A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

We often hear advice about healthy eating: reduce sugar, increase vegetables, eat local. But one question rarely gets attention: how do we actually know what nutrient data our food contains?



The answer lies in food composition databases (FCDBs). These databases list the nutrients in food: proteins, fats, vitamins, and more. They also include complex compounds like phytochemicals and antioxidants. 



Food composition databases help guide nutritionists, policy makers, researchers, and even farmers. But how reliable are they?



A new review published in the journal Frontiers in Nutrition highlights a major problem. Many FCDBs are outdated, incomplete, or hard to access. This issue hits hardest in regions that need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-has-a-surprising-impact-on-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutritional insights</a> the most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-status-of-food-data">Global status of food data</h2>



The researchers reviewed 101 FCDBs from 110 countries, and their findings raise concerns. 



Many FCDBs can be found online, but that’s not enough. Only 30% of databases are truly accessible. Just 69% can work with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systems</a>. Only 43% allow data to be reused easily. These weaknesses reduce their long-term value.



The problem is not evenly spread. Europe, North America, and parts of Asia have better data systems. But many countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central America lack updated or complete databases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters">Why this matters</h2>



Food databases are essential for crafting policies, health programs, and food safety rules. 



Without reliable food data, countries cannot detect nutrient gaps or create effective school <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meals</a>. Breeding crops for nutrition or enforcing labeling laws becomes impossible.



There is also a cultural cost. Many Indigenous and rural communities have rich food traditions. If these foods do not appear in databases, they risk being excluded from nutrition programs and policy debates. Eventually, they might disappear from farms and markets too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-databases-lack-local-data">Food databases lack local data</h2>



The review highlights several major gaps. Many FCDBs rely on borrowed data from other countries. That creates problems. A food’s nutrient content can vary depending on the soil, climate, crop variety, and how it's cooked.



There is also no global agreement on food names, nutrient definitions, or measurement units. That makes international comparisons difficult. 



Most databases list just 38 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-food-safety-ai-can-detect-contamination-early/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> components. But modern research shows food contains thousands of biomolecules with health effects.



Another concern is how rarely databases get updated. About 39% have not been revised in over five years. Some, like those in Ethiopia and Sri Lanka, have not been updated since they were created over 50 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-not-updating-food-data">Cost of not updating food data</h2>



Food systems are changing rapidly. Climate shifts, migration, and technology are altering what people eat. Old data cannot reflect those changes. To maintain reliable FCDBs, countries need labs, specialists, and steady funding. 



Many low and middle-income nations do not have these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vicious-cycle-food-systems-both-suffer-from-and-cause-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a>. The gap between well-covered regions and underrepresented ones keeps growing. But there is hope. The review also points to an initiative doing things differently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profiling-foods-from-every-continent">Profiling foods from every continent</h2>



The Periodic Table of Food Initiative (PTFI) stands out. Managed by The American Heart Association and the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT, PTFI tackles the very problems holding back most FCDBs.



What makes it unique? PTFI goes far beyond the 38 commonly tracked nutrients. Using advanced techniques like metabolomics and mass spectrometry, food is analyzed for over 30,000 biomolecules.



Unlike most databases focused on national diets, PTFI is profiling foods from every continent, with special attention to underrepresented and Indigenous foods that are often left out of traditional systems. 



It is designed to be Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable - the gold standard for data sharing and transparency. All of PTFI’s data is freely available online, using globally accepted protocols so that anyone, from a government to a food startup, can use it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-global-nutrition">Improving global nutrition </h2>



The study makes one thing clear. We cannot improve global nutrition if we do not understand our food at the molecular level. Right now, outdated and uneven food databases keep many people in the dark.



Better food data means better policies, healthier people, and stronger food systems. Initiatives like PTFI show that change is possible. They help us view food not just as calories or nutrients but as a source of cultural identity, health, and resilience.



We need global cooperation, advanced technology, and fairness in data access. Everyone should have the right to know what’s in their food and to have their food traditions valued and preserved.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2025.1552367/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



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Common food nutrition labels may be based on 50 year-old data

We often hear advice about healthy eating: reduce sugar, increase...

In a warming world, the health of forests can change in surprising ways. A new analysis highlights how a weakening Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) might bring a bit more rain to the southern portion of the Amazon during its most water-limited months. 



Scientists have been measuring changes in ocean temperatures and current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for decades. They have uncovered evidence that suggests a weakened AMOC, marked by cooler waters in the northern Atlantic, influences rainfall across South America. 



The research was led by Dr. Annika Högner from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (<a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IIASA</a>), working with other experts in climate science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weak-ocean-currents-bring-more-amazon-rain">Weak ocean currents bring more Amazon rain</h2>



The AMOC sits among several large systems with the potential to shift in irreversible ways. A drop in its strength alters heat flow toward the northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">latitudes</a>. That temperature change can trigger atmospheric responses, leading to higher moisture flow toward parts of South America.



Dry spells in the Amazon can stress trees and put biodiversity at risk. The study found an approximate 4.8% jump in dry season rain for each one million cubic meters per second of weakened AMOC. 



At the same time, the researchers warn that overall rainfall is still declining across parts of this massive rainforest, due to rising temperatures and <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/global/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> linked to anthropogenic <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03629-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pressures</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-and-amazon-rainfall">Ocean currents and Amazon rainfall </h2>



“The dry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-seaweed-day-2025-saving-the-oceans-sustainable-powerhouse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">season</a> is the most vulnerable time for the Amazon rainforest. Our findings reveal that a weakening AMOC contributes to increased rainfall in the Southern Amazon during this time,” explained Högner.&nbsp;



To confirm the link, the team examined reanalysis datasets covering 40 years. They focused on how cooler northern waters influenced the <a href="https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/joc.7843" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teleconnection patterns</a> carrying moisture toward the southern Amazon. 



The researchers also studied the <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/23/6/2009jcli3210.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caribbean low-level jet</a>, a key wind corridor that channels airflow into the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-effects-and-ongoing-concerns">Balancing effects and ongoing concerns</h2>



Study co-author Nico Wunderling is a professor at the Center for Critical Computational Studies and scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research.



“The Amazon is still drying. The stabilizing interaction we found from the AMOC onto the Southern Amazon competes with other effects like those arising from deforestation and increasing temperatures,” noted Wunderling.



Experts stress that the added rainfall from the weakened AMOC has not been enough to halt the broader decline in water supply. The dryness is spreading because temperature spikes intensify evaporation, while land use changes reduce forest cover and moisture recycling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-forest-health-from-space">Tracking forest health from space</h2>



The researchers used <a href="https://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/dataprod/mod13.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite-derived NDVI data</a> to assess vegetation greenness in the southern Amazon. This index helps measure how well plants are photosynthesizing, providing a direct window into forest vitality during stressful seasons.



By analyzing four decades of satellite records, the team linked higher NDVI values with years of boosted dry season rainfall. 



This connection reinforces the view that precipitation gains from weakened ocean currents are having a tangible, though limited, effect on Amazon forest health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emissions-cause-long-term-harm">Emissions cause long-term harm</h2>



Climate tipping elements may reinforce or oppose one another. In this instance, a softer AMOC has slowed the drop in dry season rain over certain areas, offsetting about 17% of the rainfall deficit since the early 1980s. 



Although this partial relief is important, it cannot overcome the warming trends that harm the region.



Researchers emphasize the need to lower greenhouse gases quickly, because the planet’s wide network of climatic interactions is complicated. 



A cooling effect in one corner of the Atlantic might help in small ways, but it does not override the damage caused by ever-rising temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-land-use-and-future-rainfall">Climate, land use, and future rainfall</h2>



Analysts say it is vital to keep monitoring the Amazon and the AMOC. Satellite data and field observations could reveal if these current interactions hold steady in the next few decades. 



Shifts in <a href="https://earth.gsfc.nasa.gov/climate/data/deep-blue/aerosols" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, land cover, and ocean conditions will likely shape future rainfall patterns.



The Amazon remains a centerpiece of global biodiversity, storing significant carbon and housing countless species. Insights into how ocean currents modulate rainfall are important for understanding new stressors on forest stability. 



Strengthening local protections also remains a priority. These measures can help the forest withstand the extra hits brought on by warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ocean-currents-affect-amazon-health">How ocean currents affect Amazon health</h2>



The dry season is when the southern Amazon is most vulnerable to fire, tree mortality, and loss of ecosystem function. 



Even slight drops in rainfall during this period can create long-term stress that reduces forest density and lowers the forest’s ability to recycle moisture.



Studies show that dry season length and intensity are among the key variables predicting whether forests can remain stable. Any rainfall buffering during this season - even if partial - is particularly relevant to forest survival.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/addb62" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Weakening ocean currents provide a rainfall boost in the Amazon

In a warming world, the health of forests can change...

Fungi,Aspergillus,,Black,Mold,,Which,Produce,Aflatoxins,And,Cause,Pulmonary

Imagine inhaling hundreds of invisible spores every day. Most float in and out without leaving a trace. Yet some belong molds that don't respect boundaries.



Some fungus species will infect lungs, spoil crops, and disrupt ecosystems all at the same time. In short, they can wreak massive havoc and leave death in their wake.



Most molds and fungi are helpful, but some fungus and mold will jump from hospital wards to honeybee hives, and the line between helpful recycler and harmful invader grows blurrier each year.



Most of the time, healthy immune systems swat away dangerous spores and fight off infection. Trouble arises when weakened defenses, rising temperatures, and heavy fungicide use tip the scales. 



Suddenly, the same fungus that quietly decomposes the fallen leaves in your yard can trigger relentless coughs, damage corn silos, and shrug off medicines that once kept it in check.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aspergillus-fungus-easily-adapts">Aspergillus fungus easily adapts</h2>



After studying fungal threats for years, Dr. Norman van Rhijn and colleagues at <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Manchester</a> mapped how three notorious Aspergillus species - A. flavus, A. fumigatus, and A. niger - might spread through the end of the century. 



They fed climate change scenarios into global models and watched the virtual spores drift. One scenario (SSP585), which assumes a fossil-fuel-dependent future, paints an unsettling picture: habitats across Europe become markedly friendlier to these pathogens.



Aspergillus fungus thrives because its genome bends easily to new pressures. It lives on soil, grains, animal feathers, even coral skeletons. Out in the wild, it recycles nutrients, but on farms and in clinics, the story shifts. 



Farmers spray <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-fungus-is-among-us-drug-resistant-fungi-is-thriving-in-every-corner-of-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">azole fungicides</a> to protect wheat and peanuts; doctors use nearly identical azole drugs to save patients with lung infections. That overlap nudges Aspergillus toward drug resistance - similar to bacteria evolving against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-rivers-are-highly-saturated-with-human-antibiotics-helping-bacteria-develop-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-reshapes-global-mold-map">Climate reshapes global mold map</h2>



Temperature, humidity, and extreme weather events dictate where spores settle. 



“Changes in environmental factors, such as humidity and extreme weather events, will change habitats and drive fungal adaptation and spread,” said Dr. van Rhijn. 



“We’ve already seen the emergence of the fungus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-microbes-aerosols-can-travel-thousands-of-miles-through-the-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Candida auris</a> due to rising temperatures, but, until now, we had little information on how other fungi might respond to this change in the environment.” 



He added that fungi remain “relatively under-researched compared to viruses and parasites,” yet the new maps show they will likely reach “most areas of the world in the future.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Aspergillus_global-distributions_map_credit-MaxENT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Aspergillus_global-distributions_map_credit-MaxENT_1s.webp" alt="MaxENT model accurate described Aspergillus global distributions. Credit: University of Manchester" class="wp-image-1973600"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">MaxENT model accurate described Aspergillus global distributions. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Manchester</figcaption></figure>



Those maps point to striking numbers. Under the high-emissions pathway, the range of A. flavus in Europe could jump about 16 percent, potentially putting another one million people at risk of infection. 



A. fumigatus - the chief culprit behind invasive aspergillosis - could expand its European footprint by 77.5 percent, threatening up to nine million more residents. 



In Africa, paradoxically, parts of the continent may become too hot for some fungi to survive, hinting at complex regional trade-offs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-aspergillus-fungus-spread">Forecasting Aspergillus fungus spread</h2>



Forecasting pathogens decades ahead may sound speculative, but it builds on earlier warnings. Hospitals already grapple with Aspergillus fungus outbreaks after building renovations or severe dust storms. 



Meanwhile, intensive-care units report stubborn cases in patients recovering from influenza or COVID-19. 



Rising outdoor spore loads could translate to more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-deadly-molds-attack-the-immune-system-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hospital admissions</a> and costlier treatments, especially because diagnostics for fungal infections lag far behind those for bacteria or viruses.



Mycotoxin contamination adds another layer. A single year of heavy Aspergillus growth can saddle the U.S. corn industry with losses topping $1 billion. 



Increased heat and humidity extend the window for mold growth in silos and fields, forcing farmers to discard grain or blend batches to dilute toxins - strategies that still carry economic and health risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-drugs-don-t-work">Current drugs don't work</h2>



Azole resistance has climbed steadily in Europe and Asia. Patients with resistant Aspergillus fungus infections face mortality rates exceeding 50 percent, partly because alternative drugs can damage the kidneys or liver. 



Each hectare treated with agricultural azoles raises the odds that environmental spores will carry resistance genes into hospitals. 



Public-health agencies now track these genes in soil and compost piles, hoping to spot trouble before it reaches intensive care.



Fungicide demand is also changing. As some African regions exceed the thermal limits for certain molds, farmers elsewhere may spray more to protect lengthening growing seasons.



That feedback loop - more fungicide, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stronger resistance</a> - complicates food security and patient care alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-food-and-rising-bills">Farms, food, and rising bills</h2>



Aspergillus isn’t the lone shapeshifter. Fusarium, which devastates wheat and oat fields, and Cryptococcus, an opportunistic pathogen in AIDS patients, also respond to warming climates. 



“Fungal pathogens pose a serious threat to human health by causing infections and disrupting food systems. Climate change will make these risks worse," explains Viv Goosens of <a href="https://wellcome.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome</a>.



"To address these challenges, we must fill important research gaps. By using models and maps to track the spread of fungi, we can better direct resources and prepare for the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aspergillus-fungus-and-human-health">Aspergillus fungus and human health</h2>



Fungi account for an estimated 1.5 to 3.8 million species, yet fewer than 10 percent carry official descriptions, and only a sliver have sequenced genomes. 



The scarcity of basic data hinders vaccine development and slows the hunt for safer drug targets. 



Recognizing this blind spot, the <a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> added Aspergillus fungus and Candida species to its priority list for emerging threats in 2022.



Researchers now call for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-food-safety-ai-can-detect-contamination-early/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coordinated monitoring</a> - combining air quality sensors, agricultural sampling, and hospital surveillance - to trace spore movement in near-real time. 



