A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

Hope isn’t just a nice feeling - it is a lifeline. While happiness and gratitude often get the spotlight in discussions around well-being, new research shows that hope might be even more important. 



A recent study from researchers at the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri</a> challenges long-held assumptions about hope. It’s not about wishful thinking - hope gives life depth, purpose, and direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-powerful-emotional-force">A powerful emotional force </h2>



For years, hope has been primarily linked to motivation and setting goals. But this latest research suggests that there’s something deeper going on. 



Hope is not just about achieving things. It’s a powerful emotional force that helps us feel like our lives matter.



Study lead author Megan Edwards earned a doctorate at Mizzou and is now a postdoctoral scholar at Duke University.



"Our research shifts the perspective on hope from merely a cognitive process related to goal attainment to recognizing it as a vital emotional experience that enriches life's meaning," said Edwards. "This insight opens new avenues for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-boosted-psychological-well-being-during-covid-19-lockdown/">psychological well-being</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-isn-t-a-luxury-it-s-essential">Hope isn’t a luxury - it’s essential</h2>



The study, conducted in the Department of Psychological Sciences, included six experiments and more than 2,300 participants from different backgrounds. 



The team looked at a wide range of positive emotions - amusement, excitement, contentment, happiness. But again and again, one emotion stood out.



Only hope consistently predicted a stronger sense of meaning in life. This isn’t just an abstract idea. Feeling like your life has meaning has real-world effects. It’s tied to better relationships, improved physical health, higher income, and greater emotional well-being.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-often-undervalue-the-most-meaningful-experiences-in-life/">Experiencing life as meaningful</a> is crucial for just about every good thing you can imagine in a person's life,” said study co-author Professor Laura King.



“This cornerstone of psychological functioning is not a rare experience - it is available to people in their everyday lives and hope is one of the things that make life feel meaningful.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-hope-apart">What sets hope apart</h2>



So what sets hope apart from other positive emotions? It isn’t just about feeling good in the moment - it’s about feeling like tomorrow might be better than today.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-happiness-come-from-it-depends-on-who-you-are/">Happiness</a>, for example, is often tied to what’s happening right now. A fun event, a compliment, a good day. 



Gratitude reflects on what has already happened - what you’ve received or survived. But hope is forward-looking. It lives in possibility, and that’s what gives it power.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-through-the-tough-times">Getting through the tough times</h2>



Hope helps people move through hard times, not by pretending things are perfect, but by allowing them to imagine that things could improve. 



It’s that sense of potential - even when things are rough - that keeps people going. Hope is what helps someone apply for a job after a rejection, try again after a setback, or get out of bed when life feels heavy.



And unlike fleeting moments of happiness, hope can stick around. It can grow quietly, even in tough conditions, shaping how we see our lives and what we believe is possible.



This emotional staying power might explain why hope plays such a strong role in shaping how meaningful life feels. It’s not just a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-improve-mood-and-productivity/">mood</a> - it’s a mindset. One that’s deeply connected to resilience, purpose, and mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-build-hope-daily">Simple ways to build hope daily</h2>



You don’t need a big life overhaul to build hope. The researchers suggest simple, practical habits that can make a real difference. 



Start by noticing the good moments - even something as small as a peaceful morning or a kind gesture. These small wins remind us that things can go right.



In chaotic times, look for small chances to move forward. Even tiny steps can help you feel more in control. 



Recognize and celebrate progress - in yourself and others. Whether it’s healing, learning something new, or simply getting through a tough week, every step forward can fuel hope.



Taking care of something - a plant, a pet, or another person - reinforces the idea that the future matters.



And above all, remember that nothing stays the same forever. Hard times don’t last. Change is always possible, and hope begins with believing that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-research-is-going">Where the research is going</h2>



This study opens up a lot of questions, and the researchers are already looking ahead. They plan to dig deeper into how hope works in the middle of serious challenges. 



Can it help people find meaning even when they’re going through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-mourn-the-loss-of-other-pets-similar-to-human-grief/">grief</a>, illness, or major setbacks? That’s what they want to find out next.



One thing is clear: hope isn’t just a feel-good emotion. It’s something we need to live well. And it’s something we can practice every day. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0001513">Emotion</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Experts identify the simple emotion that gives life meaning - and it's not happiness

Hope isn’t just a nice feeling - it is a...

Scientists discovered human footprints preserved in ancient mud at White Sands, New Mexico. These footprints appear to date back to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) - a period during the last Ice Age roughly 23,000 years ago when glaciers were at their largest.



This finding sparked a lot of interest because it suggested that humans were in North America much earlier than previously believed. However, some experts questioned the accuracy of the dating methods. 



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7586" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The original study</a> used radiocarbon dating on plant seeds and pollen, which some argued might not have been reliable enough.



A few years later, the same research team returned to the White Sands footprints and obtained new dates from highly reliable sources. 



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh5007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Those results</a> showed the same timeline of 20,000 to 23,000 years ago, reconfirming that humans were present far south of the ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-human-arrival-in-north-america">Confirming human arrival in North America</h2>



Back in 2012, Vance Holliday, an archaeologist and geologist at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, got a rare chance to study one of the most unusual landscapes in America - the otherworldly dunes of White Sands, New Mexico.



Now, Holliday is back again with new research that offers fresh evidence to settle the debate, once and for all. This time, the team used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radiocarbon-could-be-key-in-predicting-earths-future/">radiocarbon dating</a> on ancient mud found with the footprints. An independent lab handled the analysis.



The results? The mud dated between 20,700 and 22,400 years old - lining up with the original footprint age range. That makes three different materials (seeds, pollen, and now mud) dated by three different labs, all telling the same story.



"It's a remarkably consistent record," said Holliday, also a professor emeritus in the School of Anthropology and the Department of Geosciences, who has spent nearly five decades studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-discovered-ancient-footprints-that-rewrite-the-story-of-humans-in-america/">early human migration</a> across the Great Plains and the American Southwest.



"You get to the point where it's really hard to explain all this away,” he added. “As I say in the paper, it would be serendipity in the extreme to have all these dates giving you a consistent picture that's in error."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-life-in-the-americas">Human life in the Americas </h2>



For decades, the story of how humans first arrived in America centered on the Clovis culture. Named after artifacts found near Clovis, New Mexico in the 1930s, this group was long believed to represent the earliest known humans to set foot on the continent. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-americans-relied-on-mammoths-for-food-and-survival/">Clovis people</a> were thought to have crossed from Siberia into Alaska via the Bering Land Bridge around 13,000 years ago, then spread southward into the rest of North America.



This timeline shaped textbooks, museum exhibits, and generations of archaeological research. It set a clear point of origin for human life in the Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-migration-timeline">Shifting migration timeline</h2>



But the White Sands discovery challenges that foundation. If humans were already walking across the region 23,000 years ago - well before the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">last Ice Age</a> - then the Clovis-first model no longer holds up.



It suggests people reached the continent thousands of years earlier, potentially by different routes or under very different conditions.



That changes not just when we think people arrived in America, but how they lived, moved, and adapted. It opens new questions about migration patterns, technology, and survival in prehistoric landscapes that looked nothing like the ones we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-story-of-human-arrival-in-america">New story of human arrival in America </h2>



Thousands of years ago, the White Sands region was a series of lakes. As the lakes dried, the wind sculpted gypsum into dunes. The footprints were found in the bed of an ancient stream that once fed into one of those lakes.



"The wind erosion destroyed part of the story, so that part is just gone," Holliday said. "The rest is buried under the world's biggest pile of gypsum sand."



To get a closer look, the University of Arizona team returned in 2022 and 2023. They dug fresh trenches through the lake beds.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/first-human-footprints_white-sands-new-mexico_Alkali-Fat-basin-map_UWisconsin_1s.webp" alt="The northern Tularosa Basin showing the area of the White Sands (“Gypsum Sand Dunes”), the Alkali Fat deflation basin, modern Lake Lucero, and present-day Lost River, which drains southwest across the distal piedmont until it is buried by the gypsum dunes (see also fig. S4). The 1204-m contour line approximates the proposed extent of paleolake Otero (15). It was likely more extensive given the &gt;4 m of lake beds at “G.” The two field areas (red dots) are as follows: “G” is the area of Gypsum Overlook, the Central study area, and WHSA Locality 2; “Loc 1” is a stratigraphic section along the west margin of Alkali Flat. The brown pattern at G is the area of exposures of deposits linked to paleolake Otero and overlain by truncated Holocene dunes (31). The inset shows the location of the White Sands and the Tularosa Basin within New Mexico [based on figure 1 in (31)]. Image credit: X. Gong and A. Cowart, University of Wisconsin Cartography Lab." class="wp-image-1974696"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The northern Tularosa Basin showing the area of the White Sands (“Gypsum Sand Dunes”), the Alkali Fat deflation basin, modern Lake Lucero, and present-day Lost River, which drains southwest across the distal piedmont until it is buried by the gypsum dunes. The 1204-m contour line approximates the proposed extent of paleolake Otero. It was likely more extensive given the >4 m of lake beds at “G.” The two field areas (red dots) are as follows: “G” is the area of Gypsum Overlook, the Central study area, and WHSA Locality 2; “Loc 1” is a stratigraphic section along the west margin of Alkali Flat. The brown pattern at G is the area of exposures of deposits linked to paleolake Otero and overlain by truncated Holocene dunes. The inset shows the location of the White Sands and the Tularosa Basin within New Mexico. Click image to enlarge. Credit: X. Gong and A. Cowart, University of Wisconsin Cartography Lab.</figcaption></figure>



Jason Windingstad, a doctoral candidate in environmental science, had previously worked in the area as a consulting geoarchaeologist and agreed to join the project.



"It's a strange feeling when you go out there and look at the footprints and see them in person," Windingstad said. "You realize that it basically contradicts everything that you've been taught about the peopling of North America."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-missing-artifacts">The missing artifacts</h2>



Of course, one big question still hangs in the air: where are the tools, shelters, or other remains you’d expect from ancient people? It's a fair concern, the researchers admit.



Some of the footprints were part of quick trackways - paths that could’ve been walked in just a few seconds. That short window of time may explain the lack of material left behind.



"These people live by their artifacts, and they were far away from where they can get replacement material. They're not just randomly dropping artifacts," Holliday said. "It's not logical to me that you're going to see a debris field."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-human-arrival-in-north-america">Early human arrival in North America </h2>



While he always believed the 2021 results were solid, he says it’s good to have new data that reinforces them.



"I really had no doubt from the outset because the dating we had was already consistent," Holliday said. "We have direct data from the field – and a lot of it now."



This additional evidence strongly supports the idea that the footprints were made during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-the-ice-age-can-tell-us-about-future-el-nino-events/">Last Glacial Maximum</a>. It gives scientists greater confidence that humans were present in North America much earlier than most theories had assumed.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv4951" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Footprints rewrite the timeline of human arrival in North America

Scientists discovered human footprints preserved in ancient mud at White...

Reconciling space and time has been one of the most profound challenges in physics. One of the thorniest is how to stitch together the rules that steer subatomic particles and the rules that sculpt galaxies.



Quantum mechanics nails the small stuff; general relativity nails the large. Yet the two frameworks still talk past each other.



For decades, researchers have tried weaving extra spatial dimensions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cozmic-simulations-of-milky-way-use-strange-physics-laws-to-study-alternate-universes-cozmic/">exotic particles</a>, or string-like objects into a single narrative. Each attempt solved one snag but left another dangling. 



A new proposal shifts focus from space to time, arguing that the clock-ticking we take for granted may be richer - and far stranger - than a single forward march through seconds, minutes, and hours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzle-that-refuses-to-disappear">Puzzle that refuses to disappear</h2>



Quantum theory treats gravity as an afterthought, while relativity makes gravity the stage on which everything plays out. 



Reconciling those viewpoints matters for any extreme environment where tiny distances meet titanic mass, such as the heart of a black hole or the earliest split-second after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-big-bang-may-explain-cosmic-expansion-without-dark-matter/">Big Bang</a>. 



Observatories now catch ripples in spacetime from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/merging-quasars-cosmic-dawn-reveal-how-early-universe-formed/">colliding black holes</a>, and particle colliders probe ever-higher energies. A unified picture is therefore no longer an ivory-tower wish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-take-on-time-and-space">Fresh take on time and space</h2>



After years of probing the equations, associate research professor <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cSOlP38AAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gunther Kletetschka</a> of the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> argues that the fault line lies not in space but in how we count moments. 



He recently published a mathematical framework in Reports in Advances of Physical Science that treats time as possessing three independent directions. Space, in this view, is secondary - an emergent feature that rides on a multi-lane tempo.



“These three time dimensions are the primary fabric of everything, like the canvas of a painting,” Kletetschka explains. “Space still exists with its three dimensions, but it's more like the paint on the canvas rather than the canvas itself.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-layers-of-time">Three layers of time</h2>



In Kletetschka’s formulation, one time dimension governs the quantum playground. A second bridges that microscopic arena with familiar human experience. A third influences cosmic structure and the slow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/">evolution of the universe</a> at large. 



Day-to-day events feel ordinary because the extra time-like directions hide their influence unless energies are colossal or masses are immense.



Earlier attempts at three-dimensional time often stayed abstract. “Earlier 3D time proposals were primarily mathematical constructs without these concrete experimental connections,” he notes. 



Kletetschka’s model reproduces the measured masses of electrons, muons, quarks, and other <a href="https://home.cern/science/physics/standard-model" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Standard Model</a> residents with remarkable accuracy. That success nudges the idea out of speculation and into the territory of testable science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flipping-the-picture-of-space-and-time">Flipping the picture of space and time</h2>



Standard thinking treats matter and energy as things that unfold inside spacetime. Kletetschka flips that picture. All particles, fields, and even energy itself emerge as different ways in which the triple-layered tempo can twist. 



“My work transforms the concept from an interesting mathematical possibility into a physically testable theory with multiple independent verification channels,” he writes. 



If mass is a shadow cast by bent time, the long-standing mystery of why particles carry the particular masses they do may finally find a natural explanation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-math-to-measurement">From math to measurement</h2>



A good theory must stick its neck out. This one predicts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-category-of-particles-discovered-in-the-subatomic-realm-paraparticles/">new particles</a> that current accelerators might glimpse if they reach higher energies or analyze collision debris with sharper algorithms. 



It also forecasts subtle shifts in the spectrum of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expanding-our-view-of-the-universe-with-faint-gravitational-waves/">gravitational waves</a> and tweaks in the rate at which dark energy seems to push galaxies apart.



Because the three-fold tempo respects cause-and-effect ordering, it dodges the paradoxes that plague other multi-time ideas. 



That internal consistency means experimental teams can design clear yes-or-no tests rather than hunt for ambiguous signatures. 



If upcoming runs at the <a href="https://home.cern/science/accelerators/large-hadron-collider" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Large Hadron Collider</a> or next-generation detectors find the suggested fingerprints, the payoff could be huge. 



“The path to unification might require fundamentally reconsidering the nature of physical reality itself,” Kletetschka points out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Beyond unifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravity-could-be-the-definitive-clue-that-the-universe-is-a-computer-storing-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> and <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainsquantum-mechanics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>, a layered time, with space as a byproduct, offers tidy answers to several irritations in modern theory. 



It naturally yields exactly three particle families, accounts for quirks in mirror-symmetry breaking, and explains why time, as experienced by humans, seems to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-may-not-just-move-forward-experts-say-it-could-rewind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flow in a single direction</a>. 



None of those results require bolting on hidden spaces or hypothetical superpartners.



Skepticism remains healthy, of course. Independent groups will tear apart the mathematics and compare it with existing data from cosmology, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-radio-waves-anita-experiment-coming-from-under-the-antarctic-ice-defy-particle-physics/">neutrino observatories</a>, and precision atomic clocks. 



Yet the framework’s ability to recover known numbers while offering falsifiable predictions grants it a seriousness that many speculative models lack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-this-theory-on-time-and-space">Proving this theory on time and space</h2>



Physics advances when provocative ideas survive an assault of evidence. The suggestion that time itself boasts three axes is provocative indeed. 



Within a decade, instruments aimed at gravitational waves, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ground-based-telescopes-detect-light-from-the-cosmic-dawn/">cosmic microwave background polarization</a>, and high-energy particle scatterings will likely confirm or contradict the key forecasts. Either result will sharpen our view of nature’s fundamental script.



For now, the proposal reminds us that the universe may still harbor surprises in the very notion of “before” and “after.” 



If time truly comes with extra directions, then what we think of as matter, motion, and gravity could be nothing more than intricate choreography on an unseen temporal stage.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/S2424942425500045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reports in Advances of Physical Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Time has three dimensions and space is just a byproduct, according to a new theory

Reconciling space and time has been one of the most...

In 1859, Darwin proposed that evolution worked slowly - even for creatures like the worm. Tiny changes, stacked over time, led species to gradually become something new.



But even he had to admit the fossil record didn’t back that up. It was missing too many pieces - too many “in-between” species. He chalked it up to a broken archive: most of the story was lost.



Then, in 1972, scientists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge made a bold claim. Maybe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">species don’t evolve slowly</a> at all. Maybe they stay mostly the same for millions of years, and then - bang - something dramatic happens.



This idea, called “punctuated equilibrium,” could explain why so many transitional fossils are missing. But decades later, scientists still argue about whether it’s the rule or just a rare exception.



Now, researchers at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology (IBE) - a joint center between the <a href="https://www.csic.es/en/csic">Spanish National Research Council</a> (CSIC) and Pompeu Fabra University (UPF) - have found compelling genomic evidence that supports the “bang” theory of evolution. And the evidence comes from a very unexpected place: worms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worms-and-evolution-s-missing-chapter">Worms and evolution's missing chapter</h2>



The team sequenced, for the first time, high-quality genomes of several earthworm species. They compared these to the genomes of other annelids like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-proof-of-leeches-jumping-captured-on-video/">leeches</a> and bristle worms. 



The work was painstaking - done at a level of detail usually reserved for human genome studies. And it filled a major gap. Until now, scientists lacked complete genomes for many invertebrates, which made it hard to study evolution at the chromosomal level.



That changed with this study. The new genomes allowed the researchers to look back more than 200 million years.



Rosa Fernández is the lead researcher of the IBE’s Metazoa Phylogenomics and Genome Evolution Lab.



“This is an essential episode in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-discoveries-about-the-evolution-of-life-on-land/">evolution of life</a> on our planet, given that many species, such as worms and vertebrates, which had been living in the ocean, now ventured onto land for the first time,” she said. What the team found was not slow, steady change. It was upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worms-that-broke-all-the-rules">Worms that broke all the rules</h2>



The worm genomes didn’t just shift gradually, as traditional Neo-Darwinian models would expect. They shattered. Then they reassembled in totally new ways.



“The enormous reorganization of the genomes we observed in the worms as they moved from the ocean to land cannot be explained with the parsimonious mechanism Darwin proposed; our observations chime much more with Gould and Eldredge’s theory of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-have-not-changed-much-in-200-million-years/">punctuated equilibrium</a>,” Fernández said.



In simple terms: these marine worms broke their DNA into pieces, stitched it back together in a new order, and kept going. It wasn’t just odd - it was unheard of.



Across most species, including sponges, corals, and mammals, genomic structure tends to stay surprisingly stable. This was something else entirely.



“The entire genome of the marine worms was broken down and then reorganized in a completely random way, in a very short period on the evolutionary scale,” said Fernández. “I made my team repeat the analysis again and again, because I just couldn’t believe it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-dna-chaos">Surviving DNA chaos</h2>



Normally, that kind of chaos would spell extinction. But in this case, the worms didn’t just survive. They adapted. 



The research team found that annelid genomes are much more structurally flexible than those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">vertebrates</a>. That flexibility could allow genes in different parts of the genome to change positions without losing function.



The shift to land was a massive environmental change. Suddenly, these animals had to breathe air, deal with sunlight, and navigate new terrains. The genomic rewiring may have helped them adapt quickly by creating new gene combinations.



“You could think that this chaos would mean the lineage would die out, but it’s possible that some species’ evolutionary success is based on that superpower,” said Fernández.



The study suggests that some genes didn’t just move - they fused with others. These new “genetic chimeras” may have played a role in helping the worms handle life on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-isn-t-orderly-for-worms">Evolution isn’t orderly for worms</h2>



This finding also raises a bigger question: is genome stability really all that important?



“It seems from this study that conserving the genomic structure at the linear level - i.e., where the genes are more or less in the same place in different species - may not be as essential as had been thought,” said Fernández. 



“In fact, stability could be the exception and not the rule in animals, which could benefit from a more fluid genome.”



That idea has serious implications. In humans, similar genomic breakdowns are seen in cancer. There’s even a term for it: chromoanagenesis. It refers to catastrophic chromosome reorganization in cancer cells. The difference? In humans, it's a disease. In these worms, it was a survival strategy.



The comparison could open up new ways to study how genomes work - and how they break.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-evidence-challenges-darwin">DNA evidence challenges Darwin</h2>



The debate between slow change and sudden leaps isn’t settled. But this study adds strong support for the idea that both models might be right, depending on the circumstances.



“Both visions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/charles-darwins-complete-research-library-published-for-the-first-time/">Darwin’s</a> and Gould’s, are compatible and complementary," Fernández said. "While Neo-Darwinism can explain the evolution of populations perfectly, it has not yet been able to explain some exceptional and crucial episodes in the history of life on Earth."



"Those events included such as the initial explosion of animal life in the oceans over 500 million years ago, or the transition from the sea to land 200 million years ago in the case of earthworms. This is where the punctuated equilibrium theory could offer some answers.”



