, breaks, and a finger on the volume slider.



Public-health officials in the United States have tried nudging behavior with smartphone warnings and workplace rules, but uptake remains uneven. 



Hearing-conservation campaigns stress that, once those hair cells die, they don’t grow back. For teens who clock hours of streamed music daily, the advice can sound like another lecture - until the first late-night whistle creeps in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-hopeful-notes">New hopeful notes</h2>



Treatment has shifted far beyond “learn to live with it.” <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/cognitive-behavioral-therapy/about/pac-20384610" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cognitive-behavioral therapy</a> helps patients reframe the sound and lower distress, even if it doesn’t mute the signal itself. 



Cochlear implants, built for profound hearing loss, sometimes silence tinnitus altogether by feeding precise electrical pulses to the auditory nerve. 



German clinics have leaned on Notch music therapy, filtering a listener’s favorite tracks to exclude the narrow band that matches the phantom tone, aiming to starve overactive neurons.



Across the Atlantic, <a href="https://www.lenire.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lenire tinnitus treatment</a> reached U.S. clinics after the Food and Drug Administration cleared it in March 2023. The handheld device pairs gentle electrical taps on the tongue with customized sounds. 



Large-scale trials showed that the pairing can outperform standard sound therapy, and follow-ups in 204 patients echoed the gains. Demand shot up as more centers adopted the approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-tinnitus-treatment">Future of tinnitus treatment</h2>



Researchers now test wearable sound generators that sync clicks to deep-sleep waves, hoping nighttime rhythms will steer plasticity toward quieter maps. 



Others probe targeted magnetic pulses, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vagus-nerve-stimulation-offers-new-hope-for-severe-depression/">vagus-nerve stimulation</a>, and drug candidates designed to calm hyperactive auditory cortex. 



“Through our discovery, I hope that we will be able to develop an effective drug against tinnitus. But we also know that tinnitus is sustained and enhanced by thoughts and emotions," Cederroth concludes.



"I therefore believe that, in order to provide optimal treatment, we must look at tinnitus from an interdisciplinary perspective, and consider tackling the problem from several angles at the same time."



Tinnitus may be a private sound, yet its public cost - missed workdays, strained evenings, empty café tables - adds up fast. 



The sooner society treats tinnitus as a genuine health priority, the sooner that stubborn ring can fade from center stage.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/braincomms/article/4/3/fcac089/6563428?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New hope for hundreds of millions of people who suffer from constant ear ringing

Roughly one in seven people worldwide hears a ringing, buzzing,...

Many rocky planets from beyond our solar system glow with volcanic scars, yet their crusts sit frozen in place, locked together like a single giant shield. Is it possible that these planets host conditions that would be friendly to life?



<a href="https://planets.stanford.edu/people/matthew-reinhold" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matthew Reinhold</a>, a doctoral researcher, and <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/people/laura-schaefer" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laura Schaefer</a>, an assistant professor at Stanford University, created detailed computer models showing that such static‑crust planets, which they call Ignan Earths, can still nurture liquid water, mild air, and potentially thriving ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-need-to-lose-heat">Planets need to lose heat</h2>



Earth regulates temperature partly through <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/inside.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plate tectonics</a>. This involves the slow rafting of rigid lithospheric slabs over the mobile asthenosphere, a motion driven by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-chemistry-has-remained-stable-for-billions-of-years/">mantle convection</a>. 



Moving plates recycle carbon, build mountains, open ocean basins, and refresh the seafloor, continually giving life new niches and chemical feedstocks.



Without that conveyor belt, heat must still escape, or a planet risks turning into a pressure‑cooked Io where lava fountains blanket the ground. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-may-exist-on-one-of-jupiters-moons/">Jupiter’s</a> volcanic moon, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/jupiter/jupiter-moons/io/">Io</a>, loses roughly 1.5 watts of heat per square yard, about twenty times Earth’s average output.



Reinhold and Schaefer explored planetary interiors that pump out between 1 and 15 watts per square yard. This is well below Io’s extreme, yet well above <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-simulate-what-the-first-days-of-early-earth-were-really-like-after-it-formed/">Earth</a>’s gentle glow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ignan-earths-may-favor-life">Ignan Earths may favor life</h2>



Their models indicate that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earths-mantle-shapes-surface-topography/">mantle</a> of an Ignan Earth remains mostly solid, so globe‑spanning lava oceans are not inevitable or even likely. 



Instead, on these <a href="https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/jt673zb0893" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">types of planets</a>, magma threads upward through narrow conduits in a process called heat‑pipe tectonics. The process carries energy and gases to the surface while leaving the crust largely intact.



Surprisingly, simulated surface temperatures stayed under 185°F (85°C), even when interior heat rose an order of magnitude above Earth’s. 



Efficient atmospheric feedbacks kept the climate within a stable range by balancing volcanic outgassing with rapid chemical weathering.



That range overlaps the “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259264907_A_cool_early_Earth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cool early Earth</a>” window revealed by 4.4 billion‑year‑old zircons. This evidence points to liquid seas and temperate air long before modern continents formed and photosynthesis began.



In other words, a fiery heart does not doom a planet to lifelessness. It may mimic the balmy warmth that our own world enjoyed while life gained its first biochemical foothold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internal-heating-on-ignan-earths">Internal heating on Ignan Earths</h2>



Heat‑pipe tectonics vents gases continually, replacing the sporadic eruptions that are familiar on a plate‑bearing world with a ceaseless planetary simmer. 



The researchers’ simulations show <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-first-direct-image-of-co2-outside-our-solar-system-hr-8799/">carbon dioxide</a> bubbling out through thousands of mini‑volcanoes, yet rainfall and rock weathering lock much of that gas away within newly formed basalts.



That exchange forms a vertical version of the <a href="https://personal.ems.psu.edu/~jfk4/PersonalPage/ResInt2.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbonate‑silicate cycle</a>, a global thermostat that balances greenhouse warming against chemical drawdown, and keeps oceans from evaporating.



“We find that Earth‑mass planets with internal heating fluxes below 15 W m⁻² produce average surface temperatures that Earth has experienced in its past, below 30°C (86°F),” noted Reinhold. 



At higher heat loads, the thermostat still holds, never pushing oceans to a boil or stripping a planet of habitability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feedbacks-keep-climate-friendly-for-life">Feedbacks keep climate friendly for life</h2>



Atmospheric models linked to the interior calculations revealed negative feedbacks almost identical to those on Earth, despite the lack of sliding plates. 



As volcanic outgassing raises carbon dioxide levels, weathering rates accelerate, scrubbing the air and lowering temperatures until equilibrium returns.



If a planet edges toward the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.11149" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">runaway greenhouse limit</a>, added heat expands the atmosphere, thickening cloud decks that bounce sunlight back into space and slow further warming. 



The team’s hottest test cases stayed safely below one‑twentieth of that threshold, keeping average seas from surpassing 212°F (100°C), a conservative benchmark for surface sterilization.



Even tidal heating scenarios, such as a planet locked in a close dance with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planets-orbiting-red-dwarf-stars-may-not-be-habitable-ultraviolet-uv-radiation/">red dwarf</a>, left room for clement oceans and long‑term climate stability. 



This suggests that synchronous rotation and internal heat from tidal forces don’t automatically preclude a planet from hosting life-friendly environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-ignan-earths-matter">Why Ignan Earths matter</h2>



Almost one‑third of rocky exoplanets discovered so far orbit stars in zones where tidal forces or radioactivity can supercharge their interiors, producing heat budgets similar to those on Ignan Earths. 



Traditional habitability filters often dismissed these planets, assuming static lids meant sterile magma deserts with no recycling of nutrients.



The Stanford study widens the pool of targets for observatories like JWST, ELT, and the upcoming <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, all of which can sniff atmospheric chemistry from light‑years away. 



Future spectra that catch volcanic gases alongside water vapor could hint at continents weathering out of fresh basalt. This would potentially signal vertical recycling that distinguishes Ignan Earths from stagnant, Venus‑like planets.



If Ignan Earths prove common, they may resemble our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-announce-evidence-suggesting-that-our-solar-system-has-nine-planets-again/">planet</a> during the Hadean, when a young Sun shone dimmer yet internal fires burned brighter and chemistry set the stage for biology. 



Such parallels could mean that life on planets elsewhere begins not in calm, stable conditions but in heat-driven chaos that gradually cools into habitability.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JE008029" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists find rocky planets that appear inhospitable, but discover they could harbor life

Many rocky planets from beyond our solar system glow with...

Eighty‑three years after a torpedo tore it away, the 150‑foot steel bow of USS New Orleans reappeared, this time as pixels on sonar and video, sitting about 2,215 feet down in the <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/news/oer-updates/2025/iron-bottom-sound.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solomon Islands’ Iron Bottom Sound.</a>



The heavy cruiser lost nearly one‑third of her hull and 182 sailors during the November 1942 <a href="https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/world-war-ii/1942/guadalcanal/battle-of-tassafaronga.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Battle of Tassafaronga</a>, yet damage‑control teams braced the jagged wound with coconut logs and steered the ship home in reverse to Puget Sound for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-copper-deposits-in-tibet-are-fueled-by-an-ancient-tectonic-collision/">repairs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-bow-lost-for-eight-decades">A bow lost for eight decades</h2>



“This imagery was viewed in real time by hundreds of experts around the world, who all worked together to make a positive identification of the findings. The discovery highlights the power of having multiple scientists and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-find-hallucinogenic-seeds-in-ancient-bones-black-henbane/">technologies</a> work together to achieve a common goal,” said <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/people/daniel-wagner" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Wagner</a>, chief scientist with <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Exploration Trust</a>.



“By all rights, this ship should have sunk,” retired <a href="https://www.history.navy.mil/about-us/leadership/director.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rear Admiral Samuel J. Cox</a>. Japanese “<a href="https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2019/april/massive-torpedo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Long Lance</a>” torpedoes struck after midnight, detonating forward magazines and shearing off turrets one and two.



With steering gone and compartments flooding, electricians jury‑rigged power, sailors shoved timber through shattered frames, and the crippled vessel crawled into <a href="https://www.tracesofwar.com/sights/127930/Tulagi-Harbor.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tulagi Harbor</a> before the makeshift bow fell apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uss-new-orleans-wreck-site">USS New Orleans wreck site</h2>



Five night battles raged here between August and December 1942, claiming 20,000 lives, 111 naval vessels, and 1,450 aircraft from Allied and Japanese forces.



Most wrecks rest inside a corridor only 25 nautical miles wide, turning the sound into a condensed <a href="https://www.deeperblue.com/lost-bow-of-uss-new-orleans-found-in-depths-of-iron-bottom-sound/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">graveyard</a> of steel and sacrifice.



So far just 30 of those wartime hulks have been located, leaving dozens more for future surveys and the families who still wait for closure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-robots-share-the-workload">How robots share the workload</h2>



Discovery began with <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/tech/usv-drix" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USV DriX</a>, a 25‑foot uncrewed surface vessel developed by <a href="https://www.exail.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Exail</a> and operated by the <a href="https://www.unh.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New Hampshire</a>.



Running pre‑programmed lawn‑mower lines, DriX beamed high‑resolution seafloor mosaics back to <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/tech/ev-nautilus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E/V Nautilus</a>, where pilots dispatched Hercules, a tethered remote‑operated vehicle, to inspect an intriguing 150‑foot shadow the sonar had painted.



“NOAA Ocean Exploration’s mission is to explore the ocean for America’s benefit,” said <a href="https://gulfcoast23.oceansconference.org/bill-mowitt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Captain William Mowitt</a>, acting director of <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Ocean Exploration</a>, adding that pairing DriX with deep‑diving ROVs “has the potential to reshape our understanding of what lies in the deep ocean.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-drix-toolbox">Inside the drix toolbox</h2>



A carbon‑Kevlar composite hull lets the craft slice waves at 13 knots while weighing only 1.4 tons, light enough for a single point lift.



Seven‑day endurance at 7 knots means the boat can map while the crew sleeps, delivering coverage impossible for a conventional ship and burning a fraction of the fuel.



Twin <a href="https://geo-matching.com/products/em-712-2-x-2-degree-multibeam-echo-sounder" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EM‑712</a> and <a href="https://www.kongsberg.com/discovery/seafloor-mapping/em/EM2040-Mk2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EM‑2040</a> multibeam sonar units sweep frequencies from 40 kHz to 400 kHz, detailing contours from tidal flats out to 1,600 feet, while an <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/science-data/ek80-adaptive-logger" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EK‑80 fisheries</a> echosounder tracks mid‑water life that often crowds wreck sites.



Real‑time kinematic GPS, lidar, and long‑range marine broadband radios stitch the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mantle-plume-created-a-60-million-year-volcanic-trail-from-iceland-to-ireland/">surface</a> plot to ROV video, so historians can consult, annotate, and archive images as they stream ashore.



The team’s approach, pairing autonomous surface vessels like DriX with real-time feedback from ROVs, could be applied to other unexplored maritime graveyards around the world.



From the Arctic to the <a href="https://coral.org/en/where-we-work/coral-triangle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Triangle</a>, wreck sites hold historical and ecological significance that often go unstudied because of depth, cost, or geopolitical sensitivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-uss-new-orleans-crew">Honoring USS New Orleans crew</h2>



Cox called the find “an opportunity to remember the sacrifice of this valiant crew, even on one of the worst nights in U.S. Navy history,” underscoring that exploration is as much about people as hardware.



Telepresence let descendants in Louisiana, naval architects in Japan, and students in Australia witness the anchor still stamped “Navy Yard” on live video, knitting a dispersed community around a single rusted artifact.



Archaeologists photographed but did not disturb the site, treating it as a war grave and deep‑sea reef now colonized by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocks-reveal-the-turning-point-when-oxygen-changed-earth-forever/">corals</a>, anemones, and basket stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-wrecks-near-uss-new-orleans-nbsp">More wrecks near USS New Orleans&nbsp;</h2>



DriX will continue to grid the 1,400‑foot‑deep basins of Iron Bottom Sound through mid‑July, queuing new ROV dives for wrecks long rumored but never confirmed.



Each stitched mosaic whittles down the unknown, proving that small autonomous craft and human curiosity can retrieve lost chapters of history, one sonar ping at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-finds-still-matter">Why these finds still matter</h2>



Shipwrecks like USS New Orleans serve as underwater time capsules that link global history with modern identity. They’re not just remnants of war, they’re markers of engineering, courage, and diplomacy that shaped the present.



Their rediscovery helps nations reconcile with shared pasts, especially in regions like the South Pacific where legacy and loss are deeply intertwined. 



These missions renew collective memory and allow younger generations to engage with stories often left out of textbooks.



Click here to see more images of this <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/album/2025/07/08/first-photos-uss-new-orleans-bow-80-years" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">historic discovery of the USS New Orleans</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

USS New Orleans bow found 83 years after it was sunk by a torpedo in World War II

Eighty‑three years after a torpedo tore it away, the 150‑foot...

Today's flagship processor packs more than 100 billion transistors, yet <a href="https://lab.semi.ac.cn/library/upload/files/2023/2/acf548c67ad377a9.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">squeezing</a> them any closer is turning design into a wrestling match with quantum physics. 



As the footprints of silicon switches approach the dimensions of a few dozen atoms, stray electrons tunnel across barriers that once looked rock‑solid, wasting power and scrambling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-material-could-make-computers-1000-times-faster/">signals</a>.



Physicists are asking whether that unruly behavior can be steered instead of suppressed, and a new study from the University of California, Riverside (<a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCR</a>), claims the answer is yes. 



The team shows that by shaping atom‑perfect <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/silicon-cluster" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silicon clusters</a> they can turn electron flow off and on through <a href="https://quantum.microsoft.com/en-us/insights/education/concepts/interference" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum interference</a>, the same wave effect that makes light cancel itself in noise‑canceling headphones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-silicon-molecule-switches-current">How silicon molecule switches current</h2>



<a href="https://teamsu.org/about-tim" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tim Su</a> of UC Riverside and colleagues built their switch by assembling silicon atoms into a molecule called <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1118981" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sila‑adamantane</a>, a miniature copy of the crystal motif found in commercial chips.&nbsp;



“We found that when tiny silicon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/">structures</a> are shaped with high symmetry, they can cancel out electron flow like noise‑canceling headphones,” said Su.



Aligning gold electrodes with the cage’s short branches lets the two electron waves reinforce one another, raising conductance, while contacting the long branches flips the phase and wipes the current out. The measured on–off ratio averages 5.6, rivaling single‑molecule devices built from <a href="https://frontierspecialtychemicals.com/product-category/porphyrins/?srsltid=AfmBOoravB_JvFtNx_jSvUG1FmsYvNKAQjNrdqclAEHDXcT2L5e64jzw" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exotic porphyrins</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-chips-don-t-work-as-well">Smaller chips don't work as well</h2>



Conventional scaling relies on etching <a href="https://lab.semi.ac.cn/library/upload/files/2023/2/acf548c67ad377a9.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ever‑narrower channels</a> and then doping them with other atoms so voltage can police the charge carriers. 



Once those channels dip below about five nanometers, electrons act less like marbles and more like waves, slipping through the gate oxide by tunneling and driving leakage to costly levels.



<a href="https://resources.system-analysis.cadence.com/3d-electromagnetic/msa2021-the-constructional-and-dimensional-details-of-finfets" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Three‑dimensional FinFETs</a> and gate‑all‑around stacks help but still fall victim to quantum leakage once dimensions hit the atomic wall. 



That stalemate pushes designers toward switches that exploit interference rather than brute electrostatics, trading geometry for wave control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silicon-switches-atom-by-atom">Silicon switches, atom by atom</h2>



Instead of carving bulk wafers with ultraviolet light, the Riverside team used classical synthetic chemistry to snap <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-17815-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silicon-silicon bonds</a> into the exact three‑dimensional orientation prescribed by their design. 



Bottom‑up growth means every device is born identical, a sharp contrast to <a href="https://www.columbiamuseum.org/news/lithography-its-process" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithography</a> at atomic limits, where dropping a single atom can make neighboring transistors behave like strangers.



The cluster’s perfect C3 symmetry proved crucial. When electrodes were anti‑aligned with the long cage branches, destructive interference slashed conductance nearly threefold relative to a trimmed control structure that lacked one silicon link.



Flipping to the short path realigned the wave phases and restored current, creating a mechanically tunable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-giant-leap-forward-breakthrough-ultra-pure-silicon-discovery/">molecular switch</a>. 



The low torsional barrier of the attached linkers means a modest stretch can toggle the molecule between off and on states like a lever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silicon-switch-turns-heat-into-usable-energy">Silicon switch turns heat into usable energy</h2>



The same interference physics could also sharpen silicon‑based <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542529324001287" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermoelectric generators</a> that tap temperature gradients for power. 



