A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Positive,Tourist,Woman,Taking,Picture,Outdoors,For,Memories,,Making,Selfie

A stray burst of joy can do more than lift a mood. New evidence shows that positive emotions can mark even the blandest picture for long‑term storage in the brain, turning forgettable squiggles into sticky memories.



The work comes from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xi-Jia-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Xi Jia</a> of <a href="http://sie.hznu.edu.cn/Portal/Home.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hangzhou Normal University</a> and collaborators at <a href="https://en.njnu.edu.cn/about-nnu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing Normal University</a>. Their team asked 44 adults to learn meaningless squiggle shapes while viewing photos designed to spark positive, neutral, or negative feelings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-emotions-better-memory-retrieval">Positive emotions, better memory retrieval</h2>



Scientists often track <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4309118/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory encoding</a> by measuring the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3016705/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event‑related potential (ERP)</a>, a voltage change over the parietal cortex that peaks 400–1200 milliseconds after a clue appears. 



In Jia’s experiment the ERP signal during positive trials grew stronger, and that uptick forecast which shapes participants would recognize, 24 hours later.



“Positive emotions enhanced the retrieval of meaningless squiggles compared to negative emotions,” wrote Jia and colleagues. 



That single sentence lines up with a broader observation called the positivity effect, where people, especially <a href="https://gero.usc.edu/labs/matherlab/files/2019/03/MatherCarstensen2005.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older adults</a>, remember cheerful images better than grim ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flashing-squiggles-in-the-lab">Flashing squiggles in the lab</h2>



Each shape-photo pair appeared three times, a design that let the researchers probe how repetition cements memory. 



During learning, electrodes captured electroencephalography <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/eeg/about/pac-20393875" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(EEG)</a> patterns at over 100 scalp sites, giving millisecond‑level views of brain activity.



“Greater item‑specific spatiotemporal pattern similarity across repetitions predicted better later recall,” stated <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rong-Pan-16" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rong Pan</a>, a co‑author of the report who was from <a href="http://sie.hznu.edu.cn/Portal/Home.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hangzhou Normal University</a>. 



Greater item‑specific similarity in those EEG patterns across the three presentations predicted next‑day success, but only in the positive condition.



Neutral or negative photos, by contrast, did not boost pattern similarity, hinting that a good mood nudges the brain to replay its own activation template while the material is still fresh in the mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cheerful-emotions-better-memory-recall">Cheerful emotions, better memory recall</h2>



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6870483/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parietal ERP “old/new” effect</a>, long linked to recollection, blossomed during positive but not during negative learning. 



This effect aligns with theories that happiness recruits frontal–parietal networks, freeing mental bandwidth for deeper encoding rather than threat monitoring.



At the right frontal electrodes, remembered shapes showed a 380-600 millisecond burst of pattern reinstatement, suggesting early executive loops help stamp data with a cheerful tag. 



Because the shapes carried no meaning, their fate depended almost entirely on the emotional flavor of the surrounding picture, underscoring how context shapes memory traces.



The findings narrow the gap between laboratory studies that use words or faces and real‑world scenes that are crowded with mixed feelings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dopamine-boost-behind-the-scenes">A dopamine boost behind the scenes</h2>



Animal and human work shows that bursts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-enhances-brain-function-during-exercise/">dopamine</a> in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-has-a-meal-memory-that-controls-hunger/">hippocampus</a> help lock in new experiences. 



Positive images, which are rich in motivational value, may trigger that neuromodulatory spray from the ventral tegmental area, sharpening plasticity in circuits that store the incoming squiggle.



Such chemistry could explain why the same EEG pattern pops up on every repetition: dopamine may cue the hippocampus to replay the just‑formed code, strengthening synapses with each pass. 



In everyday life the positive trigger might be a laugh, a compliment, or an upbeat soundtrack, any cue that nudges <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-fuels-learning-in-young-songbirds/">dopamine</a> levels high enough to prime memory networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positivity-lessons-for-everyday-memory">Positivity lessons for everyday memory</h2>



Students cramming dull material just before exam time might benefit from pairing it with upbeat music, humorous examples, or brief videos that create authentic positive emotions rather than forced cheer. 



Teachers could also space repetitions, as reinstated patterns appear to grow with each encounter, suggesting a compounding return on emotional context. 



Workplace trainers might alternate challenging content with short clips chosen to evoke pride or amusement, planting stronger recall traces for otherwise dry procedures. 



The data also carry implications for mental health, because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adult-depression-linked-to-worse-memory-skills/">depressed mood</a> and negative emotions could curb the very neural reinstatement needed for durable memory formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-remains-unknown">What remains unknown</h2>



The study focused on young adults, leaving open whether the same positivity leverage works in children or older people whose emotion circuits differ. 



Photographs, while evocative, offer only a slice of real‑life complexity, so future work should use videos or virtual reality to capture richer moods.



The team also measured memory after one day; tracking recall across weeks would show if the benefit endures or fades with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">sleep</a> and daily interference. 



Lastly, pinpointing the neural source of the reinstatement burst, perhaps with magnetoencephalography or intracranial recordings, could tie the EEG signature to specific cortical hubs.



For now, the squiggle experiment reminds us that a smile, even a fleeting one, can leave a literal trace in the mind. That trace, it turns out, may help decide what stays with us long after the moment has passed.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/06/24/JNEUROSCI.0009-25.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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Brainwaves reveal that positive emotions enhance memory

A stray burst of joy can do more than lift...

Finding motivation to exercise can be the greatest challenge in working out. This might be part of the reason why less than a quarter of people achieve the activity goals recommended by the World Health Organization.



 Yet new evidence shows that if we choose routines tailored to who we are, moving our bodies can feel less like a chore and more like fun.



A research team at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL), working with the Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health and the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, has now examined this connection in detail.



Their study followed adults through an eight-week home program of cycling and strength <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">training</a> and compared them with a control group who stuck to stretching.



The scientists combined laboratory fitness tests with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/">personality</a> surveys and weekly enjoyment ratings to see how the Big Five traits - extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness - shape experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-joy-depends-on-personality">Joy depends on personality</h2>



But what if exercise could be more enjoyable? One way of achieving this could be opting for types of exercise that fit our personalities. That suggestion proved correct.



“We found that our personality can influence how we engage with exercise, and particularly which forms of exercise we enjoy the most,” said study lead author Flaminia Ronca from UCL’s Institute of Sport, Exercise, and Health.



“Understanding personality factors in designing and recommending physical activity programs is likely to be very important in determining how successful a program is,” added senior author Paul Burgess, a scientist at the UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience.



The team recruited 132 volunteers aged between their twenties and late fifties. Half received a structured plan with four sessions per week that blended easy long rides, threshold training, high-intensity intervals, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-impairs-the-brains-response-to-nutrient-intake/">bodyweight</a> strength work. 



Each session was guided by heart-rate measurements taken in the lab. Everyone logged how much they enjoyed each session on a seven-point scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-guides-workout-choices">Personality guides workout choices</h2>



“Our brains are wired in different ways, which drives our behaviors and how we interact with our environment,” said Ronca. “So it’s not surprising that personality would also influence how we respond to different intensities of exercise.”



The data confirmed that everyday intuition. Participants high in extraversion flocked to the hardest rides and reported the greatest pleasure during maximal lab tests, mirroring earlier findings that sensation seekers chase bigger stimulation.



Contrary, people scoring high on neuroticism preferred private workouts. While they are fine with high intensity, they need short breaks in between.



Others who scored high on conscientiousness and openness exercised consistently, either out of discipline or curiosity, regardless of enjoyment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-links-to-performance">Personality links to performance</h2>



The numbers behind those preferences were striking. Extraversion predicted a higher baseline aerobic capacity and peak cycling power. This suggests that outgoing personalities may already gravitate to vigorous activities and build fitness through them.



Conscientiousness predicted more weekly activity and leaner body composition, echoing the idea that disciplined people keep health promises even when motivation dips.



Neuroticism, often linked with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-the-mental-health-impacts-of-wildfires/">anxiety</a>, showed a different pattern: these participants liked gentle sessions conducted at home and were less consistent in uploading heart-rate data, but they still completed the program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-soothes-anxious-minds">Exercise soothes anxious minds</h2>



What was particularly interesting was the relationship between personality, changes in fitness, and stress, the researchers said.



Before the intervention, the stress levels of both groups were similar. After the intervention, however, especially people who scored high in neuroticism showed a strong reduction in stress.



“It’s fantastic news, as it highlights that those who benefit the most from a reduction in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-stress-makes-us-take-more-risks-in-financial-decisions/">stress</a> respond very well to exercise,” Ronca said.



The drop did not depend on how much their aerobic capacity improved, hinting that simply sticking with an activity they could manage was enough to calm the mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-follow-your-fitness-instinct">Follow your fitness instinct</h2>



The authors stress that enjoyment, not willpower alone, keeps people moving. The most important part of exercising is choosing something we enjoy and staying motivated even if we don’t find it right away.



“It’s okay if we don’t enjoy a particular session,” Ronca said. “We can try something else.”



“We hope that if people can find <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-activity-instantly-boosts-your-brain-speed-by-years/">physical activities</a> that they enjoy they will more readily choose to do them,” Burgess added. “After all, we don’t have to nag dogs to go for a walk: being so physically inactive that we start to feel miserable might be a peculiarly human thing to do."



"In effect, our body punishes us by making us miserable," he said. "But for some reason, many of us humans seem poor at picking up on these messages it is sending to our brain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tailored-exercise-plans-stick-better">Tailored exercise plans stick better</h2>



Taken together, the findings argue for personalized coaching. Intense workouts may suit gregarious gym lovers, while introverted or anxious individuals could thrive on solo sessions that build intensity in short bursts.



Coaches might offer conscientious clients clear long-term goals, and give open types novel routines to satisfy curiosity. By aligning activity with personality, programs may boost adherence and health in populations where finding motivation to exercise is challenging.



The study isn’t the final word - its sample skewed toward educated Londoners and relied on self-reported enjoyment. But it still shows how psychological insight can turn exercise from an obligation into a reward.



Whether you relish the roar of a spin class or the quiet rhythm of a living-room workout, the lesson is the same: when the workout fits the person, the mind as well as the body stands to gain. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1587472/full">Frontiers in Psychology</a>



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Exercise feels better when it's matched to your personality

Finding motivation to exercise can be the greatest challenge in...

People have always been curious about what the Moon is made of. Scientists have studied its surface for decades, but many questions remain. In 2023, something unexpected happened. A meteorite from the moon landed in Africa, and it had a story to tell.



Scientists named it Northwest Africa 16286. It’s not just another Moon rock. It’s about 2.35 billion years old. That makes it a rare discovery.



Researchers revealed their findings at the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2025/meetingapp.cgi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goldschmidt Conference</a> in Prague. This meteorite is helping to fill a missing piece of the Moon’s volcanic history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-moon-rock-matters">Why this Moon rock matters</h2>



Over time, lunar missions have brought back many samples from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-side-of-the-moon-reveals-new-details-about-its-evolution/">the Moon</a>, but those come from small, isolated areas on the Moon's surface. This rock, in contrast, came to Earth on its own.



It got knocked off the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-once-threatened-earth-may-target-the-moon/">Moon</a> by an impact. After floating through space, it landed on Earth. That makes it different from any mission sample.



"Lunar rocks from sample return missions are fantastic in the insights they provide us, but they are limited to the immediate areas surrounding those mission landing sites," said Dr. Joshua Snape, a research fellow at the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a> who presented the research at the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2025/meetingapp.cgi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goldschmidt Conference</a>.



"By contrast, <a href="https://sites.wustl.edu/meteoritesite/items/lunar-meteorites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar meteorites</a> can potentially be ejected by impact cratering occurring anywhere on the Moon’s surface. As such, there’s some serendipity surrounding this sample; it just happened to fall to Earth and reveals secrets about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-earth-get-its-moon-a-new-theory-has-emerged/">lunar</a> geology without the massive expense of a space mission."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-rock-s-chemical-clues">Moon rock’s chemical clues</h2>



Scientists started studying the rock’s features right away. They dated it back to 2.35 billion years ago. That makes it the youngest basaltic <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/lunar-rocks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar meteorite</a> ever found here on Earth.



This rock didn’t form near the Moon’s surface. Instead, it came from deep inside. It likely formed after lava flowed out and hardened.



Its chemical makeup stood out right away. It had high levels of potassium and moderate titanium. It also contained large crystals of olivine, a mineral found in volcanic rocks.



The researchers also studied its lead isotopes. They found something unusual. The rock came from a part of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprise-arrival-a-fragment-of-the-moon-just-circled-earth/">Moon</a> with a high uranium-to-lead ratio. That suggests the Moon’s interior stayed hot for longer than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-rock-solved-a-moon-mystery">How this rock solved a Moon mystery</h2>



This discovery matters because it fills a huge gap in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-had-active-volcanoes-just-120-million-years-ago/">Moon’s volcanic timeline</a>. Before this, there was little information about this period in lunar history.



“The age of the sample is especially interesting because it fills an almost billion-year gap in lunar volcanic history. It’s younger than the basalts collected by the Apollo, Luna and Chang’e 6 missions, but older than the much younger rocks brought back by China’s <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2020-087A">Chang’e 5</a> mission," explained Dr. Snape. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/moon_rock_basaltic_youngest_UManchester_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/moon_rock_basaltic_youngest_UManchester_1s.webp" alt="Images of the sample obtained using a scanning electron microscope. These are backscattered electron images, and the different shades of grey highlight different chemical compositions of the minerals making up the rock. Credit: University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1977269"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Images of the sample obtained using a scanning electron microscope. These are backscattered electron images, and the different shades of grey highlight different chemical compositions of the minerals making up the rock. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



He added that the rock's age and composition show that volcanic activity continued on the Moon throughout this timespan, suggesting the existence of a heat generation process within the Moon. 



This process could potentially have involved radiogenic elements that decayed and released heat over a long period of time.



In simpler terms, the Moon stayed active for longer than many scientists thought. This rock proves it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-journey-of-the-rock">Journey of the rock</h2>



The rock’s journey wasn’t smooth. It got hit by an asteroid or meteorite while it was still on the Moon. That impact created glassy pockets and veins inside the rock. These features show how violent its history was.



Dating rocks like this is tricky. But the scientists still got a good estimate. They calculated its age within about 80 million years. That’s accurate enough for this kind of research.



"Moon rocks are rare, so it’s always interesting when we get something that stands out and looks different to everything else," Dr. Snape continued.



This particular rock provides new constraints about when and how volcanic activity occurred on the Moon.



"There is much more yet to learn about the Moon’s geological past, and with further analysis to pinpoint its origin on the surface, this rock will guide where to land future sample return missions," added Dr. Snape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-small-rock-holds-big-clues">This small rock holds big clues</h2>



This meteorite weighs just 311 grams. It is one of only 31 lunar basalts found on Earth. Despite its small size, it offers a huge amount of new information.



The Royal Society funded this research. Scientists plan to publish a full study in a peer-reviewed journal later this year.



The Goldschmidt Conference is the biggest geochemistry conference in the world. Held in Prague from July 6 to 11, the event drew over 4,000 scientists from around the world.



Among many studies at the conference, this Moon rock stood out. It shows how much we still have to learn about the Moon’s long history.



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Meteorite from the moon tells a detailed story about lunar volcanoes

People have always been curious about what the Moon is...

People don’t need training to pick up on biodiversity - just eyes and ears. A new study finds their snap judgments about forest richness match the numbers ecologists collect in the field.



Thus, our everyday senses give a surprisingly accurate readout of nature’s true diversity, a talent that may help explain why greener, livelier places lift our mood.



The research was led by experts at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/">iDiv</a>).



The team asked volunteers with no ecology background to sort forest photos and sound clips by how “diverse” they felt. Researchers then compared those gut rankings with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> counts and detailed vegetation surveys from the same sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-senses-detect-biodiversity-well">Our senses detect biodiversity well</h2>



Forty-eight adults completed a visual session using fifty-seven photographs taken in mixed-species woodlands across Germany, Belgium, and Poland. Another 48 adults listened to sixteen 10-second audio recordings from the same patches.



The participants first grouped the images or sounds any way they liked, revealing the features that stood out to them, and then rearranged the material from low to high biodiversity.



The researchers measured the real complexity of each forest in two ways. For pictures they combined tree-species richness, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-cities-lack-sufficient-canopy-cover-despite-visible-trees/">canopy</a> structure, understory structure, and ground-layer cover into a single “actual diversity” score.



For sound they simply counted the different bird species singing in each clip. When the numbers were compared, perceived and measured diversity moved together: a strong correlation of 0.76 for sight and an even stronger 0.87 for sound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lushness-hints-at-species-count">Lushness hints at species count</h2>



When volunteers explained their choices, they kept coming back to elements any hiker would notice. Dense foliage, dappled light, bright greens, and a mix of trunks signaled a thriving community.



Using simple image analysis, the team confirmed that a higher “greenness index” matched both the on-the-ground surveys and the ratings people gave. 



In other words, the greener the shot, the richer the habitat and the higher the score. By contrast, photos that looked washed-out or evenly lit tended to come from simpler, species-poor areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hearing-biodiversity-s-quiet-signals">Hearing biodiversity’s quiet signals</h2>



Sound told the same story through a different sense. Listeners paid closest attention to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/">birdsong</a> - its complexity, pitch range, volume, and rhythmic patterns.



Four standard acoustic indices, including the well-known <a href="https://www.authorea.com/users/813436/articles/1214821-the-acoustic-complexity-indices-acis-theoretical-and-applied-perspectives">Acoustic Complexity Index</a>, rose in lockstep with both perceived richness and the tally of bird species. 



Even without technical tools, participants homed in on the same signals: lively, layered choruses meant lots of birds, while sparse or repetitive calls hinted at poorer sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-perception-and-wellness-connect">Perception and wellness connect</h2>



Earlier studies show that how biodiverse a place feels has a stronger link to mental health than the species list on a clipboard. That connection motivated the new work.



Lead author Kevin Rozario, a scientist at iDiv, emphasized the value of understanding how people sense biodiversity. 



“It’s important to identify what people perceive with regards to biodiversity, what the contribution of the different senses could be, and under which circumstances people’s perception of biodiversity best aligns with what ecologists measure.” 



Rozario noted that perceived biodiversity is thought to play a role in supporting mental health. The new data reveal that alignment is often tight, at least when people can compare several settings side by side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-loss-hits-the-senses">Biodiversity loss hits the senses</h2>



The study also underscores a cultural loss that runs alongside species decline. “Not only are we experiencing an extinction of species, but also an extinction of biodiverse experiences,” Rozario explained.



City living, indoor jobs, and digital leisure mean fewer chances to stand among varied trees or wake to a dawn chorus. Preserving those encounters may matter for public health as much as for conservation biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-planning-with-people-in-mind">Forest planning with people in mind</h2>



One clear takeaway is that mixed forests with layered canopies and active birdlife satisfy both ecological targets and human senses.



“We recommend to conserve and restore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">diverse forests</a> characterized by a variety of tree species and structures to also provide habitats for different vocalizing bird species,” Rozario said.



“These conservation measures will have the dual benefit of meeting conservation goals while also increasing people’s experience of biodiversity and therefore likely increasing mental wellbeing.”



Planners can even use quick proxies. A handheld camera that registers shades of green, or a portable recorder that crunches acoustic indices, offers a cheap way to flag sites that feel and are alive. 



Urban designers might favor plantings that stay green through the year or host birds with distinctive songs, boosting the sensory richness visitors notice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-multisensory-picture">Building a multisensory picture</h2>



The study relied mainly on young, university-educated women and on brief comparisons rather than lone encounters. 



Future work will test broader groups and real-time walks to learn how age, culture, and context shape perception. 



Researchers also hope to add smell, touch, and even temperature to build a full, multi-sensory picture of how humans read living landscapes.



For now, the message is clear. Ordinary observers, armed with nothing more than eyes and ears, can still spot the difference between a sparse wood and a thriving one - and that instinct lines up with hard science. 



Protect the layered greenery and the singing birds, and you protect both biodiversity and the quiet joy people draw from it.



The study is published in the British Ecological Society journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70087">People and Nature</a>.



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Humans can accurately perceive biodiversity through the senses

People don’t need training to pick up on biodiversity -...

For nearly a decade, cosmologists have wrestled with a nagging mismatch called the Hubble tension. When astronomers measure the expansion of space in the nearby universe, they find a noticeably faster rate than calculations based on the early cosmos predict.



A new analysis presented this week at the Royal Astronomical Society’s National Astronomy Meeting (<a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/departments/academic/physics/about-us/events/national-astronomy-meeting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NAM 2025</a>) proposes an eye-catching fix. 



Earth, the Sun, and the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/">Milky Way</a> may sit inside an enormous under-dense region - a local void roughly a billion light-years wide.



If true, that cosmic cavity could make galaxies in our neighborhood race away more quickly than observers elsewhere would record. This could resolve the tension without overhauling the laws of physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-tension-still-an-issue">Hubble tension still an issue</h2>



Edwin Hubble’s 1929 discovery that galaxies flee from each other led to the Hubble constant, a single number that encapsulates how fast the universe is expanding today. Two principal routes exist for pinning that figure down.



One approach works outward from the present - gauging distances to nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernovae-explosions-seem-to-have-altered-earths-climate-in-the-past-and-could-do-so-again-at-any-time/">supernovae</a>, Cepheid stars, and other “standard candles” and clocking their recessional speeds.



The other works inward from the past - using the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and the standard “Lambda-CDM” model to extrapolate forward from 13.8 billion years ago.



The problem is that the first method yields a value around 73 kilometers per second per megaparsec (km/s/Mpc), while the second lands closer to 67 km/s/Mpc. 



The statistical gulf is now large enough that random error looks unlikely; something about the universe or our measurements must be off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-void-surrounding-our-galaxy">Giant void surrounding our galaxy</h2>



“A potential solution to this inconsistency is that our galaxy is close to the center of a large, local void,” explained Dr. Indranil Banik of the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a>.



If the Milky Way occupies a region where matter density is roughly 20 percent below the cosmic average, gravity would tug material outward toward denser surroundings. 



That evacuation would give the appearance of a faster local expansion rate.



To account for the observed Hubble tension, the void - sometimes dubbed the “KBC Void” after earlier proponents - must be vast: on the order of one gigaparsec (about three billion light-years) in diameter. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/earth_milky-way_inside-a-void_hubble-tension_expansion-universe_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/earth_milky-way_inside-a-void_hubble-tension_expansion-universe_1s.webp" alt="If we are located in a region with below-average density such as the green dot, then matter would flow away from us due to stronger gravity from the surrounding denser regions, as shown by the red arrows. Credit: Moritz Haslbauer and Zarija Lukic" class="wp-image-1977280"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">If we are located in a region with below-average density such as the green dot, then matter would flow away from us due to stronger gravity from the surrounding denser regions, as shown by the red arrows. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Moritz Haslbauer and Zarija Lukic</figcaption></figure>



Less extreme models, however, consider scales nearer to one billion light-years.



Galaxy counts in local surveys do show a relative deficit, lending initial support to the idea. Yet critics argue that such a low-density patch sits uneasily with the prevailing cosmological framework. 



This framework predicts that matter should be more evenly distributed on large scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-echoes-of-the-universe">Ancient echoes of the universe </h2>



The new analysis wades into that debate by examining baryon acoustic oscillations (BAOs) - ripples frozen into the distribution of galaxies and intergalactic gas shortly after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-observations-disprove-big-bang-theory-universe-began-tired-light-theory/">Big Bang</a>. 



These ripples act as a “standard ruler,” letting astronomers check how distances scale with redshift at different epochs.



“These sound waves traveled for only a short while before becoming frozen in place once the universe cooled enough for neutral atoms to form,” Banik said.



Because a local void slightly warps the relationship between BAO angular size and redshift, precise measurements across multiple surveys can reveal whether we live in such a bubble. The team compiled two decades of BAO data. 



“By considering all available BAO measurements over the last 20 years, we showed that a void model is about one hundred million times more likely than a void-free model with parameters designed to fit the CMB observations taken by the Planck satellite, the so-called homogeneous Planck cosmology,” Banik explained.



In other words, when BAO observations of galaxy distributions are added to the equation, the giant-void scenario far outperforms a homogeneous Lambda-CDM fit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clocking-the-universe-s-history">Clocking the universe’s history</h2>



While the BAO evidence is striking, it is not the final word. The researchers next plan to pit their void prediction against cosmic chronometers. 



These are galaxies that have ceased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/">star formation</a> and whose stellar populations act as reliable clocks.



By comparing a chronometer’s age to its redshift, scientists can reconstruct the expansion history of the universe without invoking standard candles or early-universe extrapolations.