Such efforts could flag hotspots, guide fungicide regulations, and spark investment in rapid diagnostics. Without them, today’s manageable mold may evolve into tomorrow’s silent pandemic.



No single fix will erase the risk. Cutting greenhouse gas emissions limits the environmental changes that favor Aspergillus fungus. 



Smarter fungicide policies slow resistance on farms. Better ventilation in buildings reduces indoor spore counts, while new antifungal classes extend doctors’ toolkits. 



Piece by piece, these steps can keep an ancient decomposer from becoming an outsized menace in a warming world.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-6545782/v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Square</a>.



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Deadly fungus that can "eat you from the inside out" is now in the U.S. and quickly spreading around the world

Imagine inhaling hundreds of invisible spores every day. Most float...

Somewhere deep inside a salt cave in Hallstatt, Austria, a small crystal disk stores the entire human genome. Called a "5D memory crystal," it may hold the key to humanity’s future, while also offering a second chance for species currently on the brink of extinction. 



This silica disc, smaller than a poker chip, carries every one of the three billion letters in human DNA, locked away in a format designed to shrug off fire, ice, radiation, and the slow grind of time itself. 



Its makers want it to outlast oceans, continents, and even the universe itself, ready to give future explorers a snapshot of who we were.



This bold initiative is made possible by a technological leap in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cells-called-astrocytes-help-human-brains-store-massive-amounts-of-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data preservation</a>. Hard drives corrode, magnetic tape demagnetizes, and cloud servers rely on electricity that must never blink. 



A storage method capable of surviving billions of years pushes the conversation from quarterly backups to civilizational memory. If humanity ever blinks out, this disc could become the spark that lights the way back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-disk-will-protect-the-human-genome">Tiny disk will protect the human genome</h2>



A single five-dimensional memory crystal holds up to 360 terabytes - enough room for roughly seventy-five million songs. 



The medium is fused quartz, one of Earth’s toughest glasses, famous for shrugging off chemical attack and temperature swings. 



Tests show the crystal keeps its data after heating to 1,832 °F, freezing to the cold of liquid nitrogen, or absorbing cosmic rays that would fry silicon chips. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/5D-memory-crystal_human-genome-storage_eternity_credit-USouthampton_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/5D-memory-crystal_human-genome-storage_eternity_credit-USouthampton_1s.webp" alt="The 5D memory crystal was developed by the University of Southampton's Optoelectronics Research Center (ORC)." class="wp-image-1973755"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The 5D memory crystal was developed by the University of Southampton's Optoelectronics Research Center (ORC). Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Engineers have even pressed it with 10 tons of force per square centimeter without leaving a scar. No wonder Guinness World Records called it the most durable data storage material back in 2014.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goodbye-electrons-future-computers-may-be-powered-by-magnons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durability matters</a> because information usually vanishes long before the heat death of the universe. Everyday flash memory may lose bits after a decade on the shelf. 



Film yellows, parchment crumbles, and even punched tapes break their sprocket holes. In contrast, the five-dimensional approach literally engraves data inside the glass. 



Tiny patterns, each only 20 nanometers wide - about one six-thousandth the width of a human hair - change how light passes through. 



Those subtle tweaks can later be read with a microscope and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-secrets-of-water-molecules-discovered-in-the-lab-through-spectroscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polarized beam</a>. Because the marks hide beneath the surface, scratches, oxidation, and mold barely touch them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-writing-in-five-dimensions">Writing in five dimensions</h2>



Writing the code is a dance of ultrafast laser pulses. Each burst lasts only a few femtoseconds - a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-electrons-move-1-quintillionth-of-second-attoseconds-attomicroscopy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">femtosecond</a> is one quadrillionth of a second - yet it leaves a permanent imprint. 



The pulses create tiny voids whose orientation, size, and position encode bits in two optical axes plus three spatial coordinates. That is why technologists call it five-dimensional data. 



Unlike ink, magnetic domains, or pits on a compact disc, these features stack in three-dimensional layers, using the entire volume of the glass instead of its skin.



Because the process needs pinpoint accuracy, the laser setup sits on vibration-damped tables in clean rooms. A single misaligned pulse could blur the pattern, so motion stages move in nanometer steps while real-time optics check focus. 



It can take hours to write a complex file, yet the payoff is permanence. 



Once sealed, the disc rests at room temperature - no batteries and no hard drive platters spinning at 7,200 rpm. In archival terms, that is invincibility on a budget.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-etching-the-human-genome-onto-a-disk">Etching the human genome onto a disk</h2>



The idea is more than laboratory tinkering. After perfecting the technique, researchers at the Optoelectronics Research Center of the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> decided to pack humanity’s most precious dataset into a single disc. 



The effort is headed by physicist <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/people/5wzgcb/professor-peter-kazansky" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peter Kazansky</a>, whose group has spent years refining femtosecond-laser writing. They etched the entire human genome - about 3.2 billion base pairs - into the crystal, sequencing each letter 150 times to catch errors, with help from <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/helixworks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helixwork Technologies</a>.



“We know from the work of others that genetic material of simple organisms can be synthesized and used in an existing cell to create a viable living specimen in a lab,” Professor Kazansky explains.



“The 5D memory crystal opens up possibilities for other researchers to build an everlasting repository of genomic information from which complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-deciphers-plant-dna-a-breakthrough-that-will-transform-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organisms like plants</a> and animals might be restored should science in the future allow.” 



Those ambitions reach beyond curiosity; they sketch a plan for a biological seed bank that could survive long after today’s seed vaults crumble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storing-the-disk-that-holds-the-code">Storing the disk that holds the code</h2>



The finished disc now sits in the <a href="https://www.memory-of-mankind.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Memory of Mankind archive</a>, a cavern carved into Austrian salt deposits. Above its dense planes of data lies a visual key. 



The engravings show hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen; the familiar A, C, G, and T bases; a double helix; and finally a chromosome sliding into a cell. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/5D-memory-crystal_memory-of-humankind-cave_credit-USouthampton_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/5D-memory-crystal_memory-of-humankind-cave_credit-USouthampton_1s.webp" alt="Memory of Mankind archive in Hallstatt, Austria. Credit: University of Southampton" class="wp-image-1973757"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Memory of Mankind archive in Hallstatt, Austria. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Southampton</figcaption></figure>



The design assumes the finder may have no cultural reference points, only the universal language of chemistry and geometry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-humans-back-from-extinction">Bringing humans back from extinction</h2>



It's one thing to find the disk, but it's another thing entirely to actually do something with it.



An alien civilization that uncovers this 5D crystal disk would hold a vast instruction set explaining how to build a human, but it will be written in an unfamiliar language. 



Decoding the sequence demands mastery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-rule-of-biology-sai-proposed-to-explain-aging-and-how-to-control-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular biology</a>, cellular development, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetics</a>, because sequence data alone cannot produce a person. 



Researchers must first synthesize flawless DNA strands, assemble them into forty-six chromosomes, position them inside a nucleus, and place that nucleus in an enucleated human egg. 



Yet the embryo’s journey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-begins-egg-sperm-and-a-covert-team-of-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">from zygote to adult</a> depends on more than genetic code. 



Chemical gradients, mechanical forces, and maternal hormones orchestrate the timed expression of genes that sculpt tissues and organs. 



Without that context, the visitors must reconstruct life’s regulatory software, mapping how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rna-breakthrough-sheds-light-on-the-beginning-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RNA and proteins fold</a>, interact, and direct cognition and behavior. 



This incredible storage disk reveals our ingredients, but not the recipe for animation. Transforming code into consciousness would resemble crafting a violin solely from sheet music.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-humanity-a-genetic-ark">Beyond humanity: a genetic ark</h2>



The same technology could house the genomes of mountain gorillas, Tasmanian devils, or giant sequoias - organisms edging uncomfortably close to oblivion. 



A single shoebox of crystals would dwarf the capacity of today’s cold-storage DNA banks while avoiding their dependence on liquid nitrogen. 



In a nod to <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/pioneer-plaque/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Pioneer plaques</a>, Kazansky’s team etched a silhouette onto the disc’s surface as a greeting to whoever encounters it. 



“The visual key inscribed on the crystal gives the finder knowledge of what data is stored inside and how it could be used,” says Professor Kazansky. 



“We don't know if memory crystal technology will ever follow these plaques in distance traveled, but each disc can be expected, with a high degree of confidence, to exceed their survival time."



Five-dimensional crystals will not solve every backup headache, but they make one promise: once data goes in, it stays. 



That promise turns a fragile string of nucleotides into a message that can cross oceans of time, waiting for minds clever enough to read it - and perhaps brave enough to breathe life into it.



This extraordinary achievement was made possible through a collaboration with <a href="https://www.helix.works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helixworks Technologies</a>.



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The human genome is stored on this tiny crystal disk, hoping future visitors will 'de-extinct' us

Somewhere deep inside a salt cave in Hallstatt, Austria, a...

In a world where health advice often changes by the season, it can be hard to keep up. Whether you’re into sports or simply hoping to stay active for the long haul, learning about a supplement called creatine can feel like a breath of fresh air.



Drinking plenty of water and making smart dietary choices might help, but many people still worry they’re missing something crucial. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-creatine-the-basics">Understanding creatine - the basics</h2>



Creatine is a natural substance your body uses for energy. It helps your muscles, brain, and other parts of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-is-far-more-important-than-weight-for-living-a-healthy-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body work better</a>. 



Your body makes some creatine on its own, and you also get some from eating meat and fish. But not everyone gets enough - especially people who don’t eat much meat or fish.



If you don’t get enough creatine, it can affect your health. Kids and teens who don’t get enough may be shorter, weigh less, or have more body fat. 



Adults may have a higher chance of getting sick or having problems with memory and thinking. Some women might have more issues with pregnancy or their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-can-reshape-a-babys-brain-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproductive health</a>. 



Older people with low creatine might have more trouble with heart health, thinking clearly, or staying strong. This new study digs much deeper into the health benefits of creatine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-creatine-is-good-for-health">Why creatine is good for health</h2>



Dr. Richard Kreider from <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a> is studying creatine as a natural compound, where it is found in meat and fish, that plays a key role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-tracking-apple-watch-is-helpful-but-not-always-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a> production. 



It converts into <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Phosphocreatine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphocreatine</a>, which powers your cells when you’re pushing yourself in demanding workouts or dealing with daily stress.



It’s not only about lifting heavier or running faster. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8228369/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research</a> shows that being low in creatine can correlate with less lean mass, heightened body fat, and reduced athletic performance.



Experts have studied creatine for several decades, looking into its safety and effects on adults, children, and even older populations. One large <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15502783.2025.2488937" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> reported that plenty of individuals fail to get enough from diet alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-creatine-do-you-really-need">How much creatine do you really need?</h2>



“You only get about a gram of creatine per pound of red meat or fish, like salmon, so it’s expensive and takes a lot of calories to get a gram,” said Dr. Kreider. 



Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-bursts-of-intense-exercise-can-slow-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bodies</a> typically produce about one gram of creatine per day, which falls short of what most of us need.&nbsp;



Some <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5545206/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> suggest starting with five grams of creatine four times daily for about a week, and then reducing to 5 to 10 grams a day. This approach boosts creatine without relying solely on large quantities of meat or fish.&nbsp;



Your exact dose can depend on muscle mass, level of activity, and dietary habits. Whether someone is an athlete in heavy training or a retiree looking to stay active, practical guidance from a medical professional is often the best route.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-creatine-safe-nbsp">Is creatine safe?&nbsp;</h2>



“There’s absolutely no data supporting any negative side effect anecdotally reported about creatine on the internet and in the media,” said Dr. Kreider. Though you might have heard stories about bloating or cramps, these claims are unsubstantiated.&nbsp;



The recent comprehensive study, involved more than 600 trials, and saw no major uptick in side effects among creatine users compared to those taking placebos. 



Claims that creatine harms the kidneys or leads to long-term problems have not been supported by real-world research.



Still, as with anything else you put in your body, quality matters. Choosing products from reputable sources and verifying labels can help you steer clear of questionable ingredients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-health-benefits-for-different-ages">Clear health benefits for different ages</h2>



As people grow older, maintaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-artificial-intelligence-changing-health-diet-fitness-exercise-approach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a> mass and healthy cognition can get tricky. Researchers have observed that creatine, when taken consistently, may support muscle health and daily function in older adults.&nbsp;



Adolescents might also stand to gain. When diets fall short in providing the recommended two to four grams of creatine a day, kids could experience slower growth and higher body fat.&nbsp;



Working out isn’t the only time you rely on strong muscles. Everyday tasks like standing up from a chair, carrying groceries, and climbing stairs depend on maintaining muscle strength.



For those on plant-based diets, supplementing can make sense. If you’re vegetarian or vegan, you skip the top food sources of creatine (meat and fish), so a supplemental form can fill that gap more easily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-health-and-creatine-supplements">Human health and creatine supplements</h2>



Some nutrition <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/books/reprint/5131-creatine-supplementation-for-health-and-clinical-diseases">experts</a> have probed links between creatine levels and mood, immunity, and even heart health. While the evidence is still growing, they see promise in using it alongside a balanced lifestyle.



The cost factor also comes into play. Buying high-quality red meat or fish every day can strain your wallet, while creatine supplements can be a cost-friendly way to meet your target intake.



Even though you can measure out a few grams of powder daily, it’s smart to pair creatine with a nutrient-rich diet. Complex carbohydrates, proteins, and healthy fats all work in tandem with creatine to energize your body.



Hydration is also crucial. Water helps your system manage nutrients, including creatine, and keeps you from running on empty. If you have any underlying health concerns, it’s wise to check in with a trusted professional to fine-tune your plan.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15502783.2025.2488937" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition</a>.



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Scientists are praising the health benefits of this supplement powder

In a world where health advice often changes by the...

Air pollution causes around 50,000 deaths each year in the U.S. Yet, not all pollutants are equally harmful. Among the most dangerous are fine airborne particles.



Historically, research has focused on PM 2.5, particles smaller than 2.5 microns. Now, scientists have turned to an even finer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutant</a>: PM 1. These particles, less than one micron wide, are small enough to infiltrate deep into human lungs.



A recent study&nbsp;by a team at <a href="https://washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a> offers the first high-resolution, 25-year dataset of PM 1 levels across the contiguous United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-particle-pollution-needs-to-be-mapped">Particle pollution needs to be mapped</h2>



“This measurement serves as a starting point to understand which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-people-die-from-air-pollution-each-year-yet-theres-still-a-lack-of-monitoring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutants</a> regulators could target to make the most effective health impact,” said study co-author Dr. Randall Martin.



Unlike PM 2.5, which includes larger particles like dust, PM 1 is mostly made up of combustion products: black carbon, sulphates, and organic matter. 



These smaller particles reach the alveolar regions of the lungs and cause more damage per unit mass. PM 1 can come from diesel exhaust, wildfires, and also industrial emissions.