Porous silicon <a href="https://www.inredox.com/technology/si-nanowires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanowire arrays</a> have already shown higher efficiency than any previous nanostructured silicon thermoelectric at 801°F, according to a 2024 <a href="https://www.energy.ca.gov/publications/2024/low-cost-high-reliability-thermoelectrics-waste-heat-conversion" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> for the <a href="https://www.energy.ca.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Energy Commission</a>.



Bulk silicon once posted a meager figure of merit near 0.01, yet early nanowire <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/silicon-nanowires-turn-heat-to-electricity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> boosted that number up to 0.6, roughly matching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-microscopic-mineral-ehrigite-discovered-could-revolutionize-geological-exploration/">bismuth telluride</a>, the industry’s workhorse material. 



Berkeley Lab’s porous carpets have since multiplied the figure of merit eighteenfold, suggesting that interference‑tuned carrier paths could raise it even further by trimming parasitic heat flow.



A switchable junction between hot and cold ends could throttle charge flow on the fly, matching output to load conditions without external electronics. 



That adaptive behavior is attractive for industrial waste‑heat recovery, where temperatures and demand vary minute by minute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uses-in-memory-and-quantum-tech">Uses in memory and quantum tech</h2>



Because the molecule mimics the lattice that hosts spin‑based qubits, symmetry‑controlled interference may serve future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-teleportation-communication-achieved-on-regular-internet-cables/">quantum‑information</a> hardware. 



In principle, the same silicon cage could ferry spin or valley states protected from decoherence by the selection rules that make interference possible, dodging many of the troubles that plague superconducting circuits.



Industry can test the chemistry inside familiar clean‑room lines, because the cluster is built from the element fabs already master. 



A cross‑bar memory woven from such switches would store data at densities far beyond what FinFETs allow, without rewriting fabrication playbooks from scratch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-silicon-switches">Scaling silicon switches</h2>



<a href="https://teamsu.org/">Su’s lab</a> is already tweaking the cage with different linkers to raise the on-off ratio and studying whether flexible leads can turn the molecule into a piezoresistive sensor that toggles under strain. 



Colleagues in device physics are evaluating whether the molecule’s switching noise stays low enough for logic thresholds at room temperature.



The bigger challenge lies in wiring billions of identical silicon clusters onto substrates while preserving their three‑dimensional orientation. 



Directed self‑assembly and DNA‑templated placement are among the approaches on the table, and progress there will decide whether molecular interference moves from the benchtop to production.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.5c04272" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Chemical Society</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Physicists learn to control electricity at the quantum scale

Today's flagship processor packs more than 100 billion transistors, yet...

For decades, reptiles - including tortoises - have lingered in the background of animal sentience discussions. Popular imagination often casts them as simple, instinct-driven beings - unfeeling and unaware. 



Unlike mammals and birds, they rarely show overt emotion, leading many to dismiss the idea that reptiles might feel in complex ways. 



But a new study from the <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lincoln</a> has disrupted that belief, offering compelling evidence that red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria) can experience long-term mood states.



Published in the journal Animal Cognition, the study reveals that tortoises can show optimism and pessimism depending on their environment. These emotional states then shapes their response to the world around them.



The implications are profound. If tortoises can feel mood shifts similar to mammals and birds, we must rethink how they are treated in captivity and reconsider their place in the story of animal consciousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-moods-mean-in-animals">What moods mean in animals</h2>



Mood and emotion are not the same. Emotions are short-lived responses to immediate situations, like fear when chased or joy at finding food. Moods, on the other hand, linger. 



They form a kind of emotional background noise, influencing how an animal perceives new experiences. Scientists call these “free-floating” states, unattached to specific triggers but powerful in shaping behavior.



In humans and other mammals, we have tested mood using cognitive bias tasks. These tests explore how an individual interprets ambiguous situations. 



Someone in a good mood will expect a positive outcome, while someone in a bad mood will expect the worst. Until now, no study had used this method on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-may-hold-the-secret-to-cancer-prevention/">reptiles</a>.



That gap has finally been closed. Researchers at Lincoln tested 15 red-footed tortoises to determine if they could exhibit mood-driven bias. Their approach was clear and controlled, building on established methods from mammal studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortoises-respond-to-uncertainty">Tortoises respond to uncertainty</h2>



Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtle-heads-reveal-an-ancient-reptilian-secret/">tortoise</a> was trained in a simple spatial judgment task. A bowl placed in one spot always contained a food reward (rocket leaves). 



The same bowl, placed elsewhere, never had food. Once trained, tortoises were presented with the bowl at three new, in-between locations: one near the positive spot, one in the middle, and one near the negative.



How quickly a tortoise approached the bowl at each of these ambiguous points showed its expectation. Quick approach meant optimism. Hesitation meant doubt or pessimism. 



Every trial was carefully timed, filmed, and structured to avoid smell-based cues or random behavior. The test was fair.



Interestingly, the tortoises judged the near-positive and middle spots more optimistically. They moved faster toward these bowls, showing an “optimistic skew” similar to that seen in mammals and birds. This alone is a strong sign of mood in action. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anxiety-measured-in-action">Anxiety measured in action</h2>



To confirm that mood shaped behavior beyond just one task, the tortoises were also subjected to two classic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-do-fear-and-anxiety-reside-in-the-brain-new-cells-identified/">anxiety</a> tests: the novel object test and the novel environment test. 



These are used widely in animal cognition to assess emotional reactions to unfamiliar situations.



In the novel object test, each tortoise encountered an unusual item, a colorful bead coaster, inside a familiar arena. 



The researchers recorded how long it took the tortoise to approach the object, how far it extended its head, and how quickly it began to move. Confident, relaxed tortoises moved sooner and extended their heads farther.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortoise-mood-affects-behavior">Tortoise mood affects behavior </h2>



The novel environment test changed the tortoises’ surroundings. Different textures, colors, and patterns created a new sensory world. 



Again, tortoises were watched for how they responded to unfamiliarity. The researchers noted that tortoises who showed optimistic bias in the earlier task also behaved with more confidence in these settings.



For example, tortoises that approached ambiguous bowls faster also reached new objects more quickly. 



Some even extended their heads farther in strange environments, indicating comfort and curiosity. These behavioral links show a deep connection between mood and action.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-reptile-feelings">Rethinking reptile feelings</h2>



The authors of the study interpret these results as remarkable. The presence of a mood state in a tortoise means that reptiles do not simply react. They evaluate, anticipate, and feel. That changes the ethical landscape.



"Animal welfare concerns are reliant upon evidence that a given <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/">species</a> has the capacity to experience affective states," said Anna Wilkinson, a professor of Animal Cognition at the University of Lincoln. 



"With reptiles becoming increasingly common as pets, it is essential for us to study their moods and emotions to try to understand how captivity may impact them."



Professor Oliver Burman noted that the research represents a significant shift in our understanding of what reptiles can experience, with important implications for how we care for these animals in captivity and interact with them in the wild.



The researchers emphasized that these findings align reptiles more closely with mammals and birds in terms of emotional capacity.



While reptiles may lack certain emotional expressions seen in other animals, they still experience shifts in affective state. Their moods impact how they explore, respond, and behave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tortoise-mood-and-the-roots-of-emotions">Tortoise mood and the roots of emotions</h2>



Reptiles diverged from mammals and birds hundreds of millions of years ago. That makes this discovery even more significant. If a tortoise, members of one of the oldest lineages of land animals, can experience mood, then the evolutionary roots of emotion run deeper than we thought.



The study references earlier research that found reptiles do show some emotional behavior, such as emotional fever and response to enrichment. 



But until now, no one had shown that they could experience long-lasting, mood-like states. These new results argue against the idea that reptiles have a narrow emotional spectrum.



They suggest that affective states, both emotional and mood-based, might be ancient features of vertebrate brains. These are not recent innovations. This insight matters for biology, psychology, and ethics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptiles-need-more-than-basics">Reptiles need more than basics</h2>



The researchers argue for major changes in how we house and care for reptiles. Current enclosures often focus on physical health and basic habitat needs. 



But if tortoises have moods, then their emotional well-being must also be addressed. That means offering larger enclosures, complex terrain, opportunities for exploration, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-stimulation-could-change-the-future-of-math-education/">mental stimulation</a>.



According to the researchers, we should assume that they are not only capable of suffering but also experiencing enduring positive moods. Captive reptiles deserve spaces that support both.



The research also expands the toolkit for welfare assessments. Behavioral and mood-based testing can help zookeepers, researchers, and pet owners recognize when a reptile like a tortoise is distressed or thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-we-see-tortoises">Rethinking how we see tortoises</h2>



For too long, tortoises have been treated as slow-moving curiosities. But this new evidence invites us to see them differently. They can be optimistic, feel anxiety, and might even experience contentment.



This is not just about red-footed tortoises. It is about revising our relationship with all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">reptiles</a>. The cold-blooded no longer seem cold-hearted. They are thinking, feeling beings. And now we have the science to prove it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-025-01973-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Cognition</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Grumpy tortoise? Reptiles can experience mood swings too

For decades, reptiles - including tortoises - have lingered in...

Greenland’s ice-covered landscape looks like an immovable block on satellite maps. Yet the story locked beneath its center suggests a very different past, one that places future coastal cities in a tight spot. 



During the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> - the geologic chapter that began about 2.7 million years ago and ran through innumerable swings between cold and mild - the island’s ice waxed and waned in tune with global climate.



New evidence hints that those swings were more dramatic than scientists once believed.



In&nbsp;1993, drillers hauled a two‑mile‑deep ice core up from the island’s highest point and stowed the entire column in a Colorado freezer. 



The surprise awaited in the bottom three inches of sediment: perfectly preserved traces of a tundra ecosystem. 



That sliver of soil, shielded for ages by roughly 1.9 miles (3 km) of ice, now refocuses the conversation about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/">future sea level</a> and the stability of polar ice in a warming world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tundra-hidden-beneath-greenland-s-ice">Tundra hidden beneath Greenland's ice</h2>



Once the drill broke through that 1.9‑mile roof of ice, the researchers retrieved those three inches of till. 



“These fossils are beautiful,” says Paul&nbsp;Bierman, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a> who co‑led the new study with UVM graduate student Halley&nbsp;Mastro and nine other researchers.



“But, yes, we go from bad to worse,” Bierman added, referring to what this finding implies about the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human‑caused climate change</a> on melting of the Greenland ice sheet.



The till holds poppy, spike‑moss, woody willow tissue, fungal sclerotia, insect parts, and a band of soil capped by about&nbsp;16&nbsp;inches of erratic boulders. 



This is clear evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">central Greenland</a> once lay ice‑free under a cold, dry sky where late‑lying snow lingered through early summer.



Because the material sits undisturbed, the team is confident it was not swept in from elsewhere as ice advanced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-a-deep-greenland-ice-core">Inside a deep Greenland ice core</h2>



“Once we made the discovery at Camp&nbsp;Century, we thought, ‘Hey, what's at the bottom of&nbsp;GISP2?’” Bierman recalled.



High‑energy isotope ratios show that the summit last saw open air within the past 1.1 million years, while argon trapped in overlying clear ice indicates at least 250,000 years of continuous cover since then. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-47351-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Basal ice</a> at another drilling site about 19 miles away is roughly 1 million years old.



A separate core from Camp&nbsp;Century <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-under-the-ice-secret-base-camp-found-in-greenland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near the coast</a> yielded plant remains no older than&nbsp;416,000&nbsp;years, underscoring the ice sheet’s flickering presence across the Pleistocene. 



These findings draw on material that had been stored at the National Science Foundation <a href="https://icecores.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Core Facility</a> in Lakewood, Colorado, for three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-divulge-a-warmer-greenland">Fossils divulge a warmer Greenland</h2>



Under the microscope, what had looked like no more than specks floating on the surface of the melted core sample was, in fact, a window into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-transformation-ice-melt-plant-growth-vegetation-cascading-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tundra landscape</a>. 



“It was amazing,” Mastro exclaimed. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/greenland-ice-core_soil-sample_fossils_recently-melted-ice_credit-UVermont_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/greenland-ice-core_soil-sample_fossils_recently-melted-ice_credit-UVermont_1s.webp" alt="Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Halley Mastro/University of Vermont" class="wp-image-1977508"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Willow bud scale, arctic poppy seed, fungal bodies, and rock spikemoss megaspores found in the GISP2 soil sample viewed under a microscope at the University of Vermont. Click image to enlarge. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Halley Mastro/University of Vermont</figcaption></figure>



Mastro and colleagues picked out spores of spike‑moss, the bud scale of a young willow, and the compound eye of an insect - life‑forms adapted to chilly air and long summer daylight.



“And then we found Arctic poppy - just one seed of it. That is a tiny flower that's really good at adapting to the cold. It lets us know that Greenland's ice melted and there was soil, because poppies don't grow on top of miles of ice,”&nbsp;Mastro continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-risks-for-global-coasts">Sea‑level risks for global coasts</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-corals-reveal-that-sea-level-rise-occurs-in-rapid-bursts/">Sea level today</a> is rising more than an inch each decade. “And it's getting faster and faster,” said Bierman. The extra water comes from a warming ocean that expands as well as from melting glaciers worldwide.



Near‑complete melting of Greenland’s ice over the next centuries to a few millennia would lead to some&nbsp;23&nbsp;feet of sea‑level rise. 



“Look at Boston, New&nbsp;York, Miami, Mumbai, or any other coastal city around the world, and add&nbsp;20‑plus feet of sea level. It goes underwater. Don't buy a beach house," Bierman advised.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea level</a> is likely to be several feet higher by the end of this century, when today’s children are grandparents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-s-fragile-ice-fortress">Greenland's fragile ice fortress</h2>



Richard Alley, a leading climate scientist at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State University</a>, reviewed the new research.



“This new study confirms, and expands upon earlier evidence, that significant sea‑level rise occurred at a time when the causes of warming were not especially extreme, providing a warning of the damage we might cause if we continue to warm the climate," Alley noted.



“We now have direct evidence that not only was the ice gone, but that plants and insects were living there,” Bierman concluded. “And that's unassailable. You don't have to rely on calculations or models.” 



The fossil soil at Greenland’s summit, locked beneath nearly two miles of ice, speaks plainly: polar ice sheets can retreat far and fast when the climate tips, and the coastlines of the future will trace that story in real time. 



Whether that warning is heeded remains a decision for policy makers and citizens alike.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407465121#supplementary-materials" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Greenland ice discovery stuns and worries scientists: "Don't buy a beach house"

Greenland’s ice-covered landscape looks like an immovable block on satellite...

Neon‑hued breakfast cereals, microwave‑ready pizzas, and oversized bags of chips now crowd supermarket aisles. A new study draws a sharp line between that convenience found in ultra-processed foods and a cluster of early warning signs for chronic disease.



“It may be about the additives, the packaging, even the marketing,” said <a href="https://mira.mcmaster.ca/our-faculty/anthea-christoforou/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anthea Christoforou</a> of McMaster University, who led the investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-ultra-processed-foods">Understanding ultra-processed foods</h2>



Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/">industrial concoctions</a> designed for convenience, shelf life, and hyper-palatability. 



Think of packaged snacks, sugary cereals, soda, instant noodles, and frozen meals - these aren't just "processed," they're engineered. 



Manufacturers strip raw ingredients of their natural nutrients, then add fats, sugars, artificial flavors, emulsifiers, preservatives, and colorings to craft something addictive and uniform. 



The result is food that barely resembles its original form and is often high in calories but low in real nutrition.



The trouble is, UPFs are everywhere - and they're linked to a rising tide of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-processed-foods-make-our-bodies-age-faster/">chronic health issues</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ultra-processed-foods-raise-alarms">Ultra‑processed foods raise alarms</h2>



Health agencies classify foods by how much industry tampering they undergo, a system formalized in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38418082/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOVA classification</a>. 



In the Canadian sample, daily intake averaged just over three servings of these items, but the top quarter of participants swallowed nearly six, crowding out fruit and vegetables.



A landmark metabolic‑ward trial showed that volunteers offered ultra‑processed food menus ate about 500 extra calories per day compared with identical nutrient profiles made from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tool-lets-you-check-how-processed-your-food-is-grocerydb/">unprocessed foods</a>. 



Participants in that study gained nearly two pounds in just two weeks, underscoring the silent calorie creep of factory‑formulated meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammation-is-the-hidden-spark">Inflammation is the hidden spark</h2>



Among the strongest signals in the McMaster dataset was a rise in <a href="https://www.uscjournal.com/articles/high-sensitivity-c-reactive-protein-atherosclerotic-cardiovascular-disease-measure-or-not?language_content_entity=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">C‑reactive protein</a>, a liver‑made marker that flags systemic inflammation. 



High levels of this protein are now listed as a heart‑disease risk enhancer, so its appearance in heavy snackers hints at trouble brewing beneath the skin.



“These foods are causing an inflammatory response, in a sense our bodies see them as some kind of other element,” Christoforou explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-bathroom-scale">Beyond the bathroom scale</h2>



Skeptics sometimes argue that the harms of packaged foods stem solely from the extra pounds they add, yet the study adjusted for body mass index and still saw higher insulin and triglycerides in high‑UPF eaters.



Prospective U.S. cohorts reached a similar conclusion, linking high UPF diets to a 24 percent jump in type 2 diabetes risk even after accounting for weight changes. 



<a href="https://www.niddk.nih.gov/about-niddk/staff-directory/biography/hall-kevin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kevin Hall</a>’s metabolic‑ward <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31105044/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiment</a> supports that idea, showing that people chewed faster, finished meals sooner, and felt less full when the dishes were ultra‑processed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-socioeconomic-angles-and-policy-gaps">Socioeconomic angles and policy gaps</h2>



In the McMaster survey, heavy UPF eaters were more likely to have lower incomes and less formal education. 



“The health risks persist independently of income and education, highlighting the need for broad, equitable food policies,” warned Angelina Baric, a graduate student co‑author.



An <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38719536/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> covering 45 million person‑years estimated that cutting UPF intake could avert thousands of premature deaths annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marketing-that-targets-children">Marketing that targets children</h2>



Ultra-processed foods aren’t just convenient, they’re <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultraprocessed-foods-pose-major-health-risks-especially-for-kids/">aggressively marketed</a>. From children’s cartoons on cereal boxes to bold health claims on energy bars, these strategies are designed to shape preferences early and build loyalty. 



<a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2653912" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research</a> shows that marketing exposure significantly influences eating habits, especially among youth and low-income populations who may have fewer healthy options available.



Many of these products carry front-of-package labels that promote added fiber, vitamins, or protein, giving a false impression of health. These claims often distract from the overall quality of the food. 