Combining chronometer data with BAO, supernova, and CMB results should clarify whether the local-void explanation stands or whether something more radical - such as new physics beyond standard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-might-be-fading-so-what-does-that-mean/">dark energy</a> - must be invoked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/cosmic-expansion_hubble-tension_illustration_credit-Indranil-Banik_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/cosmic-expansion_hubble-tension_illustration_credit-Indranil-Banik_1s.webp" alt="The main techniques for charting the cosmic expansion history, such as supernovae – or standard candles – and cosmic chronometers. Credit: Dr. Indranil Banik" class="wp-image-1977278"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The main techniques for charting the cosmic expansion history, such as supernovae - or standard candles - and cosmic chronometers. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Indranil Banik</figcaption></figure>



Skepticism remains. Many cosmologists contend that a void large enough to surround our galaxy - stretching hundreds of millions of light-years - runs afoul of simulations showing that large-scale density fluctuations should average out. 



Other experts note that while local galaxy counts appear low, improved surveys might yet fill in the gap.



“The existence of such a large and deep void is controversial, it doesn't mesh particularly well with the standard model of cosmology,” Banik said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milky-way-galaxy-earth-and-the-void">Milky Way galaxy, Earth, and the void</h2>



Still, the hypothesis has gained renewed attention because it can be falsified. If future chronometer or BAO measurements contradict the predicted pattern, the void proposal will fade. 



If, on the other hand, they reinforce it - and independent observations map a sustained under-density spanning a gigaparsec - astronomers may have to re-think what “average” really means for the cosmos.



The idea that our galaxy sits in a vast cosmic void may help explain conflicting measurements of the universe’s expansion rate. It may also help pin down the universe’s true age.



Whether the Milky Way truly resides in a vast cosmic hollow - or the tension hides deeper physics yet undiscovered - remains uncertain. Next-generation surveys and telescopes will soon shed light on the universe’s most persistent riddle.



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Scientists believe our Milky Way galaxy may be inside a giant 'cosmic void' in the universe

For nearly a decade, cosmologists have wrestled with a nagging...

According to recent study, people who managed to fit regular exercise into their month while they were still under 50 now carry brains that look noticeably younger at 70. 



The finding comes from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/drc/research-clinical-trials/insight-46" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insight  46 project</a>, which has tracked almost 500 members of Britain’s 1946 birth cohort for nearly eight decades. 



<a href="https://profiles.ucl.ac.uk/59397-sarah-james" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr Sarah-Naomi James</a> of University College London’s <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/drc/dementia-research-centre" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dementia Research Centre</a> led the work and calls it a reminder that, “staying active throughout your life, especially before turning 50, can help keep your brain healthy and delay early signs of Alzheimer's.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-activity-and-exercise">Brain activity and exercise</h2>



Researchers looked at how often each volunteer reported leisure‑time activity between ages 36 and 69. One session a month was all it took to be classed as “active,” yet even that light commitment predicted larger volumes in the hippocampus, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">brain’s</a> chief memory hub.&nbsp;



The team also compared cognitive test scores with early Alzheimer markers like amyloid build‑up. 



People who kept moving scored higher even when those markers were present, suggesting exercise builds mental resilience rather than erasing the pathology.



Older adults typically lose about one to two percent of hippocampal volume every year. Aerobic training can add roughly two percent back, effectively buying an extra year or two of neurological youth.



Animal <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3072565/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> link that gain to boosts in blood flow, new neuron growth, and surges of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a protein that primes synapses for learning. 



Human scans echo the trend, showing fitter seniors with denser hippocampal tissue and sharper spatial memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-and-hidden-alzheimer-s">Exercise and hidden Alzheimer's</h2>



The Insight 46 scans did not find a direct link between activity and the amount of amyloid lodged in the brain’s cortex. 



That matches other population <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31312836/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> where exercise softened the cognitive hit of amyloid without always lowering the plaques themselves.



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23079557/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> think movement may raise the threshold at which damage turns into symptoms, a concept known as cognitive reserve. Reserve acts like a backup network, letting healthy circuits pick up slack when disease strikes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-participants-for-70-years">Following participants for 70 years</h2>



The Insight 46 study is part of the world's longest-running birth cohort, the 1946 <a href="https://nshd.mrc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British National Survey of Health and Development</a>. 



Participants have been assessed regularly since childhood, providing researchers with a rare, detailed view of their lifelong health, lifestyle, and socioeconomic background.



At age 70, five hundred and two of these individuals underwent memory testing, PET scans to detect amyloid, and MRI scans to assess brain volume and hippocampal size. 



This combination of decades-long physical activity records and brain imaging allowed researchers to connect early-life exercise habits with structural and functional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/">brain</a> markers nearly 40 years later.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-women-show-bigger-benefits">Women show bigger benefits</h2>



Women in the study saw the strongest benefits. Inactive women with amyloid deposits showed steeper memory loss than inactive men, yet a modest exercise habit erased much of that gap.



Hormonal shifts after menopause and higher baseline Alzheimer risk may make female brains more sensitive to lifestyle. That <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/56/12/701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensitivity</a> means the upside of activity could be bigger too, offering a practical target for prevention campaigns.



Exercise joins education, mentally demanding work, and social connection as major reserve builders. Each factor strengthens neural networks in different ways, so combining them multiplies protection over decades.



“Nearly half of dementia cases can be prevented or delayed by addressing health and lifestyle risk factors,” notes researcher <a href="https://www.alzheimersresearchuk.org/research/online-public-events/for-a-cure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Thomas</a> of <a href="https://www.alzheimersresearchuk.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s Research UK</a>. 



A separate 2020 <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7392084/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> estimated that up to forty percent of dementia cases could be delayed or avoided by tackling modifiable risks, with physical inactivity sitting near the top of the list. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-for-your-brain-before-50">Exercise for your brain before 50</h2>



You do not need marathon medals to reap <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-speed-at-which-the-brain-processes-information/">brain</a> dividends. The study’s cutoff of one leisure session per month hints that consistency beats intensity for long‑term payoff.



Starting after 50 still helped but earlier movers enjoyed the largest hippocampi at 70, implying that earlier habits leave a structural imprint. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cardiorespiratory-fitness-cuts-early-death-risks-by-53-percent/">Cardiorespiratory</a> fitness later in life can still blunt the link between Alzheimer biomarkers and thinking decline, yet earlier routines give extra cushioning.



Public health guidelines call for at least 150 minutes of moderate activity each week, but any added movement counts. Regular walks, cycling to errands, or weekend dance classes all meet the threshold and most involve no special gear.



“It’s great to run with people because you keep each other accountable and stay connected,” said Graham Kent, a 74‑year‑old participant, while caring for his wife who lives with Alzheimer’s. 



Engaging friends or pets can double as social enrichment, another pillar of reserve.



The message lands clearly: move early, move often, and keep moving. A future cure would be welcome, but personal prevention starts with the next stroll.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/braincomms/article/7/1/fcae431/7933115" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain Communications</a>.



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Very simple lifestyle change before the age of 50 dramatically improves brain health and aging

According to recent study, people who managed to fit regular...

Monumental burial mounds or structures usually bring to mind kings, slaves, and ancient riches. Yet a windswept slope in southern Peru has just rewritten that script.



Archaeologists say the low ridges of earth at Kaillachuro, perched almost 13,000 feet above sea level, were raised by hunter‑gatherer <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3z22t40b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">families</a> who had no kings at all. 



<a href="https://anthropology.ucdavis.edu/people/luis-flores-blanco" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luis Flores‑Blanco</a> of UC Davis, now at <a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/5214141" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, led the research with co‑author <a href="https://ahs.ucmerced.edu/content/mark-s-aldenderfer" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mark Aldenderfer</a> of UC Merced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kaillachuro-burial-mounds">Kaillachuro burial mounds</h2>



The team used <a href="https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-is-carbon-14-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiocarbon dating</a> to pinpoint the earliest construction at 5,300 calendar years before present, pushing the birth of monumental architecture in the Titicaca Basin back 1,500 years.



“Most researchers in the Andes argue that monumental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3800-year-old-hexagonal-pyramid-discovered-possibly-a-royal-tomb/">architecture</a> is a product of elites, intentionally constructed as a space of centralized power,” said Flores‑Blanco. 



At Kaillachuro, nine hump‑shaped mounds grew slowly as mourners returned to reopen graves, add fresh offerings, and top the soil with ash from ritual fires.



Each visit left only a dusting of charcoal and bone, yet over two millennia those layers stacked into ridges tall enough to catch the sun from miles away. 



Those incremental deposits thickened the landscape’s profile, transforming private grief into a visible landmark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-people-of-kaillachuro">Ancient people of Kaillachuro</h2>



The builders camped on a terrace overlooking <a href="https://laketiticaca.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lake Titicaca</a>, a high‑altitude basin dotted with camelids and quinoa greens. 



Seasonal stays lengthened into multi‑year residencies as groups experimented with tiny garden plots, swapped obsidian for wool, and learned to manage thin‑air farming.



Projectile points found in the fill link the mounds to the Terminal Archaic and Early Formative periods when the bow and arrow first appeared in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-eclipse-may-have-changed-the-architecture-of-ancient-egypt-forever/">region</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Kaillachuro-burial-mounds_ancient-Peru_mega-structures_credit-Antiquity_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Kaillachuro-burial-mounds_ancient-Peru_mega-structures_credit-Antiquity_1s.webp" alt="The locations of Late Archaic/Terminal and Early Formative sites mentioned in the text with detail (right) of the middle Ilave Basin. Credit: Antiquity (2025)" class="wp-image-1977257"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The locations of Late Archaic/Terminal and Early Formative sites mentioned in the text with detail (right) of the middle Ilave Basin. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Antiquity (2025)</figcaption></figure>



Animal bone and burnt seeds scattered through the layers hint at feasts that mixed wild vicuña meat with roasted chenopod grains, fueling nights of singing and story‑telling beside the flames.



By 3,000 years ago the site was quiet, yet Inca mourners later slipped their own dead into the soft crowns of two mounds, underlining a tradition of reusing sacred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stonehenges-famous-altar-stone-has-surprising-origins/">ground</a>. All this and more was able to be pierced together by the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hunters-made-gathering-sites">Why hunters made gathering sites</h2>



And Kaillachuro is not the only case where mobile people raised heavy stone. Klaus Schmidt’s <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_2000_num_26_1_4697" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">excavations</a> at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285774423_Gobekli_Tepe_A_Neolithic_Site_in_Southeastern_Anatolia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Göbekli Tepe</a> in Turkey revealed T‑shaped pillars erected by pre‑agricultural bands more than 11,000 years ago, long before formal states emerged.



Closer to Lake Titicaca, the camp of <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0296420" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wilamaya Patjxa</a> preserves graves that hold both women and men buried with hunting kits, pointing to unexpectedly complex social networks among Andean nomads.&nbsp;



Such parallels suggest that the urge to honor ancestors can unite scattered families, turning burial grounds into community magnets that slowly root people to one address. 



Once gatherings became predictable, organizers could schedule food production, exchange tools, and share innovations that nudged society toward farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kaillachuro-mounds-grew-over-time">Kaillachuro mounds grew over time</h2>



Flores‑Blanco’s team traced five construction phases by reading subtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/winter-solstice-the-shortest-day-of-the-year-has-arrived/">changes</a> in soil color and texture. 



The earliest was a simple pit trimmed with river stones and filled with ochre‑dusted bone; later builders set a child in a stone box lined with purple clay and sealed it tight.



During the third phase they leveled the summit, added a burned offering zone, and heaped soil into a cone more than four feet tall, a labor doable with baskets and family effort. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Kaillachuro-burial-mounds_ancient-Peru_features_tomb-contents_credit-Antiquity_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Kaillachuro-burial-mounds_ancient-Peru_features_tomb-contents_credit-Antiquity_1s.webp" alt="Burial features and finds from M4: a) the earliest unexcavated burial pit (1, a projectile point; 2, a green bead); b) Burial 2 in the initial mound (3, a golden stone bead; 4, an obsidian point found below the tomb); c) a stone-box with a child burial; d &amp; e) a cist containing the skeleton of a child covered in red ochre (5, a stone bead; 6, a chert projectile point). Also shown, the stone platform on M6 is enclosed by thick stone walls (f). Credit: Antiquity" class="wp-image-1977255"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Burial features and finds from M4: a) the earliest unexcavated burial pit (1, a projectile point; 2, a green bead); b) Burial 2 in the initial mound (3, a golden stone bead; 4, an obsidian point found below the tomb); c) a stone-box with a child burial; d &amp; e) a cist containing the skeleton of a child covered in red ochre (5, a stone bead; 6, a chert projectile point). Also shown, the stone platform on M6 is enclosed by thick stone walls (f). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Antiquity</figcaption></figure>



A nearby mound gained a low platform ringed by granite blocks, perhaps a stage for speeches, animal sacrifice, or recitations of lineage.



Radiocarbon ages from charcoal, bone, and camelid hair line up smoothly, showing activity spanned roughly 2,000 years without a gap longer than a human lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-archaeologists-studied-the-mounds">How archaeologists studied the mounds</h2>



Researchers walked every square yard of the three‑hectare terrace, then stitched hundreds of drone photos into a high‑resolution map. 



Radiocarbon samples of bone, charcoal, and camelid hair were calibrated in <a href="https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OxCal 4.4</a>, a free web tool that corrects for shifts in atmospheric carbon through time.



More than 76,000 flakes were counted through a one‑millimeter sieve, letting analysts plot where stone working happened and where feasting debris piled up. 



Field seasons ran with permission from <a href="http://www.rree.gob.pe/SitePages/cultural_en.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peru’s Ministry of Culture</a> and with daily help from the <a href="https://magazine.wideoyster.com/en/aymara-indigenous-culture-puna-atacama-chile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jachaccachi Aymara community</a>, who shared stories and guarded the trenches at night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-graves-shaped-early-communities">How graves shaped early communities</h2>



Archaeologists debate when South American societies crossed the line from loose bands to ranked villages. Kaillachuro lands in that gray zone, displaying communal works but no palaces, storerooms, or throne rooms.



If leaders existed, they probably led by persuasion and ritual knowledge rather than force, a style sometimes called “Big Man” authority. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Kaillachuro-burial-mounds_topographic-map_ancient-Peru_credit-Antiquity_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Kaillachuro-burial-mounds_topographic-map_ancient-Peru_credit-Antiquity_1s.webp" alt="Topographic map of Kaillachuro. A 3ha scatter of Archaic and Formative materials is shown by the red polygon. Hotspot analysis highlights surface-collected artefact density. As Mound 10 is mostly an Inca-Period occupation, it is plotted outside the polygon. Credit: Antiquity" class="wp-image-1977259"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Topographic map of Kaillachuro. A 3ha scatter of Archaic and Formative materials is shown by the red polygon. Hotspot analysis highlights surface-collected artefact density. As Mound 10 is mostly an Inca-Period occupation, it is plotted outside the polygon. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Antiquity</figcaption></figure>



Repeated cooperation at the cemetery could have trained families for larger tasks, laying the mental groundwork for later temple towns like Chiripa on the same lake shore.



The finding echoes work in other continents where mortuary gatherings preceded both agriculture and social stratification, hinting that grief may have been civilization’s first architect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-remain-about-kaillachuro">Questions remain about Kaillachuro</h2>



No house floors have yet surfaced, likely erased by modern plows, so archaeologists cannot say whether families lived beside their dead or walked in from satellite camps.



The study leaves open whether women, men, or specialized ritual leaders directed the ceremonies, because skeletal DNA from the mounds remains under analysis. 



Future work may turn to microscopic plant starches and ancient DNA to track crop experiments hinted at in the charred seed fragments.



Laser surface scans planned for the next field season aim to pick out faint terrace walls that could mark gardens or corrals, tying ritual to daily economics. 



For now, Kaillachuro reminds us that memories of loved ones can move more earth than kings.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/kaillachuro-early-monumental-architecture-of-the-titicaca-basin-53003000-bp/18A411D199D63943D0DC38C65A7207AE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



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Ancient Peruvian burial mounds flip the script on 'monumental architecture'

Monumental burial mounds or structures usually bring to mind kings,...

Diseño sin título - 1

Earth started out as a ball of liquid fire, its newborn surface closer to a lava lamp than the calm continents we know today. Those incandescent beginnings happened 4.5 billion years ago, yet the evidence is buried miles beneath our feet where direct sampling is impossible.



A new computer model of the infant planet’s mantle says the rock we stand on still remembers that fiery youth, right down to the chemical fingerprints laid down within the planet’s first hundred million years. 



Assistant Professor <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/science/profiles/faculty/charles-boukare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles‑Édouard Boukaré</a>, Department of Physics and Astronomy, <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/science/physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York University</a>, led the new study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-earth-was-a-molten-world">Early Earth was a molten world</h2>



When the young Earth cooled, it did not freeze evenly like a lake in winter. It simmered from the top down and the bottom up at the same time, leaving pockets of melt trapped deep inside.



Planetary scientists call that global melt a <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023JB026941" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">basal magma ocean</a>, a deep layer of iron‑rich liquid pooling just above the metal core, and its existence explains why the modern core still loses heat so slowly.



Seismic scans of the modern deep mantle reveal sprawling ultralow velocity zones that slow earthquake waves, hinting they contain that same dense, iron‑heavy melt and supporting the basal ocean concept.



These reservoirs sit beneath the Pacific and Africa today, covering areas wider than the continental United States, yet they are hard to image because they lie nearly eighteen hundred miles down.



Exactly when those structures formed has been uncertain because many <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp0021" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier simulations</a> treated the mantle as a single gooey fluid, erasing the complex dance between liquid and crystal that governs segregation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-magma-to-solid-rock">Modeling magma to solid rock</h2>



The code named Bambari by the researchers divided Earth’s interior into a fine grid and began with a half‑melted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-chemistry-has-remained-stable-for-billions-of-years/">mantle</a>, about fifty percent liquid, a state thought to be realistic after the giant impact that created the Moon.



Temperature contrasts made lighter crystal mush rise while heavier, iron‑loaded droplets sank, all as heat bled into cold space, and the model resolved motions at scales from global overturns to turbulent eddies only a few miles across.



Within a few thousand simulated years the top hundred miles had cooled enough for crystals to lock together, forming down‑plunging sheets that ferried a shallow chemical signal into the deep, a result that surprised the research team.



More crystals formed near the surface than near the core, overturning the textbook view that solidification begins at depth, and the outcome hints that early Earth might have sported a short‑lived rocky crust that repeatedly sank back into the mantle.



Because the falling crystals reheated and partly melted on the way down, they left behind an iron‑rich brew that eventually puddled into an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shifting-ocean-color-is-pushing-marine-life-toward-the-poles/">ocean</a> of liquid rock roughly three hundred miles thick above the core, one that may have persisted for half a billion years and acted as a blanket trapping core heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-chemistry-on-early-earth">Surprising chemistry on early Earth</h2>



Low‑pressure minerals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-rocks-turned-into-great-cheap-carbon-trappers/">olivine</a> were expected to dominate only the upper mantle, yet Boukaré’s run shows their fingerprints nearly twelve‑hundred miles below.



This finding that forces a rethink of how trace elements were sorted. The reason is mechanical: surface‑grown crystals fell like hailstones, skipping equilibrium reactions at depth.



As they sank, mass balance pumped iron‑rich melt upward where it chilled, creating downwellings enriched in trace elements such as samarium and neodymium, and the pattern repeated until the mantle became mostly solid.



That process stamped unusual <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adg2566" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lu/Hf and Sm/Nd ratios</a> that still appear in 3.8 billion‑year‑old rocks from Greenland, offering a rare chemical time capsule of early differentiation.



“This study is the first to demonstrate that the first‑order features of Earth’s lower mantle structure were established four billion years ago,” said Boukaré.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remnants-in-earth-s-mantle-today">Remnants in Earth's mantle today</h2>



The simulation naturally birthed the two giant “<a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/19/10/963/205223/Geological-consequences-of-superplumes?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superplumes</a>,” formally known as large low shear‑velocity provinces or LLSVPs, that sit under the Pacific and Africa and rise more than six‑hundred miles off the core.



In the model they form as the dregs of the magma ocean, loaded with iron and slightly radioactive elements that keep them hotter than their surroundings, an explanation that unifies decades of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-map-shows-75-percent-of-the-u-s-at-risk-of-damaging-earthquakes/">seismic</a> and geochemical hints.



That extra heat helps feed volcanic hotspots such as Hawaii and Iceland, linking events separated by billions of years through persistent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-chemistry-has-remained-stable-for-billions-of-years/">mantle</a> circulation.



High‑precision noble‑gas measurements in ocean‑island basalts point to ancient, undegassed mantle domains that match the predicted reservoirs, giving independent support to the model’s deep‑time narrative.



Because the model reproduces both seismic and chemical observations, it knits together disciplines that rarely intersect and offers a single story for the planet’s deep past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-other-planets">What this means for other planets</h2>



The equations behind Bambari apply to any rocky world, big or small, making the tool valuable far beyond Earth studies.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-volcanic-clues-hint-at-ancient-life-on-mars/">For Mars</a>, whose lower mass bleeds heat faster, the basal magma ocean would have frozen early, starving the core of insulation and hastening the loss of its magnetic shield within a few hundred million years, a scenario that dovetails with rover <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371698608_Ground_magnetic_survey_on_Mars_from_the_Zhurong_rover" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> showing weak residual magnetism in surface rocks.



For a super‑Earth twice our planet’s size, the same physics predicts a magma ocean that could linger a billion years, sustaining a long‑lived dynamo and perhaps protecting an atmosphere long enough for life to emerge.



“If we know some kind of starting conditions, and we know the main processes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-world-offers-clues-to-planetary-evolution/">planetary evolution</a>, we can predict how planets will evolve,” Boukaré explained. That prospect gives exoplanet hunters a fresh tool for judging habitability without leaving the telescope.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08701-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Scientists manage to simulate what the first days of early Earth were like, 4.5 billion years ago

Earth started out as a ball of liquid fire, its...

A Styrofoam (polystyrene plastic) take‑out food box can outlive its owner and their children. It weathers rain, sunlight, and curbside crushes yet still hangs around, splintering into smaller shards instead of disappearing.



An Australian research team now reports a way to erase 90% of that throw‑away <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plastic-food-packaging-contains-9936-harmful-chemicals/">plastic</a> in just thirty minutes, using nothing more exotic than air, purple light, and a pinch of table-grade chemicals.



<a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XqtHx8oAAAAJ&amp;hl=fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Maxime Michelas</a> of the University of New South Wales School of Chemical Engineering (<a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/engineering/our-schools/chemical-engineering">UNSW</a>), working with colleagues in the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/science/our-schools/chemistry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Chemistry</a> and <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, describes the method in a recent study. 



Their approach slices stubborn polymers into bite‑size molecules that industry already uses to make solvents, coatings, and flavors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polystyrene-plastic-linger-for-centuries">Polystyrene plastic linger for centuries</h2>



Humanity produces more than four hundred million tons of plastic per year, and the figure keeps climbing even where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-scientists-are-using-air-to-recycle-plastic/">recycling</a> programs thrive. Most items are designed for single use, yet their bonds resist microbial attack and sunshine alike.



Polystyrene poses a special headache. The foamed version is restricted in several U.S. states, yet analysts expect global demand to reach sixty‑two million tons within a decade. 



Its light weight means flakes travel far on the wind, then fracture into microplastics that slip through standard filters and into drinking water.



Medical <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11117644/">journals</a> now link those particles to oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in animal and cell models. Surgeons have even found plastic fragments embedded in arterial plaque removed from heart patients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-sunlight-into-a-scalpel">Turning sunlight into a scalpel</h2>



Michelas’ team turns the low‑cost salt iron trichloride into an aggressive photocatalyst. 



When a 405‑nanometer LED excites the salt, it spawns chlorine radicals that yank hydrogen atoms off the polymer backbone. 



The orphaned carbon grabs oxygen from the air, the chain snaps, and the plastic’s mass plunges.



The setup looks almost rudimentary. A glass flask sits on a stir plate, air or pure oxygen bubbles through a dichloromethane solution of shredded plastic and five mole percent catalyst, and a small LED panel shines from the side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dissolving-plastic-by-90">Dissolving plastic by 90%</h2>



Under those conditions the authors report a 90% mass loss for seven commodity polymers in half an hour.



Extending exposure to three hours pushes conversion to 97%, a milestone that once demanded day‑long lamp times.



For the fastest substrates, including <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8435462/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poly(ethylene oxide)</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/polymethyl-methacrylate" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">poly(methyl acrylate)</a>, most bond‑breaking happens in the first ten minutes. 



Even polyvinyl chloride, notorious for its tight packing and limited solubility, gave up seventy‑eight percent in the half‑hour window.



“I think it’s very important to degrade the polymer and turn it into another feedstock we can use for other things, or just to reduce the amount of microplastics in the world,” noted Dr. Michelas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-trash-to-toolkit-chemicals">From trash to toolkit chemicals</h2>



Breaking chains is only half the story. Gas‑chromatography traces reveal a soup rich in small aldehydes and carboxylic acids that can feed into paint, adhesive, or fragrance manufacture with little additional purification.



Because the catalyst is iron and the reaction runs near room temperature, the energy bill looks minimal compared with pyrolysis or incineration. 



The group demonstrated a fifty‑gram‑per‑liter run that held over eighty‑five percent efficiency, then regained speed simply by bubbling in fresh oxygen when the gas was spent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-energy-math">Checking the energy math</h2>



A 2023 <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/12/3041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">case study</a> of a decentralized pyrolysis unit showed that processing 360 tons of mixed plastic per year demanded about 560 MWh of electricity, or roughly 1,550 kWh for every ton treated. 