Because the pollutant bypasses the body’s defenses more easily, its impact may be more severe. These particles are about six times smaller than red blood cells. Their size allows them to travel deep into lung tissues and even the bloodstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-are-a-setback">Wildfires are a setback</h2>



Thanks to environmental regulations, average PM 1 levels have dropped. From 1998 to 2022, the U.S. saw a significant decline in PM 1 levels at about 0.23 µg/m³ per year. This accounted for 86 percent of the total PM 2.5 reduction. 



But since 2010, this progress has slowed due to wildfires, especially in the western states. Areas like Los Angeles and Phoenix now show higher uncertainties in PM 1 estimates because wildfires boost organic matter concentrations. 



According the study, some western regions see annual PM 1 uncertainty levels exceeding 30 percent, mainly due to wildfire smoke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uneven-distribution-of-particle-pollution">Uneven distribution of particle pollution </h2>



The study shows that PM 1 levels remain highest in the eastern U.S. and in major cities. PM 1 sources are mostly human-made, making it easier to manage compared to natural dust. 



Urban populations, especially Black and Asian communities, have seen the greatest improvements due to reduced combustion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.



But not all communities benefit equally. Native American communities, often living in the arid west, saw smaller reductions. Wildfires and natural dust contribute more heavily to their exposure, and these are harder to control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-monitoring-of-pm-1">Long-term monitoring of PM 1</h2>



This study used satellite data, chemical models, and ground stations to estimate particle levels across over eight million land pixels. The data aligns well with physical ground measurements from devices like MOUDI and TEOM.



According to the analysis, 83 percent of the U.S. population lived in areas with PM 1 uncertainty under 10 percent. “Putting the seven species together, we can calculate the total PM 1 concentration over the country,” said Dr. Chi Li, lead author of the study.



In 2022, the major components of PM 1 included organic matter, which made up 47 percent of the total, followed by sulphate at 22 percent, nitrate at 12 percent, black carbon at eight percent, and ammonium at seven percent. 



In contrast, dust and sea salt, which are more prominent in PM 2.5, contributed less than five percent to PM 1.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-future-policy">What this means for future policy</h2>



“When EPA first promulgated a fine PM air quality standard in 1997, there was considerable discussion about regulating PM 1 or PM 2.5,” said study co-author Professor Jay Turner. 



“For numerous reasons, including but not limited to the lack of health impacts studies for PM 1 compared to studies for PM 2.5, the latter was chosen.”



That may change. PM 1 is more closely tied to urban combustion, which makes it easier to regulate. Unlike mineral dust, these emissions can be managed through policy. The study strongly recommends integrating PM 1 into monitoring systems and health impact studies.



“This dataset offers unprecedented information for the United States about an important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-can-reshape-a-babys-brain-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutant</a> for which few other measurements exist,” said Dr. Martin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-tiny-particles-to-save-lives">Targeting tiny particles to save lives</h2>



As air pollution continues to change due to shifting environmental conditions and human activities, it becomes increasingly important to pay closer attention to these specific particles. 



Although they are extremely small, they pose serious risks to human health and can penetrate deep into the body. For a long time, these harmful particles have not received enough attention in air quality regulations, making them a hidden danger in many communities. 



However, researchers now have access to better tools, advanced monitoring technologies, and long-term data that make it possible to track and understand their impact more clearly. 



With this new information, there is a real opportunity to create stronger protections and shape policies that respond more accurately to the health risks posed by particle pollution.



With continued efforts, PM 1 could become the next target for environmental health policy in the U.S. - a shift that might save thousands of lives each year.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(25)00094-4/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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Air pollution map reveals health threats from tiny particles

Air pollution causes around 50,000 deaths each year in the...

The brain makes everyday tasks feel simple, even when they involve many moving parts. It does this by breaking big goals into smaller, bite-sized steps. That’s how someone can head out for coffee without thinking twice about elevators, crosswalks, or checkout lines.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> designed a study to investigate how the brain manages complex choices when perfect solutions are out of reach.



Volunteers watched a ball disappear into a four-arm maze and then tried to guess which exit it would use, guided only by two timed sounds inside the maze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-use-shortcuts-to-solve-problems">Brains use shortcuts to solve problems </h2>



Humans rarely run every possible scenario in their heads. Instead, the brain relies on two well-known strategies to simplify complex problems.



One is hierarchical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-logic-lives-experts-identify-the-brain-region-responsible-for-reasoning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reasoning</a>, which involves breaking a puzzle into layers and solving one step at a time. The other is counterfactual reasoning, where a person imagines what might have happened if a different choice had been made.



Study senior author Mehrdad Jazayeri is a professor of brain and cognitive sciences, a member of MIT’s McGovern Institute for Brain Research, and an investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.



“What humans are capable of doing is to break down the maze into subsections, and then solve each step using relatively simple algorithms," noted Professor Jazayeri.



"Effectively, when we don’t have the means to solve a complex problem, we manage by using simpler heuristics that get the job done." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-solving-strategies-of-the-brain">Problem-solving strategies of the brain</h2>



The MIT team recorded each participant’s timing accuracy first. They then built computer models that tested three possibilities: pure hierarchy, pure counterfactual thinking, or a flexible mix. 



Real-world performance lined up with the flexible model. The brain seemed to favor following one branch of the maze, checking the next tone, and only sometimes backtracking if the tone felt “off.”



“This is really a big question in cognitive science: How do we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intelligent-minds-take-longer-to-solve-difficult-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">problem-solve</a> in a suboptimal way, by coming up with clever heuristics that we chain together in a way that ends up getting us closer and closer until we solve the problem?” said Professor Jazayeri.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-and-the-choice-to-backtrack">Memory and the choice to backtrack</h2>



Switching sides in the maze depends on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/researchers-successfully-restore-sugar-in-the-brains-sweet-layer-and-recover-memory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a>. To reconsider an earlier turn, a person must recall the first tone and judge whether it still fits.



“It requires four parallel simulations in your mind, and no human can do that. It’s analogous to having four conversations at a time,” noted Professor Jazayeri. “The task allows us to tap into this set of algorithms that the humans use, because you just can’t solve it optimally.”



People who trust their memory more often jumped back to the alternate path. Those who sensed their recall was shaky stuck with their first guess.



“People rely on counterfactuals to the degree that it’s helpful,” Jazayeri said. “People who take a big performance loss when they do counterfactuals avoid doing them. But if you are someone who’s really good at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-our-brains-neurons-make-and-retrieve-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retrieving information</a> from the recent past, you may go back to the other side.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-networks-and-human-behavior">Neural networks and human behavior </h2>



The team also trained a neural network on the same task. With unlimited capacity, the model nailed every trial. 



Once the researchers limited its memory and forced it to give up tracking all four paths, the network used the same two shortcuts - and the same decision rule about when to switch - that the humans showed.



“What we found is that networks mimic human behavior when we impose on them those computational constraints that we found in human behavior,” explained Professor Jazayeri. “This is really saying that humans are acting rationally under the constraints that they have to function under.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-brain-s-strategy-matters">Why the brain’s strategy matters</h2>



By pinpointing when and why the brain flips between hierarchical and counterfactual thinking, the study sheds light on real-world planning, from driving routes to business decisions. 



Future work aims to trace the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-connection-behind-brain-signals-and-human-consciousness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain signals</a> that trigger each switch, offering clues for both neuroscience and artificial-intelligence design.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02232-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



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Human brains solve complex problems with simple tricks

The brain makes everyday tasks feel simple, even when they...

Some bacteria have a chilling plan B. When nutrients vanish, they kill nearby cells and feast on the remains. A recent study shows this grisly move is anything but rare - it’s a survival trick hiding in plain sight.



The research was conducted by scientists from <a href="https://asuonline.asu.edu/?gclsrc=aw.ds&amp;&amp;utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_content=BR_Main_ASU_Non&amp;utm_campaign=22-Nat_Acq-Hi_BR_Main_Non_OS&amp;utm_ecd22=22&amp;utm_term=arizona+state+university&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=10205493793&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwmK_CBhCEARIsAMKwcD4F16NXdbbw5yWnLQpde7MCm6ecUTHOSmTy_9hkkLNe1vAW_g2rwoEaAiAkEALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, ETH Zurich, and the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag).



The experts discovered that hungry bacteria switch on a tiny weapon called the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pseudomonas-build-tiny-nano-spearguns-to-fight-back-against-attack/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Type VI Secretion System</a> (T6SS) to stay alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-bacteria-eat-their-neighbors">Some bacteria eat their neighbors</h2>



Dr. Glen D’Souza, a co-author of the study, does not sugar-coat the finding. “The punchline is: when things get tough, you eat your neighbors,” he said.



“We’ve known bacteria kill each other, that’s textbook. But what we’re seeing is that it's not just important that the bacteria have weapons to kill, but they are controlling when they use those weapons specifically for situations to eat others where they can't grow themselves.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hungry-bacteria-turn-predatory">Hungry bacteria turn predatory</h2>



The T6SS is a needle-like harpoon. A cell fires it into a neighbor and injects lethal toxins. Earlier studies suggested the device cleared space for growth. 



The new data show a darker aim. The killer waits until food is gone, then strikes so it can feed on leaking nutrients.



Ferran Garcia-Pichel puts it in human terms. “Most bacteria quietly gather nutrients from their surroundings, but a few are known to be specialist hunters, killing and consuming other organisms or cells,” he says. 



“This study and Dr. D’Souza’s team reveal that even so-called harmless bacteria can become killers under stress. When resources run low, even seemingly harmless bacteria can flip, a microbial Jekyll and Hyde. Their beauty, it turns out, is only skin-deep.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silent-arms-race-among-microbes">A silent arms race among microbes</h2>



In the microbial world, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-microbes-are-finding-surprising-new-ways-to-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a> depends not only on speed or size, but also on strategy. And weapons like the T6SS are just one part of a much larger arms race happening invisibly all around us. 



Many bacteria live in dense, competitive communities - inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a>, seawater, or even your digestive tract - where the line between coexistence and conflict is razor-thin.



These microscopic organisms are constantly scanning their surroundings, sizing up friend or foe. Some form alliances. Others, like those with T6SS, keep quiet until resources run low - then strike with precision. 



What makes this tool unique is that it’s not used randomly. It’s a calculated move, triggered only under stress. This level of control suggests bacteria are not mindless killers, but adaptive survivors with a strong sense of timing. 



Bacteria don’t just fight for territory - they wait until the cost of not attacking is greater than the risk of war. In that way, bacterial life mirrors the same resource-driven dynamics seen in larger ecosystems, just on a much smaller scale.



By decoding how and when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-their-memories-to-fight-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria fight</a>, scientists are beginning to map the invisible power structures that govern the microbial world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hungry-bacteria-kill-to-eat">Hungry bacteria kill to eat</h2>



The team used time-lapse imaging, genetic switches, and chemical labels. They watched the tiny hunters pierce victims, wait, and then grow on the spill. 



When the scientists disabled the harpoon in some strains, those mutants starved. The untouched strains thrived.



“This isn’t just happening in the lab,” noted Dr. D’Souza. “It’s present in many different environments and it's operational and happening in nature from the oceans to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-gut-bacteria-feed-on-complex-plant-sugars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human gut</a>.”



Astrid Stubbusch saw the attacks frame by frame. She said that watching these cells in action really drives home how resourceful bacteria can be.



“By slowly releasing nutrients from their neighbors, they maximize their nutrient harvesting when every molecule counts - revealing a new link in the microbial food web that we’ve not appreciated before," said Stubbusch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-killers-big-impact">Tiny killers, big impact</h2>



Understanding these weapons could shape better probiotics that patrol the gut. The same tool might inspire new antibiotics that shove drugs straight into harmful bugs. 



On a global scale, bacterial skirmishes may even nudge the carbon cycle by changing which microbes break down algae in the sea.



Bacteria are not just passive recyclers. When the cupboard is bare, they turn into hunters. In the microscopic world, survival sometimes means eating the neighbor next door.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr8286" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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When bacteria get hungry, they turn on each other

Some bacteria have a chilling plan B. When nutrients vanish,...

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles (675 kilometers) below the surface of the ground and is often described as the world’s largest cave system. Recent explorations there uncovered two new fossil sharks that once roamed shallow coastal waters more than 325 million years ago.



Ancient shark specialist John-Paul (JP) Hodnett of the Maryland-National Capital Parks and Planning Commission (<a href="https://www.mncppc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MNCPPC</a>) worked with the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/subjects/fossils/index.htm">National Park Service Paleontology Program</a> to identify the fossils. 



These finds have everyone buzzing because they offer a glimpse into marine habitats that thrived when parts of what is now eastern North America were covered by a warm sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-shark-fossil-puzzle">Prehistoric shark fossil puzzle</h2>



The newly documented sharks are Troglocladodus trimblei and Glikmanius careforum, and they are from a group known as <a href="https://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/fossil-month-cten.php">ctenacanth</a> sharks. 



They both measured about 10–12 feet (3–3.6 meters) long, which is similar in size to an oceanic whitetip shark.



The shark fossils were collected from various limestone formations, which were deposited during the Middle to Late <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/mississippian-period.htm">Mississippian Period</a>. 



The bigger picture is that these habitats were once submerged under shallow seas and supported a wide range of fish life. Researchers have now identified more than 70 ancient fish species in the cave system.



A partial set of jaws belonging to a young <a href="https://shark-references.com/species/view/Glikmanius-careforum">Glikmanius careforum</a> revealed fresh details about cartilage, which rarely fossilizes well. 



Cartilaginous remains of sharks are often fragile and easily destroyed by erosion, so finding them preserved in a protected space is especially rewarding.



Experts note that this newly identified material adds depth to ongoing discussions of how shark groups diversified while the supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea">Pangea</a> was taking shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborations-and-fieldwork">Collaborations and fieldwork</h2>



“Every new discovery at Mammoth Cave is possible due to collaborations,” said park superintendent <a href="https://www.nps.gov/maca/learn/management/index.htm">Barclay Trimble</a> of Mammoth Cave National Park. 



Researchers and volunteers have explored hidden passages, river channels, and even narrow crawlways in search of key fossils.



Members of the <a href="https://www.cave-research.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cave Research Foundation</a> also took part in these efforts. The name Glikmanius careforum was chosen to honor that organization’s valuable support in the field.



The partial cartilage from this genus points to a short head with a strong bite, possibly used to feed on smaller fish and <a href="https://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/HoughtonEC/Orthocones.html">orthocones</a>, which are squid-like creatures with elongated shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-help-trace-evolutionary-change">Fossils help trace evolutionary change </h2>



Troglocladodus trimblei stands out for its branching tooth design that helped it secure prey in the Mississippian seas. 



This prehistoric hunter probably shared a coastal environment with G. careforum, in waters that covered modern-day Kentucky and Alabama.



Researchers say these sharks likely thrived in nearshore habitats that teemed with bony fish, shelled organisms, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-sharks-brazilian-waters-sharpnose-sharks-rhizoprionodon-lalandii-ocean-pollution/">marine creatures</a>.