And this might just be the beginning. There are thousands of invertebrate species we know almost nothing about. Their genomes may hold more surprises - and more exceptions to the rules we thought we understood.



“There is a great diversity we know nothing about, hidden in the invertebrates, and studying them could bring new discoveries about the diversity and plasticity of genomic organization, and challenge dogmas on how we think genomes are organized,” Fernández concluded.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-025-02728-1">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earthworm DNA is changing how we understand evolution, possibly proving Darwin wrong

In 1859, Darwin proposed that evolution worked slowly - even...

Earth’s first continents were supposed to be forever. Their deep roots, more than 120 miles thick, once looked too cold and too strong for the mantle to pry loose.



Now a modeling study led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4cfO_zwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Shaofeng Liu</a> at the <a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China University of Geosciences</a> shows that even the most time‑tested crust can unravel in slow motion as tectonic forces switch direction and tempo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-continental-crust-the-basics">Understanding continental crust - the basics</h2>



Earth's continental crust forms the solid, outermost shell of our planet's lithosphere, making up the continents and continental shelves. It consists primarily of granitic rocks, which are less dense than the basaltic rocks of the oceanic crust. 



This difference in composition and density allows the continental crust to "float" higher on the mantle, creating the familiar topography of mountains, plateaus, and valleys. 



Unlike the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/">oceanic crust</a>, which is geologically young and typically recycled back into the mantle via subduction zones, continental crust can be billions of years old, preserving a long and complex geological history.



Continental crust forms through processes such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/volcanic-arc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic arc accretion</a>, crustal thickening, and the intrusion of magmatic bodies over time. 



Tectonic activity, such as the collision of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-forces-discovered-cause-earths-continents-to-rise-great-escarpment/">continental plates</a>, contributes to the thickening and elevation of the crust, leading to the formation of major mountain ranges like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stunning-and-mysterious-red-sprite-lightning-storm-captured-in-photos-himalayas/">Himalayas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-stubborn-crust">Origins of stubborn crust</h2>



A craton is a continental kernel that formed two billion years ago and cooled until it became buoyant and stiff. Its keystone is a thick lithosphere that locks the block in place while the planet’s younger plates drift overhead.



For decades geologists imagined these keels as geological life preservers. The notion began to wobble when seismic <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-earth-053018-060342" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> under eastern China revealed a missing bottom half and unusually hot mantle rock where cold mantle should sit.



The <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025JB031104?af=R" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North China Craton</a> once spanned nearly 500,000 square miles and carried Archean rocks older than 2.5 billion years. 



In the late Jurassic it collided with the buoyant Izanagi oceanic plate. That odd convergence forced a wide, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031920104001165" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shallow subduction</a> slab to flatten out beneath the continent.



Liu’s team ran <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019AGUFM.T54B..07L/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">four‑dimensional mantle‑flow models</a> that replay 200 million years of plate motion, crustal strain, and rising and sinking mantle. 



The simulations reproduced a 4,000‑mile‑wide horizontal slab trapped at depths of 255-410 miles, matching seismic tomography pictures from Asia to the western Pacific. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-continental-crust-rollback-and-flat-slabs">Continental crust, rollback, and flat-slabs</h2>



Flat‑slab subduction squeezes the overlying crust, so the region from the Korean peninsula to the Taihang Mountains shortened, rose, and shed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sediment-in-the-great-blue-hole-reveals-an-alarming-storm-record/">sediment</a> into thrust‑top basins. At the peak of compression the continental crust thickened by roughly 54 percent.



A change in relative plate motion around 136 million years ago flipped the script. The overriding block turned south, the slab’s down-going edge began to peel back toward the ocean trench, and the compressed highlands relaxed.



Rollback created a negative pressure zone, geoscientists call it a “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X18301114" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large mantle wedge</a>,” between the retreating slab and the thick lithosphere. Hot melt from that wedge metasomatized the keel, lowering its viscosity and density.



“Ancient lithosphere can be broken apart, and this disintegration can be caused by this special form of subduction occurring near oceanic plates, revealing how the continents evolved over Earth's history,” explained Liu. 



The crust above responded by stretching. Seismic <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2020JB020296" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> show that eastern North China’s lithosphere is now less than 75 miles thick, barely half its original heft. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-other-cratons">Lessons for other cratons</h2>



North America offers a younger analog. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X15005099" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wyoming flat‑slab</a> episode that began about 90 million years ago under today’s Rocky Mountains lifted the land, dehydrated the keel, and invited later volcanic tears as the slab rolled back.



South America’s Andean plate margin shows similar early compression followed by back‑arc rifting where the slab retreats. Each case hints that proximity to an active margin, not age, dictates a craton’s fate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Craton keels influence ore deposits, geothermal gradients, and even the way continents bob in response to ice‑sheet loss. 



Destroying a keel can relocate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">volcanic</a> arcs and open mineral pathways that concentrate copper, gold, and critical rare metals.



The process also changes surface height. Liu’s model predicts more than 2,000 feet of dynamic uplift and subsidence across eastern China since the Jurassic. 



That back‑and‑forth may shape long‑term river courses and flood histories from the Yellow River to the Bohai Sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-craton-vulnerability">Understanding craton vulnerability</h2>



Not all cratons face the same level of risk. Liu’s findings point to a key factor: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-geographic-isolation-shaped-global-species-habitat/">geographic</a> location. 



Cratons deeply embedded within continental crust interiors, like the Kaapvaal in southern Africa, remain insulated from subduction-related disruption and show few signs of thinning.



In contrast, edge-bound cratons like those in eastern Asia or the western Americas lie close to active <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/subduction-zone-science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subduction zones</a>, where flat-slab intrusion and rollback can apply persistent stress from below. 



These external pressures, not internal heat or plume activity, may be the primary agents of their eventual undoing.



Continents have always been works in progress. The new results argue that, given the right push and pull, even the oldest rock on the planet can be trimmed, thinned, and finally removed from below.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01513-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover that the oldest continental crust on Earth is disintegrating

Earth’s first continents were supposed to be forever. Their deep...

Bluebottles - also known as Portuguese man o’ war - are jellyfish-like marine creatures with long, stinging tentacles that often wash up on beaches. It's been widely assumed that bluebottles all belong to a single species, but a new global genetic survey has revealed otherwise.



Dr. Samuel H. Church of <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> coordinated the genome work with Australian colleagues, including Professor Kylie Pitt from Griffith University. Their findings overturn two centuries of scientific classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-species-of-bluebottles">Four species of bluebottles</h2>



The team sorted the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/portuguese-man-o-war.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specimens</a> into Physalia physalis, P. utriculus, P. megalista, and a newly named Physalia minuta, the last discovered in waters south of New Zealand. Each species carries distinctive sail colors and float shapes - traits once dismissed as harmless variation.



Genetic markers show the four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/">lineages</a> do not interbreed, even when they occupy the same stretch of ocean. This pattern means evolution is at work in the open sea, not only along coastlines or around islands.



“We were shocked, because we assumed they were all the same species,” said Professor Pitt. Her remark echoes a long‑held textbook view now overturned.



Every colony is a <a href="https://twilightzone.whoi.edu/explore-the-otz/creature-features/siphonophore/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">siphonophore</a> - a floating commune of genetically identical zooids that act as one animal. The arrangement lets a bluebottle grow long feeding tentacles while the gas‑filled float keeps the colony at the surface, a lifestyle that defines the <a href="https://theoceancleanup.com/updates/neuston-in-the-great-pacific-garbage-patch-and-the-impact-of-cleanup/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuston</a> layer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-go-beyond-appearance">Differences go beyond appearance</h2>



Raw genomes alone rarely hint at an animal’s appearance, so the researchers combed through 4,000 beach photographs. Color signatures and sail angles in the pictures matched the genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-phantom-jelly-discovered-exposed-ecosystem-under-antarctic-iceberg/">lineages</a> one by one.



Citizen scientists had, in effect, been taking field notes for years without knowing it. Their uploads supplied location data that helped map where each species turns up during different wind seasons. 



Machine‑learning tools flagged subtle differences, such as a deep‑purple crest on P. megalista or the small, clear float on P. minuta. Laboratory vouchers later verified those traits under a microscope.



The public photo trove also clarified left‑handed versus right‑handed sails, a feature that decides which way a bluebottle is blown. Such handedness now appears tied to species identity rather than simple developmental chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-separate-bluebottle-species">Ocean currents separate bluebottle species</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/">Ocean</a> circulation models recreated likely drift paths from hatchling to adult, revealing corridors that keep populations apart. Prevailing winds in the Pacific sweep P. utriculus west toward Australia, while the South Equatorial Current loops P. megalista into the Atlantic.&nbsp;



The new species, P. minuta, hugs eddies of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0924796319300259" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tasman Front</a>, a route that spirals larvae southward before they ever cross open ocean. Because gonads detach and sink below the surface to spawn, deep water layers also partition gene flow.



Subtle climate shifts could shuffle these corridors and mix the species in the future, but for now the lines stay crisp. That stability gives evolutionary forces room to sculpt body size, venom genes, and reproductive timing without interference. 



The finding challenges a common idea that wind‑powered drifters form one gigantic, well‑mixed population. Instead, even a creature built for travel can remain genetically provincial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bluebottle-stings-vary-by-species">Bluebottle stings vary by species</h2>



<a href="https://sls.com.au/bluebottlewatch-a-new-research-project-to-develop-a-bluebottle-prediction-tool-for-our-beaches/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Surf Life Saving Australia</a> ranks bluebottle contact as a leading reason for first‑aid calls, spurring a research grant to build a beach sting forecast. 



Knowing which species is likely to arrive could sharpen those alerts, because tentacle length and venom chemistry differ among the four.



During the summer of 2017, more than <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-01/bluebottle-stings-up-900-per-cent-in-queensland/8313970" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">38,000 people</a> were treated for bluebottle stings in Queensland alone - a spike of 900 percent over the prior season. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-bluebottle-seasons">Forecasting bluebottle seasons</h2>



Public health planners can now add species identity to their toolbox instead of relying on wind direction alone.



Lighter winds often carry the smaller P. minuta onto sheltered south‑facing bays, where novice swimmers gather. 



Lifeguards armed with species‑level forecasts might adjust patrols or signage accordingly. Thermal anomalies that favor jellyfish blooms may not boost every bluebottle equally, given their genetic split.



Future sting seasons could therefore hinge on which lineage catches the breeze rather than on sheer water temperature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-population-structure-in-the-ocean">Hidden population structure in the ocean </h2>



The bluebottle story joins other case studies of copepods and pteropods that show hidden population structure in the high seas. 



Collectively, these results overturn the old axiom that “everything is everywhere” once an organism can drift. Marine cleanup projects often claim surface life is sparse, implying little ecological risk when skimming plastics. 



Evidence of partitioned diversity urges far more caution before nets sweep across convergence zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



Pharmaceutical scouts have isolated novel peptide toxins from P. physalis, but untapped species may hold different compounds with medical promise. A four‑species framework sets a clearer path for bioprospecting teams.&nbsp;



Climate models aiming to forecast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-robots-are-exploring-the-oceans-role-in-climate-control/">oceanic carbon</a> cycling need accurate species counts because each colony’s buoyant gas is nearly 13 percent carbon monoxide. Four distinct production rates could alter estimates of gas exchange at the air–sea interface.



Researchers who track long‑range migrants, from sea turtles to seabirds, can now refine diet studies. Predator scat may tell which bluebottle species dominates a given flyway, adding another layer to ecosystem maps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxin-genes-in-bluebottle-species">Toxin genes in bluebottle species </h2>



Work is already under way to test whether the four lineages differ in toxin genes, an angle that could explain regional differences in sting severity. 



Another puzzle lies in the handedness trait, which might be hardwired by alleles rather than molded by early winds.



Field biologists plan to tag floats with tiny temperature loggers to see how much time each species spends in sun‑baked surface water. Results should reveal whether thermal tolerance helped split the lineages in the first place.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(25)00682-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists were shocked to find that bluebottles are not one species

Bluebottles - also known as Portuguese man o’ war -...

Female honey bees inherit genes from their father and mother (the queen), but they don't all end up playing the same role. 



Some female bees end up becoming queens that reproduce, while others become workers that never lay eggs, and spend their lives caring for their sisters. What causes this dramatic difference?



New research points to a tug-of-war between parental genes, with mother's and father's genes pulling the developing bee larva in different directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-parental-genes-in-a-bee-s-fate">The role of parental genes in a bee's fate</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have identified the molecular mechanism that tips the balance between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-queen-honey-bees-failing-faster/">queen</a> and worker. The study reveals how the bee’s parents’ genes literally compete during a critical window of development.



“Imagine if your mother's genes and your father's genes were in constant disagreement about how you should develop - that is essentially what genomic imprinting is, and we see that it happens across the tree of life: from honey bees to humans,” explained Sean Bresnahan, lead author of the study.



“We found that this genetic ‘argument’ can be detected during a critical developmental window where a honey bee larva becomes either a queen or a worker.”



That window slams shut just 192 hours after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/">egg</a> is laid. By then, the bee's genes lock it into its destiny.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-differences-in-bee-genes">Exploring differences in bee genes</h2>



To study the differences between the genes inherited from the mother bee (matrigenes) and those from the father bee (patrigenes), the researchers used a technique called instrumental insemination. It allowed them to control which queen mated with which drone.



The team then tracked how gene expression varied in the resulting bee larvae by analyzing RNA - the molecules that carry instructions from DNA to make proteins - and comparing gene activity based on whether it came from mother or father.



“We found patrigenes were expressed at higher levels in queen-destined larvae, and matrigenes were expressed at higher levels in worker-destined larvae,” Bresnahan said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tug-of-war-between-bee-genes">A tug-of-war between bee genes</h2>



The team didn’t stop there. They wanted to know what these parent-specific genes were actually doing. By analyzing the cellular pathways that the genes influenced, they spotted a clear pattern.



“We saw a striking match between the expression of matrigenes and patrigenes in the same pathway,” noted Bresnahan.



“If a matrigene had increased expression then a patrigene would have decreased expression in the same pathway, or vice versa, showing that the two genes were working against each other."



"If one gene showed parent-specific expression, another gene in the same pathway showed parent-specific expression from the opposite parent.”



So it wasn’t just random. The maternal and paternal genes seemed to be locked in direct opposition, battling over the bee’s fate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-dna-methylation-this-time">Not DNA methylation this time</h2>



In many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/">animals</a> and plants, the mechanism that drives this kind of genetic conflict is a process called DNA methylation. It adds chemical tags to DNA that affect whether genes are turned on or off. 



But in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/">honey bees</a>, previous research had shown that methylation doesn’t play this role. So the team looked at another possibility: histones. 



DNA isn’t just floating around loose in cells. It’s wound tightly around proteins called histones, forming a structure known as chromatin. The shape and structure of chromatin help regulate which genes are accessible and active.



Changes to histone proteins - through chemical tags placed on them - can also affect gene expression without altering the DNA itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-genes-are-affected-by-histones">Bee genes are affected by histones</h2>



Using a technique developed by study co-author Shaun Mahony, the researchers targeted histone-bound DNA. They isolated and analyzed the tagged histone proteins and the DNA they interacted with.



“We found that, in honey bees, parent-of-origin expression is regulated by histone modifications,” Bresnahan said.



This means chemical changes to histones - not the DNA itself - help determine which parental genes are active. And those gene activities ultimately decide if a larva will become a queen or a worker.



“What we're seeing in honey bees isn't actually that unusual when you take a step back - histone-based mechanisms for parent-of-origin effects are more widely utilized across the tree of life than DNA methylation-based systems,” explained Bresnahan.



“We see these chromatin-mediated imprinting mechanisms in flowering plants and in placental mammals as well. So, honey bees, and maybe other social insects, might be using the more ancestral toolkit for mediating these genetic conflicts,” he stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-research-matters">Why this research matters</h2>



Understanding how this parental conflict works could have real-world implications. For example, it might lead to new ways to breed bees with desired traits, such as resilience or productivity.



Christina Grozinger, co-author on the study, said her lab plans to explore how these genetic dynamics affect behaviors like nursing, where some worker bees specialize in caring for young.



The project also has reach beyond insects. Bresnahan now studies how genetic conflict shapes traits in humans - especially those related to maternal-child health during pregnancy.



“The skills I developed studying parent-of-origin effects translate directly to my current studies of maternal-child health mediated through the placenta,” Bresnahan said. 



“I am particularly interested in parent-of-origin gene expression associated with placenta-mediated traits, like early-life programming of metabolic and neuropsychiatric disease risk, that could help us better understand pregnancy complications and offspring health outcomes.”



This study peels back another layer in the mystery of how similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-detect-insect-dna-in-air-samples/">DNA</a> can lead to dramatically different lives - whether in bees, humans, or plants. And it reminds us that the story of inheritance is not just about what genes we get, but also about which ones win the argument.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03628-0">Genome Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Parental genes affect whether a bee becomes a queen or a worker

Female honey bees inherit genes from their father and mother...

At first glance, sea cucumbers seem like passive creatures. They sift along the ocean floor, slow-moving and peaceful. Much like sea snails, they tend to keep to themselves. 



But unlike sea cucumbers, some species of tiny sea snails aren't so harmless. These snails aren’t just bottom-feeders - they’re parasites. And for sea cucumbers, that makes them a serious nuisance. 



In Japan, where sea cucumbers are prized as seafood, scientists have spent years cataloging the various species of parasites that live on or inside them. 



But there's been a gap in the research: one species, Holothuria leucospilota, has been tough to study. Researchers at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a> decided it was time to change that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-snails-inside-a-sea-cucumber">Identifying snails inside a sea cucumber</h2>



Holothuria leucospilota defends itself by ejecting sticky threads known as Cuvierian tubules when it’s stressed. 



These threads can make dissection nearly impossible. So, to avoid triggering the defense, the team used menthol to gently anesthetize the animals before studying them.



The goal was to identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-snails-evolved-defenses-against-invasive-predators/">snails</a> from the genus Melanella that parasitize these sea cucumbers. They did this work in Shirahama, a popular beach area in Wakayama prefecture. 



After anesthetizing the sea cucumbers, the scientists examined both the outside and the inside of the animals. They identified the snails by looking at their shell shape and analyzing their mitochondrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-dna-can-track-wildlife-diseases-and-even-drugs/">DNA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-snails-one-sea-cucumber">Four snails, one sea cucumber</h2>



The team discovered four species of Melanella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-parasites-are-vulnerable-to-warming-oceans/">parasites</a>. Two lived on the outside of the sea cucumber, and two more were found deep inside the body cavity. 



One of the external parasites was identified as Melanella spina - the first time this species has ever been recorded in Japan. The two internal parasites couldn’t be definitively identified yet.



"Our results represent the first record of eulimids exploiting the internal habitat of H. leucospilota," said study co-author Tomoyuki Nakano. 



"To the best of our knowledge, it is also the first record of a single holothurian species, like sea cucumbers, being utilized by both external and internal Melanella parasites."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-the-snails-get-in">How do the snails get in? </h2>



The researchers noted that these internal parasites are extremely rare - at least in Shirahama. They found two in 2022, but none in the following two years. That suggests the infection rate is low.



How these tiny snails manage to get inside the sea cucumbers is still unclear, but the team has a few leads. 



Both internal snails were found near the host’s mouth. Previous studies suggest that Melanella species often attach around this area. It's possible that the sea cucumbers accidentally ingest the snails while feeding, along with bits of sediment.



That’s one theory. Another possibility is more direct. One of the snails was found with part of its shell embedded in the sea cucumber’s body wall. That could mean it forced its way in by boring through tissue.



The invasion route is still a mystery - and that’s what the researchers want to investigate next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitism-across-the-animal-kingdom">Parasitism across the animal kingdom </h2>



What the researchers observed in sea cucumbers isn’t unique. Nature is full of strange and sometimes unsettling examples of animals parasitizing others - both in the ocean and on land.



One well-known ocean example is the tongue-eating louse (Cymothoa exigua), a parasite that enters a fish’s mouth, attaches to its tongue, and eventually replaces it. The fish continues to live and eat, even as the louse occupies a central role in its body.



On land, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-had-a-flytrap-for-snatching-its-victims/">parasitic wasps</a> are notorious for their ruthless tactics. Some species lay their eggs inside caterpillars, and when the larvae hatch, they feed on the host from the inside out. In many cases, the host stays alive until the wasps are fully developed and ready to emerge.



Even in mammals, parasites play a role. Botflies, for instance, lay their eggs on animals like rodents or livestock, and the larvae burrow into the skin to grow.



These examples show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-parasitism-balanophora-convinces-a-host-to-grow-into-its-tissue/">parasitism</a> is a successful - if grisly - survival strategy across the animal kingdom. What makes the Melanella-sea cucumber relationship fascinating is how subtle and understudied it remains. 



Scientists are only just beginning to understand how complex these interactions can be, especially when the host makes access so difficult.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/zoological-science/volume-42/issue-4/zs250003/Co-Occurrence-of-Gastropods-of-the-Genus-Melanella-Mollusca/10.2108/zs250003.short">ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Parasitic snails are sneaking inside sea cucumbers

At first glance, sea cucumbers seem like passive creatures. They...

In theory, planting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/">trees</a> can wipe away the carbon cost of burning fossil fuels. But a new peer-reviewed analysis shows just how massive that effort would need to be. 



To balance the reserves of the 200 largest oil, gas, and coal companies, the world would have to create an engineered forest covering about 9.4 million square miles - an area larger than all of North America.