That figure dwarfs the LED‑lit UNSW setup, which relies mainly on ambient heat and the modest power draw of a few lamps.



While the pyrolysis plant did recover energy by burning the oil it made, the upfront input highlights why lower‑temperature chemistry matters. 



Slashing kilowatt‑hours per ton means smaller carbon footprints and lower operating bills, especially in regions where electricity still comes from coal.



For context, running a fifteen‑watt LED strip for half an hour consumes about 0.015 kWh, orders of magnitude below even the leanest pyrolysis benchmarks. 



Multiply that by thousands of lamps in parallel, and the energy tab still lands far south of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128228104000221" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermochemical routes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-savings-for-cities-and-companies">Savings for cities and companies</h2>



Foamed polystyrene can occupy up to thirty percent of landfill volume by space, prompting bans in California, Maine, and Maryland that steer eateries toward plant‑based or recyclable packaging. 



Yet many municipalities still receive tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-designed-material-is-light-as-foam-tough-as-steel/">foam</a>, paying transport costs on material that weighs almost nothing but swallows cubic yards.



A low‑temperature, bench‑scale unit could let waste haulers liquefy that foam onsite, drain the product into drums, and sell it to chemical distributors. Haulers would cut diesel miles, and cities would shrink the footprint of their transfer stations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-polystyrene-plastic-better-health">Less polystyrene plastic, better health</h2>



Environmental <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10151227/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> estimate the average person ingests about five grams of dispersed plastic per week, roughly the weight of a credit card. 



By tackling items most prone to shedding, like takeaway containers, the UNSW chemistry could noticeably dent that intake.



Though the catalyst cannot vacuum particles already loose in rivers, less fragmentation upstream means fewer specks small enough to cross gut or lung barriers. 



Lower exposure could reduce inflammatory burdens now documented in lab studies, easing a growing public‑health worry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-earth-from-polystyrene-plastics">Saving Earth from polystyrene plastics</h2>



No exotic materials are required, so startups could prototype light‑reactor tubes that rely on midday sun instead of LEDs in sunny regions. 



Developers might even graft the concept onto existing plastic‑sorting lines, dropping shredded waste into solvent loops rather than balers.



Regulators drafting extended‑producer‑responsibility rules can nudge investment by counting photochemical conversion toward plastic‑recovery targets. 



Clarity on permitting would address solvent handling and air emissions, two hurdles that often stall new recycling infrastructure.



Further lab work will probe whether iron salts push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-catalyst-precatalyst-improves-clean-hydrogen-production-to-99-9-efficiency/">hydrogen</a>‑atom transfer in cross‑linked elastomers or complex multilayer films. Each additional success widens the path to a circular economy that values the carbon already in circulation.



Funding agencies often favor technologies that link waste reduction to high‑value outputs, and solvent‑phase depolymerization fits that brief. 



Venture groups in Australia and Singapore have already begun scouting pilot‑scale demonstrations, according to the authors.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/marc.202400358" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macromolecular Rapid Communications</a>.



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New chemical process breaks down 90% of plastic in just 30 minutes

A Styrofoam (polystyrene plastic) take‑out food box can outlive its...

The dream of living beyond Earth demands fresh food far from our planet. The Moon-Rice project is pioneering this vision by experimenting with future-proof crops for space. One day, this initiative could supply nutritious food to astronauts and people living in harsh environments on Earth.



Today, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-lettuce-nasas-plans-to-grow-nutritious-plants-on-mars/">space</a> missions depend on supplies from Earth. These include ready-to-eat meals that lack fresh ingredients. Such meals often miss essential nutrients that the human body needs, especially during long missions.



For deep space exploration, we must grow food rich in vitamins and fiber. The Moon-Rice project aims to create such crops. Their goal is to sustain life in deep space missions.



“Living in space is all about recycling resources and living sustainably,” said Marta Del Bianco, a plant biologist at the <a href="https://www.asi.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Italian Space Agency</a>. “We are trying to solve the same problems that we face here on Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-rice-is-key-for-space-food">Tiny rice is key for space food</h2>



Dr. Del Bianco noted that the main challenge: crop size. Many dwarf rice types are still too large for space farming. “What we need is a super-dwarf, but this comes with its own challenges.”



“Dwarf varieties often come from the manipulation of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-astronauts-meals-lose-flavor-in-space/">plant</a> hormone called gibberellin, which can reduce the height of the plant, but this also creates problems for seed germination. They're not an ideal crop, because in space, you just don't have to be small, you must also be productive.”



Since space farming demands high-yield crops that are compact, scientists face the tough task of balancing plant size with productivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-united-efforts-for-innovation">United efforts for innovation</h2>



In addition to the Italian Space Agency, the research involved the work of experts from three Italian universities.



The <a href="https://www.unimi.it/en">University of Milan</a> has a strong background in rice genetics, the University of Rome ‘Sapienza’ specializes in crop physiology manipulation, and the University of Naples ‘Federico II’ has a rich heritage in space crop production.



“We started this four-year project nine months ago, so it’s very much a work in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-food-supply-transforming-co2-into-protein/">progress</a>, but the preliminary results we have now are really promising,” said Del Bianco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-rice-plants-with-more-protein">Tiny rice plants with more protein</h2>



Scientists at the University of Milan have discovered tiny rice varieties. These grow only 10 centimeters tall.



“Researchers at the University of Milan are isolating mutant rice varieties that can grow to just 10 cm high, so they’re really tiny and this is a great starting point,” said Del Bianco. “At the same time, Rome has identified genes that can alter the plant architecture to maximize production and growth efficiency.”



In addition to compactness, the team is enhancing rice protein levels. Meat production will not be practical in space, so protein-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/novel-stretchy-sensors-could-transform-space-farming/">crops</a> are vital.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-rice-plants-in-fake-gravity">Testing rice plants in fake gravity</h2>



According to Dr. Del Bianco, the team investigated how the rice plants would respond to microgravity. This type of research helps ensure the plants can survive space conditions.



“We simulate microgravity on Earth by continually rotating the plant so that the plant is pulled equally in all directions by gravity. Each side of the plant gets activated continuously and it doesn't know where the up and down is,” she said.



“It's the best we can do on Earth because, unfortunately, doing experiments in real microgravity conditions - i.e. in space - is complex and expensive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-food-helps-mental-health">Fresh food helps mental health</h2>



Fresh food does more than nourish the body. It also boosts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-illness-is-caused-by-the-whole-body-not-just-the-brain/">mental health.</a>



“Watching and guiding plants to grow is good for humans, and while pre-cooked or mushy food can be fine for a short period of time, it could become a concern for longer-duration missions,” said Del Bianco.



Astronauts need both physical and psychological support during their missions. Their health directly affects mission success. Mistakes in space can be costly or even deadly.



“If we can make an environment that physically and mentally nourishes the astronauts, it will reduce stress and lower the chances of people making mistakes. In space, the best case of a mistake is wasted money, and the worst case is the loss of lives,” said Del Bianco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-rice-could-help-farmers">Space rice could help farmers</h2>



The Moon-Rice project has benefits beyond space. It could help farmers on Earth too.



“If you can develop a robust crop for space, then it could be used at the Arctic and Antarctic poles, or in deserts, or places with only a small amount of indoor space available,” said Del Bianco.



The research will be presented at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society for Experimental Biology Annual Conference</a> in Antwerp, Belgium, on July 9, 2025.



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Tiny rice plants could help astronauts grow food in space

The dream of living beyond Earth demands fresh food far...

Silicon has run almost every computer processor for six decades, but engineers recognize that shrinking silicon components is nearing its physical limits. 



Experts are exploring quantum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-a-two-dimensional-carbon-material-eight-times-stronger-than-graphene/">materials</a>, which could offer entirely new ways to process and store information beyond the capabilities of silicon.



A new <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2407.07953v3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiment</a> shows that a single crystal of tantalum disulfide (<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2053-1583/aaa104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TaS2</a>) can toggle from an electrical insulator to a metal in picoseconds. 



This could lead to the development of computers and electronics that run 1,000 times faster compared to today’s best chips.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-quantum-switching-works">How quantum switching works</h2>



Alberto de la Torre of <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/">Northeastern University</a> and collaborators triggered the toggle through “thermal quenching.” This technique uses a swift heat pulse followed by an equally swift cooldown that forces the lattice across a sharp phase boundary.



The boundary lies within a family of quantum materials - solids where collective quantum rules govern electron motion instead of classical particle flow. These quantum effects let outside stimuli switch macroscopic properties almost instantly.



The team studied the layered compound <a href="https://2dsemiconductors.com/TaS2-Crystal-1T/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1T‑TaS₂</a>, heating it above 580°F, then cooling it at roughly 120°F per second. Domains of a hidden metallic phase froze next to the usual insulating domains, creating an electronic switch confined to one crystal.



X‑ray maps confirmed that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graphene-wonder-material-changing-the-world-is-officially-declared-safe-for-humans/">metallic</a> domains stay ordered up to 410°F for months - something previous laser‑driven attempts never achieved.



Measurements revealed that the metallic regions had electrons available to move around at the Fermi level, which is a key sign of electrical conductivity.



By comparison, nearby insulating areas still showed a gap where no electrons could move, which is typical of a Mott insulator. This confirmed that the differences between the regions were due to the material’s electronic structure - not random defects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-material-for-faster-computers">Quantum material for faster computers</h2>



Electrons in 1T‑TaS₂ self‑organize into a charge density wave, a periodic modulation of charge that usually locks the material into an insulating state.



A 2014 Science <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24723607/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> demonstrated that a femtosecond laser pulse could disrupt that modulation and reveal a “hidden” metallic state, though only for microseconds at cryogenic temperatures.



De la Torre’s thermal route extends the lifetime by twelve orders of magnitude and lifts the operating temperature by more than 350°F, removing the <a href="https://cryospain.com/superfluid-the-importance-of-liquid-helium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid‑helium</a> plumbing that once made the idea impractical.



Keeping both phases inside one crystal also eliminates the need for carefully matched interfaces, because the same atoms carry out either function depending on how they are cooled.



Researchers reviewing <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38518359/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDW physics</a> in atomically <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/natrevmats201733" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thin dichalcogenides</a> note that such intrinsic reconfigurability is valuable for next‑generation logic and memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-leap-in-chip-speed">Quantum leap in chip speed</h2>



“Processors work in gigahertz right now. The speed of change that this would enable would allow you to go to terahertz,” said de la Torre.&nbsp;



That boost comes from the fact that a lattice vibration can reverse the phase in femtoseconds, far faster than the tens of nanoseconds a silicon transistor needs to charge and discharge its gate capacitance.



“There’s nothing faster than light, and we’re using light to control material properties at essentially the fastest possible speed that’s allowed by physics,” said Gregory Fiete, professor of physics at Northeastern University.



Simulations of mixed photothermal stimuli show that steering the phase in 1T‑TaS₂ could support <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12095559/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optoelectronic logic</a> that responds in under two microseconds at 0.29 THz, already demonstrated in proof‑of‑concept circuits.



Even without optical assistance, electrical pulses as short as eight nanoseconds have induced the transition in thin‑film devices, suggesting that conventional wiring could still exploit the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-designed-material-is-light-as-foam-tough-as-steel/">effect</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-hurdles-to-faster-computers">Key hurdles to faster computers </h2>



The <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsphotonics.4c00124">thermal quench</a> was performed on flakes tens of microns thick, so engineers must verify that the mixed quantum state persists when the material is thinned to a few nanometers - the scale needed for chip stacking.



Repeated cycling could also drive domain walls to creep, slowly degrading the contrast between metallic and insulating pockets; <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10713631/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in‑operando cryogenic electron microscopy</a> has already observed defect‑driven drift during voltage pulsing.



Another hurdle is <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acsnano.9b02870" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joule self‑heating</a>, which might trigger unintended phase flips when current density rises. Modeling shows that careful substrate choice and pulse shaping can keep device temperatures below the critical threshold even at gigahertz repetition rates.



Finally, large-scale adoption will require a fabrication recipe compatible with back-end-of-line temperatures. 



Researchers are exploring chemical vapor deposition routes that deposit stoichiometric <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360319924056702">TaS₂</a> below 840°F, comfortably inside standard process windows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-computers-that-use-less-energy">Faster computers that use less energy</h2>



Physicists are now mapping the free-energy landscape of competing phases in 1T‑TaS₂. They hope to tune the balance with strain, electrostatic gating, or chemical substitution - a strategy predicted to widen the stability window of the metallic domains.



Device architects envision stacking several dichalcogenide layers, each phase programmed independently. This approach could build three-dimensional arrays of ultrafast, non-volatile bits that couple directly to photonic waveguides, reducing data movement energy.



If those prototypes scale, logic blocks could reach a trillion cycles per second while drawing only a fraction of the power used by today’s computer processors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-quantum-materials-could-lead">Where quantum materials could lead</h2>



Ultrafast phase control in layered dichalcogenides feeds into the wider effort to program material properties with light, pressure, or electric field on demand, a trend chronicled in recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41377-024-01380-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reviews</a> of nanoscale light-matter engineering.



Such dynamic tuning could link the 1T‑TaS₂ switch to qubits, terahertz antennas, or neuromorphic synapses, letting one crystal act as memory, logic, and communication element without extra interconnect layers.



Researchers also believe that this mix of metallic and insulating regions will help test fundamental ideas in nonequilibrium physics.



 If engineers can overcome the integration challenges, they could create heterogeneous stacks that deliver server-class performance in handheld modules, using far less power and enabling faster, more efficient computers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2407.07953v3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Physics</a>.



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Quantum material discovery could make all electronics 1,000 times faster

Silicon has run almost every computer processor for six decades,...

It’s easy to assume that when fish hang still in the water, they’re taking a break. After all, they look motionless - just calmly suspended in place. But new research shows that this “hovering” is actually a demanding task that takes more effort than resting.



The study comes from scientists at the University of California San Diego’s <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>. It focused on how fish manage to stay still in open water without sinking or drifting away.



The team found that fish burn nearly twice as much energy while hovering as they do when resting on the tank floor. That means what looks like rest is really anything but.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-stillness-in-fish">Rethinking stillness in fish</h2>



Most bony fish have swim bladders - gas-filled sacs that help them stay neutrally buoyant, which make them neither float upward nor sink. 



Because of this, researchers once thought that hovering was easy. But the new findings challenge that idea.



The scientists studied 13 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/">fish species</a> with swim bladders. Each fish was placed in a special tank where its oxygen use was recorded during two behaviors: resting on the bottom and hovering midwater. 



At the same time, high-speed cameras captured every fin twitch and tail flick.



The team also measured body features like the shape of the fish and the position of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fins-and-limbs-share-a-deep-evolutionary-history/">fins</a>. One key measurement was the distance between the fish’s center of mass and center of buoyancy. 



These don’t always align. That small misalignment creates instability, which the fish must constantly correct.



“Hovering is a bit like trying to balance on a bicycle that’s not moving,” said Valentina Di Santo, an assistant professor at UC San Diego and study author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-drains-fish-energy">Stability drains fish energy</h2>



Because of the mismatch between mass and buoyancy, hovering fish have to work against the natural tendency to roll, tilt, or drift. 



The more misaligned those centers are, the more energy the fish burns trying to stay still. That constant effort means hovering is far from restful.



“What struck me was how superbly all these fishes maintain a stable posture, despite their intrinsic instability,” said Di Santo.



Fish with more compact, deeper bodies like goldfish or pufferfish were better at hovering efficiently. In contrast, longer, thinner fish - like giant danios or shell dwellers - had to work harder. 



Fin position also played a role. Fish with pectoral fins placed farther back on their bodies generally hovered more efficiently. The researchers believe this may be due to improved leverage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goldfish-have-an-edge">Goldfish have an edge</h2>



“This changes how we see hovering. It’s not a form of rest at all,” said Di Santo. “It’s an energetically costly activity but one that fish engage in anyway because it can be very useful.”



Fish may hover when guarding a nest, feeding in a specific spot, or holding their place in fast-moving water. These tasks require them to stay stable in one position, even when it’s exhausting. 



The study also pointed out a trade-off. Fish with shapes that give them greater control and agility often burn more energy while hovering. Meanwhile, more stable shapes are less agile.



But that trade-off may be worth it. Being able to move nimbly through coral reefs or complex underwater environments is key to survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-inspire-robot-design">Fish inspire robot design</h2>



The findings could also influence the next generation of underwater vehicles. Most robots today are built to be stable. But like fish, that stability may limit their agility.



“By studying how fish achieve this balance, we can gain powerful design principles for building more efficient, responsive underwater technologies,” said Di Santo.



For engineers, this could mean building in a bit of instability and designing systems that, like fins, actively correct for it. 



Doing so could allow underwater robots to better explore tight or cluttered environments, such as coral reefs or wreck sites.



“If you want a robot that can maneuver through tight spaces, you might have to learn from these fishes to design in some instability and then add systems that can dynamically maintain stability when needed,” said Di Santo.



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Fish don’t rest while hovering - it's actually hard work

It’s easy to assume that when fish hang still in...

Horses are helping fill a major gap in mental health care for children. With long waitlists and limited success from traditional talk therapy, many kids are still falling through the cracks. 



For some, sitting in a therapist’s office just doesn’t work. But therapy sessions held outdoors, with horses as part of the team, are starting to make a real difference.



A recent study from the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> shows that equine-assisted therapy is shifting the way social workers support children. The research highlights the experiences of ten professionals already using horses to connect with kids in powerful ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-horse-therapy-in-nature">Horse therapy in nature</h2>



Equine-assisted interventions (EAI) are a form of therapy that brings children and horses together in natural, outdoor settings. 



The sessions are led by trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-reduces-depression-and-anxiety-in-children-and-teens-with-mental-health-issues/">mental health</a> professionals working alongside experienced equine practitioners. And the results, according to those involved, can be transformative.



The study found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supportive-adults-help-protect-children-from-mental-health-issues/">children</a> often connect more easily in this environment than they do in traditional therapy rooms. The calm of nature, the presence of horses, and the physical space to move and breathe - these all contribute to a sense of safety and openness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-trust-horses">Children trust horses</h2>



Morgyn Stacy, a University of South Australia Social Work graduate who led the study as part of her Honors project, noted that conventional talk therapy doesn’t work for every child.



“But give them the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nature-heals-outdoor-activities-greatly-improve-mental-health/">space</a> to be outside, to connect with a horse, and something powerful happens. They begin to feel safe, calm, and ready to open up,” noted Stacy.



The connection doesn’t happen by chance. Horses are naturally sensitive to human emotions and body language. 



The horses reflect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/words-shape-how-our-brains-process-feelings-and-guide-decisions/">feelings</a> of the child standing next to them. This mirroring effect can help children understand and manage their emotions in ways they haven’t before.



One practitioner in the study described the experience as “being seen through the eyes of a horse,” a kind of connection that can shift something deep inside a child.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extended-benefits-of-horse-therapy">Extended benefits of horse therapy</h2>



Therapists working in these settings don’t just use the horses - they also use the land. Sessions might include walking barefoot in sand, noticing animal tracks, or standing quietly with a horse. These simple activities help children feel grounded and present.



"The benefits go beyond mental health," said Stacy. "Children often gain confidence, improve communication skills, and build stronger emotional resilience."



Some kids even come in afraid of horses. Therapists help them work through those fears by matching them with the right animal. And when a child overcomes that fear, it becomes a confidence boost they can carry into other areas of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-horses-can-help-kids-with-trauma">Horses can help kids with trauma</h2>



Dr. Fatin Shabbar, a senior researcher at the University of South Australia and a qualified social worker, said this approach can be especially helpful for children who have experienced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-can-cause-physical-pain-in-late-life/">trauma</a>, such as those in the child protection system.



"Practitioners in the study described deeply moving examples of children bonding with horses in ways that sparked emotional breakthroughs where other therapies had failed," said Dr. Shabbar.



But this kind of therapy isn’t widely available. It costs a lot to care for horses and maintain rural therapy spaces. Without funding support - from programs like the NDIS or child protection services - many families just can’t afford it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-recognition-and-guidelines">Need for recognition and guidelines</h2>



Despite its potential, equine-assisted therapy still faces major roadblocks. The absence of national standards in Australia means there's no consistent guarantee of practitioner training - raising serious concerns about the safety of both children and animals.



"Another concern is the lack of regulation in Australia," said Dr. Shabbar. "Without clear guidelines, unqualified practitioners may offer equine-assisted services without appropriate training, which puts both children and the animals at risk."



Even highly qualified professionals face an uphill battle. The therapy isn’t formally recognized as evidence-based in many settings.



"This research shows that equine-assisted therapy can be a deeply healing experience. But for it to reach more children, we need formal recognition, ethical guidelines and proper funding," noted the authors of the study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-what-healing-looks-like">Rethinking what healing looks like</h2>



This study isn’t just about horses. It’s about expanding how we think about healing. It’s about listening to the people on the ground - therapists, social workers, and most importantly, the kids - who are saying that there’s another way to do things.



With the right support, equine-assisted therapy could become more than a niche offering. It could become a trusted option for children who need something different, something real, and something that works.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02650533.2025.2495741">Journal of Social Work Practice</a>.



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Therapy horses are helping children heal from trauma

Horses are helping fill a major gap in mental health...

While age may bring wisdom for people, it appears to bring peril for white-lined sphinx moths. A recent field study shows that birds, rodents, and other predators are far more likely to peck, bite, or maul these insects once they emerge from the pupal stage and spread their wings.



Led by the <a href="https://www.utep.edu/">University of Texas at El Paso</a> (UTEP), the research lends experimental weight to a long-standing evolutionary idea. Complete metamorphosis may protect youthful stages from predation, allowing individuals to reach reproductive maturity before facing the most dangerous chapter of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillars-versus-adult-moths">Caterpillars versus adult moths</h2>



Biologist Brett Seymoure, principal investigator and assistant professor at UTEP, studies holometabolous insects - species that pass through egg, larva, pupa, and adult phases.



The prevailing theory suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">larvae</a> enjoy a relative sanctuary from predators, giving them a chance to grow before adulthood brings mobility, exposure, and heightened risk.



“There are multiple hypotheses about why these insects go through so many stages before reaching adulthood,” Seymoure said.



“Our research set out to test the prediction that caterpillars are less likely to be attacked by predators, enabling the insect to survive to adulthood and reproduce before it has to face the most dangerous part of its life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-life-sized-decoys">Creating life-sized decoys</h2>



Directly observing countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predator-prey-feast-ever-seen-in-the-ocean-enormous-quickly-altered-food-chain/">predator attacks</a> on real moths would be impractical. Instead, graduate student and lead author Braulio Alexis Sanchez created convincing clay replicas of both caterpillars and adult moths.



To mimic the wing patterns of Hyles lineata accurately, he printed photographs on special paper calibrated for precise color matching, then attached the wings to the clay bodies. 



Because clay records punctures and impressions, each model would serve as a forensic logbook, revealing encounters with sharp beaks or probing mandibles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-meet-predators-in-texas">Moths meet predators in Texas</h2>



The team installed pairs of decoys - one caterpillar, one adult - on creosote bushes scattered across the rugged Indio Mountains Research Station in West Texas, a property managed by UTEP. 



Spacing the models closely ensured they faced identical environmental conditions. Over three consecutive days, researchers visited sites at dawn and dusk, inspecting every replica for new damage, counting beak marks, tooth gouges, or missing segments.



“Out of 70 replicas that were attacked, 50 were adults and 20 were caterpillars, and most of the attack marks were consistent with birds,” noted Sanchez.



In other words, adult-shaped models were assaulted two and a half times more often than larval shapes. Because both forms were equally available to predators, the data point toward active selection: visually oriented hunters seemed to prefer the adult silhouette.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predators-prefer-winged-moths">Predators prefer winged moths</h2>



The results bolster the notion that larval life provides a safer developmental window. If predation focused primarily on caterpillars, populations might struggle to produce enough breeding adults.



“If moths in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-inherit-food-preferences-through-their-blood/">caterpillar</a> stage were more heavily attacked, it would be much more difficult for moths to reach adulthood and reproduce,” Seymoure noted. 



Instead, the danger spikes only when the moth takes wing - precisely when reproduction becomes possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-reminder-of-insect-importance"><a></a>A reminder of insect importance</h2>



Beyond theoretical interest, the study highlights insects’ ecological centrality. As Sanchez put it, “Without insects, there are no humans, trees, or plants.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">Insects</a> pollinate crops, decompose organic matter, seed food webs, and cycle nutrients. Yet global surveys report worrying declines. 



Understanding at what life stage insects are most vulnerable can inform habitat management, pesticide timing, and conservation priorities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-moth-s-predators">Identifying the moth's predators</h2>



While bite impressions suggested birds were the main culprits, the researchers plan to broaden their surveillance.



Nocturnal moth predators - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frog-mating-calls-teach-bats-which-prey-to-avoid/">bats</a>, rodents, even wandering spiders - might attack under cover of darkness. 



Motion-activated cameras, night-vision optics, and ultrasonic detectors could capture real-time predation events and complement the static clay evidence.