<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6364956/">Studies</a> have shown that nutrient-focused labels can mislead consumers into thinking a product is healthier than it actually is, even when it’s high in added sugar or sodium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-matrix-and-biological-effects">Food matrix and biological effects</h2>



One of the more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-ultra-processed-foods-makes-your-muscles-weaker-and-more-fragile/">overlooked aspects</a> of ultra-processed foods is how they alter the food matrix, the physical and chemical structure of what we eat, which affects how it’s digested and absorbed. 



By breaking down fiber, emulsifying fats, and adding sugars, UPFs speed up digestion, increase glycemic load, and can bypass natural satiety signals.



There’s growing concern that these structural changes may harm the gut microbiome, the community of microbes that helps regulate immunity and metabolism. 



Research suggests certain emulsifiers and artificial sweeteners commonly used in UPFs can disrupt gut bacteria and may lead to inflammatory responses, insulin resistance, and other metabolic issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-ultra-processed-foods">Future of ultra‑processed foods</h2>



Dialing back UPF does not require an all‑or‑nothing pledge; replacing even one daily serving with whole fruit or unsalted nuts trimmed inflammatory markers in trials.



Dietitians recommend starting with breakfast, swapping sugared cereal for oatmeal, then moving on to snacks, habits that nudge down average servings without demanding perfection. 



<a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Health Canada</a> is already reviewing additives and marketing rules, and the new biomarker evidence gives those deliberations fresh urgency.



The study is published in <a href="https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12986-025-00935-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrition &amp; Metabolism</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Study confirms direct link between ultra-processed foods and serious health problems

Neon‑hued breakfast cereals, microwave‑ready pizzas, and oversized bags of chips...

Sharks have survived five mass extinctions and ruled the oceans for over 400 million years. As apex predators, they play a critical role in maintaining the balance of marine ecosystems.&nbsp;But today, sharks are more threatened than ever. 



On Shark Awareness Day, we highlight the science behind their importance. Without sharks, ocean ecosystems would become unbalanced, leading to overpopulation of some species and the collapse of others.



This disruption would harm the overall health of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-climate-fixes-could-worsen-the-oxygen-crisis/">ocean</a>, ultimately affecting food security and coastal economies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-sharks-disappear">What happens when sharks disappear?</h2>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-predator-missing-what-happens-when-great-white-sharks-disappear/#google_vignette">long-term study</a> conducted in False Bay, South Africa, offers a real-world example of what happens when sharks disappear from an ecosystem.



The researchers found that by mid‑2018, great white sharks had vanished from the region. This led to dramatic shifts throughout the ecosystem.&nbsp;



With the disappearance of great whites, Cape fur seal and sevengill shark populations surged, while their prey - smaller fish and bottom-dwelling shark species - declined sharply.&nbsp;



The findings provide real-world evidence of a “trophic cascade,” where the loss of a top predator triggers a ripple effect through lower levels of the food web.



The researchers suggest that the sharks may have disappeared due to several potential causes, including targeted attacks by orcas - which have been observed killing and eating great white livers.&nbsp;



The study demonstrates the importance of apex predators in maintaining ocean health. The research highlights how their loss can destabilize marine webs and reduce biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-shark-populations-nbsp">Declining shark populations&nbsp;</h2>



According to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-has-caused-a-50-decline-in-sharks-and-rays/">study</a> led by researchers from Simon Fraser University, over half of all sharks and rays have disappeared globally since 1970 - with overfishing identified as the primary cause.&nbsp;



Sharks and rays, serving as critical predators and sediment stirrers, help maintain food webs and nutrient flows. The report revealed that around one-third of shark and ray species now face extinction. 



However, there is cause for hope: countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the US, parts of Europe, and South Africa have implemented science-based fishing limits, reduced bycatch, and protected critical habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-shark-species-nbsp">Endangered shark species&nbsp;</h2>



Among the most threatened are the great <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/">hammerhead</a> and the scalloped hammerhead sharks - both of which have seen dramatic population declines worldwide.&nbsp;



These species are particularly vulnerable because they grow slowly and reproduce rarely, making it hard for their populations to bounce back once they decline.



The oceanic whitetip shark, once abundant across tropical and subtropical waters, has suffered steep losses from bycatch and targeted fishing - pushing it toward critical endangerment.&nbsp;



Many deep-sea sharks, like the bluntnose sixgill and the gulper shark, are also threatened due to slow reproduction rates combined with increased fishing pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-campaigns-around-the-world">Campaigns around the world</h2>



Around the world, numerous campaigns and organizations are dedicated to protecting sharks and raising awareness about their critical role in ocean ecosystems.&nbsp;



One of the most widely recognized efforts is <a href="https://www.discovery.com/shark-week/shark-week-2025-kicks-off-july-20">Shark Week</a>, a series on the Discovery Channel that draws millions of viewers each summer. Through documentaries and expert interviews, the series highlights both the awe-inspiring nature of sharks and the threats they face from human activity.



<a href="https://iucn.org/our-union/members/iucn-members/project-aware-foundation">Project AWARE</a> mobilizes scuba divers globally to advocate for shark conservation by pushing for bans on shark finning and the creation of marine protected areas.&nbsp;



On a larger scale, coalitions like the <a href="https://www.globalsharkmovement.org/">Global Shark Movement Project</a> work to influence policy and fisheries management worldwide.



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) <a href="https://www.iucnssg.org/">Shark Specialist Group</a> also plays a vital role by assessing species status and guiding conservation strategies globally.&nbsp;



Together, these campaigns combine public education, advocacy, and policy efforts to reduce shark deaths and support healthier oceans for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-shark-awareness-day-nbsp">Celebrate Shark Awareness Day&nbsp;</h2>



Shark Awareness Day highlights the urgent need for stronger protections and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/">sustainable fishing practices</a> to prevent the irreversible loss of these vital ocean predators.



Today, people around the world are encouraged to learn about sharks and the threats they face from human activities. We are also encouraged to take action by choosing sustainable seafood and speaking up for better laws to protect sharks.&nbsp;



Shark Awareness Day helps build a stronger global community committed to conservation efforts. Ultimately, protecting sharks is about protecting the entire ocean system - and a planet that depends on it.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Shark Awareness Day: Protecting the balance of the ocean 

Sharks have survived five mass extinctions and ruled the oceans...

What started as a student field trip along the cliffs of Dorset turned into the discovery of a new prehistoric species. A 16.5-millimeter lower jaw, embedded in rock near Swanage, is now reshaping how scientists view early mammal evolution.



The discovery was made by an undergraduate student from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a>. The fossil belongs to a type of extinct mammal called a multituberculate. 



These small, rodent-like creatures once lived alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a> and were known for their distinctively complex teeth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-curious-jaw-a-surprising-species">A curious jaw, a surprising species</h2>



The fossil was uncovered at Durlston Bay, a site famous for its rich geological layers. It’s the first multituberculate jaw found there since the 1800s. 



Though it looks a bit like a rabbit's jaw at first glance, the structure of the teeth tells a different story. A sharp incisor juts out at the front, followed by a gap, and then four blade-like premolars.



“I instantly had my suspicions of what the jaw was when I found it at the beach, but couldn’t have imagined where the discovery would take me,” said Ben Weston,&nbsp;an undergraduate paleontology student.



“I’m extremely grateful to the team and to the university for helping me take my first steps into academic paleontology.”



Researchers at the University of Portsmouth confirmed that the fossil is from a species that had never been identified before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-brings-the-fossil-to-life">Technology brings the fossil to life</h2>



The fossil wasn’t easy to examine. Rock still clung to key parts of the specimen. To get around this, the team turned to high-resolution <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/">CT scanning</a>. 



Dr. Charles Wood, a senior scientific officer at the university, scanned the fossil, allowing scientists to see inside the rock without damaging the sample.



Jake Keane, a former Portsmouth paleontology student now working in Abu Dhabi, helped process the scans. In just a few hours, he digitally removed the surrounding rock and isolated the teeth in fine detail.



The scans were then turned into 3D-printed models by John Fearnly, lead technician in the university’s Faculty of Technology. These models were ten times larger than the original, making it safer and easier to study the fossil in depth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-mammal-gets-a-name">New mammal gets a name</h2>



The team named the new species Novaculadon mirabilis. “Novacula” means razor, a nod to its sharp back teeth. “Mirabilis” refers to the jaw’s almost perfect preservation.



Portsmouth student Hamzah Imran created an artistic rendering of the animal. It’s imagined as a small, furry creature with a mix of spots and stripes - though its actual appearance remains speculative.



Based on its teeth, Novaculadon mirabilis likely ate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/">insects</a> and other small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-can-be-fatal-to-marine-invertebrates/">invertebrates</a>. Its slicing premolars and pointed incisors set it apart from modern rodents like rats or squirrels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hotspot-for-new-mammal-species">A hotspot for new mammal species</h2>



This isn't the first time a student has made a big find in the same area. In 2017, another Portsmouth undergraduate, Grant Smith, discovered fossils of two new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/">mammal</a> species thought to be among humanity’s earliest relatives.



Dr. Steve Sweetman, a researcher at the University of Portsmouth, also worked on this new discovery. 



“This is a remarkable find that reminds me of when Grant found those extraordinary eutherian mammal teeth," said Dr. Sweetman.



"When I first saw Grant's specimens, my jaw dropped - and I had exactly the same reaction to Ben's multituberculate jaw. It's incredible that Durlston Bay keeps delivering such significant mammal discoveries by our undergraduate students.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-insights-from-tiny-jaw">Evolution insights from tiny jaw </h2>



Beyond the scientific importance, the discovery highlights the value of collaborative research. 



“Looking back now that the discovery has been published, I am amazed at how many people it took to describe this little mammal," said Professor David Martill.



"I especially appreciated that all team members were University staff or present and former students - a true team effort including academics, technicians, alumni, and students with diverse talents across three departments.” 



The fossil helps researchers better understand how early mammals survived during the age of dinosaurs. While multituberculates lived through the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/">mass extinction</a> that wiped out dinosaurs, they eventually died out during the Oligocene, around 33 million years ago.



With over 200 known species, multituberculates were the most diverse group of mammals in the Mesozoic era. They filled many ecological roles - some burrowed, others climbed trees. This new discovery adds to what we know about their evolution and survival.



And it serves as a reminder that major scientific contributions can come from anyone - even a 22-year-old student on a windy beach in Dorset.



Image Credit: Hamzah Imran



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2025.101128">Proceedings of the Geologists Association</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny fossil, big discovery: Student uncovers a lost mammal species

What started as a student field trip along the cliffs...

Diseño sin título - 1

A beautiful turquoise‑and‑lilac sea creature that has been kept in hobbyist aquariums around the world for nearly two decades has finally been given a scientific species name. 



The modest crustacean hiding in plain sight turns out to be Cherax pulverulentus, an entirely new crayfish species no biologist had cataloged until now.



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jiri-Patoka" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jiří Patoka</a> of the <a href="https://www.czechuniversities.com/catalogue-of-universities/czech-university-of-life-sciences-prague" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Czech University of Life Sciences Prague</a> and an international team realized the oversight while inspecting a shipment of Indonesian pets in 2023. 



Their detective work now ends years of speculation about the animal’s identity in the scientific community worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-cherax-pulverulentus">Meet Cherax pulverulentus</h2>



Ever since the early 2000s, importers have marketed the animal under nicknames such as “Blue Moon” and “Hoa Creek,” labels that lumped several look‑alike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/">species</a> together. 



Dealers moved thousands of specimens across Europe, the United States, Japan, and Indonesia, yet museum drawers remained empty of an official voucher specimen.



Collectors recognized the flashy colors, but the mix of hues muddied any attempt to match the pet to known taxa. Without an authoritative description, conservation agencies could not track exports or assess wild harvest pressure.



Field notes hinted that the mystery crayfish came from forested headwaters near Ayamaru Lake in the Bird’s Head Peninsula of western New Guinea. 



Border checkpoints rarely scrutinized small ornamental shipments, allowing animals to flow from creeks to storefronts without paperwork.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cherax-pulverulentus-has-two-forms">Cherax pulverulentus has two forms</h2>



The research team reports that purple‑form individuals sport turquoise bodies dusted with violet specks. Their joints and tail fans fade to a chalky white, producing an almost pastel appearance that appeals to aquarists.



Blue‑form animals replace those lilac freckles with a deep navy background that drifts toward black around the claws. 



Bright orange stripes frame the abdomen and legs, giving the crayfish a stark, two‑tone look unique within the genus.



Patoka and colleagues chose the species epithet pulverulentus, Latin for “covered with dust,” to capture these pinpoint spots. 



The name, Cherax pulverulentus, cements the animal’s singular identity and separates it from <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcb/article-abstract/35/6/830/2547908" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cherax pulcher</a>, a close relative described in 2015.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detective-work-in-the-lab">Detective work in the lab</h2>



Traditional morphometrics ranked claw shape, eye size, and rostrum length against 38 allied species. DNA barcoding of the mitochondrial COI gene then revealed at least 2 percent divergence from every known member of the genus.



“This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-biodiversity-scientists-discover-hidden-pattern-guiding-species-distributions/">species</a> has been exploited in the ornamental aquarium trade at least for 21 years,” wrote Patoka in the report. That long tenure outside science underscores how commercial networks can outpace taxonomy.



A second line of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387844505_Cherax_pulverulentus_a_new_freshwater_crayfish_Decapoda_Parastacidae_from_Southwest_Papua_Province_Indonesia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> came from nuclear 28S sequences that grouped Cherax pulverulentus as a sister lineage to C. pulcher, yet still distinct enough to rule out color morph status. 



The dual approach gives regulators a clear diagnostic toolkit should confiscated shipments require forensic identification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-guinea-streams-to-aquariums">New Guinea streams to aquariums</h2>



In the wild, the dusty crayfish digs shallow burrows into sandy streambeds shaded by rainforest canopy. Water temperatures hover near 75°F, oxygen levels stay high, and leaf litter offers both shelter and food.



The <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/new_guinea_forests/conservation_new_guinea_forests/sites_new_guinea_forests/papua_new_guinea_bird_head_peninsula/">Bird’s Head Peninsula</a> ranks as a biodiversity hotspot, yet many of its tributaries remain unsampled by crustacean specialists. 



Local fishers collect juveniles during the dry season when water levels drop, a practice that feeds the export pipeline but leaves population trends unknown.



Little is published on the crayfish’s diet, growth rate, or breeding season. Patoka’s team calls for ecological studies that could inform sustainable quotas before demand removes more animals than nature can replace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dumping-cherax-pulverulentus">Dumping Cherax pulverulentus</h2>



During the survey, one dusty crayfish turned up in a thermal spring near Budapest, Hungary, evidence that at least one aquarist released an unwanted pet. 



Similar introductions have seeded invasive populations of marbled crayfish and signal crayfish across Europe.



Non‑native crustaceans often carry the oomycete Aphanomyces astaci, the agent of crayfish plague, a disease lethal to indigenous European stocks. Even a handful of carriers can trigger a cascade that empties streams of native fauna.



Thermal refuges give tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-3500-animal-species-are-directly-threatened-by-climate-change/">species</a> a foothold in colder climates. Once established, escapees outcompete local detritivores, alter nutrient cycling, and nibble on amphibian eggs, multiplying their ecological footprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-formal-naming-matters">Why formal naming matters</h2>



Legal frameworks that govern wildlife trade, such as <a href="https://cites.org/eng/disc/what.php">CITES</a>, depend on precise species lists. 



An unnamed organism cannot be added to an appendix, leaving customs officials powerless to intercept over‑harvested cargo.



Taxonomic clarity also guides aquaculture biosecurity. Without diagnostic characters, hatchery operators may unknowingly mix species, breeding hybrids that compromise genetic integrity in the source range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-cherax-pulverulentus">What's next for Cherax pulverulentus?</h2>



Patoka’s group urges Indonesian authorities to map the crayfish’s distribution and to monitor harvest volumes. 



Citizen scientists photographing stream fauna with location tags could accelerate the search for hidden colonies.



Aquarists can help by buying captive‑bred stock, quarantining new arrivals, and never releasing pets into local waterways. 



Responsible hobby practice will allow enthusiasts to enjoy the dusty crayfish’s colors without endangering ecosystems.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5566.3.4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Colorful aquarium creature turns out to be a new species never catalogued by scientists

A beautiful turquoise‑and‑lilac sea creature that has been kept in...

Four tiny predators were hiding in South Korea’s limestone and lava caves, waiting for the right flashlight beam to catch their gleaming, pincer‑like jaws. These pale, eyeless pseudoscorpions - nicknamed “dragon pseudoscorpions” for their fierce-looking claws - had remained invisible to science until recently.



<a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=do5tcEAAAAAJ&amp;hl=en">Ki-Hoon Jeong</a> of the <a href="https://www.nibr.go.kr/">National Institute of Biological Resources</a> and his colleagues, who made the discovery, say the creatures spend their entire lives in complete darkness - which explains their ghostly lack of color and total blindness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caves-hide-rare-life">Caves hide rare life</h2>



Researchers have identified more than 1,000 caves across South Korea, yet many remain biologically uncharted. Caves form inside <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/caves/karst-landscapes.htm">karst landscapes</a>, where acidic water dissolves limestone, creating isolated pockets that act like evolutionary islands for small creatures.



The perpetual night drives what biologists call <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3639761/">troglomorphic change</a>, most often the loss of eyes and pigment together with elongated limbs and sensory hairs. 



Because each cave system isolates itself from its neighbors, animals that stumble inside can quickly diverge, creating swarms of localized species that go unnoticed by science - unless someone rappels in



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragon-jaws-and-vacant-eyes">Dragon jaws and vacant eyes</h2>



Jeong’s team named them Spelaeochthonius dugigulensis, S. geumgulensis, S. magwihalmigulensis, and S. yamigulensis. The adults are only about 0.08 inches long, but their chelicerae spread wide like grappling hooks.



“All species are strongly cave‑adapted and known from a single cave or karst system only,” wrote the authors. 



The pseudoscorpions wield venom‑tipped pedipalps that snap shut on springtails and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mites-survived-without-sex-for-millions-of-years/">mites</a>, yet they lack the sting and tail that give true scorpions their reputation.



Worldwide, the order <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/13/1/25">Pseudoscorpiones</a> already boasts more than 3,300 described species, with dozens added every year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-confirm-the-newcomers">Genes confirm the newcomers</h2>



Field collections supplied just a handful of specimens, sometimes only one, but that was enough for DNA work. The researchers sequenced the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1691236/">mitochondrial COI barcode</a>, a 650‑base snippet widely used for species delimitation.