“Afforestation on that scale would push people off their land and erase existing habitats,” said Alain Naef, an environmental economist at <a href="https://essec.edu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESSEC Business School</a> and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-afforestation-alone-cannot-fix-emissions">Afforestation alone cannot fix emissions</h2>



Afforestation, the deliberate creation of new <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/afforestation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>, is often promoted as the cheapest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-now-emit-more-carbon-than-they-store-due-to-wildfires/">natural sink</a> for industrial emissions. 



One gigaton equals one billion metric tons, and the companies’ reserves would release 673 gigatons of carbon dioxide if burned.



The team asked whether trees alone could sponge up that mass before 2050. They calculated how much carbon a newly planted hectare can absorb, then scaled that to the entire fossil portfolio sitting underground. 



The answer was 24.75 million square kilometers, roughly 15 percent of Earth’s land surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scale-of-the-problem">The scale of the problem</h2>



Turning that much ground into forest would match the 9.35 million‑square‑mile footprint of North America. Converting it would mean uprooting farms, towns, and existing ecosystems on every continent except Antarctica.



Even if space were found, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/">trees</a> would need decades to reach maturity, during which the carbon budget for staying below 1.5 °C keeps shrinking. 



The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change puts the remaining global <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/chapter/technical-summary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon budget</a> at roughly 400 gigatons far less than what Big Oil alone could emit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-afforestation-offsets-cost-more-than-oil-profits">Afforestation offsets cost more than oil profits</h2>



To see whether firms could simply pay for offsets, the researchers applied the 2022 average European Union carbon‑market price of just over €80 (about $90) per ton, a figure confirmed by market analysts. 



At that level, 95 percent of the companies would show a negative “net environmental valuation.”



“It would be more profitable to leave the fuel in the ground than to extract and offset it later,” the researchers concluded. 



They looked at cheaper forestry credits, around $16 per ton, and cutting‑edge direct air‑capture technology, near $1,000 per ton. The first leaves two‑thirds of firms underwater, and the second sinks them all. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-forests-aren-t-free">Why forests aren’t free</h2>



Today, Earth’s woods and soils already soak up about <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/earth/climate-change/examining-the-viability-of-planting-trees-to-help-mitigate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">30 percent</a> of the carbon we emit each year. Expanding that sink sounds simple, but biology argues back. 



Fast‑growing plantations guzzle water and nutrients, push out biodiversity, and, in dry or fire‑prone regions, can even raise local temperatures.



Most of the land earmarked in the calculation is now cropland or rangeland. Replacing it would tighten food supplies and likely spike prices. 



Meanwhile, one lightning strike, drought, or beetle swarm can send centuries of stored carbon back into the sky in a single season.



Naef’s group tested a <a href="https://www.rff.org/publications/explainers/social-cost-carbon-101/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social cost of carbon</a> of $190 per ton, close to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2023-12/epa_scghg_2023_report_final.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a>’s latest estimate. 



At that price, operating any major fossil company produces negative value for society, even before land, labor, or political hurdles are added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-afforestation-land-is-already-in-use">Afforestation land is already in use</h2>



Much of the land assumed to be available for afforestation is already claimed for food production, housing, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">biodiversity</a> preservation. 



In many regions, open or unforested land is not “unused” but is crucial for pastoralists, indigenous communities, or native species. 



Treating this land as expendable undercuts existing ecosystems and social systems that depend on it.



Global land competition is intensifying as population grows and diets change. Turning millions of square miles into carbon sinks means competing directly with agriculture, which could threaten food security worldwide. 



Even if afforestation were technically feasible, the political and ethical tradeoffs make it an unworkable solution at scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emissions-reductions-must-take-priority">Emissions reductions must take priority </h2>



Offsetting programs have gained popularity among corporations aiming to appear climate-conscious without changing their core operations. But many of these schemes lack transparency, consistency, or verification. 



Critics argue they allow continued pollution under the guise of future cleanup, which often never materializes or is exaggerated in impact.



Naef and colleagues warn that relying on afforestation as a main climate tool distracts from the immediate need to reduce fossil fuel use. They emphasize that while trees can help, carbon math alone shows the gap is too wide. 



Emission reductions must take priority if there's any chance of meeting international climate targets.



Direct air‑capture still matters, and real forest restoration still protects wildlife. But the study shows those tools cannot shoulder the job of burying every barrel’s worth of carbon. 



Keeping proven reserves in the ground costs nothing, buys time for cleaner energy, and avoids an impossible tree‑planting bill.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02394-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Creating forests can't realistically cancel out fossil fuel emissions

In theory, planting trees can wipe away the carbon cost...

As birth rates continue to decline across the United States, a new study reveals a key insight. About half of women who say they want children aren't confident they'll actually have them.



That uncertainty, researchers say, shows how complex and personal the decision to have kids has become.



The study was conducted by scientists at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wanting-children-vs-having-them">Wanting children vs. having them</h2>



The research team analyzed data from the National Survey of Family Growth, which surveyed 41,492 women aged 15 to 44 between 2002 and 2019. 



The survey, managed by the National Center for Health Statistics, asked a wide range of questions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-current-fertility-rate-isnt-enough-for-human-survival/">fertility</a> intentions, plans, and attitudes. What stood out was the lack of certainty, even among those who expressed a desire to become parents.



“People’s feelings about having children are complicated, and we found there are a lot of nuances. It suggests that there is no simple answer to the declining birth rate in the United States," noted study co-author Professor Sarah Hayford.



Over the years studied, the proportion of women saying they intended to have children remained fairly stable - about 62%. About 35% said they didn’t intend to, and only a small fraction were unsure. 



But among the women who did intend to have children, nearly half said they were only “somewhat sure” or “not at all sure” they would actually follow through.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confidence-is-falling">Confidence is falling</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluctuating-income-is-detrimental-to-health/">Income</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/education-and-lifespan-college-graduates-live-an-average-of-11-years-longer/">education</a> had some influence. Women with higher education and income were more likely to say they were “very sure” they’d have children. Still, even in that group, certainty dropped. 



Among college-educated women who said they were “very sure” they would have children, the percentage fell from 65% in 2014 to 54% in 2018. And certainty wasn’t the only issue.



The intensity of the desire mattered too. Up to 25% of childless women who said they wanted kids also said they wouldn’t be particularly bothered if they didn’t have them.



“This not being bothered was especially high among younger women, and it increased over time among those who were younger,” Hayford said. 



“They are open to different pathways and different kinds of lives. If they don’t become parents for whatever reason, it doesn’t seem that upsetting to many of them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-surprising-cause-of-uncertainty">The surprising cause of uncertainty </h2>



One common theory is that young people today are hesitant to have kids because they’re unsure about the future - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/">climate change</a>, political instability, the cost of living. But a related study suggests that might not be the main factor.



In collaboration with Karen Benjamin Guzzo of UNC Chapel Hill, Professor Hayford analyzed survey data from the American Trends Panel. That survey asked 3,696 people about their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creativity-improves-life-satisfaction-and-overall-well-being/">life satisfaction</a> and concerns for the future.



Instead of being influenced by big-picture issues, people’s decisions about having children seemed to hinge more on their own personal happiness and stability.



“It was a bit of a surprise to us, but it was only their personal situation that mattered to whether they expected to have children,” Hayford said. “It wasn’t so much what was going on in society that predicted their fertility goals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-views-about-wanting-children">Changing views about wanting children </h2>



The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/">fertility rate</a> peaked at 2.12 children per woman in 2007. Since then, it has steadily fallen, reaching 1.62 in 2023. That drop has sparked concern and debate about what’s behind it - and what it means for the country’s future.



But the findings from this research suggest there’s no simple fix. People still express a desire to have children, but uncertainty and ambivalence are more common than ever.



“On the one hand there is a lot of latent desire and intentions to have children. But people have a lot of uncertainty about whether they will meet those goals, and many don’t seem to worry that much if they do or don’t have children,” Hayford said.



“It is hard to predict what will happen next.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genus.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41118-025-00251-6">Genus</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Half of women who want children aren't sure they'll have them

As birth rates continue to decline across the United States,...

Seventeen thousand years ago, a family carried an ailing toddler into the cool darkness of Grotta delle Mura, a coastal cave in southern Italy, and laid him beneath two limestone slabs. 



Today his tiny skeleton and intact DNA let researchers map an intimate biography that begins in the womb and ends, at just sixteen months old, with a failing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweeteners-erythritol-directly-linked-to-heart-attacks-and-strokes/">heart</a>.



Study co‑leaders <a href="https://www.unibo.it/sitoweb/owen.higgins2/cv-en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Owen Alexander Higgins</a> of the <a href="https://www.unibo.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bologna</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Modi-Alessandra" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alessandra Modi</a> of the <a href="https://www.unifi.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florence</a> pieced together that story with colleagues from genetics, dentistry, and geochemistry. 



Their work shows that the boy’s bright blue eyes, deep brown skin, and tight curls would have stood out today but were typical for western hunter‑gatherers of the Ice Age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-a-fragile-life">Unearthing a fragile life</h2>



<a href="https://www.dssbc.unisi.it/it/dipartimento/persone/docenti/mauro-calattini" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mauro Calattini</a> first spotted the grave in 1998 while gently brushing sand away from a recess near the cave mouth. 



No grave goods accompanied the body, yet the careful stone cover speaks to a community that valued its youngest members.



Radiocarbon dating places the burial just after the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/last-glacial-maximum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, when ice sheets still gripped much of Europe. 



Southern Italy formed a warmer refuge, letting small bands survive as game and plant life rebounded along the Adriatic shore.



Dental growth rings pinpoint the child’s age at death to about seventy‑two weeks. Those microscopic lines also reveal nine episodes of severe physiological stress beginning before birth.



“The detailed analysis of the infant’s teeth allowed us to infer the health and stress experienced by the child during infancy and/or his mother during pregnancy, something we rarely have the opportunity to explore with such precision,” wrote Higgins and Modi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-clues-from-tiny-bones">Reading clues from tiny bones</h2>



A healed fracture on the left clavicle likely occurred during labor, hinting at a difficult delivery. Far subtler signals came from trace elements locked in the enamel of two teeth.



Researchers tracked <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-81923-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strontium isotopes</a> along those teeth and found values matching local bedrock, suggesting the mother stayed close to the cave as her pregnancy progressed. 



Limited movement fits with a small, perhaps seasonally settled group that foraged within a narrow radius.



Each growth defect in the enamel lasted days to weeks, meaning the baby repeatedly fought infection, hunger, or hypoxia. 



Such cumulative stress can compound underlying medical problems, and the genome offered a critical clue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-heart-that-could-not-keep-pace">A heart that could not keep pace</h2>



“Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is often inherited and is a common form of genetic heart disease,” notes the <a href="https://professional.heart.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Heart Association</a>. 



The team detected two rare variants in genes TNNT2 and MYBPC3, both tied to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, a disorder that thickens the heart wall. 



Modern clinicians diagnose the condition in roughly one of every five hundred Americans, yet many cases remain silent until sudden cardiac arrest. 



In an Ice Age setting without advanced care, even mild obstruction could prove fatal during a respiratory infection or prolonged crying spell.



Genetic data also indicate the baby’s parents were first cousins. Close‑kin unions were not the norm for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/upper-paleolithic" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Upper Paleolithic Europe</a>, but they become more likely in tiny, isolated populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-burial-tells-us">What the burial tells us</h2>



The absence of grave goods in the cave burial raises questions about cultural practices among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/famous-ice-age-puppies-are-not-actually-dogs-according-to-new-study/">Ice Age</a> groups in southern Italy. 



Though the community carefully placed the body under stone slabs, they included no offerings or ornaments, suggesting a ritual rooted in simplicity or necessity.



This could reflect the child’s young age, limited access to resources, or differing views on death and memory among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/850-paleolithic-artifacts-discovered-with-the-naked-eye-in-a-desert/">Paleolithic</a> families. 



Researchers believe that burial itself, rare for infants of the era, points to emotional bonds and social structure within the small group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-that-link-past-and-present">Genes that link past and present</h2>



Whole‑genome analysis places the child within the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4943878/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Villabruna cluster</a>, the lineage that swept into Europe after the coldest phase of the Ice Age and later became the dominant ancestry for western <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05726-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunter‑gatherers</a>. 



Finding that signature so far south pushes the arrival of Villabruna ancestry on the Italian peninsula back thousands of years earlier than previously proven.



The same DNA shows about 2.3 percent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inner-ears-of-neanderthals-reveals-catastrophic-population-event-during-their-evolution/">Neanderthal inheritance</a>, standard for Europeans, and no trace of the earlier Gravettian peoples who once dominated the region. 



Taken together, the results support a rapid north‑to‑south migration of new families during a period of environmental upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters">Why this matters</h2>



Ice Age burials of infants are exceedingly scarce, and none previously offered such a clean molecular record. 



Because teeth grow in daily layers, researchers could align <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-genetic-mutation-has-given-rise-to-a-new-blood-group-mal-system/">genetic</a>, chemical, and skeletal data along a precise personal timeline.



That fusion of techniques lets science move beyond broad population sketches to individual life stories. It also shows how medical genetics can illuminate ancient lived experiences, bridging laboratory insights with human empathy.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51150-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossilized remains of a 17,000-year-old baby show first evidence of blue eyes in humans

Seventeen thousand years ago, a family carried an ailing toddler...

Clouds help cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight. But now, storm cloud zones are shrinking. This shrinkage is letting in more solar radiation. 



A new study, led by NASA and including Monash researchers, shows that this is the biggest reason for Earth's recent heat rise. The study appears in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.



Storm cloud zones in the tropics and midlatitudes have contracted by 1.5% to 3% per decade. These zones used to reflect a lot of sunlight back into space. Their disappearance is allowing more heat to reach the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fading-clouds-are-accelerating-climate-change/">surface</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-clouds-let-earth-absorb-more-heat">Shrinking clouds let earth absorb more heat</h2>



Christian Jakob, a professor at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, noted that this finding clarifies how much extra solar energy Earth now absorbs. “We’ve long known that changes in atmospheric circulation are affecting clouds,” he said.



“For the first time, we now have research showing those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-forming-hydrogen-cloud-discovered-surprisingly-close-to-earth-eos/">shifts</a> are already driving major changes in how much energy the Earth absorbs.”



This research helps explain the heat anomalies of recent years, including the extreme warmth of 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-clues-from-decades-of-data">Satellite clues from decades of data</h2>



The experts used satellite data from 2001 to 2023. They measured two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcare-satellite-will-reveal-the-climate-effects-of-clouds/">cloud</a> features: total cloud cover (TCC) and shortwave cloud radiative effect (SWCRE). SWCRE measures how much sunlight clouds bounce back. 



A more negative number means more sunlight is being reflected. But scientists found that zones of strong SWCRE are shrinking. 



In high latitudes, these zones contracted by up to 1.32% per decade. In the tropics, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) narrowed. Stratocumulus cloud regions also shrank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-cloud-retreat-to-heat-gain">From cloud retreat to heat gain</h2>



The result of all this: more warming. The total increase in absorbed solar energy was about 0.45 W/m² per decade. Of this, 0.37 W/m² comes from the shrinking cloud zones. 



The changes were strongest in high-latitude storm tracks and the tropical ITCZ. Even small reductions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">cloudy</a> area had large effects on Earth's heat budget. 



The study shows most warming came from cloud area loss, not changes within the clouds themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winds-make-storm-clouds-shrink">Winds make storm clouds shrink</h2>



Why are storm clouds shrinking? It’s mostly due to global wind pattern changes. The Hadley cell is widening. Jet streams are shifting toward the poles. The ITCZ is narrowing. These trends match what climate models predict for a warming planet.



The researchers also found that high-latitude storm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clouds-also-fuel-arctic-warming-not-just-carbon-emissions/">clouds</a> are retreating because of the warming-driven shift in jet streams. This creates fewer clouds in key cooling zones. 



“It’s an important piece in the puzzle of understanding the extraordinary recent warming we observed, and a wake-up call for urgent climate action,” Jakob notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-factors-also-shrink-clouds">Local factors also shrink clouds</h2>



Besides circulation shifts, cloud changes also arise from local factors. These include fewer aerosols from ships, which once helped clouds reflect more sunlight. 



Changes in cloud types and altitudes also matter. In the tropics, these effects added 0.21 W/m² per decade to the warming.



In contrast, polar regions showed some minor cooling due to increased cloud reflection in cold clouds. But the big picture is clear: cloud zone shrinkage is doing most of the damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooperation-and-local-weather-shifts">Global cooperation and local weather shifts</h2>



Professor Jakob warned about the dangers of reducing science funding. “If you want to understand the climate crisis, and prepare for its impacts, you need this kind of data and this kind of analysis,” he said.



Jakob urged a shift in focus - from climate change averages to daily weather impacts. “Our mission is to understand how Australia and the world’s weather is being reshaped by a warming climate,” he said.



“Our goal is to provide the knowledge and tools needed to help governments, businesses and communities prepare for what lies ahead.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clouds-are-changing-fast">Clouds are changing fast</h2>



Earth is losing some of its protective cloud shield. The shrinking of storm cloud zones is now the top driver of increased solar heat absorption. 



This change isn’t gradual. It’s already happening. And it’s amplifying warming faster than expected.



That means climate action must respond not only to emissions, but also to how weather patterns are shifting around the globe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025GL114882" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Clouds are shrinking and making the Earth hotter

Clouds help cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight. But now,...

Dolphins, like other toothed whales, live in a world of darkness where light fades fast. They stay oriented by sending out quick clicks and reading the echoes, a process known as echolocation. 



Each click acts like a tap on the water, letting their brains “feel” distant objects and fish through sound alone.



In a new study, a team of scientists led by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>) traced how this talent shows up inside the brain.



The study compares the neural wiring of echolocating dolphins to that of a species of non-echolocating baleen whale called a sei whale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-echolocation-the-basics">Understanding echolocation - the basics</h2>



Echolocation in marine mammals is a sophisticated biological sonar system that allows animals like dolphins, whales, and porpoises to navigate, hunt, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-must-shout-over-underwater-noise-to-communicate/">communicate</a> in dark or murky underwater environments. 



These mammals emit a series of high-frequency clicks that travel through the water and bounce off objects. By listening to the returning echoes, they can determine the size, shape, distance, speed, and even internal structure of their targets. 



This process gives them an incredibly detailed picture of their surroundings, often surpassing what sight alone could provide in deep or cloudy waters.



This adaptation is especially critical for species that live in environments where visibility is limited. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bowhead-whales-dive-in-synchrony-even-when-out-of-acoustic-range/">deep-diving whales</a> rely on echolocation to locate prey thousands of feet below the surface, where light cannot penetrate. 



Echolocation also plays a key role in social behavior, helping individuals coordinate movements or avoid collisions while swimming in pods. 



Remarkably, some species can even adjust the frequency and intensity of their clicks to focus on specific tasks, much like humans adjusting the lens on a camera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-echolocation-in-dolphins">Studying echolocation in dolphins</h2>



Brain tissue from deceased, stranded animals is hard to obtain and even harder to scan. By partnering with the International Fund for Animal Welfare (<a href="https://www.ifaw.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFAW</a>), the team secured enough samples to begin charting auditory circuits in detail.



“Our research sought to understand how the pathways for auditory information differed between echolocating and non-echolocating whales," said lead author Sophie Flem. 



"In humans, primates, rodents, and dogs, we have well-established maps of what parts of the brain contribute to what kind of processing. We don't yet have those in dolphin brains, which are strikingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-smart-how-are-dolphins-intelligent/">unusual</a> compared to terrestrial animal brains," she added.



Researchers traced signals leaving the inferior colliculus, a mid-brain hub that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-sharks-and-whales-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> share. 



In dolphins, this region is oversized, making it an ideal place to follow sound information as it travels into the cortex.



The team found more cortical targets in dolphins than in the sei whale, yet the strength of those links was similar. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cerebellum-s-role-in-dolphin-echolocation">Cerebellum's role in dolphin echolocation</h2>



The biggest surprise lay in the pathways heading the other way - down toward the cerebellum.



“While neuroscientists used to think of the cerebellum largely as a center for balance and motor (muscle/movement) control, newer evidence strongly suggests that it serves as an integration center for sensory and motor information and, importantly, a rapid prediction center," explained co-author Peter Tyack, emeritus research scholar in biology at WHOI.



“Dolphins use echolocation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/listening-to-amazon-river-dolphins-can-help-us-save-them/">interact with their world</a> and, unlike hearing and vision, they must produce the energy that then returns to their sensory receptors - echolocation is part hearing and part vocalization," explained Tyack.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/echolocation_dolphins_cerebellar-lobules_graphic_credit-PLOSOne_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/echolocation_dolphins_cerebellar-lobules_graphic_credit-PLOSOne_1s.webp" alt="Color-coded diagram displaying cerebellar lobules targeted in the left, right, or bilateral cerebella in odontocete and mysticete specimens. Credit: PLOS One" class="wp-image-1974812"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Color-coded diagram displaying cerebellar lobules targeted in the left, right, or bilateral cerebella in odontocete and mysticete specimens. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLOS One</figcaption></figure>



He likened the process to a person using a hand to produce the touch sense feedback that lets him or her find the light switch. 



In a similar manner, dolphins move around their echolocation beam to get the feedback they need to function in a dark, underwater environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imaging-brains-the-size-of-suitcases">Imaging brains the size of suitcases</h2>



Scanning a sei whale brain - nearly three times heavier than a human brain - posed technical challenges.