The Chihuahuan Desert hosts unique avian assemblages and sparse vegetation, potentially exaggerating visual hunting cues. To test generality, Seymoure’s team hopes to replicate experiments in woodland, grassland, and urban settings, and with different moth species.



If adult-biased predation proves universal, it would underscore metamorphosis as a widespread risk-management strategy in insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maturity-invites-greater-danger">Maturity invites greater danger</h2>



Complete metamorphosis remains one of evolution’s most ingenious inventions, separating growth and reproduction into distinct anatomical phases.



The new findings suggest an additional benefit: by bottling youth within a relatively inconspicuous caterpillar, nature minimizes early-life losses. 



Once it stockpiles resources and unfurls its wings, the adult embarks on the perilous business of mating and dispersal. For Hyles lineata, growing older quite literally means stepping into the firing line.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focusing-on-climate-and-scent">Focusing on climate and scent</h2>



Future studies may integrate chemical cues - some predators use scent rather than sight - or assess how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/">climate change</a> alters predator-prey dynamics.



For now, the clay decoys at Indio Mountains recount a simple story: in the desert sky, an adult moth is a conspicuous, protein-rich morsel, while a plump caterpillar clinging to creosote is more likely to pass unnoticed. 



Age, it seems, is more than just a number for these shapeshifting insects; it marks the difference between relative safety and a sudden, predatory strike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4450/16/4/347">Insects</a>.



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Why predators attack adult moths instead of caterpillars

While age may bring wisdom for people, it appears to...

Gender dynamics among primates have long fascinated both scientists and the public. Many people assume that male dominance over females is natural across primates, a belief that also shapes how we think about human gender roles. However, a new study challenges this view. 



Conducted by researchers from the University of Montpellier, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and the <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=German+Primate+Center&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Primate Center</a>, the work sheds light on the surprising flexibility of power relations among primates.



The findings reveal that neither male nor female dominance is universal. Instead, power shifts depend on factors such as ecology, reproductive strategies, and social structures. The study spans 253 populations from 121 primate species, making it the largest of its kind.



The results call for a reconsideration of our assumptions - not only about other primates but also about ourselves. The study highlights how gendered power dynamics emerge through complex, evolving interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-power-matters-in-primates">Why power matters in primates</h2>



The researchers examined patterns of aggression between males and females in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">primates</a>. They discovered that nearly half of all aggressive encounters occur between opposite sexes.



This finding contrasts with previous studies that focused mostly on same-sex competition. These older views assumed that males and females compete for different resources, leading to separate social hierarchies.



“The observation that, in most populations, any given individual is more likely to be involved in a fight against another individual of the opposite rather than the same sex highlights that the battle of the sexes is common in other animals,” said Dieter Lukas from the Max Planck Institute.



The researchers then studied the outcomes of these conflicts to identify whether males or females tend to dominate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-male-dominance-is-rare-in-primates">Male dominance is rare in primates</h2>



Traditionally, many assumed that male dominance is the default in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughter-lifts-bonobo-moods-offering-clues-to-human-emotion/">primate</a> societies. Iconic cases like female-dominant bonobos or lemurs were seen as rare exceptions.



Yet this study revealed a more complex picture. Among the 151 primate populations with quantitative data, only 17 percent showed strict male dominance. In comparison, 13 percent showed strict female dominance.



The remaining 70 percent of populations displayed moderate or no clear dominance by either sex. 



“Recent research started to challenge the traditional views of male dominance being the default status, and our study now provides a more comprehensive exploration of variation in intersexual dominance relationships," noted Peter Kappeler from the German Primate Center.



The research marks a major shift from old assumptions, showing that rigid male dominance is far less common than once believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-female-primates-take-charge">When female primates take charge</h2>



To explain these varied outcomes, the researchers tested five hypotheses. The strongest support emerged for the reproductive control hypothesis.



In species where females gain more control over reproduction, they are more likely to dominate socially as well. This pattern appears in species that are monogamous, arboreal, or where males and females are similar in size.



In such species, females can often reject male advances. They also tend to live in environments that allow them to avoid physical coercion.



Female dominance also flourishes in societies with high female-female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/">competition</a>. This includes pair-living or solitary species where females are territorial and fiercely guard resources.



Interestingly, female dominance often coincides with low sexual dimorphism, short periods of sexual receptivity, and balanced sex ratios within groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-male-primates-keep-power">Where male primates keep power</h2>



Conversely, male-biased dominance typically appears in terrestrial, polygynous species with high sexual dimorphism. In these societies, males dominate through sheer physical power.



“Critically, while primate males gain power via physical force and coercion, female empowerment relies on alternative pathways, such as reproductive strategies to gain control over matings,” noted Elise Huchard from the <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Montpellier</a>.



This pattern often involves larger male body size, specialized weapons like large canines, and polygynous mating systems. Terrestrial species are especially prone to this male-dominated structure, as females have fewer opportunities to escape or resist male control.



The findings reveal that the ecological context - whether arboreal or terrestrial - shapes the way power is exercised.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-power-shifts-within-primates">Female power shifts within primates</h2>



One striking discovery is that dominance patterns often vary within a species. The study revealed wide-ranging variation in female dominance across different populations of the same species.



For example, in bonobos, females win between 48 percent and 79 percent of contests with males, depending on the group. Other species show similar variation, proving that social dynamics can shift based on local conditions.



Some species even display all three dominance types - female-biased, male-biased, and neutral - across different groups.



The researchers also noted a clear link between evolutionary history and dominance patterns. Great apes and African and Asian monkeys tend to show male-biased dominance, while lemurs and lorises frequently show female dominance. New World monkeys often fall somewhere in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-and-female-dominance">Competition and female dominance </h2>



Another major finding comes from testing the female competition hypothesis. The study found that species with intense female-female competition often show female-biased dominance.



Such competition appears frequently in pair-living or solitary species where females exclude rivals from resources. Female dominance also tends to emerge in stable social groups where female conflicts over food are common.



Interestingly, ecological harshness and environmental unpredictability were not strong predictors of female dominance, despite past claims to the contrary.



Instead, social structure and mating systems - such as group stability and reproductive strategies - emerged as stronger influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-parenting-and-primate-power">Female parenting and primate power</h2>



The study also explored the offspring safety hypothesis, which links dominance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutan-mothers-have-unique-parenting-styles-like-humans/">parenting</a> strategies. It found that female-biased dominance is more common in species where mothers park their young rather than carrying them constantly.



Species with shorter lactation periods and lower risks of male-inflicted infanticide also tend to show greater female dominance. These traits reduce the cost of engaging in risky conflicts with males.



Interestingly, allomaternal care, where other group members help care for infants, also plays a role in shaping power dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-and-female-dominance">Social bonds and female dominance </h2>



Researchers also tested whether female social bonds, such as coalition formation, explain female dominance. Their findings showed only limited support for this idea.



While female philopatry - where females remain in their birth group - was linked to greater female dominance, this pattern was not strongly tied to coalition formation.



This challenges theories that female alliances drive dominance in species like bonobos. The authors suggest that in many cases, sex-biased dispersal may be a result of dominance structures rather than their cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-view-of-power-and-evolution">New view of power and evolution</h2>



The findings offer a profound shift in how we think about male and female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">primates</a> - and humans - by revealing that dominance is not fixed by nature but shaped by many intertwined factors.



Female power often emerges through reproductive strategies, social competition, and ecological flexibility. Male dominance, on the other hand, typically relies on brute force, physical coercion, and ecological constraints.



By showing that female dominance is neither rare nor accidental, this research opens the door to new ways of thinking about gender roles. 



Ultimately, the study highlights that both male and female dominance can emerge through different routes, depending on specific ecological and social pressures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2500405122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Female dominance in primates is more common than we thought

Gender dynamics among primates have long fascinated both scientists and...

Insects are being harmed by a fungicide sprayed on fruits and vegetables - even at levels that are considered safe. 



A new study from <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macquarie University</a> reveals that the chemical chlorothalonil, which is used globally to prevent fungal disease, is damaging insect fertility and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-fungicide-on-fruit-flies">Testing the fungicide on fruit flies</h2>



Researchers at Macquarie’s School of Natural Sciences tested the effects of chlorothalonil on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/">fruit flies</a>, a common insect model used in labs. Fruit flies are representative of a large number of similar insect species in the wild.



The team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-first-time-scientists-have-genetically-engineered-virgin-births/">Drosophila melanogaster</a>, known as the common fruit fly or vinegar fly. Unlike pests that target crops, these flies feed on rotting fruit. They play an important role in breaking down waste and recycling nutrients on farms and in orchards.



“D. melanogaster is also at the bottom of the food chain, becoming food for a whole lot of other species,” said Ph.D. candidate Darshika Dissawa, lead author of the research paper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-decline-in-insect-fertility">A surprising decline in insect fertility</h2>



The experiment exposed fruit fly larvae to chlorothalonil at levels that match what’s found on real agricultural produce, such as cranberries and wine grapes. What they found shocked the team.



“Even the very lowest concentration has a huge impact on the reproduction of the flies that we tested,” said Dissawa. “This can have a big knock-on population impact over time because it affects both male and female fertility.”



Flies exposed to the chemical showed a 37% drop in egg production at maturity, compared to those that were not exposed.



“We expected the effect to increase far more gradually with higher amounts. But we found that even a very small amount can have a strong negative effect,” noted Professor Fleur Ponton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungicide-still-in-use-despite-risks">Fungicide still in use, despite risks</h2>



Chlorothalonil is <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-9-2024-000263_EN.html">banned</a> in the European Union. But in Australia, it’s still sprayed widely to stop fungal diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disease-attacking-blueberry-plants-is-spreading-around-the-world/">mildew</a> and leaf blight.



Residue from this fungicide has been found in soils and water near farms. On food, the levels can range from almost zero to 460 milligrams per kilogram.



“Chlorothalonil is particularly common in orchards and vineyards, and is often used preventatively when no disease is present,” explained Professor Ponton. 



“People assume <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-birds-are-significantly-threatened-by-vineyard-fungicides/">fungicides</a> like chlorothalonil only impact fungal diseases, but they can have devastating, unintended consequences for other species,” she stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungicide-fuels-insect-decline">Fungicide fuels insect decline </h2>



The study revealed that chlorothalonil exposure during the larval stage caused major reproductive issues in the adult flies.



Female flies were smaller, had fewer egg-producing structures, and laid far fewer eggs. Male flies had lower iron levels, which can interfere with sperm production and other metabolic functions.



The researchers also checked whether the flies were avoiding the contaminated food. They weren’t.



“We didn’t find a significant aversion for food contaminated with chlorothalonil, except when there was a very high concentration of the chemical,” explained Professor Ponton. “This means the impacts are due to chlorothalonil ingestion.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-on-insect-pollinators">Effects on insect pollinators</h2>



In agricultural settings where whole crops are treated with fungicides, insects like flies and bees have no way to avoid the chemicals. This creates a larger problem for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-plant-has-some-unlikely-allies-for-pollination-and-seed-dispersal/">pollination</a>, ecosystem stability, and food production.



“We need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bees-value-quality-over-quantity-in-flower-selection/">bees</a> and flies and other beneficial insects for pollination, and we think this is an important problem for pollinator populations,” said Professor Ponton. “There is a strong commercial incentive to understand the impact in the field and address the use of this chemical.”



Despite the widespread use of <a href="https://www.publiceye.ch/en/topics/pesticides/chlorothalonil-a-banned-pesticide-exported-from-europe">chlorothalonil</a>, there's a surprising lack of research into how it affects insects. Fewer than 25 scientific studies have examined this - far too few, considering the global decline in insect numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-smarter-farming">A call for smarter farming</h2>



The team behind the study says it’s time to rethink how fungicides are used in agriculture. Reducing the frequency of spraying could give insect populations a chance to recover. But that requires more research.



“We need field trials to explore options and develop evidence-based guidelines to consider the knock-on effects of fungicides on beneficial insects,” said Professor Ponton.



Next, the researchers will study whether these reproductive problems are passed on to future generations. 



The team also plans to investigate what happens when insects are exposed to combinations of chemicals - something that’s far more common in real-world farming.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.250136" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How crop protection is fueling the global decline of insects

Insects are being harmed by a fungicide sprayed on fruits...

Pollinators are vital for the natural world. They help plants reproduce, support food webs, and sustain ecosystems. Among them, honey bees hold a special place. 



Honey bees are widely celebrated for their role in agriculture and are often seen as environmental heroes. However, their growing presence in places where they are not native raises new concerns.



Southern California is a well-known biodiversity hotspot. It is home to hundreds of native pollinator species. But this unique region now faces a quiet threat. 



Feral honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">bees</a>, thriving outside human control, have begun to dominate pollination networks here. Their influence extends far beyond what most people realize.



A new study from <a href="https://ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> sheds light on this issue. The research uncovers how honey bees, despite their benefits, may unintentionally harm native pollinators. The findings challenge common perceptions and bring attention to a growing ecological conflict.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-outcompete-native-pollinators">Honey bees outcompete native pollinators </h2>



Honey bees are highly effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bumble-bees-are-sabotaging-their-own-health/">pollinators</a>. They have been introduced worldwide to support crop production. In the U.S., they are responsible for pollinating crops that contribute billions of dollars to the economy each year.



Their ability to communicate allows them to locate and exploit floral resources efficiently. They share information about flower locations with their colony mates, which makes them powerful foragers. Unlike most native bees, honey bees live in large colonies that work together to gather resources.



Because of their efficiency, honey bees outcompete many native bees. They can strip flowers of pollen and nectar quickly. 



Studies show that in Southern California, honey bees now represent nearly 90% of all bees visiting flowers. This leaves little for the region’s diverse native bee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-dangers-threaten-the-survival-of-bees-and-pollinators/">species</a>, which rely on the same resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scale-of-the-honey-bee-invasion">Scale of the honey bee invasion</h2>



The study found that honey bees now make up 98% of total bee biomass in Southern California’s scrublands. This is not just about numbers. Honey bees are much larger than most native bees in this region. Their dominance extends both in terms of individuals and body size.



One reason for this imbalance is the honey bees' remarkable ability to remove pollen. The research showed that honey bees can remove up to 80% of pollen from flowers within just one day. 



In experiments, just two visits by honey bees stripped over 60% of pollen from flowers of native plants like black sage, white sage, and distant phacelia.



Such high pollen removal rates mean that other bees have far fewer resources left. Native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-bee-species-face-extinction-due-to-honey-bee-competition/">bees</a>, many of which are solitary and less efficient foragers, simply cannot compete at this scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-and-pollen-resources">Honey bees and pollen resources </h2>



Pollen is critical for bee reproduction. Bees collect pollen to feed their larvae. When honey bees take most of the pollen, native bees struggle to raise their young.



The study estimated the daily impact of honey bees on pollen resources. In one hectare of habitat, honey bees removed enough pollen each day to potentially raise hundreds to thousands of native bees. 



Over an entire bloom season, this could result in the loss of tens of thousands of potential native bee offspring.



This finding is alarming. It highlights how honey bees, though often viewed positively, may reduce native bee populations by monopolizing food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-larger-bees-face-greater-risks">Larger bees face greater risks</h2>



Interestingly, larger native bees appear to be most affected. The study found that only a tiny fraction of native bees were larger than honey bees. Bumble bees, for instance, made up just 0.1% of all bees observed.



Larger bees generally require more pollen to raise their offspring. When honey bees deplete resources, these species may be pushed out first.



“Although honey bees are rightly considered an indispensable asset to humans, they can also pose a serious ecological threat to natural ecosystems where they are not native,” said Hung.



The loss of large bees could also reduce the effectiveness of pollination. These bees tend to carry more pollen per visit, which benefits many plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-vs-native-pollinators">Honey bees vs. native pollinators</h2>



The damage does not stop with bees. The study also highlights that honey bee pollination leads to poorer plant offspring quality compared to native bee pollination.



This happens because honey bees often visit many flowers on the same plant before moving to another. This behavior increases the chances of self-pollination, which can lead to inbreeding depression in plants.



Such effects could ripple through ecosystems. Plants that rely on native bees for effective pollination may see lower reproduction rates. This could further degrade habitats that native bees and other wildlife depend on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-spread-of-feral-honey-bees">The spread of feral honey bees </h2>



Feral honey bee colonies are not just an issue in Southern California. These bees have spread worldwide and often outnumber managed colonies.



They thrive in many ecosystems and are difficult to remove once established. Unlike managed bees, feral colonies are self-sustaining and active year-round.



The study points out that feral honey bees have even replaced native bees in other regions. In the southwestern United States, they are increasingly common on both abundant and rare plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-conservation-priorities">Rethinking conservation priorities</h2>



Many people remain unaware of the negative effects of honey bees on native wildlife. Public concern tends to focus on protecting honey bees from disease and habitat loss.



Yet, the study’s authors warn that in North America, honey bees often act as competitors, not conservation targets.



“The plight of the honey bee is an issue of animal husbandry and livestock management, whereas when it comes to conservation issues here in North America, honey bees are likelier to be part of the problem, not a solution or a target for conservation,” said Hung.



This statement challenges common assumptions. It suggests a need for more balanced conservation strategies that consider native pollinators too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-toward-potential-solutions">Steps toward potential solutions</h2>



Managing honey bee populations in sensitive areas may help. The researchers suggest limiting commercial beekeeping on public lands after crop blooms end.



“In areas with threatened bee species, natural preserve managers may also want to consider systematic removals or relocations of non-native honey bee colonies to provide wild bees a fighting chance,” said Hung.



Though such measures may seem extreme, they are not unprecedented. Many conservation programs already target invasive species to protect native wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bees-harming-native-life">Honey bees harming native life</h2>



The study reveals a hidden layer of the pollination crisis. Honey bees, often seen as ecological heroes, can create serious problems in certain ecosystems.



As more people become aware of this issue, discussions around pollinator conservation may shift. Future efforts must balance the needs of agriculture with the importance of protecting native species.



The story of honey bees in Southern California serves as a reminder. Even well-known species can become a threat when removed from their native contexts.



Protecting biodiversity requires seeing the full picture, even when it challenges popular beliefs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/icad.12858" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect Conservation and Diversity</a>.



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Honey bee invasion: A growing threat to native pollinators

Pollinators are vital for the natural world. They help plants...

Coral reefs are in trouble. As oceans warm and environments shift, the vibrant ecosystems built by corals are turning pale and dying off. 



While scientists have known for years that coral bleaching is linked to the loss of symbiotic algae, they’ve never been able to watch the process unfold at the cellular level in realtime - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-microscope-for-studying-coral">Underwater microscope for studying coral</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/">Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego</a> have created a handheld underwater microscope. The device makes it possible to study coral photosynthesis right where it happens - in the ocean, inside living coral tissue - without causing any damage.



The team named the device the Benthic Underwater Microscope imaging PAM - BUMP, for short.



The Jaffe Lab for Underwater Imaging at Scripps Oceanography built the microscope with support from the U.S. National Science Foundation.



The tool combines imaging with a light-based technique known as pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorometry to measure how efficiently tiny algae inside corals are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-fate-of-coral-reefs-lies-in-the-hands-of-their-tiny-inhabitants/">photosynthesizing</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-depends-on-glowing-algae">Coral depends on glowing algae</h2>



The algae, called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiosis-will-help-some-corals-survive-in-a-warming-world/">symbionts</a>, are essential for coral survival. They live within coral tissue and convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into sugars and oxygen.



The coral, in turn, uses that energy to grow and build reefs. But when stressed by warming seas or pollution, corals eject these algae. Without them, corals appear white and slowly starve - known as the bleaching effect.



The BUMP microscope makes it possible to monitor this relationship in real-time and in natural environments - something that couldn’t be done before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-huge-technological-leap">A huge technological leap</h2>



“This microscope is a huge technological leap in the field of coral health assessment,” said study lead author Or Ben-Zvi, a postdoctoral researcher at Scripps Oceanography. 



“Coral reefs are rapidly declining, losing their photosynthetic symbiotic algae in the process known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-coral-bleaching-event-is-now-underway/">coral bleaching</a>."



"We now have a tool that allows us to examine these microalgae within the coral tissue, noninvasively and in their natural environment.”



The microscope is small enough to fit in a carry-on suitcase. It’s light enough for a diver to bring to the seafloor without a ship’s help. 



Controlled with a touchscreen and powered by a battery pack, the microscope uses focused LED lights and high-magnification lenses to capture vivid images and videos. It also creates detailed 3D scans and maps photosynthesis in high resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscope-reveals-corals-inner-glow">Microscope reveals corals’ inner glow</h2>



At just 10 micrometers wide - one-tenth the width of a human hair - coral symbionts are invisible to the naked eye. But when corals are viewed under the microscope, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/">algae</a> glow red due to chlorophyll, the pigment that powers <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/">photosynthesis</a>. 



PAM technology measures this glow to calculate how efficiently the algae are converting light into energy. Other glowing areas, like cyan and green patches, come from fluorescent proteins that the coral produces, often around its mouth and tentacles. 



The images help researchers “see” coral health without touching or harming them. "We get a lot of information about their health without the need to interrupt nature,” said Ben-Zvi. 



“It's similar to a nurse who takes your pulse and tells you how well you're doing. We're checking the coral's pulse without giving them a shot or doing an intrusive procedure on them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-corals-at-unseen-scales">Observing corals at unseen scales</h2>



Ben-Zvi and her colleagues tested the microscope at coral hotspots around the world - including Hawaii, the Red Sea, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/">Palmyra Atoll</a> - in collaboration with the Smith Lab at Scripps Oceanography. 



What they saw surprised them. Corals weren’t passive. They moved constantly, changing shape, reacting to particles, and even behaving in ways that looked like fighting or kissing.



Ben-Zvi observed coral polyps contracting their tentacles, possibly trying to remove or capture something floating by.



“The more time we spend with this microscope, the more we hope to learn about corals and why they do what they do under certain conditions,” she said. 



“We are visualizing photosynthesis, something that was previously unseen at the scales we are examining, and that feels like magic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-detection-of-coral-stress">Early detection of coral stress</h2>



Corals face serious threats from climate change, and once bleaching begins, it can be hard to stop. But this microscope might help researchers catch problems earlier.



“The microscope facilitates previously unavailable, underwater observations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral health</a>, a breakthrough made possible thanks to the National Science Foundation and its critical investment in technology development,” said Jules Jaffe, a research oceanographer at Scripps and co-author of the study. 



Without continued federal funding, scientific research is at risk. In this case, however, support from <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">NSF</a> enabled the team to build a device that helps solve the physiological mystery of coral bleaching and, ultimately, inform efforts to reverse it.



By detecting signs of stress before the coral reaches the tipping point, the researchers hope to create better strategies for protecting reefs from events like marine heatwaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-kelp-and-ocean-algae">Studying kelp and ocean algae</h2>



The potential doesn’t stop with corals. Scientists at Scripps Oceanography are already using the BUMP microscope to study other tiny marine life that rely on photosynthesis, including baby kelp off the coast of California.



“Since photosynthesis in the ocean is important for life on earth, a host of other applications are imaginable with this tool, including right here off the coast of San Diego,” said Jaffe.



In short, the BUMP microscope gives scientists something they’ve never had before: a new way to look at life underwater - close up, in motion, and alive. And with this new perspective, scientists are hoping to find better ways to protect some of the most fragile ecosystems on the planet.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/2041-210X.70078">Methods in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



About the image: The photo features the coral&nbsp;Stylophora pistillata&nbsp;taken with the new micrsope, BUMP. Each polyp has a mouth and a set of tentacles, and the red dots are individual microalgae residing inside the coral tissue. Credit: Or Ben-Zvi



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Microscope reveals coral health in unprecedented detail

Coral reefs are in trouble. As oceans warm and environments...

Indian,Senior,Woman,Have,Sensitive,Teeth,With,Ice,Lolly,Or

For most of us, teeth mean crunching pretzels or tearing steak. But a new fossil analysis suggests their first job was feeling the world, not shredding it.



“What good is having all these teeth on the outside?” asked Yara Haridy of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, lead author of the study. Using high‑energy scans, researchers found that the earliest tooth‑like bumps sat on fish skin and were wired for sensation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-began-as-skin-sensors">Teeth began as skin sensors</h2>



These skin teeth, known as <a href="https://www.morphosource.org/projects/000626244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odontode units</a>, appear in Eriptychius fossils from the middle <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/ordovician/ordovician.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ordovician Period</a>, roughly 460 million years ago. 



Slicing the fossils reveals thick bands of <a href="https://www.drbicuspid.com/clinical/imaging-cad-cam/article/15747523/fossil-scans-of-ancient-fish-may-explain-modernday-tooth-sensitivity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dentine</a>, the same pain‑transmitting material that still lies beneath human enamel.



Each odontode contains a pulp <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/">cavity</a> and wide tubules that open at the surface, a layout ideal for detecting pressure or temperature shifts. By contrast, later fish with heavy enamel caps muted that sensitivity but gained better protection.