Tracing these fossils across multiple rock layers provides insights into how the environment changed over time. 



Coastal waters rose and fell as landmasses drifted toward each other, gradually merging into a single continent. 



These broader patterns helped shape the distribution and evolutionary paths of ancient sharks like T. trimblei and G. careforum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-preserve-shark-fossils">How to preserve shark fossils</h2>



Field teams spent long hours underground carefully mapping and collecting small fragments of teeth. A single <a href="https://www.npca.org/articles/7703-the-unveiling-of-mammoth-cave-s-history">tooth</a> from T. trimblei sparked initial interest when Superintendent Trimble first discovered it on a 2019 trip. 



Seasoned cavers and geologists coordinated to ensure safe retrieval of each piece, knowing that one misstep could damage the delicate remains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/ctenacanth-sharks_cave-discovery_325-million-years-ago_1s.webp" alt="A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Artwork by Benji Paynose" class="wp-image-1973763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A reconstruction of the new Middle to Late Mississippian ctenacanth sharks from Mammoth Cave National Park and northern Alabama. Glikmanius careforum is seen swimming in the foreground with two Troglocladodus trimblei swimming above. Click image to enlarge. Artwork by Benji Paynose</figcaption></figure>



Research at Mammoth Cave has led to conversations about how best to preserve fragile fossils within difficult-to-access passages. Experts say stable cave temperatures help keep these discoveries in good condition. 



Park managers have also integrated these new data into guidelines for future research so that more clues to marine life from 325 million years ago may be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-shark-fossils-matter">Why these shark fossils matter</h2>



Scientists use these finds to compare local fossil collections with specimens from similar periods in other parts of the world. 



Documenting body sizes, tooth arrangements, and skeletal details helps researchers build a clearer timeline of shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">evolution</a>.



These comprehensive studies uncover shifts in fish diversity that occurred as oceans changed and landmasses joined together. 



Experts also link fossil data with knowledge from bony fish records, coral structures, and other sea life. This combined approach paints a full picture of ancient marine habitats and shows how some species adapted while others vanished. 



The two new fossil sharks at Mammoth Cave highlight that even well-known geologic areas can hold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-caught-riding-on-the-back-of-the-worlds-fastest-shark-in-the-open-ocean/">surprises</a> for many years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cave-explorations">Future cave explorations</h2>



Mammoth Cave continues to yield glimpses into a vanished coastline that spanned what is now Kentucky, Europe, and northern Africa. 



T. trimblei and G. careforum are just two recent additions to an ever-expanding fossil catalog, reminding everyone that exploration still brings answers and new questions.



In many ways, these ancient sharks highlight how puzzle pieces of geologic history keep fitting together. Field teams are now eager to see what lies in deeper chambers or behind the narrow channels.



The next phase of study may involve more advanced imaging and careful excavation in lesser-known passages, guided by new mapping techniques. 



Findings like these spur a broader appreciation for the cave system’s scientific value, well beyond its length or visual features.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377873693_NEW_CTENACANTH_SHARKS_CHONDRICHTHYES_ELASMOBRANCHII_CTENACANTHIFORMES_FROM_THE_MIDDLE_TO_LATE_MISSISSIPPIAN_OF_KENTUCKY_AND_ALABAMA">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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Two prehistoric sea monsters found in the world's largest cave after 325 million years

Mammoth Cave in Kentucky stretches for more than 420 miles...

3d,Rendering,X,And,Y,Chromosome,With,Telomeres

Flip open a high-school biology textbook, and the rule seems tidy: two X chromosomes mean girl, and an X paired with a Y means boy. That much smaller Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which is the switch for testis development. 



For the last 300 million years or so, this system has been working very well. Now, however, chatter in genetics circles hints that something is amiss. 



Over time, the Y chromosome has been losing pieces of itself, and computer models suggest the last scraps could vanish in roughly 11 million years. This is no trivial matter, because what it holds - or drops - can sway everything from cancer risk to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-with-two-dads-survives-to-adulthood-major-implications-for-same-sex-human-couples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how future humans reproduce</a>.



Would that erase men from the planet, or would life simply shrug and invent a new plan? Rodents on remote islands and subtle changes inside aging human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bone marrow</a> are now providing clues. 



One story shows how a mammal kept producing males after its Y disappeared entirely. The other warns how men already pay a price when some of their cells drift away from the chromosome during middle age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosome-fade-away">Y chromosome fade away</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-pass-down-x-chromosomes-that-accelerate-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The X chromosome</a> carries about 900 genes that do everything from wiring nerves to repairing DNA. Its partner, the Y, keeps only about 55. 



Comparative work across mammals shows that, once our lineage split from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-balance-their-sex-chromosomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">platypus</a> some 166 million years ago, the Y began dropping about five genes every million years. Run that line forward, and the ledger hits zero in 11 million years - a geological heartbeat.



Most biologists once chalked that outcome up to hype. After all, many species never shed their sex chromosomes. 



But the idea gained traction when researchers found the Japanese spiny rat and a few mole vole species thriving today without any Y at all. Somehow, they had rewired the traditional circuit for making testes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rodents-changed-the-rules">Rodents changed the rules</h2>



In 2022, scientists found a duplicated piece of DNA near a gene called <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/gene/sox9/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOX9</a> in the spiny rat. Usually, another gene (SRY) turns SOX9 on to make male traits develop. 



But in this rat, the new DNA copy does that job on its own - even without a Y chromosome - so a genetically female animal (XX) can still develop as male.



Drop the fragment into lab mice and testes still form. Evolution, it seems, can lay a new cable when the old one burns out.



That discovery hints that, should the human Y fizzle out one distant day, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> could promote an alternative trigger. 



Different populations might even settle on different triggers, eventually splitting into separate species that cannot interbreed. The idea sounds like science fiction, but the rodent reality shows it is genetically feasible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-y-chromosomes-and-men-s-health">Y chromosomes and men's health</h2>



Long before any species-wide overhaul, countless men are already losing the Y chromosome cell by cell. Starting in their fifties, bone-marrow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-mouse-created-with-stem-cells-that-predate-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a> sometimes mis-segregate it during division. 



The resulting white-blood-cell lineages, missing their Y, multiply quietly. By 80 years old, more than 40 percent of men carry sizable pockets of this “mosaic loss of Y” in their blood.



Tracking 1,153 Swedish men in their seventies and eighties, researchers found that those with the loss died 5.5 years earlier, suffered more solid tumors and heart disease, and faced a seven-fold rise in Alzheimer’s. 



Kenneth Walsh of the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Virginia</a> then bred mouse blood stem cells without the Y chromosome and transplanted them. The recipients developed fibrosis, failing hearts, and early death, showing the loss is the culprit, not a bystander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-link-to-the-immune-system">Direct link to the immune system</h2>



A gene on the Y chromosome called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/7404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UTY</a> helps control the immune system. Without it, some immune cells stop working properly - one kind makes more scar tissue, and another becomes weaker, which helps cancer grow and spread. 



In mice, tumors grow twice as fast without the Y. In men, bladder cancers missing the Y chromosome are more dangerous - except they respond better to a certain kind of cancer treatment called checkpoint inhibitors.



The picture is complicated: a chromosome that underpins male development also tames inflammation and restrains tumors, yet its selective absence can make some drugs shine. 



Medicine and evolution rarely share the same bottom line. Natural selection prizes reproductive success over a lifetime, while clinicians care about the here and now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-offsetting-y-chromosome-loss">Offsetting Y chromosome loss</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-vaping-help-people-quit-smoking-cigarettes-new-study-breaks-it-down/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cigarette smoke</a>, air pollution, and certain industrial chemicals add extra DNA damage and accelerate the Y chromosome loss. Kicking tobacco, breathing cleaner air, and limiting exposure to mutagens therefore rank as simple defenses - all it takes is willpower.



General habits that slow genomic wear - regular exercise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-may-be-a-fountain-of-youth-for-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean-style</a> meals, and solid sleep - may also keep the Y chromosome in more cells for longer.



Antifibrotic drugs cleared for lung disease are being tested to blunt heart damage from the loss. Oncologists already use chromosome status in bladder tumors to steer checkpoint therapy. 



As single-cell sequencing gets cheaper, your physical exam might soon include a “Y-loss score” beside cholesterol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



The Japanese spiny rat proves that mammals can reinvent the rulebook after the ‘puny little chromosome’ disappears. That prospect keeps evolutionary biologists buzzing. 



Yet the rodent’s triumph offers little comfort to a 60-year-old man whose marrow has already shed Y in a third of his white-blood-cell army. 



Species-level salvation and individual-level hazard can coexist. That dichotomy - long-term adaptability versus immediate personal cost - will likely guide both medical practice and evolutionary debate in the years ahead.



The Y chromosome is quirky but crucial. It shapes male development, steadies immunity, and may also be plotting its own disappearance. 



However, the good news is that the practical advice is simple: dodge mutagens, stub out cigarettes, consider a mid-life test for loss, and keep an eye on new research as this chromosome writes its final chapters.



Let's go, men, you got this!



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(23)00646-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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The Y chromosome is disappearing, and this fact is already causing problems for men

Flip open a high-school biology textbook, and the rule seems...

When scientists on a <a href="https://www.hi.no/en/hi/news/2021/october/after-being-trapped-in-norway-by-the-pandemic,-dr.-fridtjof-nansen-is-once-again-heading-out-into-the-world">research vessel</a> off the northwestern coast of Africa hauled in their catch, they were surprised to find an unusual eel that did not match any known species. The 2-foot (0.6 meter) curiosity had fang-like teeth and a pointed head that set it apart.



It has now been identified it as a spoon-nose eel from the genus Mystriophis, and it has been named Mystriophis caboverdensis. It remains the only documented example of its kind.



According to <a href="https://www-iuem.univ-brest.fr/paddle/project/team/da-luz-alciany" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Alciany Nascimento da Luz</a>, who was part of an international team collaborating with marine research institutes in Cabo Verde, this eel marks a special moment for local biodiversity efforts. 



The discovery also highlights how careful observation can reveal new life forms in waters that scientists survey for resource management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cataloging-eel-species">Cataloging eel species</h2>



The expedition team aboard the research vessel called <a href="https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/Norway-and-FAO-launch-unique-state-of-the-art-oceanic-research-ship/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Fridtjof Nansen</a> focused on studying fishing resources and ocean life around the <a href="https://nha.org/research/nantucket-history/history-topics/cape-verde-archipelago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cabo Verde Archipelago</a>. 



Researchers took samples at varying depths to map habitats and document marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/serpent-like-eel-named-after-hades-god-of-the-underworld/">diversity</a>.



Their work included cataloging eels and other underexplored species in the Eastern Central Atlantic. During these trawls, the spoon-nose eel surfaced and initially passed as an already known specimen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-features-of-new-eel-species">Unique features of new eel species</h2>



Closer analysis showed a short, blunt snout, large eyes, and a body length of about 28 inches (0.7 meters). The dorsal fin sits in a slightly advanced position compared to its closest relatives.



“It co-occurs in the tropical eastern Atlantic with two similar looking species,” wrote Dr. Nascimento da Luz. Another trait setting it apart is the arrangement of teeth, which appear fang-like near its pointed head.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-eel-diversity">A peek into eel diversity</h2>



These tooth structures place the eel in the family <a href="https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/sftep/en/thefishes/taxon/356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ophichthidae</a>, which is known for species sometimes referred to as worm or snake eels. The family has an array of body shapes, snout types, and feeding strategies.



Scientists found that differences in fin placement and specific head ratios made it clear that this fish deserved its own name. “We have no doubt as to its uniqueness,” stated Dr. Nascimento da Luz, the lead researcher on this project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-a-single-specimen">Clues from a single specimen</h2>



Though only one individual has been found, the data collected was surprisingly rich. 



Scientists used detailed morphometrics, measuring things like fin position, head-to-body ratio, and tooth shape, to distinguish it from known relatives.



DNA analysis added another layer of certainty. Researchers found a 3.6% genetic difference from its closest cousin, Mystriophis crosnieri, enough to classify it as a separate species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-spoon-nose-eel-species-matter">Why spoon-nose eel species matter</h2>



Spoon-nose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sushi-of-the-future-the-first-ever-lab-grown-eel-is-a-success/">eels</a> help researchers understand how fish evolve in deep-sea environments where visibility is low and prey is scarce. Their body shape, hunting tools, and fin placement all offer clues to how species adapt over time.



Because they tend to live in deeper waters, they are rarely seen. Each new find adds to the scientific puzzle of how life functions in low-light, high-pressure ecosystems that are still largely unexplored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-impact-in-cabo-verde">Local impact in Cabo Verde </h2>



Discoveries like this bring global attention to regions like Cabo Verde, encouraging investment in local marine research and training. 



They can also strengthen partnerships between local scientists and international teams working on conservation.



Increased biodiversity awareness can lead to better protection of vulnerable ecosystems. 



As more species are found in these waters, there’s growing incentive to preserve Carbo Verde habitats before they’re impacted by overfishing or climate shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-quest-for-new-species">Global quest for new species</h2>



Experts estimate that thousands of organisms are described every year, yet many more wait to be documented. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/">eel</a> underscores how ocean surveys can uncover unexpected finds that broaden our knowledge of marine life.



Researchers named the new species after Cabo Verde to honor the location where it was discovered. Such tributes often highlight the importance of local ecosystems and their protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



The exact habits, diet, and reproduction of the new eel species remain mysteries. The single specimen was enough for analysis of morphology, DNA sequencing, and comparisons with related species.



This discovery prompts a deeper look at the region’s underwater habitats. Further expeditions may reveal whether more spoon-nose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-eels-have-a-secret-weapon-to-generate-electricity/">eels</a> inhabit neighboring waters or if this new find is actually incredibly rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-deep-sea-discovery">Challenges of deep-sea discovery</h2>



Finding new species like Mystriophis caboverdensis isn’t easy. Deep-sea trawling requires expensive equipment, <a href="https://www.hi.no/en/hi/news/2021/october/after-being-trapped-in-norway-by-the-pandemic,-dr.-fridtjof-nansen-is-once-again-heading-out-into-the-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long expeditions</a>, and cooperation between countries and institutions.



Even when a sample is collected, identification can take years. Subtle features must be compared across museum records, and genetic testing depends on funding and lab availability.



The fact that Mystriophis caboverdensis remained unnoticed until now raises questions about how many other species slip through the cracks. Even with decades of ocean exploration, large parts of the sea remain poorly studied.



Scientists say continued investment in <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-au/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/marine-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine biodiversity</a> research could uncover even more undocumented species. Each new find helps paint a clearer picture of how ecosystems work and how they’re changing.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5632.2.4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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Scientists discover a new eel species with fang-like teeth

When scientists on a research vessel off the northwestern coast...