In arthropods, a 10 percent COI gap usually separates good species boundaries. The four Korean lineages showed between 13.7 and 19.8 percent divergence, easily clearing that bar. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pseudoscorpions_Spelaeochthonius-dugigulensis_new-species_images_credit-Jeong_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pseudoscorpions_Spelaeochthonius-dugigulensis_new-species_images_credit-Jeong_1s.webp" alt="Habitus of Spelaeochthonius dugigulensis sp. nov. A. Holotype male, dorsal view; B. Holotype male, ventral view; C. Paratype female, dorsal view; D. Paratype female, ventral view. Scale bar: 1 mm. Credit: Jeong et al." class="wp-image-1977845"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Habitus of Spelaeochthonius dugigulensis sp. nov. A. Holotype male, dorsal view; B. Holotype male, ventral view; C. Paratype female, dorsal view; D. Paratype female, ventral view. Scale bar: 1 mm. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Jeong et al.</figcaption></figure>



Even the closest pair differed by 6.8 percent, still above the in‑house variation of less than 0.6 percent reported for single populations.



These genetic splits mirror geography: each species occupies one cave, separated from its nearest relative by scores of rocky ridges and dry valleys, natural walls that arthropods the size of sesame seeds rarely cross.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endemic-treasures-under-threat">Endemic treasures under threat</h2>



Blind cave life is fragile. Many Korean caves double as tourist attractions or concrete‑lined storage depots, and runoff can introduce pesticides, sewage, or construction dust.



Karst breakdown already erased one beetle, Coreoblemus parvicollis, which vanished after its only cave flooded behind the Chungju Dam, a cautionary tale cited by local conservationists.



Because the dragon pseudoscorpions live nowhere else, a single blocked entrance or polluted drip could wipe out each entire species. 



Jeong’s group urges formal protection for cave ecosystems before “dark extinction” claims more unseen lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taxonomy-protects-cave-life">Taxonomy protects cave life</h2>



Accurate species identification is more than just naming. It sets the groundwork for conservation laws, biodiversity metrics, and habitat protection. 



Without formal recognition, these pseudoscorpions wouldn’t qualify for endangered listings or land protections, leaving them invisible in policy.



Jeong’s team used both physical features and genetic data to verify each new species. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pseudoscorpions_Spelaeochthonius_new-species_genetic-analysis_credit-Jeong_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pseudoscorpions_Spelaeochthonius_new-species_genetic-analysis_credit-Jeong_1s.webp" alt="Phylogenetic analyses of Spelaeochthonius shed light on species diversity and the biogeographical complexity of this genus. Credit: Jeong et al." class="wp-image-1977847"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Phylogenetic analyses of Spelaeochthonius shed light on species diversity and the biogeographical complexity of this genus. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Jeong et al.</figcaption></figure>



Their work followed standards set by the <a href="https://www.iczn.org/">International Code of Zoological Nomenclature</a> and included digital archiving in <a href="https://zoobank.org/">ZooBank</a> to make the names valid and permanent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-cave-equals-one-species">One cave equals one species</h2>



Each cave system in this study hosted a different pseudoscorpion, and none were found anywhere else. That makes them single‑karst endemics, meaning their entire population lives in one small, isolated location. If a single cave collapses or gets sealed, that species could disappear permanently.



This kind of hyper‑local distribution is common in cave life, especially among small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-reveal-new-clues-about-arthropod-evolution/">arthropods</a> with limited mobility. It also means conservation decisions can’t rely on broad habitat ranges. 



Protecting these pseudoscorpions requires protecting individual caves, each one may be home to a species found nowhere else on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-finds-lie-underground">Next finds lie underground</h2>



Every cave the team explored held at least one unknown pseudoscorpion, hinting that South Korea’s tally could climb from the current seven cave‑adapted species to dozens once systematic surveys begin.



With next‑generation sequencing now portable and cheap, even a few legs from a hand‑collected specimen can yield full mitochondrial genomes, opening the door to deeper evolutionary studies and faster threat assessments.



The discovery also reminds <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-can-accurately-perceive-biodiversity-through-the-senses/">biodiversity</a> workers that tiny arthropods matter. They patrol fungal films, recycle bat guano, and feed larger cave invertebrates, weaving subterranean food webs every bit as intricate as those above ground. 



Protecting the darkness, therefore, protects an entire hidden branch of the Korean biosphere, one dragon‑jawed pseudoscorpion at a time.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0325375">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Dragon pseudoscorpions' discovered living in caves have no fangs or eyes

Four tiny predators were hiding in South Korea’s limestone and...

You’ve seen them on shirts, in documentaries, and maybe jumping at a theme park. They look bold and sound fierce. But orcas, also called killer whales, aren’t what the name suggests. They’re smart, social, and loyal. Every year on July 14, we celebrate World Orca Day.



It started in New Zealand. A young orca got stuck in shallow water. Locals worked together to help him return to the sea. That rescue turned into something bigger. Now, people around the world use this day to honor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orcas-have-hunting-and-eating-habits-that-we-never-imagined/">orcas</a> - not only celebrating their strength but also highlighting the challenges they face.



While some orcas are thriving, many are struggling. They face pollution, food shortages, and in some cases, captivity in tanks. World Orca Day presents an opportunity to learn about the real challenges they endure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orcas-live-in-pods-and-pass-on-skills">Orcas live in pods and pass on skills</h2>



Orcas aren’t whales - they’re actually <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-killer-whales-struggling-to-survive-in-the-pacific/">dolphins</a> that live in social groups called pods. Every pod has its unique way of communicating. Some feed exclusively on fish, others hunt seals, and a few even pursue sharks. Each group follows its own distinct hunting strategy.



Orcas learn how to hunt from each other. Young ones watch the adults. They copy what they see, and then get better at it. Some pods chase fish into tight balls. Others slide onto beaches to grab seals. These skills don’t come from instinct - they’re passed down like family recipes.



Orcas stick together. Mothers lead, sons often stay for life, and grandmothers play a big role. They know the best places to find food and guide the group with memory and experience. These pods aren’t random groups - they are families.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-on-world-orca-day">Awareness on World Orca Day </h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-marine-reptiles-would-have-eaten-killer-whales-as-snacks/">ocean</a> has gotten louder due to ships, drills, sonar. It’s equal to trying to talk in traffic. Orcas use sound to hunt and stay close. Ocean noise messes that up.



Food is another problem. Some orcas depend on salmon, but in some places, these fish are disappearing. Less food means weaker orcas, affecting moms, calves, and the whole pod.



Pollution adds to the stress. Orcas store fat. When they don’t eat enough, they burn that fat for energy. That’s when stored toxins enter the bloodstream, impacting their health and survival.



Some orca populations are shrinking. They can’t bounce back if the ocean stays loud and empty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tanks-are-not-healthy-homes">Tanks are not healthy homes</h2>



Captive orcas live in marine parks. They spend years in tanks that are too small and restrictive.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photographer-captures-killer-whales-wearing-fish-hats/">Orcas</a> kept in tanks often suffer from illness. They may grind their teeth and display unusual behaviors, and they tend to have shorter lifespans than their wild counterparts. 



While some parks continue to feature them in shows, this is more for entertainment than genuine education.



A few places have banned <a href="https://savedolphins.eii.org/campaigns/fow">orca captivity</a>. Others still allow it. World Orca Day reminds people that wild animals belong in the wild. Tanks don’t offer a healthy life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-orca-day-inspires-action">World Orca Day inspires action</h2>



To help protect orcas, you can start with the basics. Learn what makes them unique and share those facts with others. Stay away from parks that keep orcas in tanks. Choose brands that care about the ocean.



You don’t need to live near the coast to make a difference. You can watch orcas through live cams, read their stories, and talk about them. You can join a cleanup in your area or support groups working to protect marine life. Every small step counts.



On World Orca Day, schools and science centers often join the effort. Kids ask questions. Teachers explore ocean life. Artists and researchers also get involved. And you can too, in whatever way fits you best.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-day-still-matters">Why this day still matters</h2>



Orcas play a big role in the ocean. They help keep balance in marine food webs. When they suffer, the whole system shifts. They’re not just animals. They’re indicators of ocean health.



World Orca Day calls on us to care - to recognize how our actions impact the ocean. Orcas don’t seek applause; they need clean waters, plenty of food, and peaceful places to raise their young.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Orca Day 2025: Saving the ocean's top predators

You’ve seen them on shirts, in documentaries, and maybe jumping...

Fish have voices, and the sea is never silent. From croaks that ricochet through mangroves to deep‑sea booms, these conversations guide courtship, navigation, and survival.



A new analysis from <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Simon Fraser University</a> shows that Canada’s flagship conservation policies almost never recognize those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/">voices</a>, leaving vital acoustic habitats unguarded. 



Marine ecologist <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/postdoctoral-fellows/profiles/kieran-cox.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kieran Cox</a> of Simon Fraser University co‑authored the study that sifted through two decades of federal paperwork.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-sound-to-survive-and-reproduce">Fish use sound to survive and reproduce</h2>



More than 1,000 known fish species are <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02745-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soniferous</a>, meaning they deliberately produce sound to communicate, and hundreds more are suspected to do the same. Male toadfish drone like idling motorcycles, while haddock tick and grouper boom, each signal tuned to species‑specific ears.



“A male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-bones-reveal-clues-about-the-evolution-of-eating/">fish</a> might hum or sing to attract their mates, and the longer his song, or the louder it is, the more eggs he will get from females,” explained Cox. 



Atlantic cod <a href="https://academic.oup.com/tafs/article/135/2/529/7887937" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gadus morhua</a> grunt through swim‑bladder muscles during spawning, and researchers have tracked entire aggregations by listening to those calls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-noise-drowns-out-fish-voices">Ocean noise drowns out fish voices</h2>



The <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aba4658" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean soundscape</a>, the mix of biological, physical, and human noises filling the water, has changed faster than any other habitat feature in recent decades. 



Ship engines, seismic air guns, and pile drivers add low‑frequency roar that travels farther than light or chemicals, masking the fine‑tuned signals fish depend on.



Most of this din comes from <a href="https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/PartnershipsProjects/Documents/GloNoise-Library/MEPC.1-Circ.833-7April2014.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater radiated noise</a> generated when propeller bubbles collapse and machinery vibrates the hull. As depth increases and daylight fades, sound replaces vision, so the risk rises for deep‑water species that have no other way to find mates or food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-laws-ignore-acoustic-habitats">Conservation laws ignore acoustic habitats</h2>



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725003763" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COSEWIC</a>, the expert panel that advises Ottawa on endangered wildlife, acknowledged fish sound production in just one assessment out of 204. Neither of the 56 recovery strategies drafted under <a href="https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/s-15.3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SARA</a>, Canada’s endangered‑species law, mentioned soundscapes or noise threats.



Anthropogenic noise has <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aah4783" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doubled</a> background sound levels in more than half of U.S. protected areas, hinting at the scale of the problem in Canadian waters as well. 



When noise blocks communication, the effect mirrors habitat loss, shrinking a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-dont-rest-while-hovering-its-actually-hard-work/">fish</a>’s functional living space even though the water looks unchanged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-the-whales">Learning from the whales</h2>



Regulators already protect communication spaces for southern resident <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/species-especes/publications/mammals-mammiferes/whalereview-revuebaleine/review-revue/killerwhale-epaulard/index-eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">killer whales</a>, setting vessel speed limits and buffer zones in the Salish Sea. During voluntary slow‑down trials, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X21010109" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quieter ships</a> raised successful foraging dives by the whales, proving that less noise can yield instant biological payoffs.



Fish biologists argue the same principle should apply below the whales, because many coral, seagrass, and deep‑sea communities are built on acoustic cues. 



The International Maritime Organization’s revised <a href="https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/Documents/MEPC.1-Circ.906%20-%20Revised%20Guidelines%20For%20The%20Reduction%20Of%20Underwater%20Radiated%20NoiseFrom%20Shipping%20To%20Address...%20%28Secretariat%29.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">guidelines</a> outline hull forms, propeller tweaks, and resilient engine mounts that slash cavitation clatter at the design stage.



For existing fleets, slower speeds remain the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X21013357" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quickest fix</a>, trimming hull noise in minutes and saving fuel at the same time. On land, urban planners already impose airport curfews; similar acoustic zoning could shield key spawning refuges from seismic blasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-voices-must-be-included-in-planning">Fish voices must be included in planning</h2>



<a href="https://sites.google.com/site/ecoacousticssociety" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecoacoustics</a>, the cross‑disciplinary science of environmental sound, now lets managers deploy autonomous recorders that log fish choruses year‑round with little labor. 



Cox and his team want Ottawa to add acoustics to every new status report, a change that would trigger legal duties to weigh noise limits before approving coastal developments.



“These three aspects of sound create different types of marine noise pollution, and each kind of noise pollution poses potential risks to marine species, from whales to fish to crustaceans,” said Kiara Kattler, who led the analysis in Isabelle Côté’s <a href="https://tmel.wordpress.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lab</a>.



If policy follows the evidence, tomorrow’s endangered‑species plans could include quiet hours, ship‑route changes, and protected “singing grounds” for fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-policymakers-can-do-now">What policymakers can do now</h2>



Fisheries managers don’t have to wait for more studies to take action. Passive acoustic monitoring gear is already cheap, easy to deploy, and able to track seasonal behavior in many key species. 



Adding simple guidance on soniferous species to existing review checklists could prevent new development from degrading acoustic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-alternative-seafood-can-help-save-our-oceans/">habitats</a> by accident.



Acoustic degradation doesn’t only affect fish. Crustaceans, cephalopods, and even coral larvae also use sound to find mates or settle in reef habitats, which means entire ecosystems could be thrown off balance. 



By integrating sound into conservation policies, agencies could protect dozens of marine species at once without needing separate rules for each.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725003763?dgcid=coauthor" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fish have voices but conservation policies ignore them

Fish have voices, and the sea is never silent. From...

A four week voyage across the North Atlantic has uncovered a pollutant so small that standard nets could never snag it. Researchers found that plastic particles under one micrometer, known as nanoplastics, saturate ocean water from the Azores to Europe.



When the team scaled their measurements up, they calculated roughly <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09218-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">twenty seven million tons</a> of these specks floating in the top 650 feet of the North Atlantic, rivaling every estimate of larger debris for the entire world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-crisis-goes-way-deeper-than-we-thought/">ocean</a>.



This estimate comes from geochemist Helge Niemann of the <a href="https://www.nioz.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research</a> and <a href="https://www.uu.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>, who worked with graduate student Sophie ten Hietbrink aboard the research vessel RV Pelagia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-invisible-plastic-particles">Detecting invisible plastic particles</h2>



Ten Hietbrink drew two‑liter samples at twelve stations, collecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">water</a> from the surface, 3,300 feet, and near the seabed. She passed each sample through filters finer than a red blood cell.



Back in the Utrecht lab, the residue was baked inside a proton transfer reaction mass spectrometer, a device that fingerprints polymers by the gases they release. “By drying and heating the remaining material, we were able to measure the characteristic molecules of different types of plastics,” noted Ten Hietbrink.



The approach allowed the crew to log <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/polyethylene-terephthalate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyethylene terephthalate</a>, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride even at 15,000‑foot depths. Every vial, no matter its origin, contained plastic.



Because the mass spectrometer ignores <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-algorithms-can-increase-ocean-plastic-cleanup-efficiency/">pieces</a> above one micrometer, the expedition focused exclusively on bits far smaller than conventional <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/microplastics.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic</a>, the fragments between one micrometer and five millimeters often photographed on beaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shocking-amount-of-ocean-plastic">Shocking amount of ocean plastic</h2>



When the numbers from each station were extended across latitudes eight to fifty-five degrees north, the tally reached masses never before assigned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coca-cola-may-dump-1-3b-pounds-plastic-into-oceans-by-2030/">plastic</a> pollution. The final figure equals the combined cargo of almost 2,000 container ships.



Niemann described the result as a shocking amount and explained that it finally answers the puzzle of missing plastic that production statistics could not account for.



“There is more plastic in the form of nanoparticles floating in this part of the ocean than there is in larger particles floating in the Atlantic or even all the world's oceans,” said Niemann.



The data also reshape the popular image of ocean garbage patches. Nets that trap bottle caps and food wrappers sample only a thin veneer; the bulk of the load is invisible and dispersed.



Within the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gyre.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic subtropical gyre</a>, currents corral microplastics at the surface, yet the researchers found the highest nanoplastic concentrations closer to the European shelf, hinting at strong land-based sources.



The nanoplastic concentration dropped by roughly one half at 3,300 feet, and fell to about a third of surface levels near the seabed - yet plastic still appeared at every depth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanoplastics-harm-animals-and-humans">Nanoplastics harm animals and humans</h2>



Laboratory and clinical <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022001258" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that particles smaller than a micrometer can slip past the intestinal lining and enter the bloodstream, where they appear in human blood samples.



Once circulating, they can also cross the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35302003/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blood‑brain barrier</a>, ferrying other contaminants into nervous tissue - as demonstrated in mice.



Marine life confronts the same risk. Bacteria may mistake nanoplastics for food, zooplankton ingest them, and the particles ascend the food web to fish and seabirds.



A recent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30861380/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meta‑analysis</a> concludes that smaller pieces accumulate more readily than larger debris and may trigger oxidative stress in cells.



Field experiments in the Mediterranean have linked nanoplastic exposure to reduced filtration rates in farmed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37379876/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">filter feeder mussels</a>, a sector worth more than $4 billion to coastal economies.



Economic losses could rise if shellfish accumulate particles that lower growth or market appeal, adding a financial dimension to what was once viewed solely as an environmental issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-fragments-come-from">Where the fragments come from</h2>



Sunlight bleaches and cracks larger items at the surface, eventually grinding them into nanoscale dust. River mouths add steady plumes of city trash each day.



The air itself delivers particles. Atmosphere monitors detect plastic aerosols over both continents and oceans, which settle by rainfall or dry deposition.



Once in seawater, nanoplastics no longer obey buoyancy rules. Their motion is governed by <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11905425/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brownian motion</a>, letting them drift vertically and reach depths where light never penetrates.



Sediment cores from the deep <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10919090/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Pacific</a> and equatorial trenches already hold threads of polyester and shards of polyvinyl chloride, proving that tiny plastics sink or hitchhike on marine snow to the seabed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-ocean-plastic-still-unclear">Types of ocean plastic still unclear</h2>



Curiously, the expedition detected no nanoparticles of polyethylene or polypropylene, the two polymers that dominate surface trash. Niemann suspects chemical weathering may hide their fingerprints, or the fragments may degrade faster than they form.



Future cruises will test other oceans and refine techniques to reveal modified polymers, because the Atlantic is unlikely to be unique.