One celebrated Cambrian candidate for the “first fish,” Anatolepis, has been demoted after fresh scans showed its bumps match arthropod <a href="https://abc7chicago.com/post/university-chicago-study-finds-tooth-sensitivity-may-linked-ancient-fish-led-dr-yara-haridy/16499129/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensilla</a>, not vertebrate dentine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-armor-came-with-nerves">Early armor came with nerves</h2>



Sensilla in crabs and scorpions let them taste, feel vibration, and track currents. Early vertebrates adopted a similar strategy, embedding nerves inside mineral caps that hardened into armor.



“Tooth‑like structures likely first evolved in the skin of early vertebrates, prior to the oral invasion of these structures that became teeth,” said <a href="https://biology.ufl.edu/gareth-fraser/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gareth Fraser</a> of the University of Florida, an evolutionary biologist not involved in the scans.



Because armor muffles most tactile cues, adding built‑in sensors restored environmental awareness without sacrificing defense. The same compromise appears again and again whenever <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-confirm-species-identity-of-the-dragon-man-fossil-skull-denisovan/">animals</a> grow shells, scales, or plates.



The Ordovician seas teemed with cephalopods and sea scorpions, so feeling a predator brush past could mark the difference between survival and lunch. Even a thin sensory layer offered that edge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-moved-from-skin-to-mouth">Teeth moved from skin to mouth</h2>



Once fish started lunging at prey, bringing those hard nodules inside the oral cavity made practical sense. The genetic toolkit for building odontodes simply redeployed along the jaw line.



CT reconstructions show a stepwise shift, first lining lips, then clustering on internal ridges that became true teeth. No new tissue was required, only a new address.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/human-teeth-sensitivity_evolution_skate-fish_CT-scan_tooth-like-denticles_Yara-Haridy_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/human-teeth-sensitivity_evolution_skate-fish_CT-scan_tooth-like-denticles_Yara-Haridy_1s.webp" alt="CT scan of the front of a skate, showing the hard, tooth-like denticles (orange) on its skin. Yara Haridy" class="wp-image-1976721"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT scan of the front of a skate, showing the hard, tooth-like denticles (orange) on its skin. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yara Haridy</figcaption></figure>



This migration explains why modern teeth still flinch when chilled soda hits exposed dentine. The tissue did not lose its ancient job, even after millions of years chewing. 



Human <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21168271/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odontoblast cells</a> inside dentine express <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5244/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature‑sensing TRP channels</a> that trigger pain signals, reinforcing the link between sensation and tooth structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cream-pain-is-ancient">Ice cream pain is ancient</h2>



Skates, sharks, and certain catfish still wear odontodes across their skin, and fluorescent imaging reveals nerves curling around each unit. The same wiring lights up in their oral teeth.



Dentists encounter the legacy daily: about 30 percent of adults report <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34302871/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dentin hypersensitivity</a> - a direct outcome of open tubules harking back to those armored swimmers.



Laboratory studies show that activating <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4541108/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRPA1 and TRPV4</a> channels in human odontoblasts releases ATP, a chemical that excites nearby nerves and sparks the familiar zing of ice‑cream pain.



Understanding the fossil record clarifies why blocking tubules with varnishes or bioactive glasses calms sensitivity more reliably than numbing gels alone. Closing the ancient sensory windows cuts the signal at its source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-mistake-changed-tooth-history">Fossil mistake changed tooth history</h2>



The misidentification of Anatolepis as a vertebrate with dentine pushed the timeline of true teeth further back than the evidence supports. 



With updated scans showing Anatolepis as an arthropod, the emergence of real vertebrate dental tissue now firmly begins in the middle Ordovician.



This correction removes about 40 million years of assumed vertebrate history. It also reorients where scientists search for the evolutionary leap from external skin sensors to internal biting tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-teeth-link-to-modern-health">Ancient teeth link to modern health</h2>



Reclassifying Anatolepis as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-reveal-new-clues-about-arthropod-evolution/">arthropod</a> pushes the oldest confirmed vertebrate dentine forward by almost 40 million years, tightening the evolutionary timeline. Paleontologists can now focus on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/">Ordovician</a> strata when hunting the first mouths with teeth.



The fossil findings also challenge textbook diagrams that present teeth as novel structures formed deep inside the jaw. 



Instead, they appear as immigrants from the skin, carrying sensory baggage that still shapes dental health.



Medical researchers already mine shark and skate genes to inspire regenerative dentistry. Knowing those genes once built skin sensors may guide efforts to coax human cells into growing replacement enamel.



Finally, the study highlights a broader pattern: nature often solves different problems with the same parts. 



Sensory armor, lateral‑line canals, and even mammal whiskers show how sensation sneaks into protective structures whenever the need arises.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08944-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Fossil discovery explains why our teeth are still so sensitive to cold

For most of us, teeth mean crunching pretzels or tearing...

Earth’s earliest complex organisms endured harsh environments, and a new study reveals how these ancient life forms used arsenic to survive.



Researchers studied 2.1-billion-year-old fossils from Gabon’s Francevillian Basin. These fossils belong to eukaryotes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-microbes-may-have-given-rise-to-complex-life/">organisms</a> with advanced cells.



The team found that these ancient organisms stored arsenic inside special cell compartments. This strategy helped them survive in seas with even low arsenic levels.



Using advanced X-ray technology, they mapped arsenic inside of the fossils. The analysis revealed that arsenic was not the result of later contamination. Instead, it was locked inside during the organisms’ lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-seas-triggered-arsenic-defenses">Ancient seas triggered arsenic defenses</h2>



The study offers a fresh view of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/">life</a>’s fight against toxins. The fossils lived in oxygen-rich seas with plenty of phosphate. However, even in these waters, arsenate - the toxic form of arsenic - posed a problem.



“The ability to cope with arsenic was not something eukaryotes developed randomly,” explained Dr. Ernest Chi Fru from <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a>.



During this period, Earth’s oxygen levels began to rise. This change made arsenate more common. Since arsenate closely resembles phosphate, it easily entered cells.



Organisms faced a tough challenge. They needed ways to avoid poisoning while still absorbing phosphate, a nutrient essential for life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-arsenic-stored-in-bodies">Fossils show arsenic stored in bodies</h2>



The fossils showed high arsenic concentrations, far above the levels in surrounding rocks. This suggests they absorbed arsenic during their lifetime.



X-ray imaging revealed arsenic at the core of tiny pyrite crystals inside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">fossils</a>. This points to a biological origin. The arsenic likely came from within the organisms, not from the environment after burial.



Other structures in the same rocks did not show such patterns. Abiotic concretions nearby lacked this arsenic core structure. Similar arsenic-rich patterns appear in some younger animal fossils. However, they are absent in purely mineral samples.



This difference suggests that the Francevillian organisms actively stored arsenic. It wasn’t simply absorbed from surrounding waters after death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arsenic-storage-for-survival">Arsenic storage for survival</h2>



The researchers tested three scenarios to explain arsenic in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-we-see-some-animals-as-more-human-than-others/">fossils</a>. First, they ruled out passive absorption from decaying organic material. 



Second, the team dismissed the idea that sulfate-reducing microbes introduced the arsenic. The most likely explanation was bioaccumulation. These organisms absorbed arsenic during their lifetime and stored it inside their bodies.



“This suggests a pronounced biogenic control on arsenic storage,” wrote the researchers. They argue that arsenic storage was not just a survival trick. It was an adaptation tied to the rise of oxygen in Earth’s oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arsenic-damaged-ancient-life-systems">Arsenic damaged ancient life systems</h2>



Arsenic disrupts life by mimicking phosphate. Once inside cells, it blocks key processes like energy production and genetic functions.



Modern organisms use efflux pumps or special enzymes to remove arsenic. Some even store it safely in vacuoles or vesicles.



The fossils showed traces of arsenic linked with other metals like nickel and copper. These metals can also be toxic in high amounts.



This suggests the organisms had a broader detoxification system. They may have stored multiple harmful elements together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-sponges-use-similar-storage">Modern sponges use similar storage</h2>



The researchers drew comparisons with modern sponges. These ancient animals often store arsenic in special compartments.



Sponges use this strategy because it helps them manage metal exposure from their filter-feeding lifestyle.



The Francevillian organisms might have done something similar. Their environment had low arsenic levels, but long-term exposure likely led to gradual buildup inside their bodies.



The stored arsenic later formed pyrite crystals during fossilization. The researchers’ model shows how this process left clear chemical markers in the fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-complex-life">The evolution of complex life</h2>



The findings suggest that arsenic detoxification emerged very early in the evolution of eukaryotic life. It was likely not a rare or isolated event. 



Instead, the ability to manage arsenic probably evolved multiple times throughout Earth’s long history, as different organisms adapted to shifting environmental conditions.



These arsenic-rich fossils reveal much more than just details about ancient organisms. They serve as powerful tools for researchers, offering a way to detect signs of early life in rocks that are billions of years old. 



The chemical traces left behind provide strong clues about how life evolved and adapted in hostile environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-strategies-of-ancient-life">Survival strategies of ancient life</h2>



Ultimately, the research highlights the importance of chemical signatures as records of biological processes. 



Even when organic material disappears, these chemical patterns can tell the story of ancient survival strategies and environmental challenges.



By storing arsenic within their cells, these early organisms developed a unique way to survive in toxic seas. In doing so, they not only overcame dangerous conditions but also preserved a chemical fingerprint that allows scientists today to uncover their ancient existence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59760-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Arnaud Mazurier and Abderrazak El Albani



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Why ancient organisms stored arsenic inside their cells

Earth’s earliest complex organisms endured harsh environments, and a new...

When researchers lowered a cow carcass 5,345 feet (1,629 meters) beneath the waves off Hainan Island, they were studying natural whale fall processes in the deep sea. Instead, the bait attracted uninvited guests never before filmed in these waters: Pacific sleeper sharks (Somniosus pacificus).



The video, captured on the continental slope of the northern South China Sea, marks the species’ southernmost sighting in the Pacific Basin. 



It also reveals a suite of behaviors - from polite feeding queues to protective eye retractions - that deepen our understanding of how large predators survive in the deep ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-spotted-far-from-home">Sharks spotted far from home</h2>



Until now, Pacific sleeper sharks were considered residents of the North Pacific, with records stretching from Japan and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-did-billions-of-crabs-vanish-from-the-bering-sea/">Bering Sea</a> to Alaska and as far south as Baja California. Their sudden appearance in tropical latitudes stunned marine biologists.



The deployment, designed to mimic a natural whale fall, quickly drew multiple sharks that took turns tearing at the carcass. 



Because sleeper sharks routinely dive below 3,280 feet (1,000 meters), direct observations have been scarce. Remote baited cameras provided the first clear window into their deep-sea routines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-shapes-shark-feeding-style">Size shapes shark feeding style</h2>



Back on shore, the research team reviewed hours of footage and divided the sharks into two categories: individuals longer than 8.85 feet (2.7 meters) and those shorter. 



The threshold was chosen purely as a reference point, not as a marker of maturity.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">Size</a> proved to be a major factor in feeding style. The bigger sharks charged the carcass head-on, ripping chunks of flesh with sweeping bites. Smaller sharks kept their distance, circling watchfully before making tentative nips. 



The contrast suggests a competitive hierarchy in which bulk confers priority access to limited resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-take-polite-turns">Sharks take polite turns</h2>



Perhaps the most unexpected behavior was a kind of underwater etiquette. As each shark finished feeding, it glided away, making room for the next arrival. 



<a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">On the video camera footage</a>, the handover looked almost orderly, with newcomers approaching steadily from behind while current feeders yielded position.



“This behavior suggests that feeding priority is determined by individual competitive intensity, even in deep-water environments," said study author Han Tian, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/">Sun Yat-sen University</a>. 



"This reflects a survival strategy suitable for non-solitary foraging among Pacific sleeper sharks.”



Comparable line-ups have been reported when sharks scavenge floating whale carcasses near the surface, where space is equally contested. 



The deep-sea footage indicates that such social rules persist even in the aphotic zone, where encounters are rare and every calorie counts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defensive-eye-roll"><a></a>Defensive eye roll</h2>



Pacific sleeper sharks lack the nictitating membrane - a transparent eyelid - found in many shark species. Yet the video shows them repeatedly retracting their eyes while feeding.



Scientists interpret this as a built-in safeguard against sudden jabs from protruding bones or the teeth of rival sharks. 



The involuntary eye roll could compensate for the missing membrane, protecting vision during frenzied meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-an-expanded-range"><a></a>Clues to an expanded range</h2>



Finding Pacific sleeper sharks 1,800 miles (3,000 kilometers) south of their documented range forces scientists to rethink what governs their distribution. 



Do shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-are-rising-faster-than-expected-and-likely-to-accelerate/">ocean temperatures</a> invite them farther into the tropics? Or does the South China Sea offer prey reservoirs that make the journey worthwhile?



All individuals filmed were female - a pattern echoed by other rarely seen giants such as the megamouth shark, which also shows a female bias here. 



The sex skew hints that the region might double as a nursery or feeding ground for pregnant sharks needing high-energy meals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-in-the-abyss">Energy in the abyss</h2>



Large predators cannot thrive without a steady food supply. Sleeper sharks typically scavenge or ambush seals and squids in colder waters.



In the subtropical South China Sea, their presence implies robust nutrient pathways moving organic matter from surface ecosystems to abyssal depths.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pacific-sleeper-sharks_rare-observations_deep-ocean_SME-DEEP_1s.webp" alt="The presence of Pacific sleeper sharks of varying body sizes was detected in the deep waters of the South China Sea using stationary cameras, with all individuals identified as female. Credit: Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research" class="wp-image-1976702"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The presence of Pacific sleeper sharks of varying body sizes was detected in the deep waters of the South China Sea using stationary cameras, with all individuals identified as female. Click image to watch the video. Credit: Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</figcaption></figure>



“The highly aggressive behavior of sharks observed in the South China Sea suggests that this region still harbors abundant food sources in the deep sea," Tan said. 



"But what exactly are they? This question is intriguing for both animal distribution and behavioral research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-sharks-in-the-deep">Tracking sharks in the deep</h2>



The team plans to deploy additional baited cameras and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/">environmental DNA</a> samplers across the basin to gauge how many Pacific sleeper sharks prowl these depths and whether they stay year-round. 



Comparative studies from other oceans could reveal whether deep-water queuing is widespread among large scavengers or unique to this lineage.



Biologists also hope to determine if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/">climatic changes</a> or altered current patterns are drawing cold-adapted predators southward. 



Answers will feed into global models of deep-sea energy flow and illuminate how carbon moves from surface waters to the seafloor, a key piece of the climate puzzle.



For now, the footage shatters old assumptions. Pacific sleeper sharks are not confined to polar and subpolar seas. 



They form loose social hierarchies, even in perpetual darkness, and they may rely on uncharted nutrient highways that link surface productivity with the deep ocean.



-----



<a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to watch the full video footage...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/olar.0095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Research</a>.



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Rare video shows elusive deep-sea predators feeding thousands of miles from home

When researchers lowered a cow carcass 5,345 feet (1,629 meters)...

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower than most people walk, yet some were already adults when the United States was founded. 



Their astonishing lifespan has turned this elusive fish into a living time capsule, capturing the imagination of biologists and longevity researchers alike.



Julius Nielsen of the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> leads many of the modern expeditions that tag, scan, and sometimes briefly corral these giants in the icy dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-greenland-sharks-live-so-long">Why Greenland sharks live so long</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eye‑lens radiocarbon dating</a> shows females can live at least 272 years, with one specimen estimated at 392 ± 120 years. The method pinpoints birth dates because the lens proteins stop exchanging carbon after a shark pup forms in utero.



“This is the longest living vertebrate that we know of,” said Nielsen, who helped age the record fish. He and colleagues calculate that females do not reach sexual maturity until roughly 150 years, a timetable unheard of in other sharks.



Slow annual growth, barely half an inch, means injuries heal gradually but bones and organs escape the cumulative cellular wear seen in faster‑growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">animals</a>. 



Researchers suspect a combination of frigid water, low oxygen demand, and genes that police DNA damage all contribute, yet no single “silver bullet” for longevity has appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-have-slow-heartbeats">Greenland sharks have slow heartbeats</h2>



Greenland sharks have resting <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/221/19/jeb186957/33812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart rates</a> of about 10 beats per minute and unusually low blood pressure. That’s much lower than what you’d find in other large sharks, and it may help protect their blood vessels from long-term damage like heart attacks or strokes.



Even with such a slow heartbeat, each pump moves a lot of blood, keeping their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/different-shark-species-seen-scavenge-feeding-together-in-rare-event/">bodies</a> fueled during slow swimming under Arctic ice. 



Doctors are paying attention, hoping this natural “strong pump, gentle pressure” system could offer ideas for treating high blood pressure in people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-bodies-save-energy">Slow bodies save energy</h2>



These sharks burn energy very slowly. In fact, their oxygen use is among the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76371-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lowest ever recorded</a> for a fish their size. That kind of slow metabolism may reduce cell damage over time and help them survive long gaps between meals. 



A 280-pound shark might get through the day on fewer calories than a cheeseburger, making a single big meal last for months.



Because the deep Arctic is so cold, they digest food slowly too. Instead of burning energy for speed or growth, they stretch it out for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-they-are-toxic-top-predators">Why they are toxic top predators</h2>



Greenland shark meat is laced with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5127123/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimethylamine N‑oxide</a>, a compound that stabilizes proteins under high pressure yet renders the raw flesh neurotoxic to mammals.



Icelanders neutralize it through months of fermentation to create the ceremonial dish kæstur hákarl, but few tourists finish more than a nibble.



The species ranks as an apex predator; evidence shows adults seizing fish, squid, and the occasional sleeping seal. 



Sightings in the Gulf of Mexico and off Spain reveal a wider range than once believed, hinting at deep‑water corridors that connect polar and temperate seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-are-at-risk">Greenland sharks are at risk</h2>



Commercial trawlers unintentionally haul up about 3,500 Greenland <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/melissacristinamarquez/2022/11/07/greenland-shark-finally-gets-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> each year as bycatch. Because breeding may not begin for a century and a half, losing even sub‑adults chips away at population recovery.



The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/60213/3112909" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> lists the species as “Vulnerable,” citing low fecundity and expanding deep‑sea fisheries. 



Simple changes, switching to LED‑lit nets that deter sharks, banning deep set gill nets in nursery zones, and funding release‑training for crews, can cut mortality without shrinking catches of cod or halibut.



Scientists also urge Arctic nations to establish no‑take refuges around known mating aggregations once those secret sites are found. Protecting a fish that may still be swimming in 2425 demands policies that look far beyond typical political horizons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-hidden-nursery-grounds">The search for hidden nursery grounds</h2>



No one has ever observed Greenland sharks mating or giving birth in the wild. Only one pregnant female has been studied, and her embryos suggest the species may be <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/sharpen-your-shark-facts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aplacental viviparous</a>, meaning the young develop inside eggs that hatch within the mother’s body.



Females seem to carry up to 10 pups at a time, but the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/five-wild-facts-about-shark-reproduction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gestation period</a> could last several years. Without regular breeding or nursery sightings, it's hard to estimate how often they reproduce or whether their range shifts during these vulnerable periods.



This gap in knowledge makes population modeling difficult. Without better data, scientists can't say how quickly these sharks could recover if current bycatch trends continue. 



Tagging mature females may help reveal mating routes or hidden nursery grounds. Learning how and where they reproduce could play a key role in designing effective marine protected areas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: Julius Nielsen



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Longest-living vertebrates on Earth survive for centuries in icy waters

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower...

Bumble bees, like humans, sometimes eat the wrong things. A new study shows they may pick foods that don’t meet their nutritional needs - and those choices might actually harm their health.



In research conducted at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State University</a>, scientists found that when bumble bees were offered diets enriched with varying levels of protein, fat, and carbohydrates, their eating habits didn’t lead to better health. 



The study raises new questions about how bees choose what to eat - and whether those choices are good for them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumble-bees-don-t-choose-healthy-options">Bumble bees don't choose healthy options</h2>



The researchers designed a controlled study where bumble bees were split into groups and given specific diets. Some groups received <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-survival-depends-on-more-than-just-pollen-abundance/">pollen</a> with added protein or fat. Others got nectar-like sugar solutions with different sugar levels. 



A control group was allowed to eat a standard diet of wild pollen and a 60% sugar solution. All the bees were the same age and housed in small groups to keep testing conditions consistent. 



What happened next surprised the researchers. The bumble bees didn't go for the food options that were healthy. 



The bees ate more when protein levels in pollen were higher, less when fat levels were higher, and they over-consumed sugar when the nectar was watered down. 



None of the eating patterns benefited the physical health of the bumble bees. Egg-laying declined. Body weight stayed the same or dropped. Nothing the bees chose to eat led to better outcomes than the control group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumble-bees-make-bad-food-choices">Bumble bees make bad food choices</h2>



The results challenge the long-standing assumption that bees instinctively know what to eat to stay healthy.



Etya Amsalem is an associate professor of entomology in the College of Agricultural Sciences and lead author of the study. She noted that bee preferences are unlikely to reflect true needs and more likely result from evolutionary constraints.



“For instance, bees may under-consume lipids not because high-lipid diets are harmful, but because their physiology is not well-suited for digesting or storing large amounts of lipids," said Professor Amsalem.



“Bees may over-consume proteins because they have evolved to seek them out whenever they’re available, even though excess protein can be detrimental because it affects how efficiently bees can eliminate nitrogen from their bodies."



This mismatch - between what bees eat and what actually helps them - may be putting more strain on already vulnerable bee populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-bee-survival">Why this matters for bee survival</h2>



Bumble bees are under serious stress worldwide. Habitat loss, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/">pesticide</a> exposure, climate change, and industrial farming have drastically reduced the variety and quality of flowers bees depend on. 



In many areas, rich, diverse meadows have been replaced by monocultures or urban development. That leaves bees with fewer options - and often with subpar food sources.



This drop in floral diversity doesn’t just mean less food overall - it means less nutritionally balanced food. Even when bees find enough to eat, the quality of that food may not support key functions like reproduction, colony growth, or immune strength.



Nutrition plays a big role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-and-flower-strips-improve-honey-bee-health/">bee health</a>. But if bees can’t always tell what’s good for them, that complicates conservation efforts.



“It’s an odd assumption when you think about it - my toddler prefers chocolate over broccoli, but I wouldn’t conclude from that that chocolate is healthier for her,” said Professor Amsalem. 



“So, why do we assume bees are different? Understanding potential mismatches between consumption and fitness outcomes is important, as most conservation and management strategies assume bees can self-regulate their diets for optimal health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bumble-bee-health">Rethinking bumble bee health</h2>



The results suggest that preference alone isn’t a reliable guide for diet planning - not for bees, and likely not for conservation strategies either. 



Instead of assuming bees will naturally eat what’s best for them, the researchers say we need a deeper understanding of how diet affects their health at a physiological level. According to Professor Amsalem, future research needs to dig deeper.



“Future research could investigate why bees fail to optimize diet - for example, metabolic limitations, gustatory biases or ecological tradeoffs - and may explore nonmacronutrient components like vitamins and minerals that may explain fitness discrepancies,” she said.



For conservation groups, farmers, and scientists trying to support healthy bee populations, this study is a clear reminder: what bees choose to eat may not be what’s best for them. And that makes understanding their real nutritional needs more urgent than ever.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022191025000769">Journal of Insect Physiology</a>.



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How bumble bees are sabotaging their own health

Bumble bees, like humans, sometimes eat the wrong things. A...

Off the eastern tip of Java, dredging barges dragged up more than sand. They pulled a piece of the past: a submerged river valley under the Madura Strait packed with fossils that had slept under fifty feet of water since long before the last Ice Age melted away.



Among the finds were two skull fragments of Homo erectus, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/">human ancestor</a> that roamed Asia until roughly 117,000 years ago, as well as more than 6,000 animal fossils that paint a vivid portrait of a lost ecosystem. <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/staffmembers/harry-berghuis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harold Berghuis</a> of <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden University</a> leads the team studying the haul.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sundaland-rises-then-sinks">Sundaland rises then sinks</h2>



During colder glacial times, much of Southeast Asia’s continental shelf formed a single low‑lying continent known as <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/sundaland#:~:text=The%20Sundaland%20Biodiversity%20Hotspot%20covers,islands%20of%20Borneo%20and%20Sumatra." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sundaland</a>. 



Sea level then sat about 400 feet lower than it does today, exposing wide plains crisscrossed by rivers and grasslands.



When global ice melted between <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-023-04510-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">22,000 and 6,000 years ago</a>, the ocean climbed roughly 443 feet, drowning half of that landmass. 



The rapid pulses of rise carved islands out of peninsulas and pushed coastlines hundreds of miles inland, isolating plants, animals, and the people who depended on them.



Geologists can still follow the drowned river channels with high‑resolution sonar. Each channel marks a corridor that once connected Borneo, Sumatra, and Java to the Asian mainland, providing migration routes for both megafauna and hominins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-river-fossils-under-the-madura-strait">River fossils under the Madura Strait</h2>



The valley now mapped under the Madura Strait was carved by the ancient Solo River. 



Optically Stimulated Luminescence dating (<a href="https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacial-geology/dating-glacial-sediments-2/optically-stimulated-luminescence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSL</a>) shows its sandy fill settled between 162,000 and 119,000 years ago, anchoring the new fossils to the late <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S295023652500012X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a>.