In the waters of Lake Malawi, a single group of fish has evolved into over 800 different species in just a few million years. This rapid and concentrated evolutionary explosion has long puzzled scientists.



Now, researchers have uncovered a powerful genetic mechanism that may explain how such extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-mitigation-strategies-may-be-endangering-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> can arise so quickly.



A recent study led by scientists from the Universities of <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambridge</a> and <a href="https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antwerp</a> reveals that large chunks of reversed, or “flipped,” DNA in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-of-cichlid-fish-boosts-biodiversity-in-lake-tanganyika/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cichlid fish</a> act like evolutionary accelerators.



These chromosomal inversions preserve key genetic traits across generations and help fish adapt swiftly to new habitats - fueling the formation of new species at remarkable speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shortcut-in-our-genes">The shortcut in our genes</h2>



“Why are there so many different kinds of animals and plants on Earth?” is a question that has guided evolutionary biology for centuries.



In the case of Malawi’s cichlids, all 800-plus species share a common ancestor. Yet they’ve diversified into everything from algae-grazers to sand-sifters to open-water predators - all within the confines of one lake.



To understand this phenomenon, the researchers examined the genomes of over 1,300 individual cichlids. Some species had flipped DNA sections across five chromosomes - a genetic anomaly called a chromosomal inversion.



“We discovered that, in some species, large chunks of DNA on five chromosomes are flipped - a type of mutation called a chromosomal inversion,” said senior author Hennes Svardal from the University of Antwerp.



Ordinarily, recombination reshuffles <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-human-dna-ever-found-tells-story-of-lost-branch-on-human-neanderthal-family-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> each generation by mixing genetic material from both parents.



But inside these chromosomal inversions, the structure blocks recombination. As a result, organisms inherit linked gene sets together, preserving adaptations that function effectively as a group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-supergenes-lock-in-traits">Fish supergenes lock in traits</h2>



“It’s sort of like a toolbox where all the most useful tools are stuck together, preserving winning genetic combinations that help fish adapt to different environments,” said Moritz Blumer from Cambridge’s Department of Genetics.



These preserved gene clusters, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergenes-drove-the-rapid-spread-of-common-ragweed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supergenes</a>, help explain how diverse cichlid fish evolve while sharing the same lake. In sandy lake beds, inversions limit gene mixing, helping preserve each species’ unique adaptations despite a lack of barriers.



The supergenes govern traits essential to survival: vision, hearing, feeding behavior, and more. For instance, fish that live in the lake’s deep waters - some as far down as 655 feet (200 meters) - require specialized vision to navigate dim light.



They also need unique diets to survive in the nutrient-poor depths and physiology to withstand high pressure. Their supergenes lock in those abilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supergenes-in-fish-interbreeding">Supergenes in fish interbreeding</h2>



Another advantage of these DNA inversions is that they can transfer wholesale between species when different cichlids <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/28000-year-old-hybrid-child-confirms-interbreeding-between-humans-and-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interbreed</a>. This spreads entire suites of beneficial traits in one stroke.



“When different cichlid species interbred, entire inversions can be passed between them - bringing along key survival traits, like adaptations to specific environments, speeding up the process of evolution,” Blumer said.



This genetic mechanism lets adaptations transfer between species, speeding evolution without needing to evolve traits independently each time.



Researchers found these inversions often act as sex chromosomes, determining whether a fish develops as male or female. Because sex chromosomes drive speciation, this finding adds complexity to how cichlids diversify so rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-going-beyond-fish">Going beyond fish</h2>



“While our study focused on cichlids, chromosomal inversions aren’t unique to them,” said co-senior author Richard Durbin, a professor at Cambridge’s Department of Genetics.



“They’re also found in many other animals - including humans - and are increasingly seen as a key factor in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> and biodiversity.”



These findings reveal new ways to study the genetics of speciation. This applies not just to fish, but across all branches of the tree of life. Supergenes and inversions may be more than just quirks of DNA - they could be among evolution’s most powerful tools for generating new forms and functions.



“We have been studying the process of speciation for a long time,” Svardal said. “By understanding how these supergenes evolve and spread, we’re getting closer to answering one of science’s big questions: how life on Earth becomes so rich and varied.”



The study shows how a DNA twist can speed evolution, offering a key clue to the mystery of biodiversity. It also reveals that sometimes, nature hides its most elegant solutions in its smallest structures.



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Genetic ‘supergenes’ power explosive evolution in some fish

In the waters of Lake Malawi, a single group of...

A year-long experiment on a Central Valley dairy farm has confirmed that sealing manure lagoons under gas-tight tarps can trap roughly 80 percent of the methane they would otherwise release.



By capturing the gas and sending it to fuel markets, the system turns a potent climate threat into a usable resource.



Led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR), the study gives the first independent, year-over-year check on dairy “digesters” that California regulators have counted on to meet aggressive methane-cutting goals.



More than 130 such systems already dot the state’s milk belt. Until now, officials had relied mainly on engineering models to judge their effectiveness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-methane-gas-on-a-dairy-farm">Capturing methane gas on a dairy farm</h2>



The test site sits in Tulare County, the nation’s top milk-producing region. Hot summers keep open manure ponds bubbling like low-grade cauldrons, releasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-can-help-reduce-methane-emissions-from-cows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> that warms the planet more than 80 times faster than carbon dioxide over two decades.



Engineers solved the problem by floating a heavy, flexible cover across the lagoon and piping the captured gas through scrubbers before sending it to truck fleets as a low-carbon diesel replacement.



“The digesters can leak, and they sometimes do,” said Francesca Hopkins, the UCR climate scientist who led the work. “But when the system is built well and managed carefully, the emissions really drop. That’s what we saw here.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-invisible"><a></a>Measuring the invisible</h2>



Hopkins’ team set up mobile gas analyzers inside a white research van. For 12 months before construction and twelve months after, they drove grid patterns around the dairy, logging hundreds of methane readings under different winds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-fuels-dangerous-methane-feedback-loop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a>.



The before-and-after comparison showed an 80 percent decline in methane drifting off the property once the cover and piping were in place.



That figure lines up closely with the reduction assumed in California’s official climate inventory.



Most earlier studies had relied on short snapshots or on-site sensors. The new roaming approach captured seasonal swings, day-night cycles, and operational hiccups, providing a more realistic picture of performance over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaks-fixes-and-fast-improvements"><a></a>Leaks, fixes, and fast improvements</h2>



During early tests the team picked up sudden methane spikes. They alerted <a href="https://calbioenergy.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Bioenergy</a>, the company that built and operates the digester. Technicians located torn seams and loose joints, repaired them, and the plumes vanished on subsequent drives.



“This was a textbook case of adaptive management,” Hopkins said. “The partnership between scientists, the company, and the farmer really made a huge difference.”



The episode underlines a broader lesson: digesters work best when operators monitor them closely and move quickly to plug leaks.



California’s new fleet of methane-tracking satellites could help, flagging large plumes so ground crews can respond in days instead of months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-pollutants-remain-untouched">Other pollutants remain untouched</h2>



Digesters leave other pollution untouched. They do not curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-green-tech-ammonia-fertilizer-production-using-earths-natural-forces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ammonia</a>, a lung-irritating gas, or tiny airborne particles that can hang over dairy counties on still summer days. 



The hardware is also expensive. Farmers need permits, financing, and maintenance contracts to keep covers inflated and engines running.



“They’re not for every farm,” Hopkins said. “But for dairies that can make it work, this is one of the most cost-effective ways we have to cut these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.”



California’s climate program helps in this regard by awarding low-carbon fuel credits for each ton of methane kept out of the air. Those credits, sold to oil companies that need to hit clean-fuel targets, can repay installation costs in a few years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slashing-methane-emissions-from-dairy-farms">Slashing methane emissions from dairy farms</h2>



State agencies plan to slash dairy methane 40 percent below 2013 levels by 2030. The new study suggests that target remains within reach if existing digesters keep performing and more come online. 



The research also shows that rigorous, transparent monitoring can build confidence among regulators, industry, and local communities.



“There’s so much division in the climate space,” Hopkins said. “But this is a real example of cooperation that leads to measurable results.”



Digesters will not solve every problem tied to large-scale dairying, yet the Tulare County project proves they can deliver the climate benefit promised on their labels.



With careful design, vigilant upkeep, and open data, farms can turn what was once a methane plume into fuel for trucks, revenue for operators, and progress toward a lower-carbon future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcbb.70047">Global Change Biology Bioenergy</a>.



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Dairy farms can join the climate fight by trapping methane

A year-long experiment on a Central Valley dairy farm has...

Researchers have launched a database that tracks the maximum body size of over 85,000 marine animal species. This resource spans creatures from tiny zooplankton to massive whales.



“Put simply, biologists have tended to focus on bigger organisms. And as a result, a lot of our understanding of how marine food webs and ecosystems work is based on knowledge of these larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ocean-animals-connect-countries-and-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>,” said study co-author Dr. Tom Webb from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a>.



For decades, marine science has placed the most emphasis on large species. Now, smaller species are getting some attention. Including them matters because they make up most of marine biodiversity and play vital ecosystem roles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-size-matters-in-marine-species">Why size matters in marine species</h2>



Body size shapes how ocean creatures live and interact. It influences where they feed, how they move, and their chances of surviving environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changes</a>.



Research confirms that size patterns help predict the ecological impact of marine species. Studies show ecosystems are organized by size, with bigger animals eating smaller ones.



Missing size data has hindered climate and conservation models. With 40% of marine species now included, scientists can make stronger predictions. They expect coverage to rise to 75% in the next two years.



The project is led by Dr. Craig R. McClain at the <a href="https://louisiana.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Louisiana</a>, working with experts from Sheffield, Tufts, Stanford, Hawaiʻi, and Virginia Tech.



“Body size isn’t just a number - it’s a key to how life works,” said Professor McClain. "This database fills a critical information gap and offers a fresh perspective on ocean biodiversity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tech-helped-gather-size-data">How tech helped gather size data</h2>



The creation of MOBS relied on automated data mining tools that pulled species measurements from thousands of publications and records.



Advances in machine learning helped standardize inconsistent formats and reduce manual entry time.



The researchers also used global taxonomy systems like <a href="https://www.marinespecies.org/about.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WoRMS</a> to verify species names and classifications. This integration ensured that their data could be reliably linked with other major marine datasets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-massive-marine-dataset">A massive marine dataset</h2>



Known as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.70062" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MOBS</a> (Marine Organismal Body Size Database), it records maximum measures like length, width, and height - standardized across 30 marine animal phyla. The initial release includes 85,204 species and over 181,000 size entries.



The data draws from scientific literature, museum records, and online repositories. It’s open source and freely available through <a href="https://github.com/crmcclain/MOBS_OPEN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GitHub</a>.



With size data spanning tens of thousands of species, scientists can now explore how body size evolved across different lineages. 



They can test long-standing theories about how environmental pressures, such as ocean depth or temperature, shaped the evolution of size in marine animals.



The database also enables comparisons between extinct and living species. By integrating fossil records, researchers can trace size shifts over time and investigate extinction patterns related to body size across evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smaller-species-bigger-blind-spots">Smaller species, bigger blind spots</h2>



Scientists are already using MOBS to explore biases in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> documentation. Smaller marine species often get overlooked in biodiversity surveys, raising questions about conservation priorities.



Researchers are also analyzing how body size changes with climate shifts. Since size affects metabolism and vulnerability, this insight is critical for forecasting ecosystem responses.



This database has real-world implications. Fishing large species disrupts food webs, and those effects ripple down to smaller prey.



Now models can account for these interactions accurately. Insights from birds show larger species face higher extinction risk. A robust marine size dataset may reveal similar trends, improving risk assessment and policy interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-small-vulnerable-species">Protecting small, vulnerable species</h2>



Policymakers and fisheries managers can use size data from MOBS to better regulate marine harvests. Knowing the size structure of species helps design catch limits that maintain ecological balance and prevent overexploitation.



The database also supports marine spatial planning. Regions with high concentrations of small or vulnerable species can be prioritized for conservation zones, improving how resources are allocated for ocean protection.



The project aims to integrate with <a href="https://obis.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OBIS</a> (Ocean Biodiversity Information System) and other marine data platforms, enabling spatial and ecological mapping.



With open-source access, the database invites global contributions. Scientists worldwide can suggest updates, correct errors, and share measurements, promoting a community-based science model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-education-and-citizen-science">Marine education and citizen science</h2>



The open-access nature of the MOBS database also opens doors for educators and citizen scientists. Teachers can use real species data in classrooms to introduce students to marine biology, ecology, and data science.



Citizen science groups can incorporate the database into biodiversity monitoring projects. Having access to maximum body size info helps with field identification, ecosystem modeling, and community-led marine conservation initiatives.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sand-extraction-is-an-overlooked-threat-to-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean ecosystems</a> face mounting stress. Climate change, overfishing, and habitat damage threaten marine life.



This dataset gives conservationists better tools to understand and protect ocean biodiversity. By grounding strategies in data that span tiny plankton to whales, MOBS bridges ecological gaps and supports stronger conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.70062" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



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Body size of 85,000 marine species mapped in new database

Researchers have launched a database that tracks the maximum body...

Measuring around 1 inch in length with a wingspan of approximately 2.7 inches, an ancient cicada <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">fossil</a> has captured attention for preserving detailed wing veins. Researchers suggest it was part of a family of “true” singing <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/animals-we-protect/what-to-know-about-brood-x-cicadas/">cicadas</a> that are still common across many warm regions today.



Experts were intrigued by the fossil’s nearly complete form. Its wings, pressed against stone, showed patterns seldom seen in insects so old. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-cicada-fossil-was-found">How the cicada fossil was found</h2>



The study was led by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Hui-Jiang-2134327699" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Hui Jiang</a> at the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bonn</a> in Germany.



Their team examined layers of rock at the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/720/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Messel Pit</a> in Germany. This site is famous for producing remarkable fossils of birds, mammals, and insects.



Scientists say the rocks where the insect was found date to about 47 million years ago. They report that the cicada’s wings and body were flattened in the sediment, leaving behind fine details.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-to-an-older-lineage">Connecting to an older lineage</h2>



Researchers identified this fossil as part of the tribe <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/335506-Platypleurini" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Platypleurini</a>, which usually thrives in tropical and subtropical regions across Africa and Asia. 



The presence of this group in ancient Europe challenges previous ideas about how these insects were distributed.



Some investigators think this newly described species, Eoplatypleura messelensis, shared characteristics with modern relatives that sing loudly during summer. That links its lineage to cicadas found in similar climates where humidity and warmth are typical.



“We can’t know the exact song,” said Dr. Hui Jiang. His team proposes the ancient cicada likely produced sounds using <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/tymbal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tymbals</a>, structures that vibrate to create loud calls.