Researchers also need time‑series records to track whether nanoplastic levels continue climbing or have reached a plateau.



Equally urgent is understanding how mixtures of plastic and natural organic matter interact, potentially altering toxicity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-prevention-over-cleanup">Choosing prevention over cleanup</h2>



Niemann stresses that the particles already adrift are beyond recovery; their size makes skimming devices useless. The logical path is to curb new emissions.



Several countries now restrict the use of microbeads in cosmetics and plan to phase out certain single‑use items, yet production of virgin plastic keeps rising faster than recycling capacity.



Standardized monitoring that includes nanoscale particles would give policymakers a clearer target and let them judge whether interventions are working.



Citizen science beach cleanups, while unable to net nanoparticles, still remove items that would otherwise weather into new fragments, providing a frontline defense against future invisible pollution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09218-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Nanoplastic particles have infiltrated the ocean's food web at the most important levels

A four week voyage across the North Atlantic has uncovered...

Long before the first mammals walked the Earth, the oceans were home to strange, powerful fish. Some of these ancient fish eventually crawled onto land and kicked off a new chapter in evolution. 



Now, thanks to new fossil research, we’re learning even more about how these early animals lived - and ate.



In a new study led by scientists from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>, researchers examined jawbones from 380-million-year-old lungfish found in Western Australia's remote Gogo fossil field. 



The findings shed light on the evolution of feeding strategies in fish that are closely related to all land-dwelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">vertebrates</a>, including us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biting-power-of-ancient-fish">Biting power of ancient fish</h2>



The researchers used 3D finite element modeling (FEM) - a tool more commonly seen in engineering. They digitally tested how different fossilized jaws handled biting stress. 



By running simulations on fish jawbones from multiple species, the team revealed surprising variation in shape, strength, and eating behavior.



“Lungfish are ‘sister taxa’ to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-know-far-less-about-four-footed-animals-than-expected/">tetrapods</a> - or all four-limbed animals with a backbone, including humans - which means they are our closest ‘fishy’ relatives,” noted Dr. Alice Clement.



“They have an extensive fossil history stretching back over 400 million years and still with living representatives today and their phylogenetic proximity to tetrapods giving insight into our long-distant ancestors who first made the move from water to land.”



That close relationship makes lungfish fossils especially valuable. The Gogo Formation in northern Western Australia is a goldmine of such specimens. With 11 known species, it holds the most diverse group of lungfish ever discovered from one place or time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-bite-force-and-eating-style">Fish bite force and eating style</h2>



Until now, scientists knew these fish had different jaw shapes. What they didn’t know was how those jaws worked. The new models changed that.



“We’re slowly teasing apart the details of how the bodies and lifestyles of these animals changed, as they moved from being fish that lived in water, to becoming tetrapods that moved about on land,” said Dr. Clement.



By scanning seven fossil species and applying FEM to five of them, the team was able to measure how the jawbones responded to stress during simulated bites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-bites-defy-expectations">Fossil bites defy expectations</h2>



The dataset is the most detailed look yet at biting performance in any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-fish-lived-15-million-years-ago-still-has-preserved-food-in-stomach-ferruaspis-brocksi/">fossil fish</a>. It provides biomechanical evidence for diverse feeding adaptations and niche partitioning within Gogo lungfishes, noted Dr. Olga Panagiotopoulou, a functional anatomist at Touro University California.



Some of the findings contradicted assumptions. Jaws that looked sturdy on the outside didn’t always perform well in bite-force simulations. And some that looked more delicate turned out to be much stronger than expected.



“The results were somewhat surprising, with some ‘robust’-looking lower jaws appearing to not be all that well suited to biting stress, and some of the more gracile or slender jaws appeared to be able to withstand stress and strain very well,” said Professor John Long of Flinders University.



“This diversity of biomechanical function seen in the Gogo lungfishes suggest that there was niche partitioning and trophic differentiation among lungfishes, possibly accounting for their incredibly high species diversity at this site.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-fish-reinvented-eating">When fish reinvented eating</h2>



The Devonian period, often called the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-jawless-fish-rhinopteraspis-dunensis-filter-feeders/">Age of Fishes</a>,” was ruled by placoderms and other ancient species for about 60 million years. Many of their fossils were found decades ago, but new tools like FEM are finally revealing how these animals actually lived.



Joshua Bland, a researcher at the Flinders Palaeontology Lab, is the study's lead author. He noted that the Gogo lungfish of the Late Devonian reefs were truly unique, with species possessing a host of different behaviors and abilities.



“To capture parts of that story, hidden in the bone, was extremely rewarding. It felt like we lifted the veil on some real functions behind the form. It was impressive to see the more complex morphology perform better in our tests," said Bland. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-science-from-old-bones">Future science from old bones</h2>



All 3D models from the study are now available on Morphosource, allowing other researchers to explore and expand on this work.



By combining old fossils with new technology, the team has brought us one step closer to understanding the creatures that helped shape life on land. 



The researchers have also shown that even after 380 million years, ancient bones can still have something new to say.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)01231-3?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004225012313%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">iScience</a>.



Image Credit: John Long, Flinders University



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ancient fish bones reveal clues about the evolution of eating

Long before the first mammals walked the Earth, the oceans...

'Zombie' fungi that hijack insects are not just a modern forest horror story. A pair of tiny fossils locked in Burmese amber shows that these parasites stalked ants and flies nearly 100 million years ago in what is now Myanmar.



The newly described fungi, Paleoophiocordyceps gerontoformicae and Paleoophiocordyceps ironomyiae, sprouted from their long‑dead hosts, just like today’s entomopathogenic relatives. This gruesome strategy has clearly been in play since ancient times. 



Study co‑author <a href="https://www.biotaxa.org/pe/article/view/palaeoentomology.5.3.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Edmund Jarzembowski</a> of the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology (<a href="http://english.nigpas.cas.cn/">NIGPAS</a>) and London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> helped craft the formal description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-outbreak-of-parasitic-fungi">Ancient outbreak of parasitic fungi</h2>



Amber from the Hukawng Valley captures an ant pupa with a slender fungal stalk, and a fly pierced by a second projectile‑like stroma. 



The position of each growth mirrors the way that modern zombie fungi erupt from soft joints after the host’s last breath.



Palaeontologists reconstructed the scene and noted that the ant appears to have been dragged away from the nest before the infection reached its spore‑spraying stage. Social insects often quarantine sick kin, a behaviour already in place during the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-cretaceous-period.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a>.



“It’s fascinating to see some of the strangeness of the natural world that we see today was also present at the height of the age of the dinosaurs,” said Jarzembowski, reflecting on the familiar menace that infected the ancient insects.



The research team counted flask‑shaped perithecia, the microscopic chambers where sexual spores mature, on the fossilized stalks. 



Their arrangement ties the ancient genus to living Ophiocordyceps, even though the lineage split more than 130 million years ago.



Very few fossil pathogens display intact reproductive parts. This makes every new specimen a potential window into deep‑time disease ecology. 



The rarity arises because fungi are soft and because an insect corpse rarely fossilizes side by side with its killer, scientists noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-a-fungus-a-zombie">What makes a fungus a zombie</h2>



Members of <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005037" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ophiocordyceps</a> start with a pin‑sized spore that germinates. It drills through the exoskeleton of a living insect, and sets up shop in the haemolymph. 



Chemical signals then steer the victim to a perch that maximizes wind exposure for the dispersal of spores released after death.



A genome survey of ant‑infecting species uncovered dozens of genes that code for enterotoxin‑like proteins. This suggests that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-fungus-aspergillus-that-can-eat-you-from-the-inside-out-is-quietly-spreading-around-the-world/">fungus</a> rewires muscles and nerves using the same tricks that bacteria use to upset mammalian guts.



Transcript <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/accumulating-glitches/how_fungus_makes_ant_zombies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that as the infection peaks, genes tied to serotonin and dopamine pathways in the ant surge or plunge, matching the precise timing of the so‑called death grip.



Today more than 1,500 insect‑killing <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/understanding-fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a> are catalogued, yet only a handful make headlines. Specialists target beetles that bore into crops or mosquitoes that spread malaria, demonstrating the ecological punch of these microbes, even outside tropical forests.



Their life cycle is a masterclass in recycling nutrients: the mycelium consumes host tissues from within, then the emergent stalk spreads fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-living-plastic-contains-bacterial-spores-that-break-it-down/">spores</a> that restore carbon and nitrogen to soil food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amber-as-nature-s-time-capsule">Amber as nature's time capsule</h2>



Tree resin entombs soft bodies in minutes and hardens into amber that resists water, oxygen, and microbial decay. 



That airtight seal lets researchers inspect insect cuticles along with fungal filaments that are thinner than a human hair.



Kachin amber is celebrated for its clarity, but the deposit also raises ethical concerns because mining revenues can fund armed conflict. International guidelines now press museums to verify provenance before accepting new pieces.



Gem cutters often discard cloudy chunks, yet those fragments may shelter the best biological inclusions. Researchers therefore sift mine tailings for overlooked specimens, rather than fueling fresh extraction.



Because resin flows layer over layer, a single piece can trap snapshots separated by hours. That layering helps date biological events with unusual precision when volcanic ash beds bracket the deposit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-give-clues-to-insect-evolution">Fungi give clues to insect evolution</h2>



Comparative anatomy and molecular clocks place Paleoophiocordyceps on a branch that diverged from the modern zombie‑ant fungus during the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392592127_Cretaceous_entomopathogenic_fungi_illuminate_the_early_evolution_of_insect-fungal_associations" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous</a>. this was at the time that flowering plants began reshaping terrestrial food webs.



The study’s host‑switch analysis flagged a likely jump from beetles to flies and ants, mirroring the radiation of pollinators and social insects. Such leaps underline how a parasite’s fate is tied to the fortunes of its preferred prey.



Beetles already thrived in decaying wood, an environment humid enough for fungal spores, while the rise of canopy flowers led <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swarm-intelligence-ants-can-anticipate-obstacles-and-plan-ahead/">ants</a> to exploit new niches. The fungus followed its insect food, so to speak, adapting its toolkit for each cuticular landscape.



Host regulation may have checked insect booms long before birds or bats evolved sophisticated appetites for six‑legged prey. 



That invisible policing force could explain relatively stable herbivore damage in Cretaceous leaf fossils, despite soaring insect diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-familiar-to-modern-forests">A tale familiar to modern forests</h2>



Field surveys in Thailand show that fungus-infected ant graveyards form in patches where humidity hovers near 95 percent, suggesting the parasite needs microclimates as well as hosts.



Timing is equally precise. Infected carpenter ants bite down at solar noon more often than chance predicts, hinting that fungal circadian genes sync with the host’s biological clock.



When <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0004835" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cadavers</a> pile up, each fungal stalk releases millions of spores, yet infections remain patchy. Colony grooming, corpse removal, and antimicrobial secretions keep outbreaks from wiping out entire nests.



Lab trials with generalist insect fungi show a trade‑off between killing speed and spore burden, meaning parasites that act too quickly may sacrifice dispersal success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-today">Why it matters today</h2>



Entomologists already deploy fungal <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/what-are-biopesticides" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bio‑pesticides</a> against insects such as locusts and crop‑boring moths. 



This method of control targets the insects without drenching fields in chemicals. Lessons from ancient lineages could sharpen that strategy by revealing how host jumps evolve.



Climate models predict that warmer nights and shifting rainfall will widen the habitat for many fungal pathogens. 



Tracking their evolutionary playbook helps forecast which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/">insect</a> groups, helpful or harmful, might feel the heat next.



The fossils nevertheless remind us that even tiny microbes leave fingerprints on evolution, shaping who thrives and who fails. 



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rspb.2025.0407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Zombie' fungus that lived almost 100 million years ago found preserved in amber

'Zombie' fungi that hijack insects are not just a modern...

Ever wonder what kind of videos would keep monkeys glued to a screen? Turns out, their preferences aren’t all that different from ours.



A recent study found that long-tailed macaques are especially drawn to watching aggressive behavior and familiar faces - just like us. The findings offer new insight into the social instincts we share with other primates.



The study was led by researchers at <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en">Utrecht University</a> in the Netherlands, in collaboration with The Ohio State University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-monkey-theater">Inside the monkey theater</h2>



The team showed two-minute videos to 28 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-macaques-have-social-bonds-that-persist-beyond-death/">macaques</a> living at the Biomedical Primate Research Centre in Rijswijk, the Netherlands. 



Each video featured monkeys from the same group or complete strangers, engaged in one of four activities: fighting, grooming, running, or just sitting around.



The macaques were free to enter a testing corridor where laptops played the videos. These testing areas were already familiar to the animals, so the environment wasn’t new or stressful. While watching, researchers tracked how long the monkeys looked at the screen.



The results were clear: the macaques paid the most attention to videos showing fights between monkeys. Running came in second. Grooming and sitting barely registered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflict-grabs-attention">Conflict grabs attention</h2>



Brad Bushman is co-author of the study and professor of communication at The Ohio State University.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-drive-learning-in-monkeys-and-humans-alike/">Humans</a> and macaques are both social animals who have a fundamental need to belong,” he said. “It’s not surprising that they both would be most interested in the video content that may help them navigate relationships in their groups.”



“We have plenty of research showing the popularity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-exposure-to-violent-media-increases-aggression-in-teens/">violent media</a> with humans. Now we have some evidence that other primates might also be attracted to conflict and aggression in videos."



“From an evolutionary perspective, this makes sense. Both humans and other animals may be hardwired to pay attention to aggression because that is an adaptive response that increases survival,” Bushman added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groupmates-get-more-views">Groupmates get more views</h2>



The macaques didn’t just favor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/">conflict</a> - they also preferred to watch monkeys they knew. Videos of their own group members got more attention than clips featuring strangers.



“This indicates that gathering social information on group members is more important than getting information about strangers,” said Elisabeth H.M. Sterck, professor of animal behavior and cognition at Utrecht University.



“When we as humans watch movies, we like to see actors we know – we like to see the stars playing in big movies more than we do actors who are not familiar to us,” Bushman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monkey-social-status">Monkey social status </h2>



Not all monkeys watched with equal interest. Lower-ranking and less aggressive macaques were more attentive to the videos than their dominant peers.



“More dominant individuals can be more confident that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-increases-pain-tolerance-and-fuels-aggression/">aggression</a> will not affect them – they don’t have to pay attention to others as much,” Sterck said.



“Lower-ranking individuals can become an aggression victim and that may be why they pay more attention to what others are doing in the videos.”



Interestingly, monkeys that were more anxious or easily stressed were less focused on group members.



“We found that the gathering of social information from the videos differed with dominance rank and behavioral tendencies, which may reflect personality,” Sterck said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-curiosity-across-species">A shared curiosity across species</h2>



These monkeys, known for their visual acuity, watched the videos on their own terms - walking into the test space voluntarily. Each session was brief, but the pull of conflict on screen was undeniable.



“The macaques are very visual animals. Their eyesight is similar to that of humans, and they are very interested in watching videos,” Sterck said.



And while the videos were short, their effect was real. Bushman noted that even this brief exposure to aggressive media captured the attention of macaques in the study.



“When you see this in some of our closest primate relatives, it is easy to see why humans are so interested in violent media," said Bushman. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-primate-preference-for-drama">A primate preference for drama</h2>



What we see on screen says a lot about who we are - and apparently, that’s true for monkeys too.



In this study, our primate cousins showed they’re drawn to social drama and familiar faces, just like humans sitting down with popcorn for a movie night. 



Whether it’s about survival, curiosity, or just plain interest, the content that grabs attention may be more universal than we thought.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-025-01970-1">Animal Cognition</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Monkeys love watching videos of fights and friends - just like humans

Ever wonder what kind of videos would keep monkeys glued...

A new fossil skull, dug out of purple siltstone in northern China, belongs to a creature that walked the planet about 259 million years ago. The animal was named Yinshanosaurus angustus, and the find helps fill a gap in the family tree of large plant‑eating reptiles that roamed just before the greatest die‑off in Earth’s history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-yinshanosaurus-angustus">Unearthing Yinshanosaurus angustus</h2>



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jian-Yi-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jian Yi</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jun-Liu-222" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jun Liu</a> of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IVPP</a>), compared two well‑preserved specimens from Shanxi and Inner Mongolia.



Both fossils include almost complete skulls, giving researchers a rare full view of the head and much of the spine.



“Pareiasauria are a bizarre herbivorous clade of tetrapods that existed in the Guadalupian and Lopingian and were victims of both the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2021.631198/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Capitanian</a> and the end‑Permian mass extinction events,” reminded Liu. 



The more complete of the two skulls measures 10 inches long yet barely 4 inches wide across the cheeks, the narrowest head known for any pareiasaur.



That unusual shape is not the only odd trait. The snout is as wide as it is high, the frontal bone is slender and twice as long as it is wide, and the upper‑jaw teeth stand almost vertical instead of tilting backward as in relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-on-earth-is-a-pareiasaur">What on Earth is a pareiasaur?</h2>



A pareiasaur is a stocky, barrel‑bodied tetrapod that carried a tiny tail and a head often ringed with bony knobs. Most species topped out at about 8 feet long and weighed as much as today’s American bison.



They thrived across the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22096103/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">late Permian period</a>, serving as key plant chompers in ecosystems from South Africa to Russia. Their success ended abruptly when roughly 90 percent of marine species and 70 percent of land vertebrates vanished at the close of the era.



Yinshanosaurus angustus foraged on the northern shoulder of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-fossils-from-earths-largest-mass-extinction-carry-a-climate-warning/">Pangea</a>, the single landmass that stitched together today’s continents. 



At the time, the interior of the supercontinent swung between searing summers and bitter winters, pressuring animals to adapt or disappear.



China’s Naobaogou and Sunjiagou formations capture that turbulent landscape in stacked mudstones and siltstones. 



Periodic floods buried carcasses quickly enough to preserve delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-33-foot-jurassic-giant-twice-as-big-as-its-cousin-xingxiulong/">skeletal</a> links, a stroke of luck for modern paleontologists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-written-in-bone">Clues written in bone</h2>



Yi and Liu spotted a forked rear projection on the nasal bone and a notch in the tabular bone at the back of the skull, features never seen together before. 



They also noticed a U‑shaped paraoccipital process that differs from the V‑shaped version in close cousins.



“The skeleton of Yinshanosaurus angustus provides the complete cranial and articulated postcranial details of Chinese pareiasaurs for the first time,” added Jian Yi after months of lab preparation. 