OSL works because quartz grains store energy from cosmic rays like tiny batteries. When technicians shine a laser on a grain in the lab, it releases that stored charge as light, revealing the moment the grain last basked in sunlight.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/madura-strait_sunda-shelf_homo-erectus-remains_map_credit-ScienceDirect_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/madura-strait_sunda-shelf_homo-erectus-remains_map_credit-ScienceDirect_1s.webp" alt="The Sunda Shelf of Southeast Asia, with the Indonesian archipelago. Box indicates the position of map B. B: Eastern Java, the Madura Strait, the Solo River, Ngandong, Sambungmacan, and other hominin sites. Box indicates the position of map C. C: The Madura Strait north of Surabaya, with the sand extraction area and the location of the BMS land-reclamation. Map data: GEBCO and ALOS" class="wp-image-1976530"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Sunda Shelf of Southeast Asia, with the Indonesian archipelago. Box indicates the position of map B. B: Eastern Java, the Madura Strait fossils location, the Solo River, Ngandong, Sambungmacan, and other hominin sites. Box indicates the position of map C. C: The Madura Strait north of Surabaya, with the sand extraction area and the location of the BMS land-reclamation. Click image to enlarge. Map data: GEBCO and ALOS</figcaption></figure>



The method is ideal for underwater sites where radiocarbon fails, yet it is rarely applied because retrieving uncontaminated samples from the seafloor is difficult. 



The Madura team’s success shows how pipeline spoil, often discarded as waste, can become forensic evidence on continental‑scale change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-madura-strait-reveals-fossil-menagerie">Madura Strait reveals fossil menagerie</h2>



The tally of species rivals a natural‑history museum catalog. There were buffalo, several kinds of deer, and <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/komodo-dragon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Komodo dragons</a> longer than a canoe.



The biggest draw, though, is <a href="https://eartharchives.org/articles/stegodon-the-elephant-with-sideways-trunk/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stegodon trigonocephalus</a>, an elephant‑like giant that could stand almost 13 feet at the shoulder. 



Its presence suggests tall grass and open water holes, conditions that match pollen studies from upland Java.



Fossil monitors link today’s dragon‑patrolled islands to their mainland roots; remains of <a href="https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/komododragon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Varanus komodoensis</a> have turned up on nearby <a href="https://www.theextinctions.com/articles-1/lesser-sunda-islands-part-1-flores-and-sumba" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flores and Sumba</a>, confirming that the apex lizard once ranged far beyond its present refuges. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_ancient-remains_credit-ScienceDirect_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_ancient-remains_credit-ScienceDirect_1s.webp" alt="Madura Strait 1 (MS1): Homo erectus frontal fragment with dextral supraorbital torus. A: Photographs. B: CT-based 3D surface rendered images. Note that the exact orientation of the fragment is unknown. For the anterior view, a slightly diagonal orientation has been assumed. C: CT-based 3D surface rendered image of MS1 in a more horizontal orientation, with anatomical indications. D: CT-slice. Credit: ScienceDirect" class="wp-image-1976532"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Madura Strait 1 (MS1) fossils: Homo erectus frontal fragment with dextral supraorbital torus. A: Photographs. B: CT-based 3D surface rendered images. Note that the exact orientation of the fragment is unknown. For the anterior view, a slightly diagonal orientation has been assumed. C: CT-based 3D surface rendered image of MS1 in a more horizontal orientation, with anatomical indications. D: CT-slice. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ScienceDirect</figcaption></figure>



Carnivore teeth in the assemblage are scarce, hinting that reptiles, not big cats, topped the food chain.



Antelope‑like bovids and open‑country rodents round out the scene, pointing to savanna rather than rainforest. Together the bones sketch a community more East African than Indonesian.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-with-tools-and-strategy">Humans with tools and strategy</h2>



Researchers counted more than 300 bones marked by stone blades or flakes. Some show percussion scars where marrow was pounded out.



“The Sunda Shelf played an important role in the dispersal and evolution of hominin populations,” wrote Berghuis and colleagues in their 2025 report. Others bear parallel slices typical of tendon removal.&nbsp;



“Thus far, hominin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/">fossils</a> from submerged Sundaland were not available.” The Madura Strait fragments break that drought. Underscoring the novelty of the find.&nbsp;



Tool cut geometry matches <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4920301/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acheulean‑derived technologies</a> already known from Java’s terrestrial sites. That continuity supports the idea that people followed rivers seasonally, carrying simple gear that was easy to replace when tools were lost in mud or water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-skulls-add-to-the-story">What the skulls add to the story</h2>



Although each piece is only a few inches across, the brow ridge profile and bone thickness match late <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18479734/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo erectus skulls</a> dug from Ngandong and Sambungmacan farther up the Solo. 



That link pushes the species’ confirmed range hundreds of miles east, showing it followed river corridors onto the shelf when sea level was low.



One fragment comes from an adolescent, the other from a lightly built adult. Their presence alongside butchered game hints that family groups, not lone hunters, roamed the valley.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_skull_credit-ScienceDirect_1.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/maduro-strait_indonesia_homo-erectus_skull_credit-ScienceDirect_1s.webp" alt="3D surface images of MS1 and Sambungmacan 3 (anterior view). This comparative skull has the closest metric and morphological match with MS1. Credit: ScienceDirect" class="wp-image-1976534"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D surface images of Madura Strait (MS1) and Sambungmacan 3 (anterior view) fossils. This comparative skull has the closest metric and morphological match with MS1. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ScienceDirect</figcaption></figure>



Because no fire traces were found, the visitors probably camped on higher terraces that are now long submerged. 



The bones they left behind washed into lower channels during seasonal floods and were sealed beneath overbank sand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-cousins-beneath-the-waves">Looking for cousins beneath the waves</h2>



The Solo River was only one of many channels draining Sundaland. As survey vessels map more buried valleys, archaeologists expect to meet a wider cast: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/">Denisovans</a>, perhaps, or even the diminutive <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-floresiensis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Homo floresiensis</a>.



Every bucket of dredged sand now promises not just minerals for construction but clues to human origins. 



Underwater archaeology once focused on shipwrecks; now it is turning to paleolandscapes that could double the search area for early humans in Southeast Asia.



The Indonesian government is drafting guidelines that will require sand‑mining companies to report <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">fossil</a> finds within 48 hours. 



Those rules could transform commercial dredges into accidental research partners, expanding the data set at a fraction of normal field costs.



For now the Madura Strait cache stands alone, yet it already stretches the timeline of underwater archaeology in Asia. 



Skulls, riverbeds, and giant beast bones, all locked together in a drowned landscape, remind us that today’s ocean floor was yesterday’s hunting ground.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S295023652500012X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Environments and Humans</a>.



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Archaeologists find 140,000-year-old human and animal remains at the bottom of the ocean

Off the eastern tip of Java, dredging barges dragged up...

The sea spider, those spindly marine oddities that seem composed almost entirely of legs and claws, just given up their genetic secrets.



An international effort led by the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a> and the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> has delivered the first chromosome-level genome for Pycnogonum litorale, a species common in North Atlantic tide pools.



Stretching across 57 pseudo-chromosomes and paired with extensive developmental transcriptomes, the assembly offers an unprecedented look at how an arthropod can evolve such an extreme body plan. This includes a nearly vanishing abdomen and internal organs that spill far into its limbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-sea-spider-genome">Mapping the sea spider genome</h2>



To achieve a genome this contiguous, the team combined long-read sequencing with Hi-C proximity data. Long reads captured tens of thousands of DNA bases at a stretch. This helped bridge the repetitive regions that routinely break short-read assemblies.



Hi-C, which measures how DNA folds inside the nucleus, then provided a “scaffolding” map that placed those long contigs into chromosomal order.



“The genomes of many non-canonical laboratory organisms are challenging to assemble, and Pycnogonum is no exception," said first author Nikolaos Papadopoulos, a zoologist at the University of Vienna. 



"Only the combination of modern high-throughput data sources made a high-quality genome possible. This can now serve as a stepping stone for further research.”



Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-breeding-behaviors-of-giant-sea-spiders-revealed/">sea spiders</a> are not standard lab animals, researchers collected specimens by hand, often prying them from kelp during low tide. They then rushed them back to the lab for nucleic acid extraction.



The payoff is a reference genome that joins spider, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-the-first-ancestors-of-scorpions-and-spiders/">scorpion</a>, mite, and horseshoe crab assemblies on public databases. Yet it lacks the duplications that mark other arachnid genomes, making it a vital baseline for evolutionary comparisons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vanished-gene-vanished-abdomen">Vanished gene, vanished abdomen</h2>



The analysis focused on Hox genes, key developmental regulators shared by animals from fruit flies to humans. One gene turned up missing: abdominal-A (abd-A).



In most arthropods, abd-A helps establish the rear-body segments that carry guts and reproductive organs. Sea spiders, with their virtually absent abdomens, appear to have dispensed with both the physical structure and its genetic architect.



“In arthropods, Hox genes play a central role in the correct specification of the different body segments, explained co-author Andreas Wanninger, who co-led the Vienna team. "In many other animal groups they are essential ‘master controllers’ during body plan development.” 



The disappearance of abd-A mirrors patterns seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mites-survived-without-sex-for-millions-of-years/">mites</a> and barnacles, two other arthropod groups that have independently shrunk or lost their hind segments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-spiders-skipped-genome-doubling">Sea spiders skipped genome doubling</h2>



Spiders and scorpions carry extra copies of almost every gene, relics of an ancient whole-genome duplication that likely fueled innovations such as silk glands and complex venom cocktails.



P. litorale shows no sign of that event. Because sea spiders sit at the very base of the chelicerate lineage, the simplest explanation is that the duplication occurred later. It likely arose within the spider-scorpion branch, rather than in the common ancestor of all chelicerates.



That finding reshapes timelines for when gene families expanded and may help researchers pinpoint which duplications underlie spider-specific traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-for-growth-and-repair">Tools for growth and repair</h2>



Beyond raw sequence, the consortium generated RNA profiles from embryos and juveniles, capturing when each gene flicks on and off as new body segments form.



Those developmental datasets make the sea spider a promising model for studies of ancestral arthropod development, limb regeneration, and physiological resilience in cold, nutrient-poor seas.



Georg Brenneis, an expert in arthropod development at the University of Vienna, is a senior author of the study.



“From an evolutionary developmental perspective, sea spiders are very interesting: their mode of development may be ancestral for arthropods, but at the same time they boast multiple body plan innovations unique to themselves. Beyond this, they also possess remarkable regenerative abilities.” 



“Now that we have the genome and comprehensive datasets on gene activities during development, we can systematically study all of these aspects on the molecular level,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-editing-limbs-and-trunk">Editing limbs and trunk</h2>



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> editing becoming feasible in marine invertebrates, investigators can now ask how the remaining sea spider Hox genes choreograph eight elongated walking legs and a tubular trunk. They can also explore how the animals quickly regrow lost appendages.



Comparative physiologists might search the genome for stress-response genes that let sea spiders thrive in icy fjords, while ecological genomics teams could examine how gene flow operates across their wide geographic ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-ancient-sea-spider-cousins">Tracing ancient sea spider cousins</h2>



Without the duplication, shared sea spider genes likely existed as single copies in the last common chelicerate ancestor.



Aligning those sequences will clarify where new venom toxins arose, when silk machinery evolved, and how immune genes diversified.



The genome also lets scientists investigate regulatory DNA - enhancers, promoters, and non-coding RNAs. These elements rewired a conventional arthropod blueprint into the minimalist sea spider form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-genomic-catalog">Expanding the genomic catalog</h2>



The authors envision expanding the catalog to additional sea spider species to test whether abd-A loss is universal. They also aim to map gains and losses of other developmental genes across the group’s 1,300 known species.



Such work could uncover genetic shortcuts to extreme morphological change - insights that extend far beyond any single marine arthropod.



For now, the P. litorale genome stands as a milestone: the first high-quality reference for the world’s most enigmatic chelicerates. It’s also a reminder that even life’s strangest branches follow molecular rules that genomics can finally reveal.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02276-x">BMC Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Richard Lord/ <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.en">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0</a>



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All legs, no guts: Sea spider genome stuns scientists

The sea spider, those spindly marine oddities that seem composed...

High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a thumbprint have stepped out of anonymity and into the scientific spotlight. Their world is a maze of wet cliffs, dripping bromeliads, and wind‑scoured ridges where moss carpets the rocks.



“They’re <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">small</a> and unassuming, but these frogs are powerful reminders of how much we still don’t know about the Andes,” said Germán Chávez of the Center for Ornithology and Biodiversity (<a href="https://corbidi.org/">CORBIDI</a>). 



Chávez and his colleagues trekked those ridges between 2021 and 2024, often in freezing rain, to reach calling sites above 9,000 feet.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountains-support-unique-frog-species">Mountains support unique frog species</h2>



The <a href="https://blog.pensoft.net/2025/06/27/hidden-gems-in-the-mist-three-new-frog-species-uncovered-in-northern-peru/cordillera-de-huancabamba-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cordillera de Huancabamba</a> forms a natural break in the Andes, splitting watersheds and isolating species. 



Ecologists classify the region as a <a href="https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/tropicalandes_techsummary.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity hotspot</a>, one of only thirty‑five on Earth where extraordinary endemism collides with severe habitat loss.



"The Cordillera de Huancabamba is not just a remote range - it's a living archive of biodiversity and cultural legacy," said Wilmar Aznaran. "And we've barely scratched the surface."



Isolation breeds novelty, and novelty fills the genus Pristimantis. With 619 described species, Pristimantis is now the most diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whistling-forest-frogs-recently-discovered-may-be-wiped-out-before-we-learn-about-them/">amphibian</a> genus on the planet.



The new frogs, Pristimantis chinguelas, P. nunezcortezi, and P. yonke, occupy different niches along the same ridge. One clings to cliff faces, one prowls leaf litter beside clear streams, and the smallest tucks itself deep inside tank bromeliads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-new-species">Confirming the new species</h2>



Night surveys began after dusk, when temperatures hovered near 50 °F and fog erased headlamp beams. Team members listened for faint “peep” notes that barely rose above dripping leaves. 



Finding a caller did not end the chase. Each frog had to be photographed, swabbed for DNA, measured, and released without harming delicate skin.



Back in Lima, the researchers compared mitochondrial 16S sequences. Genetic distances exceeded the three‑percent threshold herpetologists often use to flag separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/">species</a>, clinching the case for formal description.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-amphibians-are-poorly-studied">Many amphibians are poorly studied </h2>



All three newcomers enter the IUCN books as <a href="https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-bulletin/issue-number-169-autumn-2024/4079-03-how-many-data-deficient-amphibians-are-threatened-iucn-red-list-assessments-for-amphibian-species-previously-classed-as-data-deficient" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Data Deficient</a>, meaning scientists lack enough information to judge extinction risk. 



The label sounds neutral, yet recent reassessments show that roughly half of amphibians that start as Data Deficient later prove threatened.



Formal names unlock funding and legal tools that nameless creatures rarely receive. Conservation plans, environmental‑impact statements, and protected‑area budgets almost always hinge on a taxon’s standing in recognized databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-climate-shifts">Indicators of climate shifts</h2>



The Cordillera de Huancabamba isn't just a biological goldmine, it’s wrapped in layers of folklore. In nearby villages, frogs are often seen as signs of rain or omens tied to agriculture and spiritual beliefs.



This cultural lens makes local communities key allies for conservation. When researchers name <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/">species</a> after regional icons or traditions, like P. yonke, they honor local identity and encourage stewardship.



Unlike most frogs, species in the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/64811-Pristimantis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pristimantis genus</a> bypass the tadpole stage entirely. They hatch from eggs as fully formed froglets, ready to climb, hop, and call without ever entering water.



This reproductive shortcut allows them to thrive in places where standing water is rare or seasonal. It also makes them sensitive indicators of climate shifts and microhabitat changes in mountain ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frog-species-in-fire-prone-habitats">Frog species in fire-prone habitats</h2>



Each frog occupies an area smaller than four square miles, hemmed in by crop fields and fire scars. Peru recorded about 10,400 wildfires in 2024, more than double its previous record, burning grasslands and cloud‑forest edges alike.



P. chinguelas calls from a road‑cut cliff where charred bamboo still smells of smoke. P. nunezcortezi shares a single stream corridor that now borders new potato plots.



P. yonke lives higher, inside bromeliads at roughly 9,800 feet, in what locals call the <a href="https://lacgeo.com/northern-andean-paramo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">páramo</a>, a chilly grassland‑wetland mosaic perched above the treeline. 



Páramo vegetation stores water like a sponge, so every lost bromeliad weakens both the frogs and the human communities farther down‑slope.



“Exploring this area is more than fieldwork - it’s an immersion into wilderness, culture, and resilience,” said Karen Victoriano‑Cigüeñas.&nbsp;



"Many of these mountain&nbsp;ridges&nbsp;are isolated, with no roads and extreme terrain," noted Ivan Wong. "The weather shifts within minutes, and the steep cliffs make every step a challenge. It's no wonder so few scientists have worked here before. But that's exactly why there's still so much to find."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-new-frog-species">Protecting the new frog species </h2>



No one has recorded the breeding calls of P. nunezcortezi or P. yonke, so females remain unverified. Diet, predators, and lifespan also remain mysteries for all three species.



Future expeditions will test whether the frogs persist on neighboring ridges or whether each ridge hosts its own micro‑endemic. 



Acoustic monitors and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.2353" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eDNA traps</a> could reveal silent populations hiding in moss tunnels or bromeliad tanks beyond the reach of hikers.



For now, the frogs depend on local goodwill. Community fire patrols, low‑impact grazing, and small protected micro‑reserves can buy time while researchers gather the missing data.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://evolsyst.pensoft.net/article/148522/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Systematics</a>.



Image Credit: Germán Chávez et. al



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Three new frog species found in Peru face an uncertain future

High in northern Peru, three frogs no bigger than a...

Sexual behavior and preference - whether in humans or animals - isn’t random. It’s shaped early on, during fetal development, by how the brain responds to hormones like androgens (male sex hormones). 



This early exposure is known to affect many important adult traits. But there's been one big obstacle: how do you measure that influence without invasive methods?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rat-fingers-hint-at-sexual-behavior">Rat fingers hint at sexual behavior </h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.okayama-u.ac.jp/index_e.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okayama University</a> in Japan may have found an answer - by looking at rats’ fingers.



In a recent study, a team led by Professor <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/32931/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hirotaka Sakamoto</a> and Dr. Himeka Hayashi found that a simple finger measurement - the ratio of the second digit to the fourth digit, known as 2D:4D - can predict sexual behavior and preference in rats.



This digit ratio has been studied in humans for years. On average, men tend to have a lower 2D:4D ratio than women, meaning their index fingers are shorter relative to their ring fingers. 



But surprisingly, there hasn’t been much research testing whether this holds true in other animals, nor has sexual proclivity been measured against 2D:4D ratio in humans or other animals. That’s what drew the researchers to rats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-2d-4d-ratio">Understanding the 2D:4D ratio</h2>



As stated, the 2D:4D ratio compares the lengths of your index finger (2D) and your ring finger (4D). 



To find it, just look at your right hand: if your ring finger is longer than your index finger, your 2D:4D ratio is considered low; if your index finger is about the same length or longer, your ratio is higher. 



Scientists have found that this ratio is set before you're born, influenced by the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-with-low-testosterone-have-a-higher-risk-of-mortality/">testosterone</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-suggests-menopause-can-be-delayed-or-even-eliminated/">estrogen</a> you were exposed to in the womb. 



In general, people with lower ratios were exposed to more testosterone, while higher ratios suggest more estrogen exposure.



This tiny finger difference has caught scientists’ attention because it seems to connect to traits like athletic ability, aggression, risk-taking, and even career interests. 



For example, some studies have found that people with lower 2D:4D ratios tend to do better in competitive sports or lean toward science and engineering fields. 



It’s also been tied to traits like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/practicing-yoga-nidra-improves-sleep-memory-and-cognition/">cognition</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-traits-are-not-strongly-inherited-from-parents/">personality</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-sexual-satisfaction-linked-to-rapid-memory-decline/">sex drive</a>, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/same-sex-sexual-behavior-linked-to-evolutionary-advantages-in-monkeys/">sexual orientation</a>.



But it’s not a rule - it’s just a pattern seen in large groups, not a way to predict someone’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shorter-fingers-stronger-sex-drive">Shorter fingers, stronger sex drive</h2>



“We found that the 2D:4D ratio serves as a reliable biological marker for predicting sexual activity in rats,” said Sakamoto. 



“Rats with shorter second digits were not only more sexually active but also showed a clear preference for female scent.”



Building on their initial measurements, the team then ran mating trials to observe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">behavior</a>.



The results were clear. Male rats that ejaculated during their first encounter had shorter second digits compared to those that didn’t. 



These males also showed signs of higher sexual drive: they ejaculated more often, did so more quickly, and had stronger erectile function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scent-of-sexual-behavior">The scent of sexual behavior </h2>



To go beyond behavior and look at preference, the researchers ran a simple but telling test. They placed male rats in a cage with two kinds of bedding: one scented by females, and the other by males.



All the male rats initially explored the male-scented bedding. But only those with shorter second digits stayed interested in the female-scented bedding. They sniffed, explored, and spent more time with it - indicating a clear sexual preference.



“While most studies have only linked the digit ratio to morphological sex differences, we noticed a surprising lack of research connecting digit ratio to the biological basis of sex itself - especially sexual activity and preference,” notes Hayashi. “This curiosity marked the start of our study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingers-mirror-brain-wiring">Fingers mirror brain wiring</h2>



Beyond offering insight into rat behavior, the study points to a deeper question: how early hormone exposure shapes the brain in lasting ways.



Before birth, hormone exposure might wire our brains in ways that the 2D:4D ratio later reflects - potentially shaping complex behaviors like sexual orientation or emotional attachment.



“Our results suggest a profound link between the body and mind, with significant scientific and clinical implications,” said Sakamoto. “Simply examining our fingers could one day help identify aspects of our behavioral tendencies.”



The findings also offer a practical model for exploring biological questions that are difficult - or impossible - to study directly in humans. 



Because 2D:4D is also connected to cognitive traits and mental health conditions, this research could help explain sex-based differences in disorders like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/">autism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-gut-bacteria-morganella-morganii-could-cause-depression-not-a-brain-disorder/">depression</a>, or attachment issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-is-not-the-whole-story">Biology is not the whole story</h2>



While the findings are compelling, they also raise important questions. For one, it’s still unclear how well results from rats translate to humans. 



Rats provide a useful model for controlled experiments, but human sexuality is influenced by many layers - cultural, social, psychological - that go far beyond biology.



The researchers also focused only on male rats. Future studies will need to explore whether similar patterns hold true for females, and how other factors like environment or stress interact with digit ratios to shape behavior.



Another key question is causation. Rats with shorter 2D:4D finger ratios tend to show more sexual activity and stronger preferences, but scientists aren’t yet sure whether the digit ratio drives this behavior - or if both stem from shared prenatal influences.



None of this takes away from the value of the study. But it highlights the importance of treating biological markers like 2D:4D as part of a much larger picture. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/expanim/advpub/0/advpub_24-0159/_article" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Experimental Animals</a>.



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Does your finger length predict sexual behavior? A new study says yes

Sexual behavior and preference - whether in humans or animals...

Ants, with their unique genes, outnumber people by roughly 2.5 million to one. Their combined dry mass, about 12 million tons of carbon, rivals one‑fifth of humanity’s weight on land.



An international research team has compared 163 ant genomes to show how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swarm-intelligence-ants-can-anticipate-obstacles-and-plan-ahead/">insects</a> turned cooperative living into an evolutionary engine. They reshuffled DNA while guarding key caste <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2201550119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> for more than 100 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-to-colony-life">Genetic clues to colony life</h2>



Dr. Lukas Schrader of the <a href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Münster</a> helped coordinate the <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00617-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> and still sounds amazed by its scope.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2665839/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles Darwin</a> once fretted over sterile workers, calling them a “special difficulty” because natural selection seemed unable to favor individuals that never breed. 



Inclusive‑fitness theory, formalized in 1964, solved the logic by showing that workers spread their genes by helping sisters.



The new data add genetic proof to that idea: worker‑specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">gene</a> clusters stayed almost identical across lineages, hinting that any mutation hurting brood care was swiftly purged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-colonies-behave-like-bodies">Ant colonies behave like bodies</h2>



Biologists label an ant colony a superorganism because its members behave like cells of one body. 



The new <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674%2825%2900617-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dataset</a> spans army ants with millions of workers, species such as Camponotus japonicus whose queens dwarf their tiniest laborers more than 100‑fold, and even parasites that have lost workers altogether.



Researchers sequenced 145 species from 25 countries and folded in 18 earlier genomes to reach chromosome‑level quality for 17 of them. That’s no small feat when many ants are smaller than a comma.



“The publication is a milestone in our understanding of the molecular and genetic foundations of ants and probably also other social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ants-could-help-stop-the-tree-killing-lanternfly/">insects</a> such as honeybees,” said Schrader.