Because the fossil’s body appears a bit broader than most living cicadas, the males (though not found in these particular specimens) might have produced especially powerful tones. It is possible they reached volumes as high as today’s species or even beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicada-fossil-was-in-a-volcanic-lake">Cicada fossil was in a volcanic lake</h2>



Scientists explain that an ancient volcanic lake once covered the Messel Pit. Its lower layers had very low oxygen levels, which helped preserve organic material without rapid decay.



Sediments in the lake bed were so fine that delicate features, including wing veins, could fossilize. Research teams have uncovered many insects here, yet this cicada stands out for its intact body and wings.



Prior to this find, the earliest recognized members of this singing-cicada family were traced to other regions tens of millions of years ago. 



This fossil’s age adjusts the timeline for when these creatures established themselves outside Africa and Asia.



“Such discoveries would assist in providing better calibrations for determining a more realistic evolutionary rate,” said <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/staff/conrad-labandeira" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Conrad Labandeira</a> from the <a href="https://naturalhistory.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Museum of Natural History</a>. That might reshape estimates of when and where these insects roamed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-filling-evolutionary-gaps">Filling evolutionary gaps</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/">fossil</a> record for cicadas is surprisingly limited considering how widespread and noisy they are today. 



Only 44 confirmed Cicadidae fossils have been documented, making each new discovery a valuable puzzle piece for tracing their origins.



Fossils like Eoplatypleura messelensis serve as time markers for refining evolutionary trees. They help researchers test models built from molecular data and revise estimates about when key traits (like singing) first appeared.



Modern cicadas in the Platypleurini tribe often dwell in lush forests and shrubby regions with abundant moisture. The Messel region during the Eocene likely had a warm, humid climate, making it a suitable home for this insect.



By comparing wing structure and overall morphology, researchers suggest Eoplatypleura messelensis belonged to a group that probably relied on strong flight. 



This flight, combined with its potential for loud calls, would have helped it find mates and avoid predators in a dense forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-cicada-cousins">Modern cicada cousins</h2>



One modern relative, the African cicada <a href="https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_24.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brevisana brevis</a>, reaches almost 107 decibels. That is close to a jet taking off. In eastern North America, periodical cicadas often reach 90 to 100 decibels, which is about the roar of a subway.



Next year, <a href="https://cicadas.uconn.edu/broods/brood_14/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brood XIV</a> will emerge in the eastern United States. Its members appear every 17 years in billions, stirring excitement among enthusiasts who gather to witness the spectacle. 



Whether Eoplatypleura messelensis made a similar commotion remains unknown, but the findings hint at a shared ancestry for ear-splitting calls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-climates-shrinking-ranges">Shifting climates, shrinking ranges</h2>



This Messel Pit cicada might inspire deeper questions about cicada movements across continents. Scientists are eager to find more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/">fossil</a> material that could reveal how these insects adapted through changing climates.



They also hope that additional specimens from Messel will confirm how early European populations compared to their modern kin in Africa and Asia. That information might illuminate how cyclical Earth events influenced cicada journeys over time.



As Earth cooled after the Eocene, the once-humid regions that supported insects like Eoplatypleura messelensis began to dry and cool. 



This shift likely forced many species southward or into extinction, helping explain why today’s Platypleurini are mostly found in tropical zones.



Evidence suggests that ancient Europe supported a much richer variety of Cicadidae species than it does today. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/romers-gap-in-the-fossil-record-now-filled-in-with-tetrapod-discovery-westlothiana-lizziae/">fossil</a> record, especially from Messel and other European sites, shows a stark contrast to the low cicada diversity now seen in regions like Germany.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-94099-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Scientists find a 47-million-year-old cicada fossil that has even preserved the details of its wings

Measuring around 1 inch in length with a wingspan of...

Having itchy skin is a familiar annoyance for some families, and certain children seem to be hit harder than others. Why do these youngsters develop <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/atopic-eczema/">atopic eczema</a> when their friends do not - especially if they share similar environments?



A research team has been looking into whether a child’s genetic profile influences the risk of eczema. 



After reviewing a set of data involving children from several countries, the experts uncovered hints that a household <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> might help offset some of the genetic factors behind itchy skin irritation.



Professor Sara Brown from the University of Edinburgh’s <a href="http://The Institute of Genetics and Cancer https://g.co/kgs/DQMJEzs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Genetics and Cancer</a> and Dr. Marie Standl from <a href="https://www.helmholtz-munich.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz Munich</a> contributed to this work and brought fresh insight into how these influences might unfold for families everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-eczema-in-children">Understanding eczema in children</h2>



Eczema involves red, inflamed patches that can be difficult to soothe. This condition arises from a blend of inherited makeup and influences such as early-life bacterial contact or exposure to specific animals. 



Having a family history of dry skin issues does not guarantee a child will develop it, but it raises the odds.



Scientists have wondered why certain kids with a genetic variant live free of symptoms while others encounter a lifetime of creams and lotions. 



Studies from the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db460.htm#Key_finding" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> note that 7.3% of adults aged 18 and over have eczema.



Experts have long suspected that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> might play a protective part for some children, and this new investigation adds support to that theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-may-protect-children-from-eczema">Dogs may protect children from eczema</h2>



Families with a pet dog often report that their kids seem to have fewer episodes of skin flare-ups. The researchers wanted to see if this pattern held up at a molecular level. 



They focused on a segment of DNA near the interleukin-7 receptor (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17660817/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IL-7R</a>), which helps the body regulate immune cells.



“We know that genetic make-up affects a child’s risk of developing eczema and previous studies have shown that owning a pet dog may be protective,” said Professor Brown. 



One part of the study found that children with a slight twist in that gene could sidestep the usual risk for eczema if they had a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-our-relationships-with-dogs-matter-so-much/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> in their household early in life.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-siblings-might-help-reduce-eczema-risk">Siblings might help reduce eczema risk</h2>



Scientists have also noticed that having older brothers or sisters might offer some protection. Observations point to a possible link between exposure to unique bacteria from siblings and a child’s reaction to environmental triggers. 



Further research is needed to confirm how varied bacterial environments influence the genetic component of eczema.



“Not every preventive measure works for everyone, and that’s precisely why gene-environment studies are crucial,” said Dr. Standl. 



Families sometimes consider adding a second child or adopting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> to reduce eczema risk. Not every measure works for everyone.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-don-t-work-for-every-eczema-case">Dogs don’t work for every eczema case</h2>



Scientists emphasize that having a dog from day one does not guarantee eczema-free skin. The recent work did not examine the effects of dogs on treating existing cases of eczema. 



Many professionals caution that introducing an animal might irritate symptoms that are already present.



The researchers suggest that contact with dog-related bacteria might shape a child’s immune response in ways that shift how that interleukin-7 receptor behaves. 



Though this gene variation is not the only cause of eczema, it appears to be important in controlling inflammation. Early-life dog exposure could modify that gene’s effect so the skin’s defensive barriers stay in better shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-diversity-in-research-matters">Why diversity in research matters</h2>



The latest findings draw primarily from white European participants, prompting calls for more studies in other populations. 



Eczema affects millions of people <a href="https://nationaleczema.org/eczema-facts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worldwide</a>, including groups with differing genetic backgrounds. A broader pool of participants will help clarify how these discoveries apply to families everywhere.



Parents often wonder if a dog in the home might lower the odds of their child facing red, itchy skin every night. These early results support the idea that dog ownership might help in specific genetic situations. 



More data from a wider range of people will show whether the same pattern exists in other populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eczema-genetics-and-the-future">Eczema, genetics, and the future</h2>



Experts continue exploring the interplay between genetic traits and outside factors to better understand why some children develop eczema. They aim to refine the science so parents have straightforward answers about potential lifestyle steps. 



Future work may also investigate whether other pets or environmental exposures shape this immune balance.



The study team believes that continuing to map the roles of various gene variants could open the door to targeted prevention. 



Parents can stay alert to new findings on additional ways to keep a child’s skin barrier strong. They may also want to consult a pediatrician before making major decisions, especially if a youngster already struggles with chronic irritation.



This study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/all.16605" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Allergy</a>.



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Dogs might protect children from developing this chronic and common condition

Having itchy skin is a familiar annoyance for some families,...

With names like the blue jay and the mallard, birds are among the most familiar wildlife to the general public. Yet bird naming - where the names come from, what they mean - has remained surprisingly underexplored.



A new study offers the most detailed look yet into this world, revealing patterns that stretch from biology to mythology - and even mistaken medieval beliefs.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> (NYU) and the <a href="https://nhm.org/">Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County</a> have compiled a massive database of nearly 11,000 English bird names. The findings show that nearly 90 percent are based on physical or ecological traits, while just 11 percent honor people.



The project is one of the first to quantify the structure and sources behind bird naming. It comes at a time when ornithology is reexamining how these names shape public understanding and whose stories they preserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-comprehensive-naming-atlas"><a></a>A comprehensive naming atlas</h2>



Erin Morrison is a professor in Liberal Studies at NYU and is co-lead author of the study. "Until this database, there was no quantitative way to analyze the current state of terms in English bird names,” she said. 



“In addition to showing that a very small percentage of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-birds-one-tree-complete-evolutionary-map-reveals-hidden-links/">birds</a> are named after people, the database reveals some of the terminology we use to name birds is very specialized."



"It points towards an issue with how accessible these names are, such as the isabelline shrike and the diademed sandpiper-plover, even to native English speakers.”



The resource, called the <a href="https://sites.google.com/nyu.edu/avianlexiconatlas/home">AvianLexiconAtlas</a>, includes every known English-language bird species name. It categorizes the main descriptive term into one of ten thematic groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-bird-names-reveal">What bird names reveal</h2>



The categories range from physical characteristics, like the black-capped chickadee, to natural history traits, such as the rock pigeon. They also include cultural references and geographic ties, like the European <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/starlings-are-independent-navigators-not-copycats/">starling</a>.



Some names are straightforward: the yellow-rumped warbler clearly reflects a visual trait. Others, like Wilson’s warbler or Bonaparte’s gull, reference historical figures. 



These names often reflect who discovered or classified the species more than the birds themselves. Still others - such as the barnacle goose, once thought to hatch from barnacles - have roots in outdated folklore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-renaming-effort-underway">Renaming effort underway </h2>



Allison Shultz is co-lead author and curator of ornithology at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.



“The work gives us a rich insight into how birds are named overall,” she said. “Those naming processes can reflect all the strangeness and specificity of the people naming them, their culture, and their history - things that wouldn’t help tell you what a bird looks like.”



This disconnect between name and meaning is central to growing debates in ornithology. Names that once honored explorers or scientists are now being reconsidered. Institutions like the <a href="https://americanornithology.org/">American Ornithological Society</a> are moving to rename all species currently named after people.



The new study offers hard data to guide that shift, revealing just how few species actually fall into that category.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-how-we-name-birds">Changing how we name birds</h2>



Common names are often the public’s main entry point to a species. Just as “California <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-animals-feel-the-beat-ronan-the-sea-lion-might-just-prove-it/">sea lion</a>” or “brown bear” might quickly convey meaning, bird names should do the same - but many don’t.



“In ornithology, there has been significant reflection among both professional researchers and amateur naturalists about what the terminology in regionally standardized English-language common names should communicate about species of birds,” Morrison noted.



The database could help guide future renaming decisions. It offers a consistent reference for how names are formed, what they signal, and whether they help or hinder understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-classroom-idea-becomes-global-tool">Classroom idea becomes global tool</h2>



The project began in Morrison’s Life Science class at NYU in fall 2022, when students identified what type of descriptor formed the basis of a bird’s name.



They examined thousands of names and sorted them into categories: size, behavior, habitat, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-dinosaurs-to-birds-the-mysterious-origin-of-feathers/">plumage</a>, geography, or human reference.



“We found that 1,000 of the 11,000 species were named after male-only plumage, but just 20 were named after female-only plumage,” Shultz said. "The orange-bellied antwren is one of the few."



Students and faculty from NYU’s Liberal Studies program contributed to the final dataset and co-authored the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-names-more-inclusive">Making names more inclusive</h2>



The research team hopes that the AvianLexiconAtlas will serve as a foundational tool for both scientists and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birdwatching-can-significantly-improve-students-mental-health/">birdwatchers</a>. It includes not only the core dataset but also a glossary and a gazetteer to decode unfamiliar terms.



That may be especially helpful in parsing names like the Pincoya storm-petrel - named for a Chilean sea spirit said to dance on the waves - or the obscurely labeled baglafecht weaver.



“In the future, we look forward to combining what we learned with rich sources of data like our bird collections to understand the connections between birds and people better,” Shultz said. 



“Overall, this work provides valuable insights in helping develop approachable names that help strengthen this connection and ultimately help protect birds and nature.”



With names playing a central role in how people relate to the natural world, the project encourages a more thoughtful approach to how species are introduced, remembered, and preserved.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0325890">PLOS One</a>.



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Origins and oddities of bird names mapped for the first time

With names like the blue jay and the mallard, birds...

Acute diarrhea affects nearly 1 in 12 dogs annually in the UK. This stat comes from a new analysis of over 2.2 million vet health records. 



Led by Dan O’Neill at the <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Veterinary College</a>, this study uncovers which dogs are most at risk, what symptoms they show, and how vets treat them.



“Experiencing the dreaded ‘poonami’ with your dog is one of those events any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-may-respond-to-each-other-through-blinking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> owner fears. This new study shows that diarrhea events are very common in dogs but that owners should not panic - no matter how bad the deluge, most dogs will recover in a few days after veterinary treatment,” Dr. O’Neil noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-breeds-and-diarrhea-risk">Dog breeds and diarrhea risk</h2>



Some dogs are significantly more likely to suffer from diarrhea. The top at-risk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-compares-dna-of-chernobyl-dogs-to-canines-living-outside-the-radiation-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeds</a> include Cavapoo, Maltese, Miniature Poodle, German Shepherd, Yorkshire Terrier, and Cockapoo. 



Cavapoos had the highest annual incidence risk at nearly 15 percent, followed closely by Maltese and Miniature Poodles.



Why these breeds? Genetics may play a role, but it’s also possible that lifestyle and owner behavior matter. For example, owners of popular designer crossbreeds like Cavapoos may visit vets more often, leading to more diagnoses. 



Still, even accounting for this, the odds ratios point to real predispositions, especially in Miniature Poodles and their crossbred descendants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designer-breeds-face-higher-diarrhea-odds">Designer breeds face higher diarrhea odds</h2>



Designer crossbreeds like Cockapoos and Cavapoos showed a higher risk than general crossbreeds or purebreds. 



This challenges the idea that hybrid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-understand-words-even-in-monotone-speech/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> always benefit from hybrid vigor. Owners should be aware that these trendy dogs might need more digestive care than expected.