Using 183 anatomical characters, the team ran computer analyses that split Chinese pareiasaurs into three distinct branches, placing the new taxon beside <a href="https://dbpedia.org/page/Shihtienfenia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shihtienfenia completus</a> within a fresh sub‑group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-permian-still-matters">Why the Permian still matters</h2>



The Permian ended with volcanic eruptions in what is now Siberia, pumping out enough carbon dioxide to warm oceans by at least 14°F. 



That spike drove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cascading-oxygen-loss-could-endanger-our-oceans/">ocean anoxia</a>, acid rain, and habitat collapse, setting the stage for the dinosaurs that would follow in the Triassic.



Each newly described pre‑extinction species sharpens models of how ecosystems responded to rising heat and disrupted carbon cycles. 



Because pareiasaurs sat low on the land food chain, they reflect the health of primary plant production more directly than predators do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-dig-site-to-digital-tree">From dig site to digital tree</h2>



CT scans of the Shanxi skull reveal replacement tooth buds waiting beneath worn crowns, confirming lifelong dental turnover like that in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/">modern lizards</a>. 



The scans also expose internal canals that once carried blood vessels to horn‑like bosses, suggesting seasonal growth tied to mating display or species recognition



Digital models of those structures feed into the expanding open database hosted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 



By pooling 3‑D files from separate labs, researchers can test competing family trees without moving fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-fossils-tell-us-about-life-after-mass-extinction/">fossils</a> across borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yinshanosaurus-angustus-and-the-future">Yinshanosaurus angustus and the future</h2>



Work now shifts to beds just above the current fossil horizon, layers that may hold early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic</a> survivors or fresh victims of the end‑Permian crisis. 



Liu’s group plans a targeted survey during the next field season, armed with drone‑based photogrammetry to map promising outcrops.



The team also hopes to sample bone collagen, if any remains, for stable‑isotope studies that could reveal diet and seasonal water stress. 



Combined with climate models, those data might show whether narrow‑snouted herbivores had a feeding edge in arid late Permian landscapes.



Understanding how a mid‑sized, flat‑snouted browser fit into the pre‑extinction puzzle helps scientists refine the timeline of faunal turnover. 



Each added piece, however small, tests broader ideas about resilience and collapse as Earth’s systems tip past critical thresholds.



-----



Yinshanosaurus angustus <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Yinshanosaurus-angustus_tetraod_illustration_credit-Guo-IVPP_1m.jpg">image credit</a>: Guo, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP)



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/spp2.70020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papers in Palaeontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover a prehistoric animal that lived on Earth 259 million years ago

A new fossil skull, dug out of purple siltstone in...

As oceans heat up, coastal sharks are adjusting their calendars. Instead of swimming south in early fall, many are now sticking around longer due to global warming. 



Researchers at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> tracked this trend by following six shark species along the U.S. East Coast. They used acoustic tags and detection models to uncover how ocean warming delays the sharks’ southern migrations by up to 29 days.



"Both temperature and photoperiod (length of sunlight) influenced the timing of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-survive-for-centuries-in-icy-waters/">sharks</a>’ southernly migration, and it is likely that they both cumulatively influence migratory patterns,” said lead author Maria Manz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-delay-migration-due-to-warming">Sharks delay migration due to warming</h2>



The study observed blacktip, dusky, sand tiger, sandbar, thresher, and white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">sharks</a>. Among them, sandbar sharks showed the longest delay of up to 29 days. They also used the widest range of latitudinal zones, from the New England Shelf to Florida.



White sharks, by contrast, showed the least delay. Being partially warm-bodied (regional endotherms), they are less dependent on external temperature shifts. Their migration changed by only one day under future climate scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-east-coast-is-warming-fast">East Coast is warming fast</h2>



The study focused on the Mid-Atlantic Bight. This region, especially the New York Bight and New England Shelf, is heating faster than many other parts of the Atlantic. 



According to projections based on the high-emissions SSP5 8.5 scenario, the New England Shelf could warm by over 2°C (3.6°F) by 2049.



This rise in temperature affects not just the water, but everything in it. Fish prey species may move earlier or later, altering food availability for predators like sharks.



“Results of the models suggested that projected increases in SST across decades may delay southern autumn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-video-footage-of-an-elusive-deep-sea-predator-pacific-sleeper-shark/">migrations</a> of coastal sharks with many species remaining in northern habitats for longer durations," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-sharks-were-tracked-in-warming-waters">How sharks were tracked in warming waters</h2>



The researchers tagged 155 sharks and monitored their movements using over 390 acoustic receivers. These receivers picked up signals from the tags whenever sharks came within 900 meters (2,953 feet).



The sharks’ migrations were tracked across five defined zones: New England Shelf (NES), New York Bight (NYB), Mid-Atlantic (MA), Southern Atlantic (SA) and Florida (FL).



Some species, like sandbar and thresher sharks, appeared in all zones. Others, like white sharks, showed more restricted ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictors-of-migration-timing">Predictors of migration timing</h2>



To understand what drives sharks to migrate, the researchers fed their data into mixed-effect Cox models. 



The team tested sea surface temperature (SST), photoperiod, and lunar phase. Photoperiod emerged as a consistently strong predictor, especially for thresher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">sharks</a>.



Interestingly, lunar phase had less influence than expected. Only sandbar sharks showed some sensitivity to moonlight patterns. 



Most migration timing was better explained by combinations of light and temperature, which can vary regionally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-delays-and-shark-survival">Warming delays and shark survival</h2>



If sharks delay migration but human activities continue on schedule, it could spell trouble. For example, commercial fishing in the Northeast typically ramps up in the fall. Sharks that remain in the area face a higher risk of accidental catch.



“Our findings suggest that climate change could increase vulnerability to bycatch, particularly in mixed-use areas like the New York Bight,” the authors wrote.



There is also concern that shark diets and reproductive cycles may shift out of sync with prey availability. A mismatch in timing could reduce feeding success or breeding success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-strategies-for-a-changing-ocean">New strategies for a changing ocean</h2>



Static conservation policies will not hold up if shark behavior keeps changing. The researchers suggest dynamic management tools, like adjusting fishery closures based on temperature data.



Sandbar sharks, which showed the most migration delay, may require special focus. They are already listed as vulnerable due to previous overfishing and slow reproduction.



Successful conservation now depends on real-time data and predictive modeling. As this study shows, changes in migration are not hypothetical. They are already underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-migration-is-shifting-with-warming">Shark migration is shifting with warming</h2>



The timing of shark migrations is shifting. Some species are adapting by staying longer in warming northern waters. While that may suit them for now, it raises questions about long-term ecological impacts.



Maria Manz and her team stress the importance of using both regional climate data and shark movement models. Doing so can improve predictions and help managers adjust strategies before the ocean changes even more.



"Our study adds to the growing body of evidence demonstrating how migratory populations will respond to a warming climate, potentially altering regional ecosystem dynamics and exposure to anthropogenic threats."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.70080" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Warming oceans are changing shark migration patterns

As oceans heat up, coastal sharks are adjusting their calendars....

Rainforests thrive on delicate relationships. Plants, animals, and insects like ants constantly interact, creating a web of survival and competition. Amid this chaos, unexpected harmony sometimes blooms.



In the tropical rainforests of Fiji, scientists uncovered a fascinating story of peacekeeping. It is not a tale of advanced creatures or complex brains. Instead, it centers around a plant with an unusual design. 



This plant has developed a surprisingly simple strategy to solve conflict among aggressive ants.



This discovery from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> reshapes our understanding of cooperation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">nature</a>. It shows how something as basic as plant architecture can manage aggression and encourage mutual support. 



The study reveals that, sometimes, structure itself can shape behavior and nurture harmony among rivals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-and-plants-team-up">Ants and plants team up</h2>



The plant at the center of this story belongs to the genus Squamellaria. It is part of the Rubiaceae family, also known as the coffee family. These plants grow on the branches and trunks of rainforest trees.



The plants form large, bulbous structures called domatia. These domatia are not just growths - they serve as homes for ants. In return for shelter, ants provide the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">plant</a> with essential nutrients from their waste.



However, the ants that live in these plants are not naturally friendly neighbors. Many of them are highly aggressive and often engage in violent fights with other species. 



This raises an important question: how can so many aggressive species coexist peacefully inside a single plant?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-walls-keep-rivals-apart">Walls keep rivals apart</h2>



The answer lies in the design of Squamellaria’s domatia. Professor Guillaume Chomicki of Durham University led an international team to investigate the mystery. 



Using high-resolution 3D CT scans, the researchers explored the inner structure of the plant’s domatia. What they found was remarkable. The plant creates domatia with multiple chambers, each completely sealed off from the others inside.



Every chamber has its own entrance, but inside, walls separate them from their neighbors. This design prevents physical contact between ant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">species</a>. It is as if the plant built a miniature apartment complex, with each species living in its own secure unit.



This clever separation prevents fights and keeps the peace within the plant. It is not a chemical trick or behavioral adaptation by the ants. The plant’s architecture itself enforces harmony.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-plant-many-ants">One plant, many ants</h2>



To test the effectiveness of this system, the researchers conducted extensive fieldwork. They observed Squamellaria plants on three Fijian islands for over a decade.



The team's observations revealed that a single Squamellaria <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-could-soon-talk-to-farmers-and-listen-too/">plant</a> could house as many as five different ant species simultaneously. Despite their natural tendency to fight, the ants coexisted peacefully.



The researchers also performed nutrient labeling experiments using nitrogen isotopes. These experiments confirmed that all of the ant species provided valuable nutrients to the plant. 



Each ant colony contributed to the plant’s well-being, making the relationship mutually beneficial for all involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-peace-breaks-down">When peace breaks down</h2>



To truly understand the importance of separation, the researchers conducted a bold experiment. They surgically removed the internal walls between the chambers of the domatia.



The results were immediate and violent. Ant species that had previously lived peacefully erupted into fierce battles. These fights led to many ant deaths on both sides.



In contrast, plants with intact chambers saw no such conflict. Even outside the plant, ants shared food sources without issue. This highlights the importance of physical separation inside the plant.



“It is incredible how such an odd group of organisms, restricted to a couple of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-warning-sea-level-rise-in-pacific-island-nations-is-irreversible/">Fijian islands</a>, can provide general insights into the stability of cooperation between species,” noted Professor Chomicki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-plant-that-solves-conflicts">A plant that solves conflicts</h2>



The team also created mathematical models to further explore the plant’s strategy. The models confirmed that compartmentalization helps maintain long-term partnerships. 



The system prevents fights during the early stages of colony establishment. This allows each chamber to develop into a stable, nutrient-contributing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/just-a-few-ants-can-change-an-entire-colonys-social-structure/">colony</a>.



Even in situations where only a small fraction of arriving ants were aggressive, the models showed that compartmentalized domatia performed better than single-chambered ones.



This shows that separating rivals is not just a short-term solution. It has lasting benefits for both the plant and its ant residents. The architecture ensures that mutualism remains stable over time, providing security and resources for all involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-harmony-in-nature">Hidden harmony in nature</h2>



This discovery helps solve a long-standing mystery in ecology. Scientists have wondered how unrelated and sometimes hostile species manage to maintain cooperation.



The findings suggest that physical separation could be a widely used strategy in nature. Many organisms may rely on similar methods to prevent conflict and maintain beneficial relationships.



The study of Squamellaria shows that architecture alone can shape ecosystems. It highlights the hidden power of structural design in keeping peace among species that would otherwise be at odds.



In the rainforests of Fiji, a simple plant demonstrates that sometimes, the best way to manage conflict is to keep your neighbors at a safe distance.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu8429" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some plants have a strategy to prevent violent ant fights

Rainforests thrive on delicate relationships. Plants, animals, and insects like...

The,Galapagos,Islands.,Ecuador.,Galapagos,Tortoise,In,Motion.,Island,Of

For centuries, turtles have fascinated people with their remarkably long lifespans.&nbsp;A new study reveals something even more extraordinary. Cancer is extremely rare in turtles, which makes them a promising model for cancer research.



The study, led by Dr. Ylenia Chiari at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a>, shows that cancer affects only about 1% of turtles. This rate is much lower than in mammals or birds.



The team analyzed decades of health records from zoos across Europe and the United States, including <a href="https://www.chesterzoo.org/">Chester Zoo</a>. 



The findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/">turtles</a> could help scientists learn new ways to prevent or fight cancer in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-rarely-get-cancer">Turtles rarely get cancer</h2>



The experts reviewed necropsy records from hundreds of zoo turtles. According to the detailed analysis, only about 0.34% of the turtles examined showed any abnormal growth. 



Cancer cases were even rarer. Most cancers found were isolated cases, and they rarely spread. Turtles show no clear pattern of cancers affecting specific organs.



Compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beating-the-heat-how-sea-turtles-cope-with-warming-waters/">mammals</a> and birds, turtles remain outliers. Mammals have average cancer rates of 10 percent, while birds have rates around three percent. By contrast, cancer rates in turtles are consistently under one percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-have-strong-cancer-defense">Turtles have strong cancer defense</h2>



Turtles have slow metabolisms and strong defenses against oxidative stress. These traits reduce cellular damage over time.



Genomic studies revealed that turtles, especially Galapagos and Aldabra giant tortoises, have unique genetic mutations. These mutations enhance tumour suppression and help maintain DNA stability.



Functional tests on Galapagos giant tortoise cells showed an ability to trigger cell death early. This prevents damaged cells from becoming cancerous. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtle-heads-reveal-an-ancient-reptilian-secret/">Turtles</a> also exhibit robust antioxidant responses, even under stress.



Turtles’ low metabolic rates also limit the buildup of harmful byproducts. This may explain their strong cancer resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-stay-cancer-free-despite-size">Turtles stay cancer-free despite size</h2>



Turtles challenge common biological patterns. Large, long-lived species often have higher cancer risks because of more cells. But turtles defy this rule.



Some species, like Galapagos and Aldabra tortoises, weigh over 660 pounds. Others, such as leatherback sea turtles, can exceed 1,100 pounds. Still, their cancer rates remain extremely low.



“Turtles, especially iconic species like Galapagos and Aldabra giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/">tortoises</a>, are famous for living long lives and growing to tremendous sizes," noted Dr. Chiari.



"You’d expect that to mean more cancer, but our study, which combines decades of zoo records with previous research, shows how incredibly rare cancer is in these animals." 



Dr. Chiari said that the study highlights turtles as an untapped model for understanding cancer resistance and healthy aging, and it shows the vital role zoos play in advancing science through collaboration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-secrets-and-medical-insights">Turtle secrets and medical insights</h2>



According to study lead author Dr. Scott Glaberman from the University of Birmingham, biodiversity has a lot to teach us about how the world works. 



"While fascinating in their own right, extreme species like giant tortoises may have already solved many of the problems humans face, including those related to aging and cancer. That makes biodiversity doubly worthy of protection,” said Dr. Glaberman.



Dr Helena Turner, Research Officer at Chester Zoo, said her team has been long been committed to detailed health monitoring and the long-term care of their animals. 



"It’s fantastic to see these efforts not only contribute to advancing scientific knowledge around cancer resistance but also support vital conservation work to protect these remarkable species that may hold keys to medical breakthroughs benefiting both wildlife and humans,” said Dr. Turner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-turtles-in-the-wild">Studying turtles in the wild</h2>



Much of the current data comes from zoo populations. Zoo turtles often live longer than wild ones. This could increase chances of detecting cancer. However, researchers still lack cancer data from wild turtles.



Tracking turtles across their long lifespans remains difficult. Many species live as long as humans. Without decades of monitoring, it is hard to collect enough data.



Researchers suggest using turtle cell lines for laboratory studies. These experiments could reveal how turtle cells respond to stress, DNA damage, and other cancer-related triggers.



Such studies may unlock hidden mechanisms behind turtles’ resistance to cancer and aging. Insights from turtles could help both human medicine and wildlife conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-remain-critical">Conservation efforts remain critical</h2>



Many turtle species face extinction threats. The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a> categorizes several as Endangered or Critically Endangered.



Threats include habitat loss, illegal wildlife trade, and climate change. Many zoos in the study also lead breeding programmes to save these species.



Protecting turtles could also protect vital genetic secrets that benefit human health. Their remarkable resistance to cancer makes their conservation even more urgent.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf100/8185759" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Turtles and tortoises may hold the secret to cancer prevention in humans

For centuries, turtles have fascinated people with their remarkably long...

In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National Park, a team of paleontologists stumbled across something unexpected. The experts found the fossilized jawbone of a pterosaur that may be the oldest ever found in North America.



The discovery came from a remote site that revealed not just one remarkable creature, but a whole ecosystem preserved in stone.



The study was led by scientists from the Smithsonian’s <a href="https://www.si.edu/museums/natural-history-museum">National Museum of Natural History</a> and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/pefo/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Petrified Forest National Park</a>. The research introduces a new pterosaur species alongside more than 1,000 other fossils.



Some of these include one of the world’s oldest turtle specimens. Together, the fossils paint a vivid picture of life just before one of Earth’s biggest mass extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-before-mass-extinction">Life before mass extinction</h2>



The pterosaur fossils come from rock layers that date back to the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-did-not-impact-dinosaur-abundance-in-the-triassic/">Triassic</a> period. During this time, ancient amphibians and crocodile-like reptiles lived side by side with animals that would go on to shape the future of the planet, including early turtles, frogs, and flying reptiles.



“The site captures the transition to more modern terrestrial vertebrate communities, where we start seeing groups that thrive later in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/">Mesozoic</a> living alongside these older animals that don’t make it past the Triassic,” said study lead author Ben Kligman.



This glimpse into prehistoric life is especially valuable because it dates to just before the end-Triassic extinction - about 201.5 million years ago - when massive volcanic eruptions dramatically altered Earth’s climate. 



The event wiped out roughly 75% of all species, paving the way for dinosaurs to rise to dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-hidden-by-ash">Fossils hidden by ash</h2>



Direct fossil evidence from just before this extinction is hard to come by. Few fossil-rich outcrops from this time exist, but Petrified Forest National Park is one of the rare exceptions. 



Known for its colorful layers of petrified wood and Triassic fossils, the park has long been a treasure trove for paleontologists.



One rock layer, called the Owl Rock Member, has proven especially important. It’s full of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">volcanic ash</a>, which helped scientists date it precisely to around 209 million years ago. These are some of the park’s youngest rocks - but also among its least explored.



Study co-author William Parker explained that the Owl Rock exposures are tucked away in extremely remote areas. Few teams have been able to study them in detail.



In 2011, a research group led by Kay Behrensmeyer decided to take on the challenge. Braving the rugged terrain - complete with rattlesnakes and wild horses - they went in search of mammal-like fossils. 



What they found instead was a densely packed bonebed, full of life from a vanished world.