Oxford’s Karla Miller developed high-signal diffusion sequences, while UC Berkeley’s Ben Inglis optimized collection protocols. 



The result is some of the clearest diffusion imagery ever captured from large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine mammal</a> brains.



"Comparative neurobiologists have longed to examine the patterns of connections within dolphin and whale brains for years, believing that the unique evolutionary history of these species will provide new insights into how brains evolve," said senior author Peter Cook of <a href="https://www.ncf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New College of Florida</a>.



The technology is now available to begin tackling these mysterious nervous systems and finding out how they work. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-dolphin-echolocation-regions">Mapping dolphin echolocation regions</h2>



Cook and colleagues already have more baleen and toothed whale brains queued for study. 



"It's believed that neural control of vocal output has totally shifted in dolphins as they evolved their unique nasal vocal apparatus. We can now map out vocal control in dolphins and how it differs from baleen whales," remarked Cook.



Both groups of animals have the rare ability to learn new vocal behavior, and dolphin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-smile-at-each-other-when-they-are-feeling-playful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal systems</a> are some of the strangest in the animal kingdom. 



"Now that we can opportunistically and ethically look inside these animals' brains, they're just getting started teaching us," Cook concluded.



The team hopes that future maps of vocal pathways will reveal how sound production and perception blend together in one of nature’s most sophisticated sonar systems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0323617" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists learn how dolphin brains evolved to 'see' underwater by using sound

Dolphins, like other toothed whales, live in a world of...

Camels aren't just part of desert life - they are at the very heart of it, surviving where most cannot. On June 22, we observe World Camel Day. It’s a moment to honor their resilience, importance, and the vital role they play in sustaining communities across some of the world’s harshest landscapes.



In dry regions, the camel is extremely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/">crucial</a>. Whether the task is carrying loads, providing milk, or helping people travel, camels are reliable. With growing climate challenges, that reliability matters more than ever.



Camels have supported people for thousands of years. This day helps us remember and recognize that service.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-celebrate-world-camel-day">Why we celebrate World Camel Day</h2>



World Camel Day started in 2009 to raise awareness about the importance of camels. <a href="https://arkbiodiv.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Abdul Raziq Kakar</a> picked June 22 because it usually falls during the hottest days of the year. 



Camels are known for their ability to handle extreme heat, so this date fits the message. It symbolically connects the celebration to the kind of environment camels thrive in.



Since then, the event has grown. It is no longer just a scientist’s idea. Now, people from many backgrounds get involved. Camel farmers, students exploring desert ecosystems, climate scientists, and the herders who depend on camels every day all take part.



These groups organize events like camel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-we-see-some-animals-as-more-human-than-others/">rides</a>, educational workshops, fun photo contests, and zoo visits where people can interact with camels and learn more. What began as a simple awareness campaign has turned into a global effort. 



The goal is clear. Remind everyone that camels are not just useful, but essential in many regions, especially in a changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-camels-support-daily-life">How camels support daily life</h2>



Camels can travel for hours without drinking water. They eat tough, dry plants that other animals avoid. They do not show signs of stress. They keep going and get the job done.



Camel milk is becoming more popular around the world. It contains more iron and vitamin C than cow milk. Many people who can't tolerate regular milk can drink camel milk without issues. Some health experts refer to it as a superfood because of its nutrients.



Camels also support daily life in many places. In India, they help farmers by pulling carts and plows. In African countries, they provide meat, milk, and financial support. In the Middle East, camels appear in cultural festivals and special events.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/">animals</a> are not limited to one role. Camels adapt to different needs and situations and work wherever people need them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camels-are-built-for-extremes">Camels are built for extremes</h2>



A camel’s body is built for survival. Its wide, padded feet keep it steady on loose sand. Thick eyelashes shield its eyes from dust, and its nostrils can close to block out blowing sand during storms. 



The hump stores fat, which the camel uses when food is scarce. Every part serves a clear purpose.



Even when water is hard to find and food is limited, a camel keeps going. It continues to produce milk during drought and remains steady in extreme heat where other animals struggle.



Because of this, many farmers now choose camels instead of cows. Camels require fewer resources, cost less to maintain, and live longer in dry regions.



In today’s unpredictable climate, camels are proving to be a practical and dependable choice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camels-in-a-warming-world">Camels in a warming world</h2>



Climate change has made weather more extreme. Rainfall patterns have become harder to predict. Crops fail more often. Many animals cannot cope with these changes. But the camel continues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">adapt</a> and survive.



In countries like Kenya and Somalia, more families are choosing to raise camels instead of cattle. This change helps them stay food secure during long dry periods. Camels also produce less methane than cows, which makes them a better option for the environment.



They need very little to survive. Yet they continue to provide milk, meat, and labor. That makes them ideal for regions dealing with rising temperatures and shrinking water supplies.



World Camel Day is not only about culture or tradition. It is also about recognizing the camel’s growing role in modern food systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-people-celebrate-world-camel-day">How people celebrate World Camel Day</h2>



World Camel Day is celebrated in many parts of the world. In London, zoos hold sessions where visitors learn how to care for camels. In Rajasthan, herders come together for fairs that highlight camel traditions. In New York, urban farms give children their first experience of meeting a camel.



Online, the celebration continues through photo contests and awareness campaigns. Hashtags like #WorldCamelDay help share stories, facts, and personal experiences. Educational groups upload videos, quizzes, and interviews to reach more people.



These events show something important. The camel is not only a symbol of the desert. It is also a part of the future.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Camel Day 2025: Celebrating a desert lifeline

Camels aren't just part of desert life - they are...

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green water teems with microscopic life, while ultramarine blue usually signals relative scarcity.



A fresh analysis of two decades of satellite images suggests that the dividing line between those hues is on the move. 



Scientists have determined that open-ocean waters are steadily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/">greening</a> at high latitudes and becoming bluer in the tropics and subtropics.



Because the tint of seawater tracks chlorophyll - the pigment that phytoplankton use for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a> - the trend hints at a large-scale rearrangement of life at the base of marine food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-oceans-shifting-color-code">Our oceans' shifting color code</h2>



The research team, led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> post-doctoral scholar Haipeng Zhao, sifted through global data captured from 2003 to 2022. The data came from <a href="https://aqua.nasa.gov/modis">NASA’s MODIS-Aqua</a> instrument, which scans the planet every two days.



Each pass measures subtle shifts in reflected light that reveal chlorophyll concentration right at the surface. To avoid the optical noise of sediment-rich coastlines, the researchers focused exclusively on the open ocean.



“In the ocean, what we see based on satellite measurements is that the tropics and the subtropics are generally losing chlorophyll, whereas the polar regions - the high-latitude regions - are greening,” Zhao said.



In practical terms, that means less plankton in warm, blue waters flanking the equator and a rising abundance in polar waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inventive-math-for-a-noisy-planet"><a></a>Inventive math for a noisy planet</h2>



Working with satellite imagery always involves gaps - patches of cloud, sensor dropouts, differences in daylight.



To tease out a coherent story, Zhao and colleagues borrowed a pair of statistical tools more often used to study household incomes: the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient.



Lead investigator Nicolas Cassar, a scientist at Duke, explained the leap from economics to oceanography: “We borrowed concepts from economics called the Lorenz curve and the Gini index, which together show how wealth is distributed in a society.



“We thought, let’s apply these to see whether the proportion of the ocean that holds the most chlorophyll has changed over time.”



The result? Over twenty years, the ‘chlorophyll rich’ zones - already green - grew greener, particularly in the northern hemisphere, while blue regions lost even more pigment. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-climate-connections"><a></a>Testing the climate connections</h2>



Greener poles and bluer tropics might sound like a straightforward fingerprint of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">global warming</a>. However, the study stops short of that conclusion.



The authors compared chlorophyll shifts with four environmental variables: sea-surface water temperature, wind speed, light availability, and mixed-layer depth. 



Only warming tracked consistently with the observed color change; the others showed no strong association.



Even so, co-author Susan Lozier of <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a> cautioned against a rush to label climate change the culprit. “The study period was too short to rule out the influence of recurring climate phenomena such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a>,” Lozier said.



“Having measurements for the next several decades will be important for determining influences beyond climate oscillations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-plankton-big-impact">Changing plankton, big impact</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">Phytoplankton</a> do more than tint the waves. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide and convert it to organic matter, sequestering carbon when dead cells sink.



A poleward migration of productivity could rearrange that natural pump. Cassar notes that the geographic shift may decide how long that captured carbon remains out of circulation.



“If carbon sinks deeper or in places where water doesn’t resurface for a long time, it stays stored much longer. In contrast, shallow carbon can return to the atmosphere more quickly, reducing the effect of phytoplankton on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon storage</a>,” he said.



Food security is another concern. Many equatorial nations rely on rich fisheries sustained by plankton blooms. A steady drop in primary producers could disrupt the food web, reducing fish stocks vital to diets and economies.



“Phytoplankton are at the base of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/">marine food chain</a>. If they are reduced, then the upper levels of the food chain could also be impacted, which could mean a potential redistribution of fisheries,” Cassar warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-color-shift-continues">Ocean color shift continues</h2>



The study adds the open ocean to a list of Earth systems already showing poleward ecological drift. On land, satellite records have documented expanding forests in high latitudes and stressed vegetation in the subtropics. 



Now, with the ocean’s own chlorophyll belt shifting, researchers see a consistent planetary story unfolding.



Still, the authors emphasize that two decades are only an opening chapter. Longer records, deeper observations, and improved models of phytoplankton physiology are needed to predict the full ecological impact.



The ocean’s color shift signals change - green in high latitudes, blue near the equator - as ecosystems quietly reorganize. It silently tracks a significant re-ordering of marine life that could reshape climate feedbacks and global fisheries alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adr9715" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ocean waters are changing colors and pushing marine life toward the poles

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green...

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge, those expressions do more than pose for the camera. Those flashes of movement form a language that researchers have struggled to pin down.



Now an international team has sharpened that language map by adapting a human facial‑coding toolkit to <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pan_paniscus/">Pan paniscus</a> (bonobos), cataloging 28 distinct moves and <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/">showing</a> that 22 stem from specific muscles.



Dr. Catia Correia‑Caeiro of <a href="https://www.lw.uni-leipzig.de/institut-fuer-biologie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University’s Institute of Biology</a> leads the project, which unites experts from Germany, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 



The team borrowed the Facial Action Coding System, a 1978 catalog that labels every visible muscle shift with a numeric action unit, then upgraded the scheme for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/">bonobos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-expressions-to-communicate">Bonobos use expressions to communicate</h2>



“This adaptation of <a href="https://www.animalfacs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ChimpFACS</a> for bonobos fills an important gap in our ability to study facial expressions across different primate species,” said Dr. Correia‑Caeiro, who is also affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 



The new manual lets scientists compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/">bonobo</a>, chimpanzee, and human faces move for move.



Humans can muster about 30 action units, yet bonobos rival their chimpanzee cousins with 22, demonstrating the social weight of facial cues rather than sheer anatomical range. 



The catalog even adds a rarely recorded brow‑lowering move, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7790396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AU41</a>, that deepens the <a href="https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/anatomical-structures/glabella-1536895880#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glabella</a> without the human‑exclusive corrugation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-mirror-spoken-language">Bonobo expressions mirror spoken language </h2>



The team sifted through roughly 55 hours of high‑definition <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12169169/#supplemental-information" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> featuring 241 bonobos in zoos, sanctuaries, and the wild, coding each frame by hand.



The footage revealed three independent ear gestures, ears forward, ears elevated, ears flattened, expanding the expressive palette beyond eyes and mouth. 



The researchers also spotted brief lid‑tightening blinks that accompany nose wrinkles, hinting at graded intensity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/">bonobo</a> signals.



The experts noticed that some action units, such as cheek‑raisers and glabella‑lowerers, often fire in rapid succession - suggesting combination rules that mirror syllables in spoken language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bonobos-needed-their-own-system">Why bonobos needed their own system</h2>



Despite their similarities to chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/">bonobos</a> have distinct facial features that complicate direct comparison. 



Subtle traits, like lighter lip coloration, reduced brow-ridge prominence, and more flexible lower lips, affect how facial movements appear and are perceived. These differences can confuse coders if using chimpanzee references alone.



Without a dedicated coding system, earlier studies on bonobos varied wildly in the number of described expressions, from just 5 to as many as 46. 



That inconsistency made it hard to compare results or identify patterns. A tailored toolkit ensures more reliable tracking and opens the door to rigorous, reproducible analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-expressions-helps-bonobo-care">Decoding expressions helps bonobo care</h2>



“By better understanding their facial expressions, we can more accurately evaluate their emotional states and overall well‑being,” Correia‑Caeiro explained. Caretakers can now read those signals with new confidence.&nbsp;



Bonobos are endangered, with population estimates hovering between 29,000 and 50,000 individuals according to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15932/102331567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>.



Knowing when a captive ape is tense or relaxed helps zoos tweak enrichment schedules, separate clashing individuals sooner, and design habitats that cut social friction before it spirals into injury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-and-social-units">Bonobo expressions and social units</h2>



Shared action units let scientists trace which facial abilities pre‑date the split between humans and the Pan lineage six million years ago. 



A 2020 multi‑species <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/files/19273293/Measuring_the_evolution.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> argues that facial mobility scales with social complexity, placing bonobos near the top of the primate scale.



Bonobos live in female‑bonded, relatively tolerant groups, so extra facial nuance may diffuse conflicts without resorting to violence, offering a living model for hypotheses on early human cooperation.



The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-021-01692-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NetFACS project</a> applies network analysis to thousands of coded faces, revealing that great‑ape expressions form dense interaction graphs where muscle combos shift with context. 



In bonobos, preliminary graphs show tighter clustering of play‑related units than threat units, hinting that relaxed social atmospheres encourage richer facial “vocabularies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facial-complexity-and-social-evolution">Facial complexity and social evolution</h2>



Computer‑vision engineers are training algorithms on the new bonobo library, aiming for real‑time welfare dashboards that flag stress before keepers can see it. 



The advanced systems could eventually watch forest camera traps, letting conservationists gauge mood across remote populations without intrusive tagging.



Comparative biologists plan to pit bonobo, chimpanzee, and human FACS data against group size, food‑sharing rates, and dominance styles. 



If facial complexity tracks tolerance as predicted, the findings could rewrite textbooks on primate social evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Facial expressions of bonobos offer a window into their lives

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge,...

Bee populations around the world have been slipping for decades, even in areas with meadows. Across the United States, managed hives have dropped from about five million in the 1940s to 2.7 million in <a href="https://www.pollinator.org/threats" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023</a>.



Pollination keeps the produce aisle stocked, and honey bees alone add roughly <a href="https://www.usda.gov/about-usda/general-information/initiatives-and-highlighted-programs/peoples-garden/importance-pollinators/honey-bees" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">$15 billion</a> to the value of U.S. crops every year. 



Kathrin Czechofsky of the University of Göttingen says the latest <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fieldwork</a> shows there is still room for optimism when farms and conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">habitats</a> are planned together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-are-disappearing-despite-meadows">Bees are disappearing despite meadows</h2>



Habitat loss, pesticide exposure, and disease form a triple threat, yet land conversion remains the clearest driver of wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-dangers-threaten-the-survival-of-bees-and-pollinators/">bee</a> decline. 



Climate stress adds another layer, and recent work warns that many bumblebee broods fail when nest temperatures top 96 °F, a threshold that rising heat waves frequently exceed.



Fields blanketed in a single commodity crop create long floral dry spells that leave solitary bees hungry between brief bloom windows. 



Even well‑intended local actions, such as installing small flower strips, often struggle to reverse losses because bees forage across landscapes, not single fields.



Without a coordinated plan, conservation patches can cancel one another out or fail to meet nesting needs over an entire season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-different-farm-types-were-tested">How different farm types were tested</h2>



To explore what really works, researchers at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/">University of Göttingen</a> mapped 32 German farm landscapes roughly 0.6 mile across.



Each circular site combined different shares of organic cropland, annual flower strips, and <a href="https://xerces.org/sites/default/files/publications/23-028_01_Creating-Perennial-Habitat-Using-Plugs-FS_web.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perennial habitat</a> dominated by long‑lived plants such as meadow knapweed.



Transects criss‑crossed wheat, clover, hedgerows, and the open lanes where <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/learn-about-bumblebees/species-guide/red-tailed-bumblebee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bombus lapidarius</a> and dozens of lesser‑known species feed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlapping-support-for-bees">Overlapping support for bees</h2>



Over three summer runs, the team recorded more than 4,500 individual bees, and then scaled those counts to the full landscape for a big‑picture view.



The design allowed the researchers to test whether habitats simply add, work together in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/synergistic-effect" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synergistic effect</a>, or cancel each other out.



The analysis leaned on the same statistical muscle used in crop‑yield forecasting, but here the harvest metric was buzz and diversity. 



Organic acreage, flower strips, and perennial pockets each lifted flower cover, yet the payoff for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-highly-concerned-that-so-many-bee-hives-have-disappeared/">bees</a> hinged on how those elements overlapped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-thrive-when-farms-meet-meadows">Bees thrive when farms meet meadows</h2>



Organic fields, managed without synthetic pesticides, proved especially valuable when at least five percent of the surrounding land also held perennial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/">habitat</a>. 



Densities of non‑bumblebee wild species climbed steeply under that mix, evidence of a synergy between pesticide‑free forage and nearby nesting ground.



“This study offers important guidance for shaping future measures for agriculture and the environment. It highlights the value of coordinated, landscape‑scale planning,” noted Dr. Annika Haß, a lead scientist on <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/646422.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the ComBee project</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-meadow-edges-support-bees">Stable meadow edges support bees </h2>



Organic plots alone boosted bumblebee numbers too, yet the gains were additive rather than synergistic. 



Many common Bombus species nest flexibly in grass margins or old rodent burrows, so they profit from pesticide‑free blossoms even without extra meadows. 



For orchard managers in the United States pondering organic transitions, the message is clear: pesticide reduction helps, but pairing it with stable meadow edges helps even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-strips-meadows-and-mixed-signals">Flower strips, meadows, and mixed signals</h2>



Annual flower fields, those bright strips tilled and reseeded every spring, sound perfect on paper but told a more tangled story in practice. 



When large flower strips were paired with broad organic acreage, overall bee numbers often plateaued rather than doubled because both habitats bloom at similar times. Redundancy in food, without added nesting sites, meant no bonus for pollinators.



Perennial meadows, by contrast, flower in staggered waves and offer bare or lightly vegetated soil where ground‑nesting bees dig. Their long-lived stems survive winter, protecting larvae and overwintering adults. 



That structural difference explains why meadows completed the resource puzzle alongside organic crops, while annual strips sometimes crowded it.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-spread-viruses-to-bumblebees-in-the-spring/">Bumblebees</a>, with their social colonies and bigger flight ranges, took advantage of annual strips only in simple landscapes that lacked meadows. For solitary bees with shorter foraging ranges, perennial patches again tipped the scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-diversified-landscapes">Benefits of diversified landscapes</h2>



The ComBee team calculated practical thresholds: organic farming starts to raise species richness when annual strips cover less than five acres inside a 500‑acre landscape. 



Synergy with perennial meadows kicks in once those meadows reach about 12 acres. These numbers translate neatly to many Midwestern farm sections or European parish blocks, giving planners concrete targets instead of guesswork.



Because budgets are limited, the authors argue for steering organic incentives toward places where annual flower strips are scarce, while investing separate funds to create long‑term meadows in regions already rich in organic acreage.



Such mixing of functionally different habitats promises the biggest biological return per dollar. Beyond bees, diversified landscapes cushion farms against drought, improve soil structure, and harbor predators that curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-assist-farmers-by-consuming-harmful-pests/">crop pests</a>.



Policies that reward cooperation among neighboring landowners, rather than isolated actions, could therefore yield multiple wins.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Organic farms and meadows can help save wild bees

Bee populations around the world have been slipping for decades,...

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World Giraffe Day. Chosen deliberately for its distinction as the longest day of the year, the date honors the world’s tallest land mammal. The symbolism is compelling, but the message is urgent. 



Giraffes are undergoing a rapid and largely unrecognized population decline. While often admired for their appearance, their ecological importance and conservation status remain overlooked by the global public.



The <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giraffe Conservation Foundation</a> emphasizes that celebrating giraffes must go hand-in-hand with acknowledging the threats they face. Current trends suggest that without widespread intervention, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/">animals</a> could disappear within our lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roles-of-giraffes">Ecological roles of giraffes </h2>



Giraffes may be quiet and unassuming, but they play a vital role in nature. They perform key ecological functions that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-world-giraffe-day-celebrate-the-worlds-tallest-animal-on-the-earths-longest-day/">biodiversity</a> in savanna ecosystems.



While feeding, giraffes naturally trim tree canopies, allowing more sunlight to reach the plants below. This promotes understory growth and enhances the structural diversity of the ecosystem.



As giraffes move across landscapes, they disperse seeds, contributing to forest regeneration.



Giraffes help many other animals by changing their surroundings. Birds, insects, and mammals all benefit. Yet, much like their silent presence, the decline of giraffes has largely gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-giraffe-day-a-quiet-decline">World Giraffe Day: A quiet decline</h2>



Over the past three decades, giraffe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-gained-their-long-necks-for-food-not-sex/">populations</a> have declined by nearly one third. They have been extirpated from at least seven African countries. Despite this, their situation has received minimal public attention. Conservationists have described this phenomenon as a “silent extinction,” noting the contrast between the giraffe’s visibility in tourism and media, and its invisibility in conservation policy.