Across the tree, queen and worker blueprints sit side by side. Yet workers never hatch reproductive organs because development is rerouted by hormones and gene‑regulation circuits embedded in the shared DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-keep-critical-survival-genes">Ants keep critical survival genes</h2>



The study tracked <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/synteny" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synteny</a>, the order of genes along a chromosome. Whole blocks had flipped, fused, or fractured at a rate up to four times that seen in vertebrates. Ant groups with the fastest breakage spawned the most species.



Even so, 970 tiny gene clusters, street blocks in the genetic city, remained frozen across 80 percent of species. Many code for metabolism and caste traits, suggesting that breaking them would cripple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paleontologists-found-the-oldest-ant-species-on-earth-113-million-years-old-with-scythe-like-jaws/">colony</a> function.



One conserved block houses two <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/vitellogenin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vitellogenin genes</a> vital for queen egg yolk and sits unchanged in 148 genomes. Another links fatty‑acid enzymes to worker‑biased expression, underlining how diet and labor intertwine.



Holding those modules steady while the surrounding landscape rearranged let ants explore new lifestyles without losing the caste machinery that keeps colonies alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-decide-jobs-and-stability">Hormones decide jobs and stability</h2>



A single molecule can tip a larva toward royalty or toil. <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2406999121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juvenile hormone</a> has long been that switch, and gene copies for the enzyme <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2134232100" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JHAMT</a> rise in species with extreme queen‑worker size gaps.&nbsp;



Insulin and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm8767" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MAPK signaling</a> join the act. In the jumping ant Harpegnathos, blocking MAPK with the drug trametinib makes workers grow larger, echoing lab findings that this pathway expands ovaries when workers become egg‑laying gamergates.&nbsp;



The new comparison shows MAPK genes under intensified selection in lineages where workers can still replace a queen, but relaxed selection where caste roles are rock‑solid. 



That fits the idea that plastic colonies need fine hormonal tuning, while rigid ones lock their switches.



Hormone receptors for juvenile hormone and insulin sit inside conserved synteny islands. This hints that the entire endocrine toolkit rode through deep time as a connected package.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-genes-shift-with-colony-size">Ant genes shift with colony size</h2>



Bigger colonies and steeper queen‑worker dimorphism marched together in evolution; both correlate with trails, trophallaxis, and worker polymorphism. 



Genes tied to brain development, such as <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=GCM1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GCM</a> and the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/37892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscarinic receptor mAChR‑A</a>, show worker‑type biased activity and signs of adaptive change in species sporting soldiers beside tiny foragers.



Where workers lost ovaries altogether, selection on oogenesis genes like otu relaxed, but those same genes stay under pressure in species whose workers can still lay male eggs.



Social parasites flip the pattern. Workerless inquilines shed odorant‑receptor genes and rack up chromosomal breaks, mirroring their narrow ecological niche and tiny population sizes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-genes-explain-social-evolution">Ant genes explain social evolution</h2>



Many themes, hormonal control, preserved gene neighborhoods, break‑induced innovation, also shape honeybees, wasps, and higher termites. Ants simply had a 150‑million‑year head start, offering a living time machine for social evolution.



Knowing which genes stay linked during caste splits could aid synthetic‑biology efforts that aim to engineer division of labor in microbes or even tissues.



The study also reminds us that nature can be both flexible and conservative: colonies reinvent chromosome layouts yet keep critical circuits intact, a balance worth emulating in adaptive technologies.



Ants may be tiny, but their genomes read like manuals on how cooperation rewires life. Future research will test whether the same genetic choreography repeats whenever individual interests yield to collective success.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00617-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Ant genes show how evolution created perfect teamwork

Ants, with their unique genes, outnumber people by roughly 2.5...

Milk, a staple in countless diets worldwide, now faces an uncertain future. As climate change accelerates, its effects are being felt far beyond melting glaciers and rising seas. 



One of the most troubling consequences is unfolding silently in dairy farms - where heat is becoming an ever-present threat.



Heat stress in cows is not new. Dairy farmers have long dealt with summer slumps in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-shows-that-dairy-milk-cheese-consumption-improves-gut-biodiversity-health/">milk</a> production. But today's climate shifts are not just occasional hurdles. They are becoming regular, intense, and prolonged. 



Scientists now warn that the future of milk production could face irreversible changes, with major impacts on food supplies and farmer livelihoods.



A recent study offers deep insight into this challenge. It reveals that extreme heat reduces milk yields by up to 10 percent, and cooling systems are only partly effective. The results highlight the limits of technology in fighting nature’s heat waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-is-cutting-milk-production">Extreme heat is cutting milk production</h2>



The study examined 320 million daily records from Israeli <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/">dairy</a> farms over 12 years. It shows that extreme humid heat reduces milk yield by up to 10 percent. These effects linger beyond 10 days.



“Climate change will have wide-ranging impacts on what we eat and drink, including that cold glass of milk,” said Eyal Frank, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://harris.uchicago.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harris School of Public Policy</a>.



Even farms with the best technology could only offset less than half of these losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-israeli-farms-offer-global-insights">Israeli farms offer global insights</h2>



Israel's dairy sector uses advanced technology and operates under government-controlled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dairy-farms-can-join-the-climate-fight-by-trapping-methane/">milk</a> prices. 



The researchers gathered data from more than 130,000 cows. They also surveyed 306 farmers on their heat mitigation strategies, including cooling technologies.



“The dairy industry in Israel is a good testbed because farms are scattered throughout the country and experience a wide range of temperatures and humidity that represent conditions for top milk producing countries around the world,” noted Ram Fishman, associate professor of Public Policy at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humid-heat-causes-sharp-milk-declines">Humid heat causes sharp milk declines</h2>



The study shows milk yields fall sharply when wet-bulb temperatures exceed 26°C (78.8°F). Wet-bulb temperature captures both heat and humidity, making it more accurate for gauging heat stress.



When cows face these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-could-carry-deadly-flu-viruses-for-days/">conditions</a>, production drops by nearly 10 percent. It also takes more than 10 days for milk output to recover.



Cooling systems, such as fans and sprinklers, help but lose effectiveness as temperatures rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-helps-but-only-partially">Cooling helps, but only partially</h2>



Cooling equipment can cut losses by about half on moderately hot days. However, on hotter days, this protection weakens.



Farms typically recoup cooling costs within 1.5 years, making it a profitable, though incomplete, solution.



“Dairy farmers are well aware of the negative impacts that heat stress has on their herds, and they use multiple forms of adaptation,” says Ayal Kimhi, associate professor at the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-damage-to-milk">Heat damage to milk </h2>



The researchers discovered that heat’s effects on milk production can last longer than previously believed.



Ten consecutive days of humid heat can reduce yields by up to 26 percent. These prolonged impacts suggest that heat stress accumulates, making recovery slow and difficult.



Some farms also shift calving periods and change feeding schedules to reduce heat impacts. These additional tactics offer slight benefits. Farms using both calving and feed adjustments showed better resilience during extreme heat.



Still, the researchers found that these methods offer limited protection compared to the scale of the problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-heat-will-worsen-milk-shortages">Future heat will worsen milk shortages</h2>



The research models future scenarios for major dairy-producing countries. Without cooling, these nations may lose up to 4 percent of their annual milk production by mid-century.



India, Pakistan, and Brazil face some of the largest losses. Cooling can reduce some of the impact, but not eliminate it.



The study also highlights that even with cooling, losses persist in countries like the United States and China.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-dairy-adaptation">Rethinking dairy adaptation</h2>



The researchers found a clear trade-off. Higher-producing cows suffer more from heat stress.



Milk losses are highest during early lactation stages and among older cows that produce more milk. This trade-off raises concerns about the long-term sustainability of high-output dairy systems.



The study raises questions about current dairy farming practices. Full indoor housing can reduce heat exposure but introduces new problems, like stress from confinement.



“Our research underscores the value and the limitations of cooling technologies and other efforts taken by dairy farmers to adapt to climate change,” said Claire Palandri, a postdoctoral scholar at the Harris School of Public Policy.



Palandri urges policymakers to explore alternative ways to ease heat stress on cows, such as reducing confinement or allowing more natural behaviors, to protect milk production in a warming world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adw4780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Milk prices are rising with the heat around the world due to production issues

Milk, a staple in countless diets worldwide, now faces an...

Phyllium,Is,The,Largest,And,Most,Widespread,Genus,Of,Leaf

In the wild, survival often depends on looks. Some insects evolve disguises that trick their predators into keeping a safe distance. One of the most fascinating examples of this is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/batesian-mimicry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Batesian mimicry</a>, where harmless species mimic dangerous ones.



Predators that are wary of painful stings, or toxic bites, learn to avoid the warning patterns on the bodies of these potential prey species. 



But some other species evolve to copy these signals, despite being completely harmless themselves. This strange dance of deception shapes the appearance of many species worldwide.



Recently, researchers at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nottingham</a> pushed this idea further. They explored how advanced 3D printing technologies can unravel mysteries surrounding mimicry. Their results revealed surprising insights about evolution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">predators</a>, and survival strategies.



This study not only shines a light on insect mimicry but also offers a deeper look at the forces that mold nature’s endless forms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-predators-judge-insect-disguises">How predators judge insect disguises</h2>



The Nottingham team, led by Dr. Tom Reader and Dr. Christopher Taylor, decided to take an experimental leap. They created life-size, 3D-printed models of insects to study how predators respond to different levels of mimicry.



By controlling every aspect of these models - such as shape, color, size, and patterns - they crafted accurate representations of real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">species</a>. These included wasps that are known for their stings, and hoverflies that are famous mimics of wasps.



This approach allowed the scientists to explore a central question: Why do some mimics look almost identical to their models, while others resemble them only vaguely?



With 3D printing, they could manipulate every trait precisely and test how predators react to slight variations. This marked a significant step beyond previous studies that relied on natural specimens alone.



“In our study, we are asking a question about how evolution works and what determines where evolution reaches at a particular point in time," Dr. Reader said.



"Our experiments looked at the competing influences which might ultimately shape what organisms look like. Insects and mimicry offer a powerful and accessible way to investigate questions that are relevant across the entire tree of life,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-and-shape-matter">Color and shape matter</h2>



The team employed cutting-edge imaging tools to scan real wasps and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hoverflies-navigate-by-aligning-their-bodies-with-the-sun/">hoverflies</a>. Then, using advanced morphing software, they modified these images to create insects with varying degrees of accuracy in terms of mimicry.



These experiments allowed the researchers to demonstrate the potential for using modern 3D imaging, along with computer morphing, to design insect models that displayed many different combinations of colors and patterns, shapes and sizes.



“The models enabled us to ask ‘what-if’ questions about these insects. What if they were better mimics because their color was more wasp-like?" said Dr. Taylor.



"It allowed us to play around with the insect’s appearance in a way you can’t with real specimens," he said. "Which meant we could ask a much broader range of questions about what it is that makes a good or bad mimic.”



This experimental flexibility opened new doors for exploring mimicry. The researchers could fine-tune every trait independently and combine them in unexpected ways.



Their key aim was to understand how much precision a mimic needs in order to avoid being eaten. They also wanted to see why poor mimics still manage to survive in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-demand-better-insect-disguises">Birds demand better insect disguises</h2>



In their experiments, the scientists presented their models to real predators in controlled settings. Their main subjects were wild birds, particularly great tits, which rely heavily on sight to identify prey.



The results showed that birds responded strongly to variations in mimicry. They focused mainly on color and size, ignoring finer pattern details.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/insect-imitation_3d-printed-wasps_credit-UNottingham_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/insect-imitation_3d-printed-wasps_credit-UNottingham_1s.webp" alt="3D printed models of a common wasp. The model in front is life-sized. Credit: Dr. Tom Reader (University of Nottingham)" class="wp-image-1976458"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">3D printed models of a common wasp. The model in front is life-sized. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Tom Reader (University of Nottingham)</figcaption></figure>



The birds were quick learners. They soon began to avoid models that looked more like wasps, even if those models were still rewarding to eat.



Interestingly, the team discovered that intermediate mimics, those blending traits of two different wasp models, gained no extra protection. Birds seemed to prefer clear signals over mixed ones, demanding accurate mimicry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sloppy-mimics-still-survive">Sloppy mimics still survive</h2>



While birds proved strict judges, invertebrate predators reacted differently. The team tested crab spiders, jumping spiders, and mantises alongside birds to compare predator responses.



Invertebrates showed less concern about precise mimicry. They tolerated models with poor resemblance and attacked more broadly.



This revealed an important insight: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-can-be-fatal-to-marine-invertebrates/">invertebrates</a> impose weaker pressure on mimics to evolve perfect disguises. Some insects can survive despite their sloppy mimicry if their main threats come from these predators.



This creates a fascinating evolutionary tension. Birds push for more accurate mimics, but invertebrates allow greater variation to persist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-evolution-shapes-insect-disguises">How evolution shapes insect disguises</h2>



A major breakthrough in this study was the creation of an adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">landscape</a> for mimicry. By using their 3D printed models, the team could systematically map how changes in traits affected predator decisions.



They designed smooth transitions between models, allowing them to visualize shifts in predator responses as traits varied. The experiments showed that the landscape was steep for color and size, traits that birds select strongly for, but flatter for other features like pattern.



This landscape explained why some mimics evolve to look highly accurate, while others remain imperfect. It all depends on the types of predators in their environment.



In bird-heavy areas, precise mimicry becomes essential. In areas dominated by invertebrates, imperfect mimics can survive without major risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-future-disguises">Simulating future disguises</h2>



3D modeling and visualization tools allow researchers to create life-size, full-color models of potential past or future hoverflies and then test them with real predators like birds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-adapt-their-webs-to-filter-out-human-made-noise/">spiders</a> to see how they respond to those traits.



“As an evolutionary biologist, you are constantly trying to understand something that happened in the past, and without a time machine you can’t know how a hoverfly ended up like it did, " Dr. Reader said.



This study not only revealed the subtle pressures shaping insect disguises today but also hinted at how those forces may have operated throughout history.



By bridging technology and biology, the team has crafted a remarkable tool for studying evolution. Their work helps explain how nature fine-tunes survival strategies and keeps evolving in unexpected ways.



Their experiments brought new clarity to questions that have puzzled scientists for decades, showing how insect mimicry remains one of nature’s most astonishing tricks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09216-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Mimicry among insects: 3D models reveal how nature's disguises trick predators

In the wild, survival often depends on looks. Some insects...

Thirty‑five millennia may sound like a long time, yet for a mammal, it is practically yesterday. A new study uses whole‑genome data to show that the Norwegian lemming, Lemmus lemmus, split from its Siberian cousin only about 35,000 years ago.



“The Norwegian lemming is a key ecological species in the Fennoscandian tundra. Among other things, it serves as primary food for many predator <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-animals-evolved-in-different-ways-to-beat-the-cold/">species</a>, including some threatened ones such as the Arctic fox,” said David Díez del Molino, a researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics, <a href="https://www.su.se/">Stockholm University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemmings-shape-arctic-life">Lemmings shape Arctic life</h2>



Ecologists have tracked lemming booms and busts for decades because those <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2656.1999.00258.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cycles</a> ripple through the tundra food web, shaping the breeding success of Arctic foxes, owls, and even geese. 



When rodent numbers crash, fox litters shrink, snowy owls skip nesting, and grasses rebound after seasons of heavy grazing.



Unlike most small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/">mammals</a>, Norwegian lemmings overwinter aboveground by tunneling under snow, a habit that keeps them active when many rodents lie low. Their winter wanderings aerate soil, mix plant nutrients, and feed predators during the hungriest months.



During peak years, the species can reach densities of hundreds per acre. Yet its loud squeaks and bold charge‑and‑bite defense make predators think twice, granting the animal an outsized ecological voice relative to its three‑ounce frame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemmings-became-a-separate-species">Lemmings became a separate species</h2>



Researchers compared nine modern and two ancient lemming genomes and found a clean split from the Western Siberian lemming with no evidence of crossbreeding, even in areas where the two meet today. 



That result stands in sharp contrast to polar bears and brown bears, whose DNA still shows <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22517859/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient admixture</a> from repeated hybridization events.



“Our findings indicate that the Norwegian lemming is among the most recently evolved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-otter-day-2025-on-the-front-lines-of-a-habitat-crisis/">mammals</a>, diverging from its sister taxon, the Western Siberian lemming, at a remarkably shallow time depth,” said <a href="https://palaeogenetics.com/people/edana-lord/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Edana Lord</a>, a postdoctoral researcher at the Centre for Palaeogenetics.



The team’s high‑resolution sequencing also resolved relationships within the genus Lemmus, confirming that Eastern Siberian lemmings belong to a separate species and helping clean up a century of contested rodent taxonomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-born-in-an-ice-age">A species born in an ice age</h2>



The divergence date places the split just before the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1172873" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, when ice sheets peaked between roughly 26,500 and 19,000 years ago. 



Glacial barriers likely trapped an ancestral lemming population in a Scandinavian refuge, cutting gene flow with Siberian relatives and setting the stage for rapid speciation.



Once the ice retreated, the newly minted Norwegian lineage expanded westward, but climatic swings had already written separation into the animals’ DNA. Modern population genetics shows no trace of later contact, suggesting that geography and behavior together kept the young species distinct.



Because the entire living population coalesces to a common ancestor only about 6,400 years ago, every Norwegian lemming alive today shares surprisingly shallow roots, a reminder that dramatic evolutionary change can happen fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-blocks-crossbreeding">Color blocks crossbreeding</h2>



Hybridization often lingers for thousands of years after a split, yet these rodents seem to have slammed the door shut. 



One reason may be their vivid black‑and‑yellow coat, a pattern that functions as an <a href="https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/aposematism-warning-signals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aposematic warning</a> and an instant badge of identity, reducing mating mistakes with the drab Siberian form.



Aggressive ritual boxing, loud chirps, and high‑speed chases further isolate the species by favoring individuals that court their own kind and bully outsiders away from snow burrows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-that-power-survival">Genes that power survival</h2>



Sequencing uncovered unique changes in the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3093193/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LYST pigment gene</a> that help produce the lemming’s splashy jacket, a mutation class also linked to altered melanosome function in laboratory mice. 



The same region shows signs of a recent selective sweep, hinting at strong predator‑driven pressure for conspicuous colors.



Other <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30006135/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mutations</a> appear in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/53630" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BCO1</a>, <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/apob/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APOB</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=RELCH" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RELCH</a> - genes involved in fat transport and storage; in mice, knocking out BCO1 triggers fatty‑liver disease and shifts cholesterol pathways. Extra‑efficient lipid metabolism may keep lemmings fueled through subzero winters when seeds are scarce.



The researchers also found clusters of rapidly evolving olfactory receptor genes, suggesting that a refined sense of smell guides the rodents through deep snow tunnels to mates, food, and lurking stoats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-arctic-mammals">Lessons for Arctic mammals</h2>



Climate upheaval can spin off new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquatic-robot-inspired-by-flatworms-can-swim-in-harmony-with-nature/">species</a> in a geological blink, and the lemming’s youth underscores how quickly isolation plus selection can rewrite a mammal’s genetic blueprint. 



Similar patterns play out in Arctic whales, foxes, and hares as shrinking ice opens and closes migration corridors.



“This work represents a big step in our understanding of lemming speciation and evolution,” said Love Dalén, a professor in <a href="https://utbildning.su.se/english/education/course-catalogue/bl/bl7082" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Genomics at Stockholm University</a>. 



Professor Dalén noted that tracing ancient DNA in more Pleistocene specimens could reveal exactly when each adaptive mutation took hold.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424333122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



 n

How Norwegian lemmings rapidly evolved into a new species

Thirty‑five millennia may sound like a long time, yet for...

Poke around a British rockpool and you may spot a shell shuffling over the sand. Inside is a hermit crab - an animal that spends much of its life testing the outside world before deciding whether it is safe to venture forth.



New research from the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a> reveals that the speed of that decision, a trait biologists call boldness, hinges on a crab’s built-in sensory toolkit.



The study focuses on microscopic hair-like structures called sensilla that pepper the claws of Pagurus bernhardus, a common UK species.



By counting those hairs on dozens of individuals and matching the totals to behavior in the lab, the team discovered a clear pattern: more sensilla equals faster recovery from a startle response. 



Hermit crabs so equipped are not only bolder, they are also more predictable - showing similar, rapid emergence times across repeated tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-crab-response-times">Measuring crab response times</h2>



The experiment began with a simple but telling ritual. Researchers placed each crab in a small tank and gently startled it with a puff of water or a light tap on the shell.



That cue mimics the sudden pressure wave generated by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-caused-a-mass-extinction-of-top-marine-predators/">predator</a> or rolling wave, prompting the animal to yank its legs and antennae inside its borrowed shell. The team then timed how long it took for eye stalks and claws to reappear.



About a third of a second is considered lightning fast in hermit-crab terms; several minutes, positively timid. Over repeated trials, certain individuals consistently clocked shorter hideouts, indicating a stable personality trait rather than random chance.



“I was especially intrigued by how they used their claws and other sensory appendages, such as their antennae, in their explorations and when re-emerging from their shell,” said lead author Ari Drummond, a PhD student at the University of Plymouth.



That curiosity led to the hunch that claws might act as information-gathering probes, letting crabs “sniff” the water for chemical cues or feel subtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-ocean-currents-play-a-huge-role-in-earths-climate/">currents</a> that betray lurking threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-claw-molts-reveal-sensors">Claw molts reveal sensors</h2>



Linking behavior to anatomy required patience. Hermit crabs, like all crustaceans, periodically molt. During this process, they shed the outer exoskeleton, including the thin cuticle covering each sensillum.



Drummond and colleagues waited for each test subject to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-reveal-new-clues-about-arthropod-evolution/">molt</a> naturally, collected the discarded claw tissue, and examined it under a scanning electron microscope.



The high-resolution images looked like alien landscapes - ridged terrain studded with evenly spaced bristles. Each bristle is a sensillum, connected to nerve cells that detect touch, water movement, or dissolved chemicals.



By tracing and counting every sensillum in the images, the team created a detailed sensory map for each crab. This noninvasive method marked a major advance over earlier studies, which often required removing limbs.



Analysis revealed striking variation: some claws sported 50 percent more sensilla than others of similar size. When the researchers plotted those numbers against startle data, the trend became unmistakable. Bolder hermit crabs have more sensilla on the claw surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bolder-crabs-have-more-hairs">Bolder crabs have more hairs</h2>



Why would extra sensory hairs translate into courage? The authors propose that better input reduces uncertainty. With richer information about water chemistry or microcurrents, a crab can judge threats more accurately and resume foraging sooner. 



That efficiency, in turn, may feed back into survival and reproductive success, favoring individuals who “invest” in sensory hardware.



They call the concept the “sensory investment syndrome.” It’s a hypothesis linking an animal’s personality - here, boldness - to the resources it allocates to senses. If confirmed across other species, it could reshape how biologists think about behavioral diversity in nature.



“We’ve known for a long time that individual animals of the same species can show consistent behavioral differences from one another,” said senior author Mark Briffa, a professor at Plymouth. 



“Our new research suggests that in hermit crabs, some of this variation may be linked to how individuals sense the world around them.”



In his opinion, similar mechanisms might operate in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">insects</a>, fish, or even mammals, where variation in eye size, whisker density, or olfactory receptors could underpin consistent behavioral tendencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-survival-starts-with-sensing">Crab survival starts with sensing</h2>



Hermit crabs face mounting challenges: coastal pollution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/">rising temperatures</a>, and habitat disturbance all alter the sensory landscape of rockpools. Understanding how these creatures sense and decide may reveal which populations are most at risk from environmental change.



“In a world where environments and species are increasingly at risk from human impacts, it is essential that we gain a better understanding of what information animals detect, how they use that information and then respond to stay alive,” Drummond said.



Future work will test what each sensillum detects and whether diet, growth, or shell choice affects hair abundance. 



For now, the takeaway is clear: in the miniature dramas playing out between tide and shore, knowledge is power - delivered through a forest of microscopic hairs on a tiny claw.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0932">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Microscopic hairs drive courage in hermit crabs

Poke around a British rockpool and you may spot a...

Bees have long been admired for their delicate beauty and essential role in pollination. These small creatures, however, face growing challenges from their environment. 



Rising temperatures and pollution continue to reshape bee behavior in unexpected ways. Recent research is unveiling surprising links between environmental changes and the subtle buzzes bees produce.



These quiet vibrations are more than just background noise. They hold deep meaning for the survival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">bees</a> and the ecosystems they support. As environmental pressures increase, understanding these sounds becomes even more important. 



Researchers are now focusing on how changes in temperature and exposure to heavy metals affect these essential vibrations. The findings offer insight into the hidden world of bee communication and pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-power-of-bee-muscles">Hidden power of bee muscles</h2>



Bees are renowned for their efficient flight. Their wings beat rapidly, allowing them to hover and move gracefully between flowers. However, not many know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-invasion-a-growing-threat-to-native-pollinators/">bees</a> also use their flight muscles for other important tasks.



“People have been long interested in how insect flight muscles work, as these muscles power the most efficient flight systems in nature,” said Dr. Charlie Woodrow, a post-doctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>. “However, many do not know that bees use these muscles for functions other than flight.”