“That’s the fun thing about paleontology: you go looking for one thing, and then you find something else that’s incredible that you weren’t expecting,” said Kligman, who started working at the site during his PhD studies in 2018.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-life-buried-by-floods">Ancient life buried by floods</h2>



Back in the Triassic, this part of Arizona was located near the equator and sat in the center of the supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/">Pangaea</a>. 



The land was semi-arid, with winding river channels and a seasonal flood cycle. One of those floods likely buried the animals that are now preserved in the bonebed.



The fossil layer was so dense with tiny remains that collecting them onsite was impossible. Instead, researchers carved out large blocks of sediment, wrapped them in plaster, and brought them back to the lab.



Many of these blocks were sent to the Smithsonian’s FossiLab, where volunteers spent thousands of hours carefully exposing the bones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fossils-major-clues">Small fossils, major clues</h2>



The rivers teemed with fish like coelacanths and freshwater sharks. Giant amphibians - some stretching over six feet long - swam through the streams. On land, armored herbivores and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodile-like-beast-was-a-terrifying-predator/">crocodile-like predators</a> ruled.



At the same time, smaller creatures were starting to make their mark. The team identified early frogs, relatives of today’s tuataras, and a turtle with spike-like armor that could fit in a shoebox. 



The remains of a small pterosaur were also hidden among the layers - just one part of a fossil record that shows how quickly new groups were emerging and spreading across Pangaea.



“This suggests that turtles rapidly dispersed across Pangaea, which is surprising for an animal that is not very large and is likely walking at a slow pace,” said Kligman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-that-perched-like-a-bird">Pterosaur that perched like a bird</h2>



One of the most exciting finds was a jawbone with teeth still in place. It belonged to a small pterosaur, one of the first vertebrates capable of powered flight. This early flier could have perched on a person’s shoulder.



The pterosaur fossil was uncovered by Suzanne McIntire, a volunteer who spent 18 years working in the FossiLab.



“What was exciting about uncovering this specimen was that the teeth were still in the bone, so I knew the animal would be much easier to identify,” McIntire said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1s.webp" alt="An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Credit: Brian Engh" class="wp-image-1977432"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Brian Engh</figcaption></figure>



The wear on the teeth gave scientists a clue about the pterosaur’s diet. It likely fed on armored fish that were common in the area. 



The new species was named Eotephradactylus mcintireae, which translates to “ash-winged dawn goddess." This title honors McIntire, who retired last year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-a-pterosaur">What exactly is a pterosaur?</h2>



Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that existed during the time of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a>. They were the first animals with backbones to evolve powered flight, well before birds or bats came on the scene.



Powered by skin stretched across an extended fourth finger, they ranged in size and shape from something no larger than a crow to giants with wings up to 30 feet or more.



Pterosaurs were not dinosaurs. They formed their own group of reptiles and possessed special adaptations for flight. Some flew above coastlines, while others preyed on fish or small land animals inland.



The new fossil contributes to what is known about those early birds and how they expanded around the globe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505513122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

North America's oldest known pterosaur discovered in a petrified forest

In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National...

Most people think aging always brings health problems. Inflammation seems like a part of getting older. It slowly builds up, leading to serious diseases. 



Doctors call this slow-burning process “inflammaging.” But not everyone is sure that this process is unavoidable. Some scientists are starting to ask new questions. Does every species experience inflammaging? Is it something we can avoid?



Elaine Guevara from <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> studies primates, a group that includes both lemurs and humans. Her work focuses on aging and how it works in different species.



Recently, Guevara began looking at lemurs for answers. These animals may look far removed from humans, but their biology has much to teach us. In fact, her latest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/">research</a> suggests that inflammation during aging may not be as inevitable as people believe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-challenge-our-view-of-aging">Lemurs challenge our view of aging </h2>



Guevara's study was focused on two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hormones-influence-power-and-peace-in-lemur-society/">species</a>: the ring-tailed lemur and the sifaka lemur. These species have many similarities but also some key differences. They have different lifespans and distinct life patterns, which makes them perfect for comparison.



Lemurs share an ancient ancestor with humans. This connection makes them valuable for studying human biology. Scientists often use primates to answer tricky questions about human health.



Guevara wanted to see if lemurs show signs of inflammaging as they grow older. The idea was simple. If inflammation rises in both humans and lemurs, it might be a natural part of aging for all primates. But the results took everyone by surprise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-aged-without-more-inflammation">Lemurs aged without more inflammation</h2>



The team expected to see clear signs of inflammaging in lemurs. This would have matched patterns seen in humans. But that is not what happened.



“Contrary to our predictions, neither <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hibernation-allows-lemurs-to-slow-down-their-aging/">species</a> showed age-related change in either marker of oxidative stress," said Guevara.



"Neither lemur species exhibited age-related change in inflammation; if anything, contrary to our prediction, ring-tailed lemurs showed marginal declines in inflammation with age."



The findings challenge what many people think about aging. If lemurs do not show inflammaging, maybe it is not something all species must face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-inflammaging-really-unavoidable">Is inflammaging really unavoidable?</h2>



Lemurs are not alone in this unexpected pattern. Researchers have seen similar results in other primate species. Christine Drea, a scientist involved in the lemur study, explained the bigger picture.



According to Drea, the research suggests inflammaging is not universal across primates. If that is true, it raises an important question. Could some humans also avoid inflammaging?



The idea turns traditional thinking about aging upside down. Many believed inflammaging was simply part of life, but the study shows it might not be that simple.



Scientists are now looking at aging in a whole new way. They are asking if the right conditions might prevent or delay inflammation in humans too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammaging-causes-health-issues">Inflammaging causes health issues</h2>



Inflammaging sounds like a problem only scientists worry about, but it affects millions of people. As people age, their bodies often enter a state of low-level inflammation. This quiet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-now-prey-for-equally-endangered-fosas/">process</a> can cause serious harm over time.



Inflammaging connects to many common diseases. These include heart problems, strokes, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis.



Doctors and researchers are working hard to find solutions. If they can understand why inflammaging happens, they may find ways to stop it.



The lemur study offers new hope. It suggests that inflammaging is not locked into our biology. That alone is an exciting discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-studying-lemurs">The challenge of studying lemurs</h2>



Studying aging in lemurs is not easy. The animals cannot explain their health. Researchers had to come up with a safe way to collect data.



"Our role at the beginning was planning, designing, brainstorming, comparing and getting these samples,” said Drea.



The team collected urine samples from the lemurs. This method allowed them to study oxidative stress and inflammation without harming the animals.



The research was conducted at the Duke Lemur Center. This facility only allows non-invasive studies. The lemurs remained unharmed throughout the entire project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-lemurs-and-aging">Future research on lemurs and aging</h2>



Guevara now wants to expand her research. Her next focus will be wild lemurs living in their natural environment.



“There are a lot of good reasons to think that aging can be quite different in captivity and in the wild, and that in itself, is informative to evaluating the degree to which human inflammation is intrinsic versus environmental,” she said.



Wild lemurs face many challenges that captive lemurs do not. Their diet, stress, and activity levels all vary. 



By studying lemurs, scientists can learn whether environment shapes aging. The ongoing research could reveal even more about human aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-offer-new-aging-insights">Lemurs offer new aging insights</h2>



People around the world are living longer. However, many of those extra years come with health issues. Inflammaging is a major reason for this.



Guevara believes her work is an important first step toward finding new solutions. "These insights are essential for mitigating disability and improving quality of life in later years."



This study shows that aging does not look the same in every species. Lemurs have shown a very different path. They age without the same inflammation humans often face. 



Researchers now have a fresh question to explore. Can humans also avoid inflammaging? The answer could change how we think about growing older. It could shift how we approach health care for aging populations.



Lemurs may not have provided all the answers yet, but they have certainly started an important conversation.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00360-025-01619-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Physiology B</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Lemurs reveal surprising new clues about healthy aging

Most people think aging always brings health problems. Inflammation seems...

It’s easy to assume that when fish hang still in the water, they’re taking a break. After all, they look motionless - just calmly suspended in place. But new research shows that this “hovering” is actually a demanding task that takes more effort than resting.



The study comes from scientists at the University of California San Diego’s <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>. It focused on how fish manage to stay still in open water without sinking or drifting away.



The team found that fish burn nearly twice as much energy while hovering as they do when resting on the tank floor. That means what looks like rest is really anything but.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-stillness-in-fish">Rethinking stillness in fish</h2>



Most bony fish have swim bladders - gas-filled sacs that help them stay neutrally buoyant, which make them neither float upward nor sink. 



Because of this, researchers once thought that hovering was easy. But the new findings challenge that idea.



The scientists studied 13 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/">fish species</a> with swim bladders. Each fish was placed in a special tank where its oxygen use was recorded during two behaviors: resting on the bottom and hovering midwater. 



At the same time, high-speed cameras captured every fin twitch and tail flick.



The team also measured body features like the shape of the fish and the position of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fins-and-limbs-share-a-deep-evolutionary-history/">fins</a>. One key measurement was the distance between the fish’s center of mass and center of buoyancy. 



These don’t always align. That small misalignment creates instability, which the fish must constantly correct.



“Hovering is a bit like trying to balance on a bicycle that’s not moving,” said Valentina Di Santo, an assistant professor at UC San Diego and study author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-drains-fish-energy">Stability drains fish energy</h2>



Because of the mismatch between mass and buoyancy, hovering fish have to work against the natural tendency to roll, tilt, or drift. 



The more misaligned those centers are, the more energy the fish burns trying to stay still. That constant effort means hovering is far from restful.



“What struck me was how superbly all these fishes maintain a stable posture, despite their intrinsic instability,” said Di Santo.



Fish with more compact, deeper bodies like goldfish or pufferfish were better at hovering efficiently. In contrast, longer, thinner fish - like giant danios or shell dwellers - had to work harder. 



Fin position also played a role. Fish with pectoral fins placed farther back on their bodies generally hovered more efficiently. The researchers believe this may be due to improved leverage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfish-have-an-edge">Goldfish have an edge</h2>



“This changes how we see hovering. It’s not a form of rest at all,” said Di Santo. “It’s an energetically costly activity but one that fish engage in anyway because it can be very useful.”



Fish may hover when guarding a nest, feeding in a specific spot, or holding their place in fast-moving water. These tasks require them to stay stable in one position, even when it’s exhausting. 



The study also pointed out a trade-off. Fish with shapes that give them greater control and agility often burn more energy while hovering. Meanwhile, more stable shapes are less agile.



But that trade-off may be worth it. Being able to move nimbly through coral reefs or complex underwater environments is key to survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-inspire-robot-design">Fish inspire robot design</h2>



The findings could also influence the next generation of underwater vehicles. Most robots today are built to be stable. But like fish, that stability may limit their agility.



“By studying how fish achieve this balance, we can gain powerful design principles for building more efficient, responsive underwater technologies,” said Di Santo.



For engineers, this could mean building in a bit of instability and designing systems that, like fins, actively correct for it. 



Doing so could allow underwater robots to better explore tight or cluttered environments, such as coral reefs or wreck sites.



“If you want a robot that can maneuver through tight spaces, you might have to learn from these fishes to design in some instability and then add systems that can dynamically maintain stability when needed,” said Di Santo.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fish don’t rest while hovering - it's actually hard work

It’s easy to assume that when fish hang still in...

Bees have long been admired for their delicate beauty and essential role in pollination. These small creatures, however, face growing challenges from their environment. 



Rising temperatures and pollution continue to reshape bee behavior in unexpected ways. Recent research is unveiling surprising links between environmental changes and the subtle buzzes bees produce.



These quiet vibrations are more than just background noise. They hold deep meaning for the survival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">bees</a> and the ecosystems they support. As environmental pressures increase, understanding these sounds becomes even more important. 



Researchers are now focusing on how changes in temperature and exposure to heavy metals affect these essential vibrations. The findings offer insight into the hidden world of bee communication and pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-power-of-bee-muscles">Hidden power of bee muscles</h2>



Bees are renowned for their efficient flight. Their wings beat rapidly, allowing them to hover and move gracefully between flowers. However, not many know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-invasion-a-growing-threat-to-native-pollinators/">bees</a> also use their flight muscles for other important tasks.



“People have been long interested in how insect flight muscles work, as these muscles power the most efficient flight systems in nature,” said Dr. Charlie Woodrow, a post-doctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>. “However, many do not know that bees use these muscles for functions other than flight.”



These non-flight muscle vibrations help in several key behaviors. Bees use them for communication within the hive, to ward off threats, and during a special kind of pollination known as buzz pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-buzz-flowers-to-collect-pollen">Bees buzz flowers to collect pollen</h2>



Buzz pollination stands out as one of the most fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bumble-bees-are-sabotaging-their-own-health/">behaviors</a> in the insect world. It is a process where bees vibrate their bodies to dislodge pollen from certain types of flowers.



“Buzz pollination is an incredible behavior whereby a bee will curl its body around the pollen-concealing anthers of some flowers, and contract the flight muscles up to 400 times per second to produce vibrations which shake the pollen loose,” said Dr. Woodrow.



This act requires great energy and precision. The buzzing shakes the flower at exactly the right frequency, releasing the trapped pollen. 



Dr. Woodrow and his team aim to understand how these vibrations vary between species and environmental conditions. They hope to uncover how these differences affect pollination success and bee behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-to-study-bee-buzzing">Tools to study bee buzzing</h2>



To explore these mysteries, Dr. Woodrow’s team turned to advanced technology. They studied buff-tailed bumblebees (Bombus terrestris), a common species found across Europe. These bees are ideal subjects because they are well-researched and easily handled.



Using accelerometers, the researchers measured the frequency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farms-and-meadows-can-help-save-wild-bees/">buzzing</a>. This frequency corresponds to the pitch of the sound we can hear.



“They are super easy to use in the field,” said Dr. Woodrow. “We press these against the thorax of the bee, or against the flower the bee is visiting, and we can record the vibrations the bee produces.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bees-handle-buzzing-heat">How bees handle buzzing heat</h2>



Beyond vibration measurements, the team also used thermal imaging to understand how bees manage heat during buzzing. This approach allowed them to observe how bees balance their body temperature while performing demanding tasks.



“We have also been using high-speed filming to uncover never before seen behaviors,” said Dr. Woodrow. “For example, we recently discovered that bees don’t just vibrate on flowers, but they periodically transmit these vibrations to flowers by biting.”



These unexpected discoveries reveal how much remains hidden in the world of bees. They also highlight the importance of studying these creatures in detail, especially as the climate warms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-role-of-temperature">Hidden role of temperature</h2>



One of the most surprising findings from Dr. Woodrow’s research involves temperature. His experiments showed that temperature has a much stronger impact on buzzing than scientists had previously realised.



“We have recently found that temperature plays a vital role, much more than was previously appreciated, and this work is currently in review for publication,” said Dr. Woodrow. 



“This has many implications for how we study buzz-pollination, as temperature is not really something that has been considered up to this point.”



This insight could reshape how pollination research is conducted in the future, as temperature clearly affects buzzing behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-changes-bee-buzzing">Pollution changes bee buzzing</h2>



In addition to temperature, pollution also affects bee vibrations. Dr. Woodrow teamed up with Dr. Sarah Scott from <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Newcastle University</a> to investigate how heavy metals influence buzzing.



The experiments showed that heavy metal exposure reduces buzzing frequency during non-flight activities. 



Surprisingly, when the researchers tested bees in Arctic regions compared to those further south, they found no difference in the temperature’s effects on buzzing.



This suggests that internal muscle physiology may govern buzzing traits more than local adaptation does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-monitor-bee-health">A new way to monitor bee health</h2>



The research offers exciting possibilities beyond academic study. Understanding how environmental changes alter buzzing can reveal much about bee health and behavior. This knowledge can also improve technology designed to detect bee species using sound.



“Perhaps buzzes could even be used as a marker of stress or environmental change,” said Dr. Woodrow. “For example, we now know that certain environmental pollutants can affect the buzzes bees produce, so they could even serve as an indicator of ecosystem health.”



Monitoring bee buzzes could help identify species at risk and provide early warnings about environmental threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-buzzing-changes-may-harm-bees">Buzzing changes may harm bees</h2>



The potential risks from disrupted buzzing extend beyond bees. Dr. Woodrow points out that changes in buzzing could damage several aspects of bee life.



“It is important we understand how these changes will affect non-flight buzzes because they are responsible for so many aspects of a bee’s ecology,” said Dr. Woodrow. 



“If these vibrations are disrupted, this could lead to poor communication in the colony, inefficient thermoregulation, or poor resource acquisition for their offspring.”



This disruption could limit pollination, affecting plant reproduction and biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-heat-may-shift-bee-behavior">Rising heat may shift bee behavior</h2>



One particularly worrying result relates to the combination of high temperatures and energy costs.



“For example, buzz-pollination is energetically expensive and causes the bee to generate metabolic heat - therefore if the environment gets too warm, it may simply choose to avoid buzz-pollinated flowers,” noted Dr. Woodrow.



This behavioral change could weaken entire ecosystems, as many plants rely on bees for pollination. If bees avoid these plants, pollination rates could drop sharply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-research-and-technology">Future of research and technology</h2>



While these findings raise concerns, they also point toward future innovation. Dr. Woodrow’s team is working on applying their research to robotics.



“We are working towards understanding bee vibrations through micro-robotics, so our results are also going towards developing micro-robots to understand pollen release,” said Dr. Woodrow.



This cross-disciplinary work may someday help protect pollination services by mimicking bee buzzing with machines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-to-protect-pollinators">Urgent need to protect pollinators</h2>



These discoveries will be shared at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society for Experimental Biology Annual Conference</a> in Antwerp, Belgium, on July 8, 2025. 



The findings show that bees face increasing challenges from environmental shifts, but they also present new tools to help understand and protect them.



As temperatures climb and pollutants spread, paying attention to the quiet buzz of bees could become more important than ever. Their tiny vibrations may hold the key to preserving plant life, biodiversity, and our shared future.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Heat and pollution are changing the buzz of bees

Bees have long been admired for their delicate beauty and...

Koalas are everywhere on postcards and souvenirs. People think of them as calm animals sleeping in trees. But life isn’t simple for koalas anymore.



Their numbers keep dropping across Australia. Habitat loss, disease, and land clearing cause serious damage. Many forests are now small patches surrounded by roads and buildings.



Most people don’t realize how risky it is for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/">koalas</a> when they leave trees. New research now shows something alarming. Koalas spend only about ten minutes a day on the ground, but those short minutes cause almost two-thirds of all recorded koala deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-risk-lives-when-leaving-trees">Koalas risk lives when leaving trees</h2>



Gabriella Sparkes, a PhD student at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a>, wanted to gain a better understanding of koala behavior.