Interestingly, Jack Russell Terriers and Chihuahuas had lower odds of being diagnosed. These findings might help inform breed-specific guidance and early prevention efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-age-affects-dog-diarrhea-risk">Age affects dog diarrhea risk</h2>



Age stood out as a major factor. Dogs under 3 years and over 9 years had significantly higher odds of diarrhea. Puppies may eat things they shouldn’t. Older dogs might suffer due to weakened gut health or age-related illness.



The researchers found that very young dogs (under the age of one) had 2.4 times the odds of diarrhea compared to middle-aged dogs. Dogs over 14 had nearly 2.6 times the odds. For both groups, careful diet and close monitoring are key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-symptoms-and-what-to-expect">Common symptoms and what to expect</h2>



For most of the dogs in the study, diarrhea was accompanied by other symptoms. Vomiting was seen in 44 percent of cases. Reduced appetite affected 28 percent, and 24 percent were lethargic. A smaller group of dogs (about 13 percent) showed signs of abdominal pain.



Roughly 29 percent of the cases were classified as hemorrhagic (bloody). Surprisingly, blood in stools did not increase the likelihood of lab testing on the first vet visit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-care-for-dog-diarrhea">Simple care for dog diarrhea</h2>



Most cases were managed with supportive care. Probiotics were used in 60 percent of cases. Dietary changes were prescribed in 44 percent. 



Antibiotics, though discouraged for mild cases, were still used in 38 percent of all cases. The most common was oral metronidazole.



Even more striking, 59 percent of hemorrhagic cases were treated with antibiotics, despite guidelines saying they usually should not be. These decisions seem driven by concern for the dog’s well-being and owner anxiety, not always evidence-based need.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-antibiotic-overuse-a-problem">Is antibiotic overuse a problem?</h2>



Veterinary experts have warned about this for years. Antibiotics should not be the go-to for uncomplicated diarrhea. 



Overuse of antibiotics heightens the risk of resistance and gut microbiome imbalance. Yet, fear of client dissatisfaction and ingrained habits keep antibiotics in play.



A recent European panel strongly advised against giving antibiotics to dogs with mild or moderate diarrhea, even if it’s bloody. They emphasize fluid therapy and dietary support instead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-should-dog-owners-do">What should dog owners do?</h2>



Don't panic. Over 80 percent of diarrhea cases resolved with just one vet visit. Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-our-relationships-with-dogs-matter-so-much/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> got better within a few days, even without lab tests or medication.



But stay alert if your dog is very young, elderly, or from a high-risk breed. Monitor for repeated episodes, especially if blood is present or other symptoms appear.



This study gives vets and owners something rare: data from real dogs, in real clinics, across the UK. The message is clear. Diarrhea is common, but most dogs recover fast. Awareness, not alarm, is the best first step.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0324203" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Some dogs have a higher risk of digestive problems like diarrhea

Acute diarrhea affects nearly 1 in 12 dogs annually in...

Life almost ended 252 million years ago. The end-Permian mass extinction wiped out 81% of marine life and over half of land-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-lizards-help-keep-madagascars-forests-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. But not everything perished. Among the survivors were the archosauromorphs, small early reptiles that would later give rise to crocodiles, dinosaurs, and birds.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-found-to-have-a-sixth-sense-gecko-hearing-vibrations-changing-science-view-of-sound/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> were not supposed to survive the intense heat of the early Triassic tropics. Scientists considered this zone nearly lifeless. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-reptiles-crossed-deadly-zones">Ancient reptiles crossed deadly zones</h2>



New research published in the journal Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution&nbsp;reveals that archosauromorphs did more than endure the deadly zone. They moved through it.



Using a modeling system called TARDIS, which maps dispersal across time and space, researchers estimated the migration routes of 392 archosauromorph species. 



The model linked fossils with landscape data and climate reconstructions, exposing hidden paths through so-called inhospitable regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-adaptability-and-niche-expansion">Climate adaptability and niche expansion</h2>



The study showed that these reptiles had much wider climate tolerances than fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> alone suggested. They adapted to extreme environments, including hot and dry zones with high temperature seasonality and low rainfall.



This ability to cross geographic and climatic barriers helped them enter new ecological niches. These movements likely shaped the evolutionary path that led to the rise of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ancient-reptiles-outlived-extinction">How ancient reptiles outlived extinction</h2>



“Amid the worst climatic event in Earth’s history, where more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> died than at any period since, life still survived," said Dr. Joseph Flannery-Sutherland from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>, who led the study.



"We know that archosauromorphs as a group managed to come out of this event and over the Triassic period became one of the main players in shaping life thereafter."



“Gaps in their fossil record have increasingly begun to tell us something about what we weren’t seeing when it comes to these reptiles. Using our modeling system, we have been able to build a picture of what was happening to the archosauromorphs in these gaps and how they dispersed across the ancient world."



According to Dr. Flannery-Sutherland, the results of the study suggest that these reptiles were much hardier to the extreme climate of the Pangaean tropical dead zone, able to endure these hellish conditions to reach the other side of the world. 



"It’s likely that this ability to survive the inhospitable tropics may have conferred an advantage that saw them thrive in the Triassic world," he noted. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-evolutionary-radiation">Tracking evolutionary radiation</h2>



The paper describes how the reptiles’ dispersal began in the northern supercontinent Laurasia. Over time, they crossed Central Pangaean mountains and entered southern Gondwana. 



By the Wordian stage, long-distance movements had begun. These ancient reptiles not only traveled across land but also ventured into regions that lacked any fossil record. These regions were once thought off-limits.



The team found that climate conditions during these travels included both very high temperatures and arid environments. Their movement wasn’t random. It often followed low-elevation coastal routes, sometimes aided by monsoon-like humidity along ancient seashores.



“The evolution of life has been controlled at times by the environment, but it is difficult to integrate our limited and uncertain knowledge about the ancient landscape with our limited and uncertain knowledge about the ecology of extinct organisms," noted Professor Michael Benton, senior author of the study.



"But by combining the fossils with reconstructed maps of the ancient world, in the context of evolutionary trees, we provide a way of overcoming these challenges.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-the-full-story-of-reptiles">Capturing the full story of reptiles</h2>



The oldest fossils were found in Europe, but that may reflect better sampling rather than true origins. The study's models show that archosauromorphs could have existed elsewhere long before they appeared in the fossil record. 



In fact, dispersal paths into South America and North America predate the oldest known fossils there by up to 15 million years.



By measuring climate variables along these ancient migration routes, the researchers captured broader ecological diversity than fossils alone could show. This reveals how species adapted as they moved through different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-other-ancient-animals">Tracking other ancient animals</h2>



The authors suggest that similar modeling approaches could apply to other ancient lineages with poor fossil records. By coupling evolutionary trees with climate and terrain data, scientists can rebuild missing chapters of evolutionary history.



These early reptiles didn’t just bounce back from catastrophe. They reshaped their world through resilience and movement. Their journey laid the groundwork for the age of dinosaurs and ultimately modern birds and crocodiles.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02739-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Reptiles survived 'hellish' conditions during Earth's worst climate crisis

Life almost ended 252 million years ago. The end-Permian mass...

Forests, mountains, and deserts are home to a quiet and elusive animal: the cougar. Often overlooked and frequently misunderstood, this powerful predator plays a vital role in North America’s ecosystems. 



On National Cougar Day, June 12, 2025, we take a closer look at the importance of this remarkable species - and the challenges it faces.



National Cougar Day isn’t just about appreciation - it’s a reminder that coexistence matters. It calls on us to learn, adapt, and do our part to protect the wild places and species that still survive alongside us.



As habitat loss and biodiversity decline continue, cougars have become a symbol of resilience. Their ability to survive in changing landscapes highlights the delicate balance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cougars-hunt-smaller-prey-to-avoid-conflict-with-other-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> - and the critical role top predators play in keeping that balance intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cougar-s-place-in-nature">The cougar’s place in nature</h2>



Cougars, also known as mountain lions or pumas, are the most widely distributed wild cats in the Western Hemisphere. From the Canadian Yukon to the Andes Mountains of South America, these animals traverse grasslands, deserts, forests, and mountains. 



Despite their wide range, they remain elusive, mostly avoiding humans while maintaining an essential role in local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-cougar-day-the-crucial-ecological-role-of-cougars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



As apex predators, cougars help control prey populations, especially deer. This influences vegetation growth and benefits many other species. A balanced food chain reduces overgrazing, supports plant diversity, and stabilizes the broader environment. 



Cougars act as nature’s regulators, making sure that no species overwhelms the rest. Their role is subtle but foundational.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-national-cougar-day-was-created">Why National Cougar Day was created</h2>



National Cougar Day was established in 2019 to celebrate the ecological importance of cougars and draw attention to the threats they face.



Despite their broad range, cougars face habitat loss, human encroachment, road mortality, and lethal management policies in several states. These pressures grow stronger each year.



National Cougar Day seeks to change perceptions. It replaces fear with understanding, myth with science, and confrontation with coexistence. 



Conservation groups use the occasion to spread awareness, share research, and advocate for laws that protect cougars and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apex-predators-can-help-restore-ecosystems-but-not-immediately/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> they support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clear-focus-in-2025">A clear focus in 2025</h2>



National Cougar Day 2025 echoes a clear message across conservation <a href="https://mountainlion.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a>: coexistence. 



This year, many wildlife groups are focusing on practical ways to help humans and cougars share space safely. Instead of pushing them out or hunting them down, experts are encouraging informed policies and education.



This focus matters. Urban expansion enters cougar territory more each year, increasing the chance of conflict. Without education, these encounters often lead to tragic outcomes. Most often, it is the cougar that pays the price. 



Understanding how to prevent conflict can change this trend. Learning to interpret cougar behavior and create safe environments helps both humans and animals.



Coexistence includes wildlife corridors, community education, and responsible livestock management. These strategies already show positive results in some regions. They could provide the foundation for broader, lasting harmony between people and wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-threats-to-cougars">Growing threats to cougars</h2>



Cougars are not globally endangered, but their numbers decline in certain regions. Expanding human development slices through their migration paths. Roads, fences, and housing projects isolate populations. This leads to genetic bottlenecks and weakens long-term survival.



Some U.S. states continue to allow cougar hunting under wildlife management plans. While intended to regulate populations, studies show that this often creates instability. When dominant adult cougars are killed, young males take over, leading to more unpredictable behavior and increased human conflict.



The cougar’s greatest threat is human misunderstanding. For decades, stories and media shaped a fearful image. National Cougar Day invites us to look again. Science-based policies can ensure a future where cougars and people thrive together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-forward-with-intention">Moving forward with intention</h2>



National Cougar Day 2025 comes during a time of growing environmental awareness. Climate change, habitat loss, and biodiversity decline dominate global conversations. 



In that context, the cougar’s story offers something different. It offers hope. Unlike many species in crisis, cougars still roam across vast areas. We still have time to act wisely.



This day invites thoughtful action. Watching a documentary, reading wildlife science, or supporting a <a href="https://cougarconservancy.org/save-la-cougars" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation campaign</a> can all help. Better awareness leads to smarter policies. Informed communities become protectors, not opponents.



By standing up for cougars, we stand up for healthy landscapes. Their survival means the ecosystem is still working. Their absence would show a system in collapse. 



When we protect cougars, we also protect every creature that depends on the balance they maintain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-national-cougar-day">Significance of National Cougar Day </h2>



National Cougar Day is an opportunity to recognize an animal that often goes unnoticed but plays a vital role in the natural world. 



Cougars don’t demand attention - they survive quietly, shaping ecosystems simply by being part of them. But today, they face growing threats, and their future depends on our awareness and action. 



June 12 is a chance to learn, to speak up, and to support efforts that keep wild places wild - with cougars still a part of them.



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National Cougar Day 2025: Peacefully coexisting with wildlife

Forests, mountains, and deserts are home to a quiet and...

Pigs stand out among domestic animals for their intelligence, social behavior, and ability to adapt to various environments. But their historical journey from wild creatures to companions in early agricultural societies is just as compelling.



Across centuries, they have played vital roles in food systems, cultural traditions, and even scientific research. Their domestication marks not only a biological transformation but also a deepening relationship between humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



A new study, led by researchers from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth</a>, offers fresh insight into that transformation. The findings trace the origins of pig domestication back nearly 8,000 years, placing the earliest known human-pig interactions in South China. 



This discovery does more than date an evolutionary milestone. It adds depth to our understanding of how early agricultural communities shaped - and were shaped by - the animals around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-first-domesticated-pigs">Tracing the first domesticated pigs</h2>



For years, scholars believed China might be one of the centers where pigs were first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-domestic-horses-have-ancestors-in-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domesticated</a>. However, evidence remained scattered and incomplete. This new research bridges that gap. 



The study shows that pigs living near humans began to eat leftover cooked food and scavenge waste during the early Neolithic period, around 8,000 years ago. 



This was the time in which humans shifted from foraging to farming and made their earliest attempts at domestication. Among the species they tried to domesticate were wild boars - large, fierce creatures with big heads and strong teeth.



"While most wild boars are naturally aggressive, some are more friendly and less afraid of people, which are the ones that may live alongside humans," explained lead author Jiajing Wang. 



"Living with humans gave them easy access to food, so they no longer needed to maintain their robust physiques."



As a consequence, their characteristics underwent changes. "Over time, their bodies became smaller, and their brains also became smaller by about one-third," Wang said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pig-teeth-reveal-early-signs-of-domestication">Pig teeth reveal early signs of domestication</h2>



Traditionally, archaeologists examine bones to detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sheep-have-been-intertwined-with-humans-for-over-11000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication</a>. But this method can miss early behavioral changes. "What probably came first were behavioral changes, like becoming less aggressive and more tolerant of humans," noted Wang.



So the team used a different approach. They analyzed dental calculus - plaque buildup - on 32 pig teeth. These came from ancient sites in the Lower Yangtze River region: Jingtoushan and Kuahuqiao.



Waterlogged conditions helped preserve the organic material. Researchers recovered 240 starch granules from the plaque deposits. These showed that the pigs had eaten cooked rice, yams, an unknown tuber, acorns, and grasses.



"These are plants that were present in the environment at that time and were found in human settlements," said Wang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pigs-lived-closely-with-humans">Pigs lived closely with humans</h2>



The researchers found another sign of pig-human intimacy: parasite eggs. Specifically, whipworm eggs. These eggs can grow inside human intestines. They showed up in 16 pig specimens and represent the earliest archaeological evidence of human whipworm in East Asia.



"Pigs are known for their habit of eating human waste, so that is additional evidence that these pigs were probably living with humans or having a very close relationship with them," noted Wang.



Wang also added that pigs do not cook food for themselves, so were probably being fed scraps from human food, or possibly scavenging the scraps from waste sites. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pig-domestication-and-scavenging">Pig domestication and scavenging</h2>



The team also studied tooth sizes. Some pigs had teeth like today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-domestication-humans-timeline-silk-road-evidence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestic</a> pigs. This supports the idea that some were already under human care .



"Wild boars were probably attracted to human settlements as people started settling down and began growing their own food," said Wang. 