In comparison to elephants and rhinos, which receive considerable international focus, giraffes rarely appear in global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-hate-slopes-and-its-threatening-their-survival/">conservation</a> discourse. Their quiet presence may be contributing to their neglect. Yet, the threats they face are no less severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drivers-of-population-loss">Drivers of population loss</h2>



Habitat fragmentation is a primary driver of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-have-gut-bacteria-that-are-unaffected-by-their-diet/">population</a> decline. Human expansion through agriculture, infrastructure, and urban development has significantly reduced the land available to giraffes. 



Poaching also persists. Some giraffes are killed for meat; others for tails, which are used as charms or tools.



Climate change compounds these pressures. Droughts force giraffes to approach farmlands, leading to human-wildlife conflict. In these cases, crop protection often results in giraffe fatalities. 



The cumulative effect of these stressors is a gradual erosion of giraffe populations across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-scientific-urgency">Emerging scientific urgency</h2>



Recent genetic studies have shifted scientific understanding of giraffe taxonomy. What was once considered a single species with subspecies is now recognized as four distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-four-unique-giraffe-species-across-africa/">species</a>. 



This taxonomic clarification carries conservation implications. Protection strategies must now be tailored to individual species, as threats and habitat needs vary. 



With improved clarity comes a renewed obligation to act swiftly. Several giraffe species are critically endangered, with populations below 2,000 individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-active-conservation-efforts">Supporting active conservation efforts</h2>



The Giraffe Conservation Foundation leads key interventions across Africa. One major strategy involves tracking giraffes using GPS collars to map their movement patterns and identify ecological corridors. These insights inform landscape-level protection strategies.



Translocation efforts have also proven successful. In areas where populations are especially vulnerable, small herds have been moved to protected zones with favorable conditions. 



Though resource-intensive, this approach has led to successful breeding and the birth of new calves, offering cautious optimism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-action-on-world-giraffe-day">Public action on World Giraffe Day </h2>



Public involvement remains essential. While direct participation in fieldwork is not feasible for most individuals, awareness-raising remains powerful. 



Sharing verified information, supporting conservation organizations, and advocating for sustainable tourism all contribute to broader efforts.



Educators can also play a key role by integrating giraffe conservation into curricula. Artists, writers, and communicators can amplify messages that connect people emotionally and intellectually with the issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-giraffes">Cultural significance of giraffes</h2>



Beyond biology, giraffes hold symbolic importance in many African cultures. Their image appears in rock art, oral traditions, and modern storytelling. 



Often associated with grace, patience, and heightened vision, giraffes represent qualities that humans value deeply.



In this sense, their disappearance would constitute not only an ecological loss but also a cultural one. Preserving giraffes means preserving shared human heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-a-celebration">More than a celebration </h2>



This observance offers more than celebration. It invites reflection. Why has the decline of such an iconic animal gone largely unnoticed? What assumptions have shaped our collective inaction? And more importantly, how do we shift from admiration to responsibility?



The extra daylight on June 21 becomes a metaphor for awareness. The question is whether we will use it wisely. We already have the tools and science is catching up. 



Protecting giraffes isn’t just about saving a species - it’s about preserving the wild itself. We can’t afford to wait. What stands tall today could disappear tomorrow.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

World Giraffe Day 2025 calls for urgent action to save giraffes

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World...

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been discovered by scientists at East Tennessee State University. 



Millions of years ago, this 16-inch salamander with a powerful bite threaded its way through the soft earth of what is now northeastern Tennessee.



The salamander tunnels criss-crossed ancient forests, and its appetite likely shaped the mix of smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-amphibians-wildlife-tunnels-prevent-road-deaths/">amphibians</a> in the surrounding ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-may-explain-salamander-diversity">Fossil may explain salamander diversity </h2>



Today, the fossil of this new species may help explain how the region's salamanders became so diverse. The specimen surfaced at the Gray Fossil Site &amp; Museum, a dig next door to <a href="https://www.etsu.edu/ehome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Tennessee State University</a> (ETSU).



After careful study, researchers described the animal - Dynamognathus robertsoni - in a publication in the journal Historical Biology.



The work comes from a team that includes assistant collections manager Davis Gunnin, professor of geosciences Dr. Blaine Schubert, head curator Dr. Joshua Samuels, museum specialist Keila Bredehoeft, and assistant collections manager Shay Maden.



“Our researchers are not only uncovering ancient life, they are modeling the kind of collaboration and curiosity that define ETSU,” said Dr. Joe Bidwell, dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. 



“This exciting find underscores the vital role our university plays in preserving and exploring Appalachia’s deep natural history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-named-for-its-powerful-jaw">Species named for its powerful jaw</h2>



Dynamognathus robertsoni ranks among the largest of the lungless salamanders from the family Plethodontidae. It exchanged gases through its skin and the lining of its mouth, rather than by means of lungs. 



The jaw anatomy of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salamanders-can-adapt-better-to-climate-change-than-previously-thought/">ancient salamander</a> suggests a striking bite force, which would have made it a formidable predator.



“This group of salamanders has unusual cranial anatomy that gives them a strong bite force, so the genus name, Dynamognathus – Greek for ‘powerful jaw,’ is given to highlight the great size and power of the salamander compared to its living relatives,” explained Maden.



The species name honors Wayne Robertson, a longtime volunteer who spotted the first bone and has sifted through more than 50 tons of sediment since 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appalachia-s-surprising-salamander-legacy">Appalachia’s surprising salamander legacy</h2>



Today, the Southern Appalachian forests host more than 50 salamander species - about one-eighth of all known salamanders on Earth. 



Many of them are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/plethodontidae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plethodonts</a> like the new fossil species. Scientists have long wondered how so many species could have arisen in this small corner of the world.



“Finding something that looks like a Red Hills salamander here in East Tennessee was a bit of a surprise,” Gunnin said. 



“Today they’re only found in a few counties in southern Alabama, and researchers thought of them as a highly specialized dead-end lineage, not particularly relevant to the evolution of the dusky salamanders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-salamander-communities">Evolution of salamander communities </h2>



The discovery of Dynamognathus robertsoni in Southern Appalachia indicates that this type of relatively large, burrowing salamander was once more widespread in eastern North America, explained Gunnin.



He noted that this may have had a profound impact on the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-black-bellied-salamanders-were-hidden-in-plain-sight/">Appalachian</a> salamander communities.



Modern dusky salamanders max out at about seven inches (18 centimeters) - less than half the length of the fossil giant. The research team suspects that predators like D. robertsoni drove smaller stream-dwellers to diversify rapidly, setting the stage for today’s variety.



“The warmer climate in Tennessee 5 million years ago, followed by cooling during the Pleistocene <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">Ice Ages</a>, may have restricted large, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-backed-salamanders-will-struggle-to-adapt-to-climate-warming/">burrowing salamanders</a> to lower latitudes, like southern Alabama, where the Red Hills salamander lives today,” said Samuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-salamander-fossil">Significance of the salamander fossil</h2>



“The latest salamander publication is a testament to this teamwork and search for answers,” said Schubert. 



“When Davis Gunnin, the lead author, began volunteering at the museum as a teenager with an interest in fossil salamanders, I was thrilled because this region is known for its salamander diversity today, and we know so little about their fossil record."



From high-school volunteers to seasoned faculty, the Gray Fossil Site team keeps uncovering stories buried beneath Appalachian soil.



The stories explain why a walk through a modern Tennessee stream still reveals more salamander shapes and colors than almost anywhere else on Earth.



This shared effort blends curiosity, dedication, and local pride in a way that brings science to life. With each new find, the team adds another piece to the puzzle of Appalachia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/">ancient ecosystems</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2025.2501332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Giant salamander fossil reveals deep roots of Appalachian diversity

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been...

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried the faint whisper of wings. Billions of Bogong moths rise from the dry inland plains. Their destination is a handful of icy caves high in the Snowy Mountains, up to 600 miles away.



How these brief-lived insects - each one making the journey only once - find their way across such vast, feature-poor landscapes has long been one of biology’s quiet mysteries.



Now, an international research team has discovered the key: Bogong moths navigate by reading the constellations and the Milky Way, switching to Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/">magnetic field</a> when clouds blot out the stars.



The findings make the species the first known invertebrate to use a stellar compass for long-distance migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unseen-nightly-moth-migration">An unseen nightly moth migration</h2>



Bogong moths (Agrotis infusa) hatch on parched farmland and grasslands across southeastern Australia. Triggered by spring warmth, each insect embarks on a marathon flight toward cool alpine refuges.



When they arrive - sometimes only weeks after leaving birth sites - they wedge themselves into narrow rock cracks. There, they lower their body temperature and remain torpid through the scorching summer months.



Come autumn, they reverse course, return to the lowlands, breed once and die, leaving offspring to repeat the cycle.



Although the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">migrat</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">i</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">on</a> is centuries old, its navigational underpinning has been elusive. Earlier work hinted that moths might sense Earth’s magnetic field. But that alone seemed too crude to guide them to specific caves occupying only a few square miles in the vast Australian Alps.



The new study shows the insects wield a two-part navigation toolkit every bit as sophisticated as that of migratory birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-use-celestial-landmarks">Moths use celestial landmarks </h2>



Led by Professor Eric Warrant of <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a>, the research team built a custom flight simulator: a circular arena whose inner surface could project a perfectly realistic night sky, complete with Zodiac constellations and the luminous smear of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/">Milky Way</a>.



By rotating or scrambling the projection, the team could test what cues the moths use. They also enclosed the device in coils that canceled Earth’s magnetic field, allowing independent manipulation of magnetic and visual information.



When moths collected during spring migrations were placed in the simulator under a natural star map, they reliably flew south-southeast - the direction to the Snowy Mountains from their capture location.



Autumn migrants, tested months later, flew north-northwest toward their breeding grounds. Rotating the star map 180 degrees caused the insects instantly to flip their direction of flight. 



Scrambling the star pattern left them disoriented, proving they were not just chasing the brightest point but reading specific celestial landmarks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-have-a-backup-migration-plan">Moths have a backup migration plan</h2>



Night skies are not always clear. The researchers next obscured the stars while reintroducing a controlled magnetic field.



Deprived of visual cues, the moths still flew along the correct migratory bearing, guided only by magnetism. When both stars and magnetic information were eliminated, the moths lost orientation entirely.



The results reveal a dual-compass strategy: starlight when available, magnetism when not. Such redundancy ensures reliability amid Australia’s famously changeable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/">spring weather</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-tuned-to-stars">Brains tuned to stars</h2>



The team also ventured inside the moth’s brain. Using microelectrodes thinner than a human hair, they recorded from neurons in the central complex - an insect brain hub for spatial processing.



Certain neurons fired maximally when the simulated starry sky aligned with the migratory heading. Rotating the sky shifted each cell’s peak activity by an equivalent angle, confirming that these neurons encode celestial direction.



That sophisticated computation, packed into a brain weighing a fraction of a gram, rivals the navigational circuitry found in far larger animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-moths-to-machines">From moths to machines</h2>



The discovery joins earlier breakthroughs revealing that South African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-share-their-workload-with-their-mates/">dung beetles</a> use the Milky Way to roll dung balls in straight lines.



Study co-author Javaan Chahl, a remote-sensing engineer at the University of South Australia, has already translated beetle astronomy into an AI sensor that allows robots to orient in low light.



He believes Bogong moths could inspire next-generation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/">drones</a> capable of navigating long distances at night without GPS.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moth-migration-needs-dark-skies">Moth migration needs dark skies</h2>



Bogong moth numbers have crashed due to drought, pesticides, land use changes, and climate-driven shifts in vegetation. The species is now listed as vulnerable.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-skyglow-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycle-in-lakes/">Light pollution</a> compounds the threat by washing out the night-sky cues the moths rely on. Losing dark skies could push the migratory system past a point of no return. 



This would trigger ripple effects across alpine ecosystems that rely on the moths as a seasonal food bonanza for birds and mammals.



“This is not just about a moth,” said Warrant, who also holds appointments at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> and the <a href="https://online.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a>.



The findings help recognize that the night sky is a public commons, critical for countless species - humans included - that have used it to orient, to tell time, to wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigation-by-starlight">Navigation by starlight</h2>



For millennia, Polynesian navigators steered canoes by starlight, and mariners followed the Southern Cross across oceans. 



Now we know that a creature no larger than a paper clip can do the same, threading a path across an entire continent by reading the celestial vault.



Safeguarding the Bogong moth’s migration means protecting the dark, starlit corridors overhead - an essential step if we are to keep both the insect’s ancient journey and our shared cosmic heritage alive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09135-3">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Moths read the stars to complete an epic migration

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried...

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles (675 kilometers) below the surface of the ground and is often described as the world’s largest cave system. Recent explorations there uncovered two new fossil sharks that once roamed shallow coastal waters more than 325 million years ago.



Ancient shark specialist John-Paul (JP) Hodnett of the Maryland-National Capital Parks and Planning Commission (<a href="https://www.mncppc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MNCPPC</a>) worked with the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fossils/index.htm">National Park Service Paleontology Program</a> to identify the fossils. 



These finds have everyone buzzing because they offer a glimpse into marine habitats that thrived when parts of what is now eastern North America were covered by a warm sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-shark-fossil-puzzle">Prehistoric shark fossil puzzle</h2>



The newly documented sharks are Troglocladodus trimblei and Glikmanius careforum, and they are from a group known as <a href="https://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/fossil-month-cten.php">ctenacanth</a> sharks. 



They both measured about 10–12 feet (3–3.6 meters) long, which is similar in size to an oceanic whitetip shark.



The shark fossils were collected from various limestone formations, which were deposited during the Middle to Late <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/mississippian-period.htm">Mississippian Period</a>. 



The bigger picture is that these habitats were once submerged under shallow seas and supported a wide range of fish life. Researchers have now identified more than 70 ancient fish species in the cave system.



A partial set of jaws belonging to a young <a href="https://shark-references.com/species/view/Glikmanius-careforum">Glikmanius careforum</a> revealed fresh details about cartilage, which rarely fossilizes well. 



Cartilaginous remains of sharks are often fragile and easily destroyed by erosion, so finding them preserved in a protected space is especially rewarding.



Experts note that this newly identified material adds depth to ongoing discussions of how shark groups diversified while the supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea">Pangea</a> was taking shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-fieldwork">Collaborations and fieldwork</h2>



“Every new discovery at Mammoth Cave is possible due to collaborations,” said park superintendent <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/management/index.htm">Barclay Trimble</a> of Mammoth Cave National Park. 



Researchers and volunteers have explored hidden passages, river channels, and even narrow crawlways in search of key fossils.



Members of the <a href="https://www.cave-research.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cave Research Foundation</a> also took part in these efforts. The name Glikmanius careforum was chosen to honor that organization’s valuable support in the field.



The partial cartilage from this genus points to a short head with a strong bite, possibly used to feed on smaller fish and <a href="https://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/HoughtonEC/Orthocones.html">orthocones</a>, which are squid-like creatures with elongated shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-help-trace-evolutionary-change">Fossils help trace evolutionary change </h2>



Troglocladodus trimblei stands out for its branching tooth design that helped it secure prey in the Mississippian seas. 



This prehistoric hunter probably shared a coastal environment with G. careforum, in waters that covered modern-day Kentucky and Alabama.



Researchers say these sharks likely thrived in nearshore habitats that teemed with bony fish, shelled organisms, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-sharks-brazilian-waters-sharpnose-sharks-rhizoprionodon-lalandii-ocean-pollution/">marine creatures</a>.



Tracing these fossils across multiple rock layers provides insights into how the environment changed over time. 



Coastal waters rose and fell as landmasses drifted toward each other, gradually merging into a single continent. 



These broader patterns helped shape the distribution and evolutionary paths of ancient sharks like T. trimblei and G. careforum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-preserve-shark-fossils">How to preserve shark fossils</h2>



Field teams spent long hours underground carefully mapping and collecting small fragments of teeth. A single <a href="https://www.npca.org/articles/7703-the-unveiling-of-mammoth-cave-s-history">tooth</a> from T. trimblei sparked initial interest when Superintendent Trimble first discovered it on a 2019 trip. 



Seasoned cavers and geologists coordinated to ensure safe retrieval of each piece, knowing that one misstep could damage the delicate remains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1s.webp" alt="A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Artwork by Benji Paynose" class="wp-image-1973763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Click image to enlarge. Artwork by Benji Paynose</figcaption></figure>



Research at Mammoth Cave has led to conversations about how best to preserve fragile fossils within difficult-to-access passages. Experts say stable cave temperatures help keep these discoveries in good condition. 



Park managers have also integrated these new data into guidelines for future research so that more clues to marine life from 325 million years ago may be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-shark-fossils-matter">Why these shark fossils matter</h2>



Scientists use these finds to compare local fossil collections with specimens from similar periods in other parts of the world. 



Documenting body sizes, tooth arrangements, and skeletal details helps researchers build a clearer timeline of shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">evolution</a>.



These comprehensive studies uncover shifts in fish diversity that occurred as oceans changed and landmasses joined together. 



Experts also link fossil data with knowledge from bony fish records, coral structures, and other sea life. This combined approach paints a full picture of ancient marine habitats and shows how some species adapted while others vanished. 



The two new fossil sharks at Mammoth Cave highlight that even well-known geologic areas can hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-caught-riding-on-the-back-of-the-worlds-fastest-shark-in-the-open-ocean/">surprises</a> for many years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cave-explorations">Future cave explorations</h2>



Mammoth Cave continues to yield glimpses into a vanished coastline that spanned what is now Kentucky, Europe, and northern Africa. 



T. trimblei and G. careforum are just two recent additions to an ever-expanding fossil catalog, reminding everyone that exploration still brings answers and new questions.



In many ways, these ancient sharks highlight how puzzle pieces of geologic history keep fitting together. Field teams are now eager to see what lies in deeper chambers or behind the narrow channels.



The next phase of study may involve more advanced imaging and careful excavation in lesser-known passages, guided by new mapping techniques. 



Findings like these spur a broader appreciation for the cave system’s scientific value, well beyond its length or visual features.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377873693_NEW_CTENACANTH_SHARKS_CHONDRICHTHYES_ELASMOBRANCHII_CTENACANTHIFORMES_FROM_THE_MIDDLE_TO_LATE_MISSISSIPPIAN_OF_KENTUCKY_AND_ALABAMA">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Two prehistoric sea monsters found after 325 million years in the world’s largest cave

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles...

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable, and its European range has never stayed still for long. 



New research shows that the bear’s wanderings are tied less to temperature than to where its food grows or grazes - an important detail with big conservation consequences.



Pablo M. Lucas and colleagues at the <a href="https://ics-seville.org/university-of-seville/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Seville</a> analyzed more than three million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-brown-bears-have-a-genetic-weak-spot/">bear</a> locations and the energy yield of 276 food species to find the pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bears-follow-food-with-most-energy">Bears follow food with most energy</h2>



“We detected 276 species in their diet. Bears occupy those places where the most energy from the species in their diet is available,” explained Lucas. 



Brown bears consume anything from acorns to red deer, shifting diet with local supply. Lucas’s team confirms that bears settle where the most calories are packed into the landscape, a principle ecologists call <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/12/10/1928" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic energy optimization</a>.&nbsp;



Europe holds about 17,000 free‑ranging brown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untangling-the-history-of-polar-bears-and-brown-bears/">bears</a> spread over 22 countries, yet the population is fragmented into 14 sub‑populations, from the Cantabrian Mountains to Karelia. 



The <a href="http://www.bearconservation.org.uk/eurasian-brown-bear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> classifies the species as “Least Concern” globally, but several regional groups remain vulnerable. Fragmentation matters because food landscapes vary sharply across short distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-food-sources-for-bears">Climate shifts food sources for bears </h2>



Climate change is already nudging thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-brown-bears-are-digging-up-japans-artificial-forests/">species</a> poleward and uphill, some three times faster than biologists once estimated. As fruiting plants, insects and ungulates relocate, bears face a moving target.&nbsp;



In warmer regions such as Greece and Türkiye, the study found bears behaving almost like herbivores, with nuts and berries dominating the diet. 



Farther north in Scandinavia and Finland, meat from wild boar or moose supplies over half of a bear’s annual calories.



American grizzlies offer a parallel: on Alaska’s Kodiak Island, warmer summers now ripen elderberries during salmon runs, and many bears abandon fish for fruit. 



The European analysis suggests similar switches are likely whenever plant and animal phenology collide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-energy-landscape">Mapping the energy landscape</h2>



To quantify edible energy, the team combined scat and stomach studies with remote‑sensing models of plant and prey habitat. 



A key variable was <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/691/ds691.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isothermality</a>, the ratio of day‑to‑night temperature range to annual range, which influences plant productivity.



Areas rich in reproductive plants such as oak and beech mast scored high for bears in Spain, while regions with dense roe‑deer populations pulled bears east of the Carpathians.



The researchers then layered these food maps onto climate and land‑use projections for 2050. Where forests shrink or heat stress pushes oaks uphill, the calories disappear and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/">bear</a>’s probability of presence drops with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bear-food-zones-may-shrink">Bear food zones may shrink</h2>



Under a mid‑range emissions pathway, suitable bear habitat could contract by one‑third if both abiotic (climate, land use) and biotic (food availability) changes unfold as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forecast</a>. 