“Koalas are mostly tree-dwelling, but due to extensive land clearing, they’re increasingly forced to travel on the ground, which puts them at serious risk of injury and death,” said Sparkes. “I wanted to better understand what koalas do during these ground movements.”



Vehicles and dogs kill most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-can-predict-hot-days-and-adjust-their-body-temperature/">koalas</a> while they walk on the ground. Even though this danger is known, many details about their movements remained unknown.



“We don’t yet have a clear understanding of how often koalas come down from trees, how far or fast they move, how long they stay on the ground, or what influences those decisions,” noted Sparkes. 



“These are critical knowledge gaps if we want to identify high-risk areas or times and develop strategies to reduce threats during these vulnerable moments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-koalas-in-their-habitats">Tracking koalas in their habitats</h2>



Sparkes and her team used special collars on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/">wild</a> koalas. These collars had GPS trackers and sensors called accelerometers.



The GPS recorded their locations every five minutes. When koalas started walking on the ground, the system switched to record every five seconds. 



The sensors measured their movements in detail. They showed if a koala was walking, sitting, or climbing.



“When paired with GPS tracks, this gives us an incredibly detailed view of how koalas move through their habitat,” said Sparkes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-prefer-staying-in-trees">Koalas prefer staying in trees </h2>



The results were clear. Koalas prefer staying in trees. They sleep, eat, and rest there most of the time. The researchers were surprised by how rarely koalas use the ground.



“What surprised us was how infrequently and briefly they use the ground—just 2-3 times per night, averaging around 10 minutes in total, or less than 1% of their day,” says Ms. Sparkes.



Koalas only climb down when they need to move between trees. But when trees are far apart, ground travel becomes unavoidable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-move-slowly-between-trees">Koalas move slowly between trees</h2>



People often think <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/">animals</a> move quickly when they’re in danger. But this research showed that koalas don’t rush. They move slowly and pause often. They spend almost as much time sitting as they do walking.



“They spent nearly as much time sitting and pausing as they did walking, and only about 7% of their time on the ground was spent bounding,” said Sparkes. 



“This may indicate that koalas are carefully assessing their environment as they move, possibly evaluating trees before selecting one to climb, or it may reflect the energetic costs of bounding.”



Koalas may need to check for safety before climbing a tree. They might also avoid fast movements to save energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ways-to-keep-koalas-safe">Ways to keep koalas safe</h2>



This study, which was the first to track fine details of ground movement in wild koalas, has revealed clear risks and raised more questions. Sparkes and her team now study what makes koalas stay longer in trees.



“We’re now looking at environmental features that influence how long koalas stay in trees,” said Sparkes. 



“If we can identify the kinds of trees or habitat conditions that encourage koalas to remain in trees for longer, we may be able to design or manage landscapes in ways that reduce the need for ground travel.”



The goal is to find trees that keep koalas off the ground. The researchers also wanted to see if certain habitats lower the need for risky movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-can-help-koalas-survive">Small changes can help koalas survive</h2>



The team hopes their research can guide better conservation work. They suggest keeping tree canopies connected and reducing the space between trees.



Simple actions like planting the right trees may help. Koalas need safer, connected habitats to avoid ground travel.



“This research is just one piece of the puzzle, but it adds an important layer to our understanding of how koalas interact with increasingly human-altered environments,” said Sparkes.



The findings will be presented at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org/">Society for Experimental Biology</a> Annual Conference in Antwerp, Belgium, in July.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Most koalas don’t survive after leaving the safety of trees

Koalas are everywhere on postcards and souvenirs. People think of...

Anyone who has ever stopped on a busy street because a cluster of strangers were gazing at the sky knows how contagious attention can be. Humans aren’t the only species drawn into looking where others look.



A new study has shown that pigeons also track the gaze of their flockmates. The number of birds already looking determines how strongly the behavior spreads.



The research was led by Fumihiro Kano and Mathilde Delacoux at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-cues-guide-attention">Social cues guide attention</h2>



“Many animals, including humans, tend to look where others are looking. This is called gaze following,” said Delacoux. “It’s a simple but important way of sharing attention and learning from others.”



In the 1960s, social psychologist Stanley Milgram famously demonstrated what he called the “quorum effect” in people. If only one or two individuals stare at a building’s roof, most passers-by ignore them. But as the crowd of sky-watchers grows, almost everyone stops and looks up.



Previous animal studies confirmed that birds such as ravens, starlings, geese, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/">penguins</a> follow another’s gaze. Yet those experiments almost always involved a pair of birds. 



The Konstanz team wanted to know whether flock size changes the equation for species that live in large groups.



According to Delacoux, pigeons are well-suited to this task because they typically form relatively large flocks, where individuals are usually surrounded by multiple conspecifics. 



"In such flocks, following another’s gaze should be beneficial for key activities such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/">foraging</a> and vigilance," noted Delacoux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-gaze-with-flocks">Studying gaze with flocks</h2>



To test the idea, the researchers used a state-of-the-art barn near Lake Constance. Two groups of pigeons were placed face-to-face.



One group had an unobstructed view of a gently moving object designed to catch their attention; the other group’s view was blocked by a screen. 



Sophisticated cameras recorded every head movement from several angles, letting the scientists pinpoint to the millisecond when each pigeon oriented toward the hidden object.



The experiment was repeated with various “informed” group sizes. Sometimes just one pigeon could see the object; other times three, five, or more birds had the privileged view. 



The question was whether - and how quickly - the uninformed pigeons would swivel their heads to match the gaze of their companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-spreads-with-flock-size">Gaze spreads with flock size</h2>



The results confirmed that pigeons do notice and copy the direction of others’ attention. However, the effect depended heavily on group size. When a lone pigeon stared, few flockmates joined in.



As the number of gazing birds climbed, more and more uninformed birds aligned their vision the same way. 



Unlike Milgram’s human crowds, the researchers did not find a sharp cut-off - no fixed “quorum” that suddenly triggered mass participation. Instead, the likelihood of following grew steadily with each additional pigeon already looking.



Thus, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/">birds</a> responded to collective cues, they did so on a sliding scale rather than an all-or-nothing basis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-pigeon-mind">Understanding the pigeon mind</h2>



Does gaze following in groups mean pigeons understand that their neighbors possess knowledge they lack? Delacoux is cautious. 



“I would not assume that their behavior means any more than that they are just following the gazes of others,” he said.



The birds did not reposition themselves to get a clearer view, for example, a move one might expect if they inferred what another bird could see. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pigeons_gaze_eye-motion_observers_illustration_credit-UKonstanz_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pigeons_gaze_eye-motion_observers_illustration_credit-UKonstanz_1s.webp" alt="Test setup in the high-tech barn: The pigeons are divided into two groups. Only one group (&quot;demonstrators&quot;) sees the moving object. Does the second group (&quot;observers&quot;) now follow the gaze of their peers? Credit: Mathilde Delacoux" class="wp-image-1977083"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Test setup in the high-tech barn: The pigeons are divided into two groups. Only one group ("demonstrators") sees the moving object. Does the second group ("observers") now follow the gaze of their peers? Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mathilde Delacoux</figcaption></figure>



The researchers interpret the response as largely reflexive - an efficient rule of thumb in flock life, rather than evidence of higher-order perspective-taking.



Still, the study illuminates how pigeons use social information. “Now, we know pigeons don’t just copy their flockmates' gaze; they modulate their gaze-following behavior depending on how many peers give a gaze cue,” Kano said. “They respond to a collective cue.”



In other words, a single bird’s glance carries little weight, but a chorus of looks quickly draws the rest of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flocking-dynamics-inspire-advancements-in-technology/">flock</a>’s attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-in-social-animals">Gaze in social animals</h2>



The findings underscore the value of studying animals in the social settings where they evolved. As Kano argued, “many animals evolved in groups. To truly understand how they think and communicate, we need to study them in groups, too.”



By mapping the subtle ways that group size shapes behavior, the researchers add a new layer to our understanding of how animals share information and make collective decisions. 



Such insights may apply well beyond pigeons, offering clues to the social cognition of many flocking or herding species, and even echoing back to the street-corner instincts of our own species.



The full study can be found in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004225011186" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pigeons exhibit the same behavior as humans by following the gaze of others in their flock

Anyone who has ever stopped on a busy street because...

Chimpanzees are showing us that culture isn't just about tools or survival. A new study at a sanctuary in Zambia has revealed something remarkable. Several chimpanzees began to copy each other by dangling blades of grass from their ears or behinds, for no clear reason. 



The unexpected behavior appeared only in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-chimpanzee-mothers-raise-babies-more-successfully/">groups</a>, despite all living in similar environments.



“This shows that, like humans, other animals also copy seemingly pointless behaviors from one another,” said <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> researcher Edwin van Leeuwen. “And that, in turn, may offer insights into the evolutionary roots of human culture.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mimicking-others-without-clear-purpose">Mimicking others, without clear purpose</h2>



People often copy odd trends like shaving eyebrow lines or dressing their pets. These habits spread fast but serve no obvious function.



In animals, copying usually relates to survival. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">Chimps</a> teach each other how to crack nuts or fish for termites. But sometimes, animals embrace habits that seem to lack any benefit. Orcas wearing dead salmon as hats is one recent example.



This study focuses on such non-functional behaviors, rarely explored in depth. Back in 2010, a chimpanzee named Julie at <a href="https://www.chimfunshiwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage</a> Trust started putting grass in her ear. Soon, seven others followed. Even after Julie’s death, her group kept the habit.



Researchers saw this as a cultural tradition, as it remained confined to her group and persisted over years. The behavior looked more like a fashion statement than a survival tactic.



Years later, another group at the same sanctuary began doing the same. They had no contact with Julie’s group, ruling out direct copying. Five out of eight chimps in the new group copied the grass-in-ear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-curiosity-starts-young-and-helps-us-survive/">behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-copying-an-odd-trend">Chimpanzees copying an odd trend</h2>



In an unexpected twist, the new group added a unique spin. Six chimps began inserting grass into their behinds, letting it dangle freely. Scientists named this “grass-in-rectum behavior.”



The researchers closely observed the spread of both habits. In August 2023, a chimp named Juma was the first to do both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/">behaviors</a>. 



Within a week, four others copied the grass-in-ear trick. Within six weeks, five others copied the grass-in-rectum behavior. This happened without external prompting or visible irritation in their ears or behinds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-social-learning">Evidence of social learning</h2>



The researchers analyzed how these behaviors spread within the groups. They used a statistical method called Network-Based Diffusion Analysis (NBDA).



The analysis showed that both behaviors spread mainly through social learning. In fact, over 80% of the chimps adopted them through copying others. Social ties strongly predicted who picked up the habits first.



Interestingly, even new chimps integrated into the group later copied the grass-in-ear habit within months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-may-copy-humans">Chimpanzees may copy humans</h2>



The researchers also considered the role of humans. Both chimp groups with these behaviors shared the same caregivers. 



The caregivers sometimes cleaned their ears with grass or sticks. Other groups with different caregivers did not develop such habits.



“The chimps in the one group then figured out to stick the blade of grass in another place as well,” said Van Leeuwen.



In the wild, such trends are absent among chimpanzees. Captivity offers more free time and fewer survival pressures. That might explain why chimps experiment with odd habits there.



“Why they do exactly this particular thing, I’m not really concerned about. But them copying the behaviour from each other, that is the important insight,” noted Van Leeuwen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-human-culture">Lessons for human culture</h2>



Some scientists think humans evolved culturally because we copy tiny details, even useless ones. Animals supposedly cannot do this, yet the study suggests otherwise.



“Our study shows that chimpanzees are able to copy small, useless behaviors from each other,” said Jake Brooker from Durham University. “That is why we felt it was important to share these new observations.”



Van Leeuwen’s team noted that these behaviors may not be entirely useless. They might serve as social signals.



“It could also serve a social purpose. By copying someone else’s behavior, you show that you notice and maybe even like that individual. So, it might help strengthen social bonds and create a sense of belonging within the group, just like it does in humans,” said Van Leeuwen.



The researchers also suggest these behaviors may reflect a deep social drive. Young chimps often form alliances and bonds through mimicry. In this case, lower-ranking males copied higher-ranking ones, likely to gain approval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-may-copy-for-social-reasons">Chimps may copy for social reasons</h2>



Scientists propose that copying odd behaviors might help chimps integrate socially. Just like humans, they may copy group norms to build trust and reduce conflict.



One theory, the Zone of Proximal Acquisition, suggests that animals copy behaviors they can already physically perform but haven’t yet tried in that exact way. The grass behaviors fit this model well.



Another theory, the Zone of Bounded Surprisal, suggests animals are drawn to behaviors that surprise them yet feel familiar. Chimps already examine each other’s behinds frequently, making this behavior more noticeable and likely to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-have-complex-social-lives">Chimps have complex social lives</h2>



The findings challenge long-held views about animals’ cultural limits. Chimps show they can adopt unusual, non-functional behaviors through social learning. Whether these habits offer hidden social benefits remains to be seen.



Still, the very act of copying and passing down such behaviors highlights the complexity of animal cultures. It suggests that even seemingly pointless acts may hold value in the social lives of chimpanzees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/aop/article-10.1163-1568539X-bja10313/article-10.1163-1568539X-bja10313.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Behaviour</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chimpanzees copy strange, useless trends just like humans do

Chimpanzees are showing us that culture isn't just about tools...

Two small, sand‑colored nymphs of the seldom‑seen mayfly Behningia baei surfaced from the Mae Chaem River in northern Thailand during a December 2024 field survey. 



The find ends a 22‑year drought of sightings and puts the insect back on scientists’ maps after generations of silence in entomological records.



Until now the species, first described in 2006 from a site about 250 miles to the south, had vanished from every subsequent expedition. 



The rediscovery team was led by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sedtawut-Kwanboon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sedtawut Kwanboon</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Boonsatien-Boonsoong" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boonsatien Boonsoong</a> of <a href="https://www.ku.ac.th/en/community-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kasetsart University</a>, Bangkok.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-behningia-was-in-the-sand">Why Behningia was in the sand</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/mayfly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mayfly</a> work chases fluttering adults, yet the Thai team instead scuffed the riverbed with kick nets, stirring up juveniles hidden like grains of rice in the fine sediment. 



Burrowing youngsters cling to loose sand where sunlight and predators rarely reach, making them easier to sample than their airborne parents.



After hours of microscope work, every mandible, leg, and gill on the two specimens matched the 2006 description of B. baei. High‑resolution images confirmed the identity beyond doubt.



“These new data about the geographic and habitat distributions of behningiid mayflies helps to fill knowledge gaps and improves our ability to address conservation issues surrounding these rarely seen mayflies, not only in Thailand but also globally,” wrote Boonsatien Boonsoong. 



The quote hints at how a single rediscovery can redraw conservation priorities far beyond one stream.



The <a href="https://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g790338-Mae_Chaem-Vacations.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mae Chaem site</a> sits about 1,350 feet above sea level and 250 miles north of the original locality in <a href="https://www.tourismthailand.org/Destinations/Provinces/Phitsanulok/112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phitsanulok Province</a>. That span suggests the insect occupies more rivers than anyone ever suspected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sand-dwelling-mayflies">Sand‑dwelling mayflies</h2>



Mayflies move the energy stored in algae to fish, birds, and other animals. They achieve this by grazing as juveniles and then by becoming prey along nearly every link of the freshwater food web.



Because nymphs breathe through exposed gills, they suffocate in low‑oxygen or polluted streams, so biologists use their numbers as a living <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70195672" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water‑quality score</a>. 



Locating B. baei confirms that the Mae Chaem reach still carries clean, oxygen‑rich water over stable sand.



While every mayfly supports predators, sand‑burrowing families such as Behningiidae also churn and aerate the top inch of sediment. Their digging loosens grains and speeds nutrient exchange, turning them into tiny ecosystem engineers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behningia-s-life-measured-in-hours">Behningia's life measured in hours</h2>



Mayflies belong to the order <a href="https://bugguide.net/node/view/78" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ephemeroptera</a>, a name that nods to adult lives frequently shorter than a single day. Most adult mayflies survive only 48–72 hours, with some species lasting barely ninety minutes.



The champion of brevity, the North American <a href="https://georgiabiodiversity.org/portal/profile?group=all&amp;es_id=21325" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dolania americana</a>, holds the record at under five minutes for adult females. Such fleeting adulthood explains why researchers almost never catch rarities like B. baei on the wing.



By focusing on juveniles, the Thai team sidestepped that scheduling nightmare. The method also avoids killing breeding adults, an ethical bonus when populations appear thin.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-thought-extinct-for-85-years-reappears-in-himalayan-river-chel-snakehead/">rediscovery</a> underscores how insect timelines differ from human ambitions. Two decades to us equal perhaps twenty complete life cycles for B. baei, enough time for habitats to vanish or rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-rediscovery-tells-conservationists">What the rediscovery tells conservationists</h2>



Thailand lists more than 300 mayfly species, yet only one other Behningia species, <a href="https://publication.plazi.org/GgServer/html/E47AD7D9ECE556F7863FE00403810630/3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Protobehningia merga</a>, was previously noted in the Mae Chaem basin. Finding both taxa in one river shows that fine‑sand beds remain a refuge worth guarding.



The study’s distribution map extends B. baei nearly 250 miles northward, hinting that tropical Behningiidae can tolerate cooler upland currents. That clue will guide future surveys toward similar sandy reaches.



River managers in Southeast Asia often focus on charismatic megafauna, but tiny <a href="https://www.macroinvertebrates.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">macroinvertebrate</a> indicators flag trouble years earlier. Adding routine kick‑net checks to water‑quality programs could save money and species alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-behningia-baei">What's next for Behningia baei</h2>



Kwanboon plans DNA bar‑coding of the two specimens to confirm there is no cryptic sibling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/">species</a> hiding under the same name. He also hopes to sample neighboring tributaries before the next monsoon blankets sites in turbid runoff.



Meanwhile, the team is training local students to run simple kick‑net protocols so discoveries will not depend on brief visits by city scientists. Community observers could turn rare rediscoveries into routine data points.



Sand bars, often overlooked by conservation rules, shelter specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-found-to-have-a-sixth-sense-gecko-hearing-vibrations-changing-science-view-of-sound/">animals</a> that vanish if substrates shift even a few inches. Keeping those substrates stable may prove as vital as controlling chemical pollutants.



For a creature that spends most of its life buried and the rest aloft on borrowed minutes, reappearing after two decades is indeed dramatic. Yet the authors treat it as the first chapter of a longer investigation, not the final page.



The study is published in <a href="https://checklist.pensoft.net/article/148597/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Check List</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rare insect that was thought to be extinct for 20 years was rediscovered

Two small, sand‑colored nymphs of the seldom‑seen mayfly Behningia baei...

species in Peltospiridae

News coming your way