These non-flight muscle vibrations help in several key behaviors. Bees use them for communication within the hive, to ward off threats, and during a special kind of pollination known as buzz pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-buzz-flowers-to-collect-pollen">Bees buzz flowers to collect pollen</h2>



Buzz pollination stands out as one of the most fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bumble-bees-are-sabotaging-their-own-health/">behaviors</a> in the insect world. It is a process where bees vibrate their bodies to dislodge pollen from certain types of flowers.



“Buzz pollination is an incredible behavior whereby a bee will curl its body around the pollen-concealing anthers of some flowers, and contract the flight muscles up to 400 times per second to produce vibrations which shake the pollen loose,” said Dr. Woodrow.



This act requires great energy and precision. The buzzing shakes the flower at exactly the right frequency, releasing the trapped pollen. 



Dr. Woodrow and his team aim to understand how these vibrations vary between species and environmental conditions. They hope to uncover how these differences affect pollination success and bee behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-to-study-bee-buzzing">Tools to study bee buzzing</h2>



To explore these mysteries, Dr. Woodrow’s team turned to advanced technology. They studied buff-tailed bumblebees (Bombus terrestris), a common species found across Europe. These bees are ideal subjects because they are well-researched and easily handled.



Using accelerometers, the researchers measured the frequency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farms-and-meadows-can-help-save-wild-bees/">buzzing</a>. This frequency corresponds to the pitch of the sound we can hear.



“They are super easy to use in the field,” said Dr. Woodrow. “We press these against the thorax of the bee, or against the flower the bee is visiting, and we can record the vibrations the bee produces.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bees-handle-buzzing-heat">How bees handle buzzing heat</h2>



Beyond vibration measurements, the team also used thermal imaging to understand how bees manage heat during buzzing. This approach allowed them to observe how bees balance their body temperature while performing demanding tasks.



“We have also been using high-speed filming to uncover never before seen behaviors,” said Dr. Woodrow. “For example, we recently discovered that bees don’t just vibrate on flowers, but they periodically transmit these vibrations to flowers by biting.”



These unexpected discoveries reveal how much remains hidden in the world of bees. They also highlight the importance of studying these creatures in detail, especially as the climate warms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-role-of-temperature">Hidden role of temperature</h2>



One of the most surprising findings from Dr. Woodrow’s research involves temperature. His experiments showed that temperature has a much stronger impact on buzzing than scientists had previously realised.



“We have recently found that temperature plays a vital role, much more than was previously appreciated, and this work is currently in review for publication,” said Dr. Woodrow. 



“This has many implications for how we study buzz-pollination, as temperature is not really something that has been considered up to this point.”



This insight could reshape how pollination research is conducted in the future, as temperature clearly affects buzzing behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-changes-bee-buzzing">Pollution changes bee buzzing</h2>



In addition to temperature, pollution also affects bee vibrations. Dr. Woodrow teamed up with Dr. Sarah Scott from <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Newcastle University</a> to investigate how heavy metals influence buzzing.



The experiments showed that heavy metal exposure reduces buzzing frequency during non-flight activities. 



Surprisingly, when the researchers tested bees in Arctic regions compared to those further south, they found no difference in the temperature’s effects on buzzing.



This suggests that internal muscle physiology may govern buzzing traits more than local adaptation does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-monitor-bee-health">A new way to monitor bee health</h2>



The research offers exciting possibilities beyond academic study. Understanding how environmental changes alter buzzing can reveal much about bee health and behavior. This knowledge can also improve technology designed to detect bee species using sound.



“Perhaps buzzes could even be used as a marker of stress or environmental change,” said Dr. Woodrow. “For example, we now know that certain environmental pollutants can affect the buzzes bees produce, so they could even serve as an indicator of ecosystem health.”



Monitoring bee buzzes could help identify species at risk and provide early warnings about environmental threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-buzzing-changes-may-harm-bees">Buzzing changes may harm bees</h2>



The potential risks from disrupted buzzing extend beyond bees. Dr. Woodrow points out that changes in buzzing could damage several aspects of bee life.



“It is important we understand how these changes will affect non-flight buzzes because they are responsible for so many aspects of a bee’s ecology,” said Dr. Woodrow. 



“If these vibrations are disrupted, this could lead to poor communication in the colony, inefficient thermoregulation, or poor resource acquisition for their offspring.”



This disruption could limit pollination, affecting plant reproduction and biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-heat-may-shift-bee-behavior">Rising heat may shift bee behavior</h2>



One particularly worrying result relates to the combination of high temperatures and energy costs.



“For example, buzz-pollination is energetically expensive and causes the bee to generate metabolic heat - therefore if the environment gets too warm, it may simply choose to avoid buzz-pollinated flowers,” noted Dr. Woodrow.



This behavioral change could weaken entire ecosystems, as many plants rely on bees for pollination. If bees avoid these plants, pollination rates could drop sharply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-research-and-technology">Future of research and technology</h2>



While these findings raise concerns, they also point toward future innovation. Dr. Woodrow’s team is working on applying their research to robotics.



“We are working towards understanding bee vibrations through micro-robotics, so our results are also going towards developing micro-robots to understand pollen release,” said Dr. Woodrow.



This cross-disciplinary work may someday help protect pollination services by mimicking bee buzzing with machines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-to-protect-pollinators">Urgent need to protect pollinators</h2>



These discoveries will be shared at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society for Experimental Biology Annual Conference</a> in Antwerp, Belgium, on July 8, 2025. 



The findings show that bees face increasing challenges from environmental shifts, but they also present new tools to help understand and protect them.



As temperatures climb and pollutants spread, paying attention to the quiet buzz of bees could become more important than ever. Their tiny vibrations may hold the key to preserving plant life, biodiversity, and our shared future.



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Heat and pollution are changing the buzz of bees

Bees have long been admired for their delicate beauty and...

Koalas are everywhere on postcards and souvenirs. People think of them as calm animals sleeping in trees. But life isn’t simple for koalas anymore.



Their numbers keep dropping across Australia. Habitat loss, disease, and land clearing cause serious damage. Many forests are now small patches surrounded by roads and buildings.



Most people don’t realize how risky it is for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-face-critical-threats-from-disease-and-habitat-loss/">koalas</a> when they leave trees. New research now shows something alarming. Koalas spend only about ten minutes a day on the ground, but those short minutes cause almost two-thirds of all recorded koala deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-risk-lives-when-leaving-trees">Koalas risk lives when leaving trees</h2>



Gabriella Sparkes, a PhD student at the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a>, wanted to gain a better understanding of koala behavior.



“Koalas are mostly tree-dwelling, but due to extensive land clearing, they’re increasingly forced to travel on the ground, which puts them at serious risk of injury and death,” said Sparkes. “I wanted to better understand what koalas do during these ground movements.”



Vehicles and dogs kill most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-can-predict-hot-days-and-adjust-their-body-temperature/">koalas</a> while they walk on the ground. Even though this danger is known, many details about their movements remained unknown.



“We don’t yet have a clear understanding of how often koalas come down from trees, how far or fast they move, how long they stay on the ground, or what influences those decisions,” noted Sparkes. 



“These are critical knowledge gaps if we want to identify high-risk areas or times and develop strategies to reduce threats during these vulnerable moments.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-koalas-in-their-habitats">Tracking koalas in their habitats</h2>



Sparkes and her team used special collars on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/">wild</a> koalas. These collars had GPS trackers and sensors called accelerometers.



The GPS recorded their locations every five minutes. When koalas started walking on the ground, the system switched to record every five seconds. 



The sensors measured their movements in detail. They showed if a koala was walking, sitting, or climbing.



“When paired with GPS tracks, this gives us an incredibly detailed view of how koalas move through their habitat,” said Sparkes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-prefer-staying-in-trees">Koalas prefer staying in trees </h2>



The results were clear. Koalas prefer staying in trees. They sleep, eat, and rest there most of the time. The researchers were surprised by how rarely koalas use the ground.



“What surprised us was how infrequently and briefly they use the ground—just 2-3 times per night, averaging around 10 minutes in total, or less than 1% of their day,” says Ms. Sparkes.



Koalas only climb down when they need to move between trees. But when trees are far apart, ground travel becomes unavoidable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-koalas-move-slowly-between-trees">Koalas move slowly between trees</h2>



People often think <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/">animals</a> move quickly when they’re in danger. But this research showed that koalas don’t rush. They move slowly and pause often. They spend almost as much time sitting as they do walking.



“They spent nearly as much time sitting and pausing as they did walking, and only about 7% of their time on the ground was spent bounding,” said Sparkes. 



“This may indicate that koalas are carefully assessing their environment as they move, possibly evaluating trees before selecting one to climb, or it may reflect the energetic costs of bounding.”



Koalas may need to check for safety before climbing a tree. They might also avoid fast movements to save energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ways-to-keep-koalas-safe">Ways to keep koalas safe</h2>



This study, which was the first to track fine details of ground movement in wild koalas, has revealed clear risks and raised more questions. Sparkes and her team now study what makes koalas stay longer in trees.



“We’re now looking at environmental features that influence how long koalas stay in trees,” said Sparkes. 



“If we can identify the kinds of trees or habitat conditions that encourage koalas to remain in trees for longer, we may be able to design or manage landscapes in ways that reduce the need for ground travel.”



The goal is to find trees that keep koalas off the ground. The researchers also wanted to see if certain habitats lower the need for risky movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-can-help-koalas-survive">Small changes can help koalas survive</h2>



The team hopes their research can guide better conservation work. They suggest keeping tree canopies connected and reducing the space between trees.



Simple actions like planting the right trees may help. Koalas need safer, connected habitats to avoid ground travel.



“This research is just one piece of the puzzle, but it adds an important layer to our understanding of how koalas interact with increasingly human-altered environments,” said Sparkes.



The findings will be presented at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org/">Society for Experimental Biology</a> Annual Conference in Antwerp, Belgium, in July.



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Most koalas don’t survive after leaving the safety of trees

Koalas are everywhere on postcards and souvenirs. People think of...

Anyone who has ever stopped on a busy street because a cluster of strangers were gazing at the sky knows how contagious attention can be. Humans aren’t the only species drawn into looking where others look.



A new study has shown that pigeons also track the gaze of their flockmates. The number of birds already looking determines how strongly the behavior spreads.



The research was led by Fumihiro Kano and Mathilde Delacoux at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-cues-guide-attention">Social cues guide attention</h2>



“Many animals, including humans, tend to look where others are looking. This is called gaze following,” said Delacoux. “It’s a simple but important way of sharing attention and learning from others.”



In the 1960s, social psychologist Stanley Milgram famously demonstrated what he called the “quorum effect” in people. If only one or two individuals stare at a building’s roof, most passers-by ignore them. But as the crowd of sky-watchers grows, almost everyone stops and looks up.



Previous animal studies confirmed that birds such as ravens, starlings, geese, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/">penguins</a> follow another’s gaze. Yet those experiments almost always involved a pair of birds. 



The Konstanz team wanted to know whether flock size changes the equation for species that live in large groups.



According to Delacoux, pigeons are well-suited to this task because they typically form relatively large flocks, where individuals are usually surrounded by multiple conspecifics. 



"In such flocks, following another’s gaze should be beneficial for key activities such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/">foraging</a> and vigilance," noted Delacoux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-gaze-with-flocks">Studying gaze with flocks</h2>



To test the idea, the researchers used a state-of-the-art barn near Lake Constance. Two groups of pigeons were placed face-to-face.



One group had an unobstructed view of a gently moving object designed to catch their attention; the other group’s view was blocked by a screen. 



Sophisticated cameras recorded every head movement from several angles, letting the scientists pinpoint to the millisecond when each pigeon oriented toward the hidden object.



The experiment was repeated with various “informed” group sizes. Sometimes just one pigeon could see the object; other times three, five, or more birds had the privileged view. 



The question was whether - and how quickly - the uninformed pigeons would swivel their heads to match the gaze of their companions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-spreads-with-flock-size">Gaze spreads with flock size</h2>



The results confirmed that pigeons do notice and copy the direction of others’ attention. However, the effect depended heavily on group size. When a lone pigeon stared, few flockmates joined in.



As the number of gazing birds climbed, more and more uninformed birds aligned their vision the same way. 



Unlike Milgram’s human crowds, the researchers did not find a sharp cut-off - no fixed “quorum” that suddenly triggered mass participation. Instead, the likelihood of following grew steadily with each additional pigeon already looking.



Thus, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/">birds</a> responded to collective cues, they did so on a sliding scale rather than an all-or-nothing basis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-pigeon-mind">Understanding the pigeon mind</h2>



Does gaze following in groups mean pigeons understand that their neighbors possess knowledge they lack? Delacoux is cautious. 



“I would not assume that their behavior means any more than that they are just following the gazes of others,” he said.



The birds did not reposition themselves to get a clearer view, for example, a move one might expect if they inferred what another bird could see. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pigeons_gaze_eye-motion_observers_illustration_credit-UKonstanz_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pigeons_gaze_eye-motion_observers_illustration_credit-UKonstanz_1s.webp" alt="Test setup in the high-tech barn: The pigeons are divided into two groups. Only one group (&quot;demonstrators&quot;) sees the moving object. Does the second group (&quot;observers&quot;) now follow the gaze of their peers? Credit: Mathilde Delacoux" class="wp-image-1977083"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Test setup in the high-tech barn: The pigeons are divided into two groups. Only one group ("demonstrators") sees the moving object. Does the second group ("observers") now follow the gaze of their peers? Click image to enlarge. Credit: Mathilde Delacoux</figcaption></figure>



The researchers interpret the response as largely reflexive - an efficient rule of thumb in flock life, rather than evidence of higher-order perspective-taking.



Still, the study illuminates how pigeons use social information. “Now, we know pigeons don’t just copy their flockmates' gaze; they modulate their gaze-following behavior depending on how many peers give a gaze cue,” Kano said. “They respond to a collective cue.”



In other words, a single bird’s glance carries little weight, but a chorus of looks quickly draws the rest of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flocking-dynamics-inspire-advancements-in-technology/">flock</a>’s attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-in-social-animals">Gaze in social animals</h2>



The findings underscore the value of studying animals in the social settings where they evolved. As Kano argued, “many animals evolved in groups. To truly understand how they think and communicate, we need to study them in groups, too.”



By mapping the subtle ways that group size shapes behavior, the researchers add a new layer to our understanding of how animals share information and make collective decisions. 



Such insights may apply well beyond pigeons, offering clues to the social cognition of many flocking or herding species, and even echoing back to the street-corner instincts of our own species.



The full study can be found in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004225011186" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Pigeons exhibit the same behavior as humans by following the gaze of others in their flock

Anyone who has ever stopped on a busy street because...

Chimpanzees are showing us that culture isn't just about tools or survival. A new study at a sanctuary in Zambia has revealed something remarkable. Several chimpanzees began to copy each other by dangling blades of grass from their ears or behinds, for no clear reason. 



The unexpected behavior appeared only in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-chimpanzee-mothers-raise-babies-more-successfully/">groups</a>, despite all living in similar environments.



“This shows that, like humans, other animals also copy seemingly pointless behaviors from one another,” said <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a> researcher Edwin van Leeuwen. “And that, in turn, may offer insights into the evolutionary roots of human culture.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mimicking-others-without-clear-purpose">Mimicking others, without clear purpose</h2>



People often copy odd trends like shaving eyebrow lines or dressing their pets. These habits spread fast but serve no obvious function.



In animals, copying usually relates to survival. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/">Chimps</a> teach each other how to crack nuts or fish for termites. But sometimes, animals embrace habits that seem to lack any benefit. Orcas wearing dead salmon as hats is one recent example.



This study focuses on such non-functional behaviors, rarely explored in depth. Back in 2010, a chimpanzee named Julie at <a href="https://www.chimfunshiwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage</a> Trust started putting grass in her ear. Soon, seven others followed. Even after Julie’s death, her group kept the habit.



Researchers saw this as a cultural tradition, as it remained confined to her group and persisted over years. The behavior looked more like a fashion statement than a survival tactic.



Years later, another group at the same sanctuary began doing the same. They had no contact with Julie’s group, ruling out direct copying. Five out of eight chimps in the new group copied the grass-in-ear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-curiosity-starts-young-and-helps-us-survive/">behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-copying-an-odd-trend">Chimpanzees copying an odd trend</h2>



In an unexpected twist, the new group added a unique spin. Six chimps began inserting grass into their behinds, letting it dangle freely. Scientists named this “grass-in-rectum behavior.”



The researchers closely observed the spread of both habits. In August 2023, a chimp named Juma was the first to do both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-use-rhythmic-drumming-to-communicate-in-forests/">behaviors</a>. 



Within a week, four others copied the grass-in-ear trick. Within six weeks, five others copied the grass-in-rectum behavior. This happened without external prompting or visible irritation in their ears or behinds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-social-learning">Evidence of social learning</h2>



The researchers analyzed how these behaviors spread within the groups. They used a statistical method called Network-Based Diffusion Analysis (NBDA).



The analysis showed that both behaviors spread mainly through social learning. In fact, over 80% of the chimps adopted them through copying others. Social ties strongly predicted who picked up the habits first.



Interestingly, even new chimps integrated into the group later copied the grass-in-ear habit within months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-may-copy-humans">Chimpanzees may copy humans</h2>



The researchers also considered the role of humans. Both chimp groups with these behaviors shared the same caregivers. 



The caregivers sometimes cleaned their ears with grass or sticks. Other groups with different caregivers did not develop such habits.



“The chimps in the one group then figured out to stick the blade of grass in another place as well,” said Van Leeuwen.



In the wild, such trends are absent among chimpanzees. Captivity offers more free time and fewer survival pressures. That might explain why chimps experiment with odd habits there.



“Why they do exactly this particular thing, I’m not really concerned about. But them copying the behaviour from each other, that is the important insight,” noted Van Leeuwen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-human-culture">Lessons for human culture</h2>



Some scientists think humans evolved culturally because we copy tiny details, even useless ones. Animals supposedly cannot do this, yet the study suggests otherwise.



“Our study shows that chimpanzees are able to copy small, useless behaviors from each other,” said Jake Brooker from Durham University. “That is why we felt it was important to share these new observations.”



Van Leeuwen’s team noted that these behaviors may not be entirely useless. They might serve as social signals.



“It could also serve a social purpose. By copying someone else’s behavior, you show that you notice and maybe even like that individual. So, it might help strengthen social bonds and create a sense of belonging within the group, just like it does in humans,” said Van Leeuwen.



The researchers also suggest these behaviors may reflect a deep social drive. Young chimps often form alliances and bonds through mimicry. In this case, lower-ranking males copied higher-ranking ones, likely to gain approval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-may-copy-for-social-reasons">Chimps may copy for social reasons</h2>



Scientists propose that copying odd behaviors might help chimps integrate socially. Just like humans, they may copy group norms to build trust and reduce conflict.



One theory, the Zone of Proximal Acquisition, suggests that animals copy behaviors they can already physically perform but haven’t yet tried in that exact way. The grass behaviors fit this model well.



Another theory, the Zone of Bounded Surprisal, suggests animals are drawn to behaviors that surprise them yet feel familiar. Chimps already examine each other’s behinds frequently, making this behavior more noticeable and likely to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-have-complex-social-lives">Chimps have complex social lives</h2>



The findings challenge long-held views about animals’ cultural limits. Chimps show they can adopt unusual, non-functional behaviors through social learning. Whether these habits offer hidden social benefits remains to be seen.



Still, the very act of copying and passing down such behaviors highlights the complexity of animal cultures. It suggests that even seemingly pointless acts may hold value in the social lives of chimpanzees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/aop/article-10.1163-1568539X-bja10313/article-10.1163-1568539X-bja10313.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Behaviour</a>.



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Chimpanzees copy strange, useless trends just like humans do

Chimpanzees are showing us that culture isn't just about tools...

Two small, sand‑colored nymphs of the seldom‑seen mayfly Behningia baei surfaced from the Mae Chaem River in northern Thailand during a December 2024 field survey. 



The find ends a 22‑year drought of sightings and puts the insect back on scientists’ maps after generations of silence in entomological records.



Until now the species, first described in 2006 from a site about 250 miles to the south, had vanished from every subsequent expedition. 



The rediscovery team was led by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sedtawut-Kwanboon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sedtawut Kwanboon</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Boonsatien-Boonsoong" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boonsatien Boonsoong</a> of <a href="https://www.ku.ac.th/en/community-home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kasetsart University</a>, Bangkok.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-behningia-was-in-the-sand">Why Behningia was in the sand</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/mayfly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mayfly</a> work chases fluttering adults, yet the Thai team instead scuffed the riverbed with kick nets, stirring up juveniles hidden like grains of rice in the fine sediment. 



Burrowing youngsters cling to loose sand where sunlight and predators rarely reach, making them easier to sample than their airborne parents.



After hours of microscope work, every mandible, leg, and gill on the two specimens matched the 2006 description of B. baei. High‑resolution images confirmed the identity beyond doubt.



“These new data about the geographic and habitat distributions of behningiid mayflies helps to fill knowledge gaps and improves our ability to address conservation issues surrounding these rarely seen mayflies, not only in Thailand but also globally,” wrote Boonsatien Boonsoong. 



The quote hints at how a single rediscovery can redraw conservation priorities far beyond one stream.



The <a href="https://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g790338-Mae_Chaem-Vacations.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mae Chaem site</a> sits about 1,350 feet above sea level and 250 miles north of the original locality in <a href="https://www.tourismthailand.org/Destinations/Provinces/Phitsanulok/112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phitsanulok Province</a>. That span suggests the insect occupies more rivers than anyone ever suspected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sand-dwelling-mayflies">Sand‑dwelling mayflies</h2>



Mayflies move the energy stored in algae to fish, birds, and other animals. They achieve this by grazing as juveniles and then by becoming prey along nearly every link of the freshwater food web.



Because nymphs breathe through exposed gills, they suffocate in low‑oxygen or polluted streams, so biologists use their numbers as a living <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70195672" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water‑quality score</a>. 



Locating B. baei confirms that the Mae Chaem reach still carries clean, oxygen‑rich water over stable sand.



While every mayfly supports predators, sand‑burrowing families such as Behningiidae also churn and aerate the top inch of sediment. Their digging loosens grains and speeds nutrient exchange, turning them into tiny ecosystem engineers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behningia-s-life-measured-in-hours">Behningia's life measured in hours</h2>



Mayflies belong to the order <a href="https://bugguide.net/node/view/78" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ephemeroptera</a>, a name that nods to adult lives frequently shorter than a single day. Most adult mayflies survive only 48–72 hours, with some species lasting barely ninety minutes.



The champion of brevity, the North American <a href="https://georgiabiodiversity.org/portal/profile?group=all&amp;es_id=21325" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dolania americana</a>, holds the record at under five minutes for adult females. Such fleeting adulthood explains why researchers almost never catch rarities like B. baei on the wing.



By focusing on juveniles, the Thai team sidestepped that scheduling nightmare. The method also avoids killing breeding adults, an ethical bonus when populations appear thin.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-thought-extinct-for-85-years-reappears-in-himalayan-river-chel-snakehead/">rediscovery</a> underscores how insect timelines differ from human ambitions. Two decades to us equal perhaps twenty complete life cycles for B. baei, enough time for habitats to vanish or rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-rediscovery-tells-conservationists">What the rediscovery tells conservationists</h2>



Thailand lists more than 300 mayfly species, yet only one other Behningia species, <a href="https://publication.plazi.org/GgServer/html/E47AD7D9ECE556F7863FE00403810630/3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Protobehningia merga</a>, was previously noted in the Mae Chaem basin. Finding both taxa in one river shows that fine‑sand beds remain a refuge worth guarding.



The study’s distribution map extends B. baei nearly 250 miles northward, hinting that tropical Behningiidae can tolerate cooler upland currents. That clue will guide future surveys toward similar sandy reaches.



River managers in Southeast Asia often focus on charismatic megafauna, but tiny <a href="https://www.macroinvertebrates.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">macroinvertebrate</a> indicators flag trouble years earlier. Adding routine kick‑net checks to water‑quality programs could save money and species alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-behningia-baei">What's next for Behningia baei</h2>



Kwanboon plans DNA bar‑coding of the two specimens to confirm there is no cryptic sibling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/">species</a> hiding under the same name. He also hopes to sample neighboring tributaries before the next monsoon blankets sites in turbid runoff.



Meanwhile, the team is training local students to run simple kick‑net protocols so discoveries will not depend on brief visits by city scientists. Community observers could turn rare rediscoveries into routine data points.



Sand bars, often overlooked by conservation rules, shelter specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-found-to-have-a-sixth-sense-gecko-hearing-vibrations-changing-science-view-of-sound/">animals</a> that vanish if substrates shift even a few inches. Keeping those substrates stable may prove as vital as controlling chemical pollutants.



For a creature that spends most of its life buried and the rest aloft on borrowed minutes, reappearing after two decades is indeed dramatic. Yet the authors treat it as the first chapter of a longer investigation, not the final page.



The study is published in <a href="https://checklist.pensoft.net/article/148597/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Check List</a>.



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Rare insect that was thought to be extinct for 20 years was rediscovered

Two small, sand‑colored nymphs of the seldom‑seen mayfly Behningia baei...

species in Proserpinidae

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