Losses are steepest in the East Balkan and Türkiye groups, where warming outpaces plant adaptation. In contrast, the Scandinavian and Karelian sub‑populations may gain ground as forests march north, provided prey species keep pace.



A separate Swedish <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296319593_Seasonal_and_annual_variation_in_the_diet_of_brown_bears_Ursus_arctos_in_the_boreal_forest_of_southcentral_Sweden" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of 527 bear scats showed similar north-south dietary splits and underlines that bears quickly alter foraging tactics when new options arise. 



Such flexibility could buffer northern bears but offers little help to isolated southern populations hemmed in by farmland and roads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-people-and-policy">Implications for people and policy</h2>



Europe’s large carnivores have rebounded over the past two decades, sparking new debates about coexistence. Where wild prey declines, bears turn to orchards, beehives and livestock carcasses, raising conflict costs. 



Predicting hotspots of future food scarcity can guide compensation schemes and habitat corridors before tensions flare.



Forest managers also gain a roadmap: protecting seed‑producing trees in southern Europe may retain critical autumn fattening grounds, while maintaining continuous ungulate habitat in the north ensures carnivorous diets stay wild. 



The study argues that conservation targets should shift from static range maps to dynamic “energy maps” that track how calories, not just climate, flow across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-species-adapt-like-bears">Not all species adapt like bears</h2>



Brown bears are generalists, able to switch food sources as the landscape changes. But many species aren’t so lucky. 



Animals with a <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/generalist-and-specialist-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialist diet</a>, such as the Iberian lynx or alpine butterflies, may not adapt as quickly if their primary food vanishes or migrates beyond reach.



Species with limited mobility or narrow climate tolerance face a double threat: they can’t chase food, and even if they could, suitable shelter might not be there. 



Conservation strategies that work for flexible foragers like bears won’t always translate to more fragile species caught in tight ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-step-is-testing-other-predators">Next step is testing other predators</h2>



Lucas and co‑authors hope to expand the model to wolves and lynx, testing whether prey‑driven range forecasts improve planning for multiple predators at once. 



The researchers are also calling for finer‑scale monitoring of plant phenology so managers can spot mismatches early.



For now, the brown bear reminds us that protecting a species means protecting its pantry. Where acorns fall and deer graze today will shape where cubs are born tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Brown bears move where their food grows

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable,...

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape conservation efforts. From cartoons to fundraising campaigns, giving animals human emotions and faces makes them more relatable. But this seemingly harmless trick has deeper consequences. 



A new study in the journal iScience&nbsp;explores how cultural, personal, and social factors shape our willingness to see animals like ourselves. This impacts which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/">species</a> we choose to protect.



“Unfortunately, anthropomorphism significantly influences conservation efforts... Species that appear more human-like or exhibit human-like behaviors usually tend to receive more attention, funding, and public support,” said Federica Amici of <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-responses-to-animals">Emotional responses to animals</h2>



The research team surveyed 741 adults from Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, and Spain. Each participant rated how much they agreed with statements about animals’ emotions, minds, intentions, and even their ability to distinguish good from evil. 



Respondents also reported their religious beliefs, education level, social networks, and personal experiences with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/">animals</a>.



Participants with less education tended to assign more human-like free will to animals. In contrast, those with more structured scientific learning were more cautious. 



Interestingly, urban experiences like owning pets or seeing animals in media predicted more emotional connections. These people were more likely to believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/">animals</a> had minds, emotions, and intent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lonely-humans-humanize-animals">Lonely humans humanize animals</h2>



Social isolation played a powerful role. People with weaker social ties were more likely to see animals as emotionally complex and similar to humans. 



This tendency was even more pronounced in allocentric individuals, who see themselves as part of a group rather than independent. 



These individuals often attributed more free will and emotions to animals, perhaps to meet their own need for companionship



“People who feel lonely or aren’t well connected to others often try to meet their need for social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/">connection</a> by seeing human-like qualities in animals or other non-human things,” noted Amici. 



This helps explain why pet owners or animal lovers may assign deeper personalities to their pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-anthropomorphism">Understanding anthropomorphism</h2>



The attribution of human characteristics, emotions, or behaviors to non-human entities, including animals, objects, deities, or abstract concepts, is known as anthropomorphism. 



This tendency is deeply ingrained in human cognition and language, often used to make the unfamiliar more relatable or comprehensible. 



From ancient myths where gods possess <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">human emotions</a> to modern cartoons where animals talk and act like people, anthropomorphism plays a key role in storytelling, religious belief, and even scientific interpretation. 



It serves as a cognitive shortcut, allowing individuals to empathize with and interpret the actions of non-human entities through a human lens.



In scientific and philosophical contexts, anthropomorphism can be both a useful heuristic and a source of bias. For instance, in animal behavior studies, attributing intentions or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions to animals</a> can aid observational insight, but it also risks oversimplifying or misrepresenting their true nature. 



Similarly, in technology and artificial intelligence, people often perceive machines as having intentions or feelings, a phenomenon that shapes user experience and ethical concerns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-religion-shapes-human-view-of-animals">Religion shapes human view of animals</h2>



Religious belief had a noticeable effect. Participants from monotheistic traditions like Islam and Christianity were less likely to attribute free will, emotions, and pain to animals. 



In contrast, those from non-monotheistic faiths such as Hinduism and Buddhism were more open to the idea that animals could feel, think, and even deceive.



“Non-monotheistic religions appear to contribute more strongly to envisioning a space of coexistence between humans and other species,” said Amici. This supports the idea that religions emphasizing interconnection nurture deeper empathy toward non-human life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-monkeys-as-moral-agents">Seeing monkeys as moral agents</h2>



The study included special focus on monkeys. People with greater exposure to monkeys were more likely to believe monkeys could deceive, plan, or act with intent but paradoxically, less likely to think monkeys felt pain.



Why the contradiction? The researchers suggest a possible reason. When animals are seen as threats, such as crop raiding monkeys, humans may still judge their behavior but downplay their suffering. 



This type of moral distancing may help humans justify their actions when conflicts arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-and-understanding-emotions">Feeling and understanding emotions</h2>



The survey measured traits like the ability to feel primary emotions such as anger or fear, secondary emotions like guilt or shame, and understand others’ intentions. 



Most people saw monkeys as capable of feeling basic emotions and having minds of their own.



However, beliefs about more complex traits like distinguishing good from evil were more variable. These attributions often reflected a blend of religion, social closeness, and urban experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assigning-human-traits-to-animals">Assigning human traits to animals</h2>



Assigning human traits to animals can help conservation efforts. It can boost empathy, raise funds, and build support. 



But it can also skew public concern toward cute or familiar species. That may leave less attractive yet ecologically vital creatures out of focus.



“I think anthropomorphizing species can be an effective approach, but it should be used with caution,” said Amici.



This study shows that conservationists must consider social context. Campaigns that resonate in one culture may fall flat in another. 



Customizing messaging based on local beliefs, education, and exposure to animals can make programs more effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-sympathy-to-strategy">From sympathy to strategy</h2>



This research uncovers how deeply our personal lives shape what we see in animals. By recognizing those patterns, conservation can become more inclusive and impactful. 



Instead of relying only on emotion or charisma, strategies can balance human connection with ecological urgency. When we see animals clearly, through both empathy and science, we might finally protect them wisely.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00954-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why we see some animals as more human than others

Anthropomorphism, or seeing animals as human-like, has long helped shape...

Echidna,In,The,Zoo

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like misfits, but the bigger oddity hides in their DNA. For most mammals, a gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22246/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SRY</a> flips the switch for testis formation and sets sex development in motion.



Researchers have now shown that these <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotreme.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotremes</a> wield a completely different master key: a Y‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4654491/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a>). 



<a href="https://researchers.adelaide.edu.au/profile/linda.shearwin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Linda Shearwin</a> of the University of Adelaide’s School of Biological Sciences led the international team that cracked the case.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-sex-gene-in-monotremes">Different sex gene in monotremes</h2>



Platypuses carry five X and five Y <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2413164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chromosomes</a> that line up in an alternating chain during male meiosis, a structure unlike anything in other mammals. 



Females hold five paired X chromosomes, yet the species thrives, proof that complicated does not always mean fragile.



Genomic clocks place the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/obl4he/vertebratediversity/monotremes.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monotreme split</a> from other mammals at roughly <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8081666/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">187 million years ago</a>, long before SRY arose in placental and marsupial lineages. 



Their last common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/">ancestor</a> with us never carried SRY, so a different mechanism had to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monotremes-have-10-sex-chromosomes">Monotremes have 10 sex chromosomes</h2>



Monotreme males don’t just have an X and a Y. They juggle a system with up to 10 sex chromosomes, five Xs and five Ys in platypuses, and a slightly smaller set in echidnas. 



These chromosomes form a chain during sperm production, a configuration that looks more like a daisy chain than the standard X–Y pair mammals typically carry.



This odd setup baffled scientists for decades. Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">therian mammals</a>, monotreme sex chromosomes share homology with bird Z chromosomes, not with the mammalian Y. 



That raised suspicions early on that monotremes must use a completely different trigger to determine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/">sex</a>, but proving it required access to rare developmental stages.



Anti‑Müllerian hormone normally turns off female tract development in male embryos and later guides <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2024.1468364/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ovarian follicle growth</a>. In people, doctors measure AMH to gauge fertility or predict menopause timing.



Most mammals keep AMH on an ordinary chromosome, far downstream of SRY and <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>. In echidnas and platypuses, evolution duplicated the gene, parked the copy on a Y chromosome, and rewired its control panel to switch on early in male gonads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-starts-outside-the-cell-s-nucleus">Sex starts outside the cell’s nucleus</h2>



“This new understanding fills a significant knowledge gap and ultimately can be used to support conservation of these iconic Australian mammals. AMHY would be the first known example of a growth factor playing a sex‑determining role in mammals,” said Dr. Shearwin. 



Her team tracked AMHY activity in developing echidna testes well before visible sex differences appeared. 



The protein works outside the nucleus, binding a surface receptor and relaying signals rather than directly steering DNA. 



That makes monotremes the only known mammals where a secreted factor, not a transcription factor, calls the first shot in sex development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-amhy-different-from-amhx">What makes AMHY different from AMHX</h2>



Although a X‑linked copy of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMHX) and AMHY both belong to the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4325469/">TGF-β protein family</a> and share key structural features, they diverged significantly after an ancient gene inversion. 



The two proteins are only 52% identical, with differences concentrated in regions that affect hormone cleavage and signaling.



Their promoter regions also diverge. AMHY lacks the usual <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2626" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA4</a>, and <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=SF1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SF-1</a> binding sites seen in AMHX and other mammalian AMH genes. 



Instead, AMHY uses unique transcription factor sites, like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2820524/%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DMRT1</a> and <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC548021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GATA1</a>, which are active only in male gonads, suggesting a custom regulatory setup designed for sex determination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-view-of-sex-genes">Wider view of sex genes</h2>



AMH duplications have taken over sex determination more than once. A male‑specific <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5555456/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMHY</a> copy steers testis formation in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11907690/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Patagonian pejerrey fish</a> and old‑world silversides. 



Some amphibians use the same trick, showing that hormones can win the evolutionary race against classic DNA‑binding proteins.



The discovery also underlines how fragile Y chromosomes can be. SRY itself did not appear until about 160 million years ago and was identified in humans only in <a href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/sex-determining-region-y-mammals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1990</a>. 



If SRY could pop up late, there is no reason other genes cannot step in when needed, as monotremes demonstrate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-monotreme-sex-matters">Why monotreme sex matters</h2>



Platypus populations face habitat loss and climate change, and captive breeding programs struggle because eggs are delicate and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/">reproductive cycles</a> poorly understood. 



Knowing that AMHY, not SRY, dictates sex gives biologists a tool for early‑stage sexing of embryos in conservation labs.



The work also helps physicians dissect AMH’s many roles in humans. Because monotreme AMHY triggers an entire sex pathway on its own, comparing its sequence to human AMH may spotlight sites essential for receptor binding or signal strength. That insight could refine AMH‑based fertility tests or therapies.



To test AMHY's function, researchers tried introducing platypus AMHX and AMHY into developing chicken embryos, a model known to respond clearly to sex-determining signals. 



Overexpressing chicken AMH in females causes visible masculinization, so scientists hoped platypus versions might do the same.



But nothing changed. The monotreme proteins didn’t cause male traits in chickens, even when highly expressed. 



Structural analysis showed that key binding sites between mammalian AMH and the bird receptor don’t line up well. 



This mismatch confirms that early mammalian changes in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34155118/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMH–AMHR2 interaction</a> likely limit cross-species functionality.



The full study is published in <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03546-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genome Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Platypus and echidnas break mammal rules with weird sex system

Tiny, spiny echidnas and the duck‑billed platypus already look like...

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still leaving space for wildlife? A new proposal says they can.



By setting aside one-fifth of farmland for nature, and tweaking everyday practices on the rest, we can help wildlife recover without sacrificing the food on our tables.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-with-wildlife-in-mind">Farming with wildlife in mind</h2>



The plan comes from ecologists at the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> and the University of Alcalá in Spain. Study co-author Professor James Bullock elaborated on the importance of the research.



“Reversing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-calls-for-global-change-to-stop-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity loss</a> and degradation of ecosystems is essential both for nature as well as long-term global food security. But there is no single silver bullet for nature recovery and so far it has been unclear how to integrate rewilding into agricultural landscapes," said Professor Bullock. 



“Our proposed approach moves beyond land sparing versus land sharing. We believe rewilding can be interwoven into agricultural landscapes and could be key to maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-based-food-production-would-have-extremely-positive-impact/">food production</a> in a way that is sustainable in the long term for people and the planet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedicating-land-to-nature-recovery">Dedicating land to nature recovery</h2>



According to the study, fostering rewilding approaches alongside farming could create agroecological landscapes that accommodate biodiversity while remaining resilient and functionally connected. Certain incentives would encourage farmers to adopt this approach.



“While setting aside land for nature recovery could potentially be made a legal requirement for farmers and landowners, there is more likely to be acceptance and success of rewilding if there are incentives in the form of payments for ecosystem services and tax deductions,” noted Professor José María Rey Benayas, lead author on the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-farming-needs-wildlife">Why farming needs wildlife</h2>



Modern farming has greatly increased food production since the 1940s. But this has often come at the expense of nature. 



Clearing land, using heavy fertilizers and pesticides, and removing natural features like hedgerows have pushed many plant and animal species to the edge.



This loss doesn’t just affect wildlife - it disrupts vital services that farms depend on, such as healthy soil, natural pest control, and water retention. As these services decline, the long-term productivity and resilience of farming systems are put at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-declining-wildlife">The cost of declining wildlife</h2>



Across Europe and beyond, once-common species are disappearing from farmland. For example, the U.K. has lost over 40 million birds since 1970, and wild bee populations have declined in more than half of European countries, according to multiple long-term surveys.



These animals aren’t just part of the scenery - they’re key to food production. Birds eat crop pests. Bees and other insects pollinate the flowers that develop into fruits and vegetables. Their loss means greater reliance on artificial fertilisers, pesticides, and expensive manual labour.



Bringing wildlife back isn’t just a conservation goal - it’s a practical step toward more affordable and reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">farming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-to-farming-alongside-wildlife">Steps to farming alongside wildlife </h2>



The researchers suggest a four-part plan that links nature conservation with everyday farming. 



First, they recommend reserving at least 20% of farmland for nature. This space would include large patches of woodland, wetlands, and species-rich grassland to form strong core habitats. 



Second, these patches should be connected by green corridors - such as hedgerows, ponds, and strips of scrubland - that allow wildlife to move, feed, and reproduce.



Third, they propose protecting small hotspots within working fields. This would involve setting aside about 10% of cropped land for flower strips, beetle banks, and bird perches, bringing the total to the 30% global restoration goal. 



Finally, they call for small changes in daily farming practices, like reducing chemical use, planting flowers for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a>, and letting livestock graze more freely to help spread seeds and support healthy soil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewilding-has-benefits-for-farmers">Rewilding has benefits for farmers</h2>



Many European regions cannot host bears or bison. However, smaller species such as lynx, wildcat, or European hare can still boost ecosystem health. Choosing the right mix depends on local conditions.



Helping wildlife can pay off in more ways than one. When farms support natural habitats, they often see practical benefits in return. 



Better soil retains more water and nutrients, which supports stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-can-help-make-crops-more-resilient/">crops</a>. Pollinators and natural predators of pests can help increase yields in nearby fields. 



Farmers may also spend less on fertilizers and pesticides, lowering overall input costs. In some places, governments might provide payments or tax breaks to reward efforts that support biodiversity and ecosystem services.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-room-for-wildlife">Making room for wildlife</h2>



Reaching the 20% target may be challenging for small farms, but collective action can make it achievable. At the same time, each region will need to adapt the plan to fit its local conditions. 



Areas with heavily degraded farmland have the most to gain, while places with traditional, low-impact farming may require fewer changes. 



The researchers emphasize that this is just a starting point - but the message is clear: making room for wildlife alongside farming can help secure both indigenous species and food for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2860">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Farming for wildlife: How traditional practices can protect nature

Can farms produce enough food to feed us while still...

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly waters off the western Antarctic Peninsula, and it has a story that spans nearly a million winters.



Researchers report that Akarotaxis gouldae (nicknamed the banded dragonfish) branched off from its nearest cousin some 780,000 years ago, surviving cycles of advancing and retreating ice in near‑total isolation, according to <a href="https://www.vims.edu/people/corso_ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrew Corso</a> of the <a href="https://www.vims.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS)</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-dragonfish-family-tree">Tracing the dragonfish family tree</h2>



Genetic work showed that A. gouldae separated from A. nudiceps after glaciers sealed much of the Southern Ocean, leaving a pocket of fish marooned in deep trenches.



“There are two distinct bands on the sides of adult A. gouldae that are not present on A. nudiceps,” said Corso, adding that the specimens had sat unrecognized in museum jars for decades.



Time‑calibrated <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/phylogeny" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phylogeny</a>, a technique that treats <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-of-human-genetic-mutations-unveiled/">DNA mutations</a> as a molecular clock, supports the 780,000‑year split and hints that the ancestors of today’s banded dragonfish rode out the ice age beneath moving glaciers before re‑emerging when the ice pulled back.



The banded dragonfish joins the family Bathydraconidae, a group famed for its sparse sampling and for species that often turn up only as larval traces in plankton nets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-museum-collections">Importance of museum collections</h2>



Old jars, dusty shelves, and handwritten labels might not seem exciting, but they’ve become critical to discovering overlooked species like Akarotaxis gouldae. 



The adult fish had been sitting in museum <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/research/vertebrate-zoology/fishes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ichthyology</a> collections for years, misidentified as their more common relatives.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dragonfish_new-species_Akarotaxis-gouldae_Akarotaxis-nudiceps_Andrew-Corso_1s.webp" alt="Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Credit: Andrew Corso" class="wp-image-1974442"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Akarotaxis gouldae (left) compared to Akarotaxis nudiceps (right) show distinct morphological differences, including the presence of two bands on the bodies of Akarotaxis gouldae as well as a shorter snouts and jaws. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Andrew Corso</figcaption></figure>



By cross-checking DNA samples with these physical specimens, scientists were able to link the genetic evidence to real-world morphology. Without access to these archives, the banded dragonfish might still be hiding in plain sight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfish-species-in-isolation">Dragonfish species in isolation</h2>



Living cut off for hundreds of thousands of years forces species to adapt in unique ways. In the case of Akarotaxis gouldae, the isolation beneath glaciers may have shaped not only its body but also its behaviors and genetic resilience.



Studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/">species</a> like this helps scientists understand how evolution works over long timescales when environments are extreme and gene flow is limited. It also gives clues about how animals might respond to rapid environmental changes happening today.



To persist in water that hovers around 28 °F, notothenioid fishes such as A. gouldae make <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14515019/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antifreeze glycoproteins</a>, tiny molecules that latch onto ice crystals and halt their growth.



Adults likely spend most of the year hundreds of feet down, yet come inshore to guard nests, a behavior documented in related dragonfishes, while their larvae drift near the surface, where food is richer but fishing gear lurks. 



Dissections reveal ovaries holding surprisingly few eggs, suggesting a slow‑growing population that cannot quickly rebound from losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-peninsula-matters">Why the peninsula matters</h2>



All confirmed records of A. gouldae fall inside a roughly 250‑mile swath along the western Antarctic Peninsula, giving the fish one of the narrowest ranges of any Antarctic vertebrate. 



That strip is also among the fastest‑warming places south of the equator; Esperanza Station <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-023-00529-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logged</a> an air temperature of 64.9 °F in 2020, part of a trend of record heat events that are increasing in frequency.



As the water warms and sea ice shrinks, prey dynamics shift. A 25‑year survey shows that larvae of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-022-03042-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic silverfish</a>, an important forage species for penguins and seals, drop sharply when sea ice duration falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-nets-and-collateral-damage">Krill nets and collateral damage</h2>



Commercial vessels net <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/fisheries/krill-fisheries" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">krill</a> throughout the Peninsula in mid‑water trawls that work from the surface to about 820 ft, directly overlapping the depths where larval dragonfish ride the currents.



“This limited range combined with their low reproductive capacity and the presence of early life stages in shallower waters suggests that this is a vulnerable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-tiger-swallowtail-butterfly-discovered-in-the-u-s-had-gone-unnoticed-by-scientists/">species</a> that could be impacted by the krill fishery,” said Corso. 



Observers note that juvenile finfish bycatch is poorly documented; a few hundred missed larvae could erase a year‑class of banded dragonfish before scientists even know it existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-a-ship-s-legacy">Honoring a ship's legacy</h2>



The species honors the research vessel <a href="https://www.usap.gov/vesselscienceandoperations/1626/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laurence M. Gould</a>, retired in 2024 after decades ferrying scientists through treacherous seas. Its departure leaves only one U.S. supply ship to cover a coastline the size of the continental United States.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguin-poop-helps-form-clouds-that-could-slow-antarctic-warming/">Penguin colonies</a> already illustrate what slips through gaps in monitoring: satellite and drone surveys reveal that many chinstrap penguin rookeries around the Peninsula have fallen by more than 50 % since the 1980s.



Corso and colleagues hope the banded dragonfish will become a flagship for hidden Antarctic biodiversity, spurring tighter catch limits and fresh investment in field campaigns before climate and commerce push the deep‑sea relic past a tipping point.



The full study is published in <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/52879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

New dragonfish species discovered in Antarctica has survived in isolation for 780,000 years

A new species of dragonfish has surfaced from the chilly...

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species, yet the planet’s first large animal‑built reefs tell a quieter story. New work on fossils from Nevada shows that early Cambrian seas looked nothing like the bustling coral gardens we know today.



Graduate researcher Casey Bennett of the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri</a> and colleagues spent weeks among dusty outcrops, chipping out blocks packed with shells no bigger than grains of sand.



The analysis reveals surprising patterns of life around those ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/">structures</a>, offering a fresh window onto evolution half a billion years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-reefs-spanned-ancient-nevada">Animal reefs spanned ancient Nevada</h2>



More than 514 million years ago, sponge‑like <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/archaeo.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaeocyathids</a> built the planet's earliest animal <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3514525.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> in shallow seas stretching from Siberia to what is now Nevada.



The Harkless Formation near modern Death Valley hosts dozens of these patch reefs, some only a few yards across yet stacked through hundreds of feet of limestone.



Packed between the stone cups of the sponges are fragments of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342184591_Small_shelly_fossils_and_carbon_isotopes_from_the_early_Cambrian_Stages_3-4_Mural_Formation_of_western_Laurentia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">small shelly fauna</a>, the quirky menagerie of early mineralized animals that heralded the Cambrian explosion. These fossils, most under a tenth of an inch long, include baby <a href="https://home.wgnhs.wisc.edu/wisconsin-geology/fossils/brachiopods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brachiopods</a>, snail‑like mollusks, and bristly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0016699524000214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chancelloriids</a>.



Bennett’s team measured fossil assemblages in multiple vertical sections and compared them to the distance from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/">reef</a> walls.



The researchers logged grain size and chemistry of nearby layers to study how sediment influenced fossil preservation. The approach marries classic field mapping with CT scanning that can spot skeletal bits hidden in uncut rock.



That toolbox let the team count tiny creatures that earlier surveys missed, pushing sample sizes into the thousands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-fossils-trace-ancient-reefs">Tiny fossils trace ancient reefs</h2>



Small shelly fauna crop up worldwide in rocks dating to the first 25 million years after animals evolved skeletons, making them key markers for global correlation. 



Because many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-temperature-swings-boost-coral-reef-resilience/">species</a> lived fast and died young, their remains provide fine‑scale time stamps that help synchronize distant stratigraphic sections.



The specimens also capture evolutionary experiments that never made it into the later fossil record, such as slug‑like <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1995.0029" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">halkieriids</a> that wore chain‑mail armor of overlapping plates. Linking these animals to specific habitats can explain why some lineages thrived while others fizzled.



Modern coral reefs often harbor dense banks of filter feeders and crustaceans whose larvae settle preferentially on hard walls. If early reefs played a similar ecological role, small shelly species should cluster close to archaeocyathid mounds. 



That prediction has floated in textbooks for decades but rested on scant quantitative data. Bennett’s dataset provided the first rigorous test at meter‑scale resolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-didn-t-increase-nearby-species">Ancient reefs didn’t increase nearby species</h2>



“With modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/">reefs</a>, biodiversity is expected to decrease as you move away from the reef structure due to reduced shelter and food access,” said Bennett. Yet her counts showed no clear pattern - some distant fossil layers were as species-poor as those near the mounds.



Instead, a few hardy taxa dominate whole <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336585971_Palaeoecology_of_the_archaeocyathan_reefs_from_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_Formation_southern_Nevada_western_United_States_and_carbon_isotopic_evidence_for_their_demise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layers</a>, suggesting that early oceans sorted communities by environmental filters rather than by proximity to the reef.



That pattern echoes observations from later Cambrian sections in Mongolia and Labrador, where reefs also failed to boost local diversity.



“Potentially, this happened by preferentially removing or keeping certain faunas, rather than the reef serving as a major food source for surrounding organisms,” added Assistant Professor Sarah Jacquet.



The remark points fingers at <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrodynamics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrodynamics</a> - the way water flow scours or blankets parts of the seafloor. Models show gentle currents around low-relief reefs can form eddies that trap shells or carry them away. Those physics could produce patchy fossil carpets without invoking biological competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sediment-dictated-fossil-survival">Sediment dictated fossil survival</h2>



The team noticed that changes in <a href="https://nautiluslive.org/blog/2023/08/18/science-lithology-dating-seafloors-movements-over-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithology</a>, whether the rock was a grainy packstone or a micritic mud-governed which shells survived. Coarse beds preserved robust hyoliths, while fine muds favored delicate sponge spicules.



Taphonomic quirks can therefore mask true ecological signals, a warning for paleontologists who chase diversity curves through deep time. By pairing sedimentology with fossil tallies, Bennett shows how to tease apart the preservational filter.



The study also strengthens a growing view that archaeocyath reefs were short‑lived “experiments” rather than foundational keystones. 



Similar conclusions emerged from carbon‑isotope <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/390526423_Small_shelly_fauna_biodiversity_from_reef-adjacent_facies_of_the_lower_Cambrian_Harkless_formation_Nevada" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that tracked the rise and crash of reef communities through Cambrian Stage 4.



Those geochemical shifts hint that global changes in seawater chemistry, perhaps tied to oxygen pulses, played a bigger role than local reef architecture. If true, the early oceans were less a patchwork of hotspots and more a landscape ruled by large‑scale physical drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reefs-warn-us-about-today">Ancient reefs warn us about today</h2>



Coral ecologists <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225405507_Rapid_phase-shift_reversal_on_a_Jamaican_coral_reef">note</a> that today’s reefs often act as biodiversity magnets, with fish and invertebrate richness peaking on the reef and falling away into open sand. But those gradients may depend on the vertical relief and nutrient flow that Cambrian reefs lacked.



Understanding that difference matters because climate change is flattening many living reefs, slicing away the very architecture that supports complex food webs. 



Ancient analogues show that low-relief carbonate banks can persist without the riot of life we associate with reefs. This hints at future ocean floors that remain structurally intact but are ecologically simplified.



“Just because we know how the world works today doesn’t mean it worked the same way back then,” noted Professor Jacquet. Recognizing that flex in nature’s playbook can help scientists design conservation targets that account for multiple evolutionary baselines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-reef-loss-risk">Fossils show reef loss risk</h2>



Bennett plans to sample neighboring formations to see whether diversity patterns change in deeper water or in reefs built by different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-sponges-play-a-critical-role-in-the-ocean-and-they-are-rapidly-vanishing/">sponge</a> species. 



Coupling those data with fluid‑dynamic models could finally pin down how current speed and direction sculpted early animal neighborhoods.



The Nevada hills still hold miles of limestone from ancient animal reefs, awaiting fresh eyes and new technology. Every chip of shale reminds us that even the smallest fossils can rewrite big chapters in Earth history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101822500207X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ancient reefs were surprisingly empty compared to today

Reefs are usually pictured as underwater rainforests crammed with species,...

Diseño sin título - 1

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small slab of rust‑colored rock from a newly discovered exceptional fossil site in central New South Wales, Australia until a curious researcher split the stone in early March. 



“It was a complete fluke,” exclaimed <a href="https://earthsciences.anu.edu.au/people/professor-jochen-j-brocks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Jochen Brocks</a> of the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a> after realizing what he had found. 



That single break exposed a two‑inch fish so complete that even its stomach contents and color cells were still visible.



During the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/tertiary/miocene.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Miocene epoch</a>, central New South Wales was covered by temperate rainforest and freshwater oxbow lakes rather than today’s dusty paddocks. 



The new species belongs to the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/49887-Osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes order</a>, a group better known for modern graylings and smelts but never before recorded in Australia’s fossil record.



Researchers led by <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/matthew-mccurry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Matthew McCurry</a> at the Australian Museum and <a href="https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/en/persons/michael-frese" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Michael Frese</a> at the University of Canberra compared dozens of specimens ranging from 2.1 to 3 inches long, confirming a healthy resident population rather than scattered migrants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforest-lake-that-turned-to-rust">Rainforest lake that turned to rust</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-like-rainbow-trout-suffer-extreme-pain-when-killed-by-air/">fish</a> and many plants and insects were entombed in <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Goethite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goethite</a>, an <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3866414/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iron‑oxide</a> mineral that precipitated rapidly in the stagnant lake water. 



Iron’s ability to lock soft tissue in place is now recognized as a key factor in deep‑time preservation of cells and proteins. 



Geochemists <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825223000569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that goethite’s fine crystals can replicate sub‑micron features before decay destroys the originals, explaining why pigment cells survived here while bones often did not.



McGraths Flat is classed as a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/abs/konservatlagerstatten-cause-and-classification/40A5D354B2DB79EFB6D654BC77421A33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konservat‑Lagerstätte</a>, a sedimentary deposit famous for extraordinary detail, and its ferric layers sit just three feet below the surface near Gulgong. 



The discovery encourages field crews to re‑examine iron‑rich outcrops worldwide that were once dismissed as fossil‑poor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-fossil-was-a-two-inch-hunter">Fish fossil was a two‑inch hunter</h2>



Under a scanning electron microscope, the team identified packed groups of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms1819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melanosomes</a> that once sat inside pigment cells called melanophores. 



Their distribution shows a dark back, pale belly, and two lateral racing stripes, classic countershading that helps living fish blend into sunlit water.



“It pushed the boundaries of what can be preserved,” noted Dr. Frese. Similar spherical and rod‑shaped melanosomes had been recorded earlier in an Eocene fish eye from Denmark, providing a useful comparison for the Australian material. 



The stripes also hint at schooling behavior, because bold horizontal bands are common in small modern smelts that rely on group camouflage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-a-final-snack-reveals">What a final snack reveals</h2>



Each fossil gut contained antennae from <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.4319/lo.1990.35.7.1631" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chaoborus larvae</a>, better known as phantom midge young, along with fragments of insect wings and an occasional bivalve shell. 



Modern Chaoborus sink into mud by day and rise at night to avoid fish, a strategy documented in laboratory and field studies.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/fossilized-fish-15-million-years-ago-last-meal-intact-stomach_1s.webp" alt="Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Credit: Australian National University" class="wp-image-1974319"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chromatophores and melanosomes in F. brocksi. Light microscopy photographs (A–F, AM F.155048) and scanning electron micrographs (G–L, AM F.146748). A, overview image showing the distribution pattern of melanophores in the fish’s skin. B–F, melanophores in the flank and the anal fin showing variation in size, form, and color. G–I, melanosomes in melanophores in an area of skin near the pectoral fin; single melanophore (G); edge of a single melanophore (H); center of a single melanophore (I). J–L, melanosomes in retinal pigment epithelial cells of the eye. Dashed lines mark areas that are depicted at higher magnifications in other panels. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Australian National University</figcaption></figure>



The heavy reliance on pelagic prey suggests F. brocksi hunted in open water after dusk rather than picking along the bottom. 



Because several size classes died together, scientists infer the lake provided year‑round habitat, unlike many living smelts that migrate between rivers and the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-parasite-hitchhiker">A parasite hitchhiker</h2>



One specimen shows a juvenile freshwater mussel, or glochidium, clamped to its tail fin. This is the oldest direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/">fossil record</a> of such parasitism and implies the lake was periodically connected to a river where adult unionid mussels spawned.



Another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/">fish</a> swallowed a similar mussel, meaning it likely ventured near the river mouth shortly before dying. 



These clues help reconstruct seasonal flooding patterns in Miocene Australia without relying solely on sedimentology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-iron-fish-fossils-matter">Why iron fish fossils matter</h2>



Palaeontologist <a href="https://staffportal.curtin.edu.au/staff/profile/view/kate-trinajstic-f0dcf6b1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kate Trinajstic</a>, Curtin University, observed that iron deposits “open up a new area for people to investigate.” 



Her point is underscored by experimental decay work showing that early iron infiltration can arrest bacterial breakdown within days.



Goethite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-euarthropod-youti-yuanshi-lived-520-million-years-ago-insect-evolution/">fossils</a> therefore extend the window for studying fragile tissues like eyes, muscles, and even viral particles that normally vanish. 



They also capture ecological interactions, predation, parasitism, pigmentation, that skeletons alone cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-australia-s-fossil-record">Rethinking Australia's fossil record</h2>



The discovery of Ferruaspis brocksi challenges the long-held notion that Australia’s freshwater fish fossil record is too sparse for meaningful evolutionary study. 



Until now, no complete body fossils of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/osmeriformes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osmeriformes</a> had been found on the continent, leaving major gaps in understanding their arrival and development.



With dozens of specimens at a single site, paleontologists now have a rare opportunity to study not just anatomy, but behavior, ecology, and population structure. 



This level of detail is nearly unheard of in Miocene freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-are-quietly-battling-climate-change-on-the-seabed/">fish</a> fossils from the Southern Hemisphere.



The team’s phylogenetic analysis places F. brocksi near the base of the southern Osmeriformes radiation, pushing the group’s Australian arrival to at least 15 million years ago. 



That timeline aligns with molecular studies indicating a mid‑Miocene split between Australian and New Zealand graylings. Fieldwork will resume next dry season, targeting deeper layers that may hold older relatives or their predators.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2445684" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossilized fish that lived 15 million years ago still has preserved food in its stomach

The fossil of Ferruaspis brocksi lay unnoticed inside a small...

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones in the night are more than cinematic symbols of death - they are the planet’s front-line sanitation crew. By devouring carcasses quickly and completely, large scavengers deny dangerous microbes a foothold.



A wide-ranging study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that these underappreciated scavengers are declining at an alarming pace.



The work draws on population assessments for more than 1,300 vertebrate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavengers-clean-up-wetlands-and-boost-their-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scavenger</a> species and reveals a worrisome pattern.



The steepest rates of scavenger decline were found among the biggest, most specialized carrion eaters, while adaptable opportunists such as rats and feral dogs surge in their absence.



“The evidence we found is very clear,” said senior author Rodolfo Dirzo, a professor of biology and environmental science at Stanford. "Scavengers are in decline, but it’s not homogeneous. It is particularly the large and specialized ones.”



“At the same time, this allows space for the smaller scavengers, which are problematic because they are themselves sources of zoonotic diseases.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-cleaners-to-contaminators">From cleaners to contaminators</h2>



The researchers cataloged everything from famous scavengers - Old World <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-vultures-may-threaten-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vultures</a>, spotted hyenas, condors - to less obvious diners such as pond turtles, catfish, even great white sharks.



Cross-referencing each species against the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List</a> and regional studies, they found that 36 percent of the world’s scavenger populations are threatened or already shrinking.



When those dominant consumers disappear, their ecological niche is rapidly filled by smaller generalists in a process ecologists label “ecological release.” In temperate suburbs, that might mean raccoons and crows; in tropical villages, perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> and village dogs.



These newcomers rarely match the efficiency of an eagle or a vulture, leaving more rotting flesh on the landscape. Worse, many thrive near humans, turning carcasses into pathways for diseases to jump from wildlife to people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-scavenger-decline-in-india">Effects of scavenger decline in India</h2>



Few episodes capture the stakes so vividly as India’s vulture crisis in the 1990s. Veterinary use of the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac proved fatal to vultures that scavenged treated cattle. Populations plummeted, opening a niche for free-roaming dogs.



With vultures gone, feral dog populations surged, leading to an estimated 39 million extra dog bites and 48,000 human deaths from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rabies-is-spreading-among-marine-animals-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rabies</a> between 1992 and 2006.



Once India banned diclofenac in 2006, vulture numbers began to inch upward. This reminded scientists and policymakers that timely intervention can halt or even reverse a downward spiral.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-quietly-protect-health">Scavengers quietly protect health</h2>



The study emphasizes that these issues are not confined to the Global South. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem of the United States, eagles and ravens consume elk carcasses and even aborted fetuses.



By removing potential bacterial incubators within hours, scavengers help curb brucellosis, a livestock disease that can spill over to ranchers. A drop in scavengers there could raise veterinary costs and public-health risks despite the region’s strong infrastructure.



Lead author Chinmay Sonawane, a doctoral student in Dirzo’s lab, underscored humanity’s reliance on species most of us rarely notice: “We’re starting to understand exactly how we depend on each individual species.”



“As we become more aware of these connections, we're going to be more inclined to protect these species, because we are ultimately protecting our health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-driving-scavenger-decline">Factors driving scavenger decline</h2>



Three forces repeatedly surfaced in the team’s analysis. Expanding agriculture and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> fragment habitats, making it harder for wide-ranging birds and mammals to find carcasses or safe nesting sites.



Intensive livestock production brings direct conflict when ranchers poison or shoot scavengers they suspect of killing calves. At the same time, wildlife trade and trophy hunting remove lions, eagles, and other predators that double as high-capacity scavengers.



These pressures often overlap. Clearing forest for pasture, for instance, strips vultures of roosting trees while putting them nearer cattle treated with toxic veterinary drugs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-function-and-human-well-being">Ecosystem function and human well-being </h2>



Public suspicion of scavengers compounds their plight. “There is this prejudice that these scavengers are nasty animals and that we should get rid of them, but they are important for the functioning of ecosystems, also for human well-being,” Dirzo said.



The authors call for multi-layered solutions. Conservationists must protect nesting cliffs and den sites and enforce tighter regulation of pharmaceuticals known to poison birds.



Outreach programs can dispel myths, showing local communities how vultures actually protect livestock by removing disease hotspots. Financial incentives or livestock-guarding measures could reduce retaliatory killings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spotted-hyena-returns-to-egypt-after-5000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyenas</a> and jackals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scavengers-are-public-health-allies">Scavengers are public health allies</h2>



Rather than tracking a handful of charismatic species, the Stanford team focused on a functional group - animals bound by what they do rather than by taxonomic labels.



That lens, they argue, reveals how losing one slice of biodiversity can disrupt entire healthcare networks in nature. If carcasses linger, fly populations balloon, dog packs expand, and viruses gain new hosts.



Scavengers may lack the appeal of pandas or coral reefs, yet their economic and public-health value is immense. The world’s oldest waste-management system runs on wings, paws, and powerful stomach acids.



Letting it collapse means footing a growing medical bill - one paid in outbreaks, veterinary losses, and human lives. Protecting vultures in India reduced rabies deaths; hyenas curb anthrax in Africa; condors help keep Americas’ pastures cleaner.



Ultimately, the study offers a simple equation: conserve the big eaters of the dead, and you safeguard the living. Ignore them, and the costs arrive on hospital ledgers and in destabilized ecosystems. The choice is clear - and action is urgently needed to halt scavenger decline. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417328122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scavenger decline is a threat to ecosystems  - and human health

Vultures cruising high above a savanna or hyenas crunching bones...

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects like dragonflies long before they take flight. 



A sweeping analysis of 87 <a href="https://dragonflies.online/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European dragonfly</a> species now shows that the temperatures and seasonal rhythms a larva faces underwater matter more to adult trait variety than the climate the insect meets in the air, challenging long‑held conservation habits.



“This is really useful going forward, as the results will provide a new general rule to guide how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">biodiversity</a> scientists forecast climate responses,” said Professor Lars L. Iversen of <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-life-shapes-adult-function">Dragonfly larva life shapes adult function</h2>



Early stages often happen out of sight, yet they leave lasting biological fingerprints that show up in community‑wide patterns.



The new work argues that <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> cannot be understood only by watching visible adults because carryover effects ripple from submerged childhoods into the adult population’s body sizes, wing shapes and flight ranges.



Functional biogeographers have long mapped where <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1415442111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits cluster</a>, but they usually assume those traits respond directly to the present environment. Iversen’s team instead found that underwater experiences set constraints that later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/">environments</a> can only tweak rather than erase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pond-temperatures-shape-body-traits">Pond temperatures shape body traits</h2>



A dragonfly begins life as a bold little <a href="https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/dragonfly-larvae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nymph</a> clinging to stems or burrowing in mud for up to two years before it ever unfurls a wing. 



The study linked cooler waters, steep temperature swings and irregular water levels with narrower adult trait ranges, while warmer, more stable ponds produced adults with a broader toolkit for dispersal.



“This is a really important study, as many predictions for how climate might affect diversity are based on observations of adult stages,” noted Lesley T. Lancaster of the University of Aberdeen.&nbsp;



To capture nuance across thousands of 31‑mile‑wide grid cells, the researchers calculated each community’s trait space as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Three-dimensional-hypervolume_fig3_4201499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three‑dimensional hypervolume</a>. This is a statistical shape that shows how body length, wing size and other measurements spread out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-larva-shape-adult-traits">Dragonfly larva shape adult traits</h2>



Mean annual temperature emerged as the single strongest predictor of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/geb.12525" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult trait diversity</a>, and most of that link flowed indirectly through its impact on larvae rather than adults themselves.&nbsp;



Topography, forest cover and the ratio of permanent to seasonal water bodies nudged the numbers too, but their direct and indirect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/">effects</a> often pulled in opposite directions, dampening what surface observations alone would suggest.



Classic <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/1938285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> show that overcrowded larvae shift strategies when food or space runs short, sharpening interference or exploitative tactics that later echo in adult sizes. 



By folding such legacy effects into structural‑equation models, the team could explain two‑thirds of the variation in adult functional diversity across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carrying-larval-traits-into-adulthood">Carrying larval traits into adulthood</h2>



Similar carryover <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> crop up in mosquitoes, mayflies and even beetles whose larvae face drying pools, hinting that early‑stage filters may be a widespread driver of community change. 



Because many freshwater insects are hemimetabolous, meaning they do not enjoy a complete makeover during metamorphosis, the traits they build early cannot be fully rebuilt later.



In systems where water is warming fastest, lake <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0067-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already record shifts in mixing regimes and ice cover that alter larval conditions, foreshadowing trait reshuffles in the flying stage. 



Understanding those lags may help explain why some species expand poleward quickly while others stall despite suitable adult habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advice-for-conservation-planners">Advice for conservation planners</h2>



Restoring riparian shade or managing water levels in breeding ponds can give juveniles the thermal and oxygen buffers they need, indirectly widening adult trait portfolios that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">population</a> resilience. 



Policies that focus only on adult foraging grounds or migration corridors risk missing these upstream levers and may underestimate vulnerability under rapid warming.



By targeting nursery habitats, managers may also help a suite of terrestrial predators, birds, bats and spiders, that rely on the timing and size structure of dragonfly emergences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-forecasting-tools">Biodiversity forecasting tools</h2>



Most current biodiversity models assume that traits are shaped in real time by adult habitat features, with little room for past influences. But these new findings show that such models may be incomplete.



To improve accuracy, researchers suggest future climate impact models should include developmental carryover effects as core parameters. 



Incorporating early-life trait-environment links could allow forecasts to anticipate shifts not just in where species live, but how they function once they arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-pathways-of-dragonfly-larva">Biological pathways of dragonfly larva </h2>



Researchers now want to see whether the same indirect pathways exist in tropical species, where seasonality is muted yet temperature ceilings are high.



Experts are also exploring genetic clues that might reveal how much of the carryover effect is plastic adjustment versus hard‑wired evolution. 



For now, the message is clear: if you want to protect an animal’s future, start where it begins, not where it ends.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/geb.70056" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dragonfly larvae expose climate’s hidden influence on biology

Early‑life environmental conditions can shape the adult traits of insects...

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at least 112 million years. When blue light hits their skin, these animals absorb it and re-emit it as green, yellow, orange, or red.



Fish biofluorescence is invisible to us in daylight, but under the right light it turns reefs into underwater neon signs. It is a natural light show that has evolved silently beneath the waves, largely unnoticed by human eyes until recently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-origins-of-glowing-fish">Tracing the origins of glowing fish </h2>



Two new studies by scientists at the American Museum of Natural History’s <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/richard-gilder-graduate-school">Richard Gilder Graduate School</a> trace how and when this glow took hold.



The research maps biofluorescence across 459 species and shows just how varied the colors have become.



The team combed through every known case of glowing bony fish, then added 48 previously unreported species. The analysis suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/">biofluorescence</a> first showed up in ancient eels and has evolved on its own more than 100 times since.



“Researchers have known for a while that biofluorescence is quite widespread in marine animals, from sea turtles to corals, and especially among fishes,” said Emily Carr, lead author of both studies. 



“But to really get to the root of why and how these species use this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapta</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-species-are-pre-adapted-to-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ion</a> - whether for camouflage, predation, or reproduction - we need to understand the underlying evolutionary story as well as the scope of biofluorescence as it currently exists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-speed-up-the-glow">Coral reefs speed up the glow</h2>



Life on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral reef</a> seems to speed up this evolutionary trick. Reef-dwelling fish acquire biofluorescence about ten times faster than species that stay in open water. 



After the mass extinction 66 million years ago, when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">dinosaurs</a> vanished and reefs rebounded, glowing species multiplied quickly, taking advantage of newly available habitats and ecological niches.



“This trend coincides with the rise of modern coral-dominated reefs and the rapid colonization of reefs by fishes, which occurred following a significant loss of coral diversity in the K-Pg extinction,” Carr said. 



"These correlations suggest that the emergence of modern coral reefs could have facilitated the diversification of fluorescence in reef-associated teleost fishes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-color-spectrum-widens">The color spectrum widens</h2>



In a second set of experiments, the team photographed museum specimens under special lights. Some families flashed at least six distinct peaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-glow-in-the-dark-fluorescence-found-to-be-very-common-in-mammals/">fluorescence</a> - far more variety than scientists had documented.



“The remarkable variation we observed across a wide array of these fluorescent fishes could mean that these animals use incredibly diverse and elaborate signaling systems based on species-specific fluorescent emission patterns,” said study co-author John Sparks.



“As these studies show, biofluorescence is both pervasive and incredibly phenotypically variable among marine fishes. What we would really like to understand better is how fluorescence functions in these highly variable marine lineages, as well as its role in diversification.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-glowing-fish-could-help-medicine">How glowing fish could help medicine</h2>



Fluorescent proteins borrowed from jellyfish transformed molecular biology. The many new hues found in fish could lead to the next generation of imaging tools, helping doctors spot tumors or guide surgery with light.



For now, the ocean keeps many of its secrets hidden in plain sight. But every flash of color brings us closer to understanding how fish communicate, hide, hunt, and find mates - turning a midnight reef into a silent conversation of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-fish-biofluorescence">Future research on fish biofluorescence </h2>



While these findings shed light on the deep history and diversity of glowing fish, there is still a lot more to uncover.



Scientists are now working to understand how different species actually see and use these colors in their everyday lives. Do they glow to blend in, to attract mates, or to send messages we can’t decode yet? 



The answers could not only explain how these fish thrive in their underwater environments but also help us develop new tools in optics, communication, and even biotechnology.



Each discovery adds a small piece to a much bigger puzzle - one where light doesn’t just brighten the ocean, but also points the way to future innovation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316789">PLOS One</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How fish started glowing over 100 million years ago

Biofluorescent fish have been glowing across the ocean for at...

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This morning ritual, known as the dawn chorus, can drown out every other sound. A new study from India reveals that some species dominate that pre‑sunrise concert, while others stay quiet.



The researchers recorded 69 species in the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a>, a mountain chain recognized for exceptional biodiversity. They <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">found</a> that 20 of the species sing far more at dawn than dusk, while only one shows the opposite pattern, pointing to social traits as the primary drivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-dawn-chorus">Decoding the dawn chorus</h2>



Vijay Ramesh, a postdoctoral biologist at Cornell University’s <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/ccb/">K. Lisa Yang Center for Conservation Bioacoustics</a>, led the microphone‑array campaign that captured months of continuous audio in the Ghats.



Past theories claimed that cool, still air at sunrise lets high‑pitched songs travel farther, giving early risers an acoustic advantage.



 A 2019 <a href="https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12983-019-0328-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> showed that song timing is remarkably consistent within individuals, suggesting a behavioral cause rather than improved sound transmission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-which-birds-sing-first">Predicting which birds sing first</h2>



Sound scientists once assumed that humid morning air slows high frequencies less than dry mid‑day air, effectively lengthening a whistle’s reach. 



Field <a href="https://malagr.de/hutch/hutchpub/anbe3.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> with playback speakers, however, show that vegetation scatter and competing insects erase most of the theoretical gain by breakfast time. 



The new Indian dataset supports the behavioral view by showing no correlation between dawn singing and light level, wind speed, or transmission quality. Instead, two traits (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/territoriality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">territoriality</a> and broad diets) predict which birds sing first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-territories-matter-at-sunrise">Why territories matter at sunrise</h2>



Territorial birds declare their claims at sunrise when rivals and potential mates are alert but still hidden by shadow. Acoustic contests at that hour reduce the risk of physical fights, a pattern <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19337589/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> in banded wrens and other songbirds.&nbsp;



The idea fits evolutionary logic: a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> that joins the dawn chorus before foraging advertises overnight survival, discourages trespass, frees daylight hours for feeding young, and reduces exposure to midday heat that hampers long songs. 



In the Ghats study, species ranked as highly territorial were 1.2 times more likely to sing in the dawn chorus than their less combative relatives - a statistically robust edge.



“We found that highly territorial birds and omnivorous species were much more likely to be active singers during dawn hours,” said Ramesh. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-tells-another-story">Diet tells another story</h2>



Diet adds another clue because omnivores that split meals between fruit and insects also dominated the early soundscape. Ramesh suggests that their flexible menu keeps them in mixed‑species foraging flocks that rely on constant chatter to coordinate movement. 



Omnivory also widens the calendar window for feeding because fruit crops peak at different times than insect hatches, giving versatile foragers an incentive to keep group members updated on shifting resources across seasons or plantations.



“Omnivores might sing more at dawn because these species are often members of mixed‑<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/">species</a> foraging flocks where vocal communication is essential,” explained Ramesh. 



<a href="https://www.macaulaylibrary.org/2019/01/09/mixed-species-flocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> of such mobile flocks show that vocal leaders broadcast frequent contact and alarm calls, letting dozens of companions share information about food and predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dawn-chorus-was-recorded">How dawn chorus was recorded</h2>



All those insights rest on <a href="https://bou.org.uk/blog-metcalf-pass-acou-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">passive acoustic monitoring</a>, a technique that stations weather‑proof recorders in the canopy and lets algorithms sort every chirp. The Ghats project collected simultaneous tracks from 43 forest sites, multiplying human survey capacity.



Each recorder about the size of a paperback ran on rechargeable batteries and captured 20‑kHz audio files that later fed into machine‑learning software trained to identify species from their calls, trimming weeks of manual listening into automated minutes, an advance highlighted by open‑source projects like <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.09.17.613451v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdNET</a>.



“Passive acoustic monitoring allowed us to collect simultaneous acoustic data for 43 locations, over several months. We could not have done this study without it because we needed a lot of data to answer our questions,” said Ramesh.



Other researchers echo that enthusiasm. “Passive acoustic monitoring allows us to continuously take the pulse of bird populations without having to be physically present in the field,” explained Jorge Velásquez, Director of Science for Audubon Americas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-voices-and-ecosystem-health">Bird voices and ecosystem health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/western-ghats-and-sri-lanka/species" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western Ghats</a> stretch nearly 1,000 miles along India’s west coast and rank among the planet’s eight biodiversity hotspots, hosting hundreds of globally threatened animals and plants. Mountaintop forests there funnel monsoon rains and sustain thousands of endemic species.



Acoustic surveys give conservationists a low‑cost way to track those communities in real time. A dawn chorus rich in specialist voices flags healthy habitat, while a shift toward generalists may warn of logging or climate stress.



The Ghats data will now feed into regional monitoring dashboards that guide reserve boundaries and restoration priorities. Managers can rerun the same code next year and instantly see whether bird territories are shrinking or expanding.



Climate <a href="https://india.mongabay.com/2019/01/changing-monsoonal-rainfall-patterns-in-the-western-ghats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">models</a> predict that monsoon timing in the Ghats could shift by several weeks this century, and long acoustic time series will let ecologists see whether dawn song calendars move in lockstep or resist the change across altitudinal gradients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-bird-breaks-the-dawn-chorus-rule">One bird breaks the dawn chorus rule</h2>



One puzzle remains: the <a href="https://ebird.org/species/dafbab1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dark‑fronted Babbler</a> sang more at dusk than dawn, bucking every social rule observed. Future studies that pair microphones with visual tracking may reveal whether its roosting ecology or predator pressure flips the timetable.



Answering that question would help determine whether birds tailor song schedules to evade particular predators, mirror daily light cycles, or coordinate with insect emergence.



Ramesh hopes to repeat the approach on other continents to see whether territoriality and diet steer the chorus in temperate woodlots as strongly as they do in tropical forests. The answer could turn dawn song into a global barometer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">ecosystem</a> change.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0054" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Territorial birds rule the dawn chorus in tropical forests

At first light, tropical forests explode with bird song. This...

Dogs did not dash into South America with the first humans. Instead, they arrived slowly, traveling with early farmers. A new study uncovers this deliberate journey and connects it to the spread of agriculture and maize cultivation. 



A research team led by Dr. Aurélie Manin analyzed 70 mitochondrial genomes from ancient and modern dogs found between Mexico and Argentina.



The analysis revealed that dogs followed a slow southward path, not with hunter-gatherers, but with farming societies that were transforming the land around 7,000 to 5,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-all-ancient-dogs-came-from-one-lineage">All ancient dogs came from one lineage</h2>



The study also revealed a single maternal lineage, the A2b1 haplogroup, as the root of all pre-contact dogs in Central and South America. This lineage emerged after dogs entered North America and gradually split as they moved southward. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/famous-ice-age-puppies-are-not-actually-dogs-according-to-new-study/">Dogs</a> likely crossed cultural and ecological boundaries slowly, adapting as they traveled alongside human groups.



The researchers found no signs of other A2b subgroups in South America. Thirty-six archaeological dogs fell into A2b1, forming a tightly clustered clade, with no early presence in the Amazon Basin. 



Genetic data shows that dogs in North, Central, and South America stayed regionally distinct, indicating minimal female-dog movement between areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-spread-with-ancient-maize-farmers">Dogs spread with ancient maize farmers</h2>



The arrival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-were-bonding-much-earlier-than-we-thought/">dogs</a> in South America matches the introduction of maize agriculture. According to the study, maternal lineages of northern and southern dogs split around 7,000 years ago - around the same time maize began its journey south.



The results suggest that dogs spread with farmers rather than earlier foraging groups.



“We show that their spread was slow enough to allow the dogs to structure genetically between north, central and south America,” said Dr Manin. “It opens new research avenues on the relationship that existed between dogs and these early agrarian societies.”



The researchers tested this with molecular clocks and population models. Their data showed a north to south diversification pattern in ancient dogs. 



The timing aligns with archaeological remains of ancient dogs found in Mexico, Peru, and Argentina - all appearing after the earliest human settlements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-delay-in-arrival">Why the delay in arrival?</h2>



The study offers possible reasons for the delay in the arrival of dogs. Early foragers may not have needed dogs, or the tropical corridor posed too many risks such as disease, predators, or lack of food. 



European colonial records confirm that dogs remained vulnerable to these threats even in the 1700s.



This delay mirrors what happened in Europe, where Neolithic farmers replaced earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">dog</a> lineages with ones from the Levant. The Americas may have seen a similar turnover during the farming transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-dogs-still-carry-ancient-dna">Some dogs still carry ancient DNA </h2>



Colonial contact brought European dog lineages, which quickly replaced most indigenous dogs. Yet, not everything was lost. 



Some modern Chihuahuas still carry mitochondrial DNA from the ancient A2b1 clade. One Chihuahua's maternal line traces back over 1,500 years to pre-contact Mesoamerican dogs.



The researchers also found dogs in modern Peru with mitochondrial DNA belonging to European lineages. These lineages first appeared in Europe over 14,000 years ago and now dominate the Americas.



Still, ancient bonds with dogs left deeper marks. In some regions, archaeological burials show how ancient dogs were cared for and mourned. 



Early farmers may have used ancient dogs for protection, meat, or companionship. Farming surpluses could have supported feral ancient dogs or drawn scavengers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-of-dogs-and-farming">The journey of dogs and farming</h2>



This study reshapes our view of dog-human history in the Americas. It places agrarian societies, not foragers, at the center of dog expansion. This pattern aligns with other regions like East Asia, where dog dispersal followed farming and surplus food.



The research also shows the fragility of early genetic lineages. Most pre-contact dog DNA is now gone, erased by colonial waves. But rare survivors, like the Chihuahua, still carry whispers of the past.



The study encourages further research using nuclear DNA analysis and isotopic methods. These advanced tools can reveal more than just the origins of ancient dogs. 



The tools can help scientists understand how ancient dogs lived, how they moved across regions, and how they interacted with early American communities.



This deeper knowledge could uncover the everyday roles ancient dogs played in human societies and how those relationships evolved over time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists discover how dogs spread across the Americas

Dogs did not dash into South America with the first...

The skies were empty for most of Earth’s history, but then light‑boned reptiles mastered powered flight roughly 220 million years ago. 



A new analysis of fossil maps and computer climate models shows that warm, damp air, not desert heat, gave those first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/">pterosaurs</a> the environmental boost they needed.



Davide Foffa of the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/">University of Birmingham</a> led the work with Emma Dunne at Friedrich‑Alexander‑Universität Erlangen‑Nürnberg and Alessandro Chiarenza at University College London.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaurs-lived-in-humid-regions">Pterosaurs lived in humid regions </h2>



Foffa’s team plotted every Triassic pterosaur and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0895981124001196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lagerpetid</a> fossil they could verify, covering what was then the single supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangea</a>. 



The map revealed a pattern: early flyers cluster in low‑latitude sites that ancient climate simulations mark as humid, while their land‑bound cousins spread across drier belts.



Lagerpetids, rat‑ to dog‑sized sprinters, never left the ground yet roamed from today’s Brazil to the American Southwest. Ezcurra and colleagues confirmed in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-3011-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2020</a> that these agile reptiles form the sister branch to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-bones-biomimicry-could-inspire-better-aircraft-technology/">pterosaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-flight-needed-humid-forests">Pterosaur flight needed humid forests</h2>



The question of why pterosaurs took flight when they did has puzzled researchers for decades. Their closest relatives, lagerpetids, had the anatomical tools for agility and climbing, but lacked the skeletal adaptations needed for powered flight.



Foffa’s team suggests it wasn’t just biology holding them back - it was the environment. Without expansive forest canopies and consistently humid ecosystems, early pterosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/">ancestors</a> may have lacked both the resources and the ecological pressure to evolve wings sooner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-surge-led-to-pterosaur-flight">Rainfall surge led to pterosaur flight</h2>



As carbon‑rich volcanism drove the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7494334/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnian Pluvial Episode</a> about 234 million years ago, average rainfall spiked for roughly two million years. Forests thickened, insect populations jumped, and treetop launchpads multiplied exactly when the first pterosaur bones appear.



To test cause and effect, the authors fed Triassic geography into the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/approach/modelling-systems/unified-model/climate-models/hadcm3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HadCM3L general circulation model</a>, a tool normally used for <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-cretaceous-period.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a> and future‑climate work. 



The simulation reproduced humid bands along the equator that matched every known <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825221002786" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norian pterosaur</a> site within a margin of about 60 miles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-and-climate-maps-tell-the-story">Fossils and climate maps tell the story</h2>



To connect ancient reptile evolution with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/">prehistoric</a> climate, the researchers needed more than just bones. They used global climate models that simulate temperature, precipitation, and seasonal variation from over 200 million years ago, then overlaid fossil data on those maps.



This approach revealed strong patterns. Pterosaur fossils linked to flight consistently appeared in regions the model predicted to be wet and forested.



On the other hand, lagerpetids showed up in a broader range of habitats, including dry, seasonal areas. These overlapping maps helped confirm the environmental preferences of each group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humid-air-and-the-rise-of-flying-reptiles">Humid air and the rise of flying reptiles</h2>



“Their wings catapulted them into every corner of the planet,” noted Chiarenza. Later Triassic decades saw wetter air creep poleward, and the fossil record follows: specimens pop up in what is now Greenland and Argentina, hundreds of miles from the original belt.



Marine <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-03996-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">records</a> show that the same wet pulse coincided with a 33 percent loss of ocean genera and rapid dinosaur diversification, hinting at a broader reshuffling. 



Dunne noted that climate change is a leading cause of biodiversity change, both in the present day and the geological past - a reminder that weather can redraw evolutionary maps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-flight-aided-survival-for-some">Pterosaur flight aided survival for some</h2>



Lagerpetids tolerated scorchingly dry interiors yet vanished at the <a href="https://samnoblemuseum.ou.edu/understanding-extinction/mass-extinctions/end-triassic-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">end‑Triassic extinction</a>, while their winged relatives sailed through the crisis. Flight likely offered escape from predators and fire, plus access to scattered resources after forests burned.



The disappearance of lagerpetids at the end of the Triassic remains a mystery, especially since they had a broader climate tolerance and geographic range than early pterosaurs. 



Some scientists suggest they may have lacked the specialized adaptations - like flight - that helped other groups escape or adapt to rapid ecosystem changes.



Others think competition may have played a role. As pterosaurs and early dinosaurs spread into new environments, they may have outcompeted lagerpetids for food or territory, leaving the once-thriving reptiles with fewer niches to occupy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-for-future-fossil-hunts">Clues for future fossil hunts</h2>



“Model outputs flag humid Triassic pockets in Morocco, India, and the American Midwest where no pterosaur bones have been logged. Field crews may strike pay dirt there, especially in fine‑grained lake shales that entomb fragile skeletons whole,” explained Foffa.



The research links a short‑lived climate swing to a permanent ecological shake‑up in which pterosaur flight emerged, demonstrating how quickly new winners appear when habitats shift.



With modern CO₂ levels rising on a similar scale, today’s ecosystems could see equally swift turnovers, though not necessarily as majestic as a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0895981124001196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pterosauromorpha</a> liftoff.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02767-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Humid air gave pterosaurs the boost they needed to take flight

The skies were empty for most of Earth’s history, but...

species in Spelaeodiscidae

News coming your way