"These settlements created a large amount of waste, and that waste attracts scavengers for food, which in turn fosters selection mechanisms that favored animals willing to live alongside humans."



This supports the “commensal pathway” theory - animals first came for food, not because humans wanted to tame them. But Wang’s team also saw signs of the “prey pathway,” where people began managing pigs directly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-today">Why this matters today</h2>



"Our study shows that some wild boars took the first step towards domestication by scavenging human waste," concluded Wang.



This study also highlights a key issue: living close to animals can spread diseases. Parasite transfer likely began early in human settlements.



The research involved several scholars: Yiyi Tang, Yunfei Zheng, Leping Jiang, Guoping Sun, Xiaolin Ma, and Yanfeng Hou. Their work brings us closer to understanding the long, messy, and fascinating journey of pig domestication.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2507123122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Biologists finally unravel the surprising story of how humans domesticated pigs

Pigs stand out among domestic animals for their intelligence, social...

Each year on June 11, the world turns its attention to a quiet predator. International Lynx Day celebrates the mysterious and solitary lynx, one of the forest’s most skilled hunters. 



In 2025, the event serves as both a tribute and a call to action. The lynx may seem invisible in the wild, but their presence shapes entire ecosystems.



This day reminds us of the delicate balance between nature and human development. It invites reflection, education, and renewed commitment to preserving the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-lynx-habitat-in-a-shifting-landscape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. As pressures on forests intensify, the lynx remains a symbol of resilience, solitude, and environmental health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-the-lynx-family">A closer look at the lynx family</h2>



The lynx belongs to a small but mighty group within the cat family. There are four distinct species: the Eurasian lynx, the Canada lynx, the Iberian lynx, and the bobcat. 



All share tufted ears, large paws, and a taste for stealth. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-the-iberian-lynx-how-humans-rescued-this-rare-feline-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> live across varied landscapes, from snowy boreal forests to rugged Mediterranean terrain.



The Eurasian lynx is the largest, thriving in pockets across Europe and Asia. The Canada lynx, adapted for deep snow, follows the snowshoe hare's cycle. 



The Iberian lynx, once the most endangered feline in the world, roams the Iberian Peninsula. The bobcat, North America’s smallest lynx species, is widespread but often misunderstood.



Each lynx plays a vital ecological role. They keep prey populations in check, maintain healthy forests, and support biodiversity. However, despite their adaptability, these animals face rising threats that challenge their survival across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-recovery-of-the-iberian-lynx">Dramatic recovery of the Iberian lynx</h2>



Of all the lynx <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canada-lynxs-historic-range-points-to-a-promising-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, the Iberian lynx’s comeback is the most dramatic. In the early 2000s, fewer than 100 individuals remained in the wild. Conservationists feared extinction. Then came a surge of action: breeding programs, habitat protection, and public awareness campaigns.



Today, there are over 2,000 Iberian lynx roaming free. The species has moved from "Critically Endangered" to "Endangered" on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>. “This is one of the greatest conservation success stories of the 21st century,” said Miguel Ángel Simón, a leading lynx conservationist in Spain.



Despite this progress, dangers persist. Lynx often fall victim to vehicle collisions. Encroaching development fragments their habitat. 



Conservation groups warn that if momentum slows, the population could stall or reverse. Continued protection, monitoring, and expansion of territory remain critical for the Iberian lynx to thrive long term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-fragmentation-a-shared-threat">Habitat fragmentation: A shared threat</h2>



All lynx <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/canada-lynx-survival-linked-to-life-cycle-of-snowshoe-hares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> depend on large, connected forests. When these habitats become isolated, their survival grows uncertain. Roads, farms, and fences block their natural movement. This not only leads to accidents but also weakens genetic diversity through inbreeding.



In Europe, rewilding efforts have reintroduced lynx to places like the Alps, Jura Mountains, and parts of the Balkans. These animals show strong adaptability when given the space. Yet gaps remain. Connectivity between territories is often poor.



In North America, especially Canada, logging and climate change impact the snowshoe hare. With their main prey in decline, lynx populations also suffer. Meanwhile, bobcats, though more resilient, struggle with suburban expansion and reduced prey.



Conservationists argue that saving lynx means more than protecting forest patches. It requires landscape-scale planning and collaboration across borders and communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honoring-international-lynx-day">Honoring International Lynx Day </h2>



This year’s International Lynx Day pushes for deeper thinking about conservation. It emphasizes both physical and emotional ties. Forests must be reconnected through wildlife corridors. But people also need to reconnect with nature and with each other.



Wildlife crossings such as green bridges and tunnels are gaining popularity. These help lynx cross busy roads without risk. Forest buffers between farms and wild zones also create safe paths. Some regions in Germany and Switzerland have already seen benefits from such solutions.



Public engagement forms the heart of these efforts. Many communities hold nature walks, host talks, and run school programs during International Lynx Day. Young people, in particular, are seen as crucial allies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-perception-and-coexistence">Public perception and coexistence </h2>



Living alongside lynx is not always easy. In some regions, livestock predation fuels resentment. Hunters sometimes see lynx as competition. But research shows that these conflicts often come from misunderstanding.



Lynx are shy and rarely seen. They prefer deer or hares to sheep or goats. Many attacks on livestock are wrongly blamed on them. 



Education and compensation schemes have helped reduce these tensions. In Portugal and Spain, coexistence training has made local farmers more willing to support lynx programs.



Art, film, and storytelling also help reshape public perception. The cultural approaches, when combined with scientific ones, create lasting change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-international-lynx-day">Take action on International Lynx Day </h2>



The lynx does not demand loud attention. It walks quietly, blends in, and keeps to itself. But its survival depends on our willingness to act. International Lynx Day challenges individuals and governments alike.



You do not need to see a lynx in the wild to help. By protecting forests, supporting conservation groups, and spreading awareness, you contribute to their survival. Every tree preserved, every corridor built, and every child educated brings the lynx closer to safety



Let this year’s celebration be more than symbolic. Let it be a turning point where connection becomes action and the silent footsteps of the lynx continue to echo through the forests for generations to come.



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International Lynx Day 2025: Protecting the silent hunters of the forest

Each year on June 11, the world turns its attention...

Each year, more than two trillion wild and farmed fish are killed to feed humanity. Their deaths often go unnoticed. Yet beneath the surface is a simple biological fact: fish can suffer.



Rainbow trout, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-provide-climate-resilient-nutrition-for-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> farmed and consumed across the globe, experience not just death - but a prolonged and intense form of distress when killed by air asphyxiation. 



A new study published in the journal Scientific Reports shines a light on this pain and offers a pathway to reduce it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-pain-needs-better-measurement">Fish pain needs better measurement</h2>



Unlike environmental impact or public health, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crabs-lobsters-crustaceans-feel-pain-calls-for-immediate-ban-on-boiling-them-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal suffering lacks a universal metric</a>. There are no equivalents to carbon footprints or life years lost. To address this, scientists developed the Welfare Footprint Framework (WFF).



This tool measures pain in minutes, allowing researchers to compare welfare outcomes across species and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. The research team applied this method to trout slaughter, where air exposure is still a widely used technique.



Fish, when pulled from water, begin a slow and stressful decline. Their gills collapse. They gasp in panic. Their blood chemistry spirals. Oxygen disappears while carbon dioxide builds. 



These biological reactions unfold as the fish continues to move, gasp, and suffer - sometimes for as long as 25 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-suffer-up-to-25-minutes">Fish suffer up to 25 minutes </h2>



The researchers divided the trout's suffering into four time segments. These range from alarm at removal to the final depression of brain activity before unconsciousness. 



Through behavioral, neurological, and pharmacological evidence, the team estimated that the average trout endures about ten minutes of pain that qualifies as hurtful, disabling, or excruciating. 



In some conditions, this could stretch beyond 20 minutes. When adjusted by weight, that translates to 24 minutes of such pain per kilogram (about 11 minutes per pound) of fish killed.



The team used neurophysiological data like EEG signals and reflex loss to identify unconsciousness. They reviewed how fish respond to CO₂, pH imbalance, muscle exhaustion, and fear-inducing stimuli. Each pain level had specific criteria, ranging from annoyance to total disruption of basic functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-current-methods-cause-painful-deaths">Current methods cause painful deaths</h2>



Air asphyxiation is still legal and common in many parts of the world. But it is neither quick nor painless. Chilling in ice or using ice slurry might sound gentler, yet for cold-adapted species like trout, this method just slows down metabolism. 



This can delay loss of consciousness even further, compounding the suffering. Ice exposure also risks tissue damage, thermal shock, and prolonged fear.



The research shows that suffering does not always begin at the point of slaughter. It often starts well before. 



Crowding, transport, and handling all add to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-thought-extinct-for-85-years-reappears-in-himalayan-river-chel-snakehead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>’s cumulative pain. These pre-slaughter stressors can cause physical injury and hours of distress. Yet, regulations usually overlook them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stunning-can-help-fish-suffer-less">Stunning can help fish suffer less </h2>



The study evaluated two types of stunning: electrical and percussive. Electrical stunning, if properly used, could spare 60 to 1,200 minutes of suffering for every dollar spent. This makes it one of the most cost-effective welfare interventions known. 



But implementation remains inconsistent. In many commercial settings, electrical stunning fails to reliably render fish unconscious. Poor placement of electrodes, inadequate voltage, or faulty machines may undermine the potential benefits.



Percussive stunning - a physical blow to the head - has shown better consistency in lab settings. But it's difficult to scale. Fish vary in size. Equipment must be precisely calibrated. Worker fatigue also reduces effectiveness. Any slip means the fish remains conscious while bleeding out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-language-for-animal-pain">A new language for animal pain</h2>



What makes the Welfare Footprint Framework powerful is its transparency. Instead of assigning a fixed label to pain, it works with probabilities. If scientists believe there's a 40% chance the pain is disabling and a 40% chance it is excruciating, the framework includes both.



This makes the model flexible and more reflective of real-world uncertainty. Pain, like emotion, varies between individuals. Some fish may suffer more than others, even under identical conditions.



"The Welfare Footprint Framework provides a rigorous and transparent evidence-based approach to measuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> welfare, and enables informed decisions about where to allocate resources for the greatest impact," noted Dr. Wladimir Alonso from <a href="https://welfarefootprint.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Welfare Footprint Institute</a>.



This approach mirrors models used in public health or environmental science. Just like life years lost to disease, we can now talk about minutes of suffering saved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-policies-and-people">Implications for policies and people</h2>



Fish slaughter occupies only minutes in an animal’s life - but these minutes can be extremely painful. Compared to long-term reforms on farms, slaughter improvements are easier to implement and affect billions of lives. 



The study's authors argue that investing in better stunning tools and training workers can provide enormous welfare gains.



For policy makers, this research offers a scientific foundation to reform outdated practices. Certification schemes can set minimum stunning effectiveness based on real pain data. 



Governments can use this to guide humane slaughter laws. For consumers, it gives a new way to think about what ends up on their plate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-fish-suffer-too">Other fish suffer too</h2>



Though this study focused on rainbow trout, the underlying stress pathways - oxygen deprivation, acidosis, metabolic failure - are common across fish species. That means the Welfare Footprint Framework can be adapted. 



Salmon, catfish, seabass, tilapia - they all may suffer in similar ways during air exposure. However, each species will need specific data. 



Some tolerate low oxygen better. Others may react more strongly to ice. Future research must expand to include this diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-turning-point-for-aquatic-welfare">A turning point for aquatic welfare</h2>



The world is just beginning to reckon with the sentience of fish. For decades, their pain was denied or ignored. But science no longer allows that. 



With trillions of fish slaughtered every year, even small improvements can have vast impact.



The WFF doesn’t just measure pain. It opens a language of empathy grounded in evidence. It lets regulators, producers, and consumers weigh the cost of change. 



And perhaps, most importantly, the framework acknowledges what fish have felt all along - suffering that deserves to be seen and reduced.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-04272-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Scientists prove fish suffer "intense pain" for at least 10 minutes after catch, calls made for reforms

Each year, more than two trillion wild and farmed fish...

Beautiful,Black-browed,Albatross,,Falkland,Islands,,South,Atlantic,Ocean

Marion Island, a speck of volcanic rock about 1,243 miles southeast of Cape Town, hardly looks like the setting for a horror story. Yet on this windy, treeless outpost, an invasion of house mice is turning a haven for seabirds into a crime scene. 



Night after night, the rodents swarm across the nests of wandering albatrosses and other ocean-roaming birds, gnawing at eggs - and, more recently, at the birds themselves.



The attacks are easy to miss if you picture mice as timid scavengers. On Marion, milder winters have stretched their breeding season, ballooning their numbers. 



With plants and insects picked clean, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rodents</a> have discovered an easier, protein-rich target that can’t flee: birds that never evolved defenses against land predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-mice-wreaking-havoc">Invasive mice wreaking havoc</h2>



House mice first arrived on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/205064b0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marion Island</a> in the early 1800s, stowed away on sealing vessels. For most of the next century, they nibbled seeds and invertebrates. 



Warming temperatures, though, gave them extra breeding cycles each year. The population boom pushed the mice to experiment, and birds - stationary, trusting, and plentiful - proved irresistible.



Visitors now report grisly scenes at dawn. Adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-winds-make-it-difficult-for-albatrosses-to-feed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">albatrosses</a> sit tight on nests, unblinking, while scores of mice chew away at feathers, skin, and muscle. 



Lacking any instinct to fight back, the birds endure the assault until sheer blood loss or infection finishes the job.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mice-can-displace-seabirds">How mice can displace seabirds</h2>



Marion shelters roughly one-quarter of the world’s wandering albatrosses, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/albatrosses-use-infrasound-for-long-distance-navigation-study-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legendary fliers</a> whose wings can stretch 11 feet tip to tip. In all, 29 seabird species breed on the island, yet 19 now face local extinction. 



Climate change adds another layer of trouble: warmer seas push fish farther south or deeper, forcing parent birds to travel longer for food and return to nests depleted.



Chicks miss meals; adults miss breeding windows. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-have-different-strategies-to-survive-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extreme storms</a>, whipped up by hotter oceans, wash away nest sites perched on exposed tussock slopes. Combined with the mouse attacks, these pressures make every breeding season a roll of the dice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kill-the-mice-save-the-seabirds">Kill the mice, save the seabirds</h2>



“These mice, for the first time last year, were found to be feeding on adult Wandering Albatrosses,” stated Anderson, who also serves as the CEO of <a href="https://www.birdlife.org.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdLife South Africa</a>. His team’s camera traps record the slow-motion assaults in heartbreaking detail.



“Mice just climb onto them and slowly eat them until they succumb,” said Anderson. The sad, slow process of dying can take days for a bird. “We are losing hundreds of thousands of seabirds every year through the mice.”



Enter the <a href="https://mousefreemarion.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mouse-Free Marion Project</a>, an operation every bit as ambitious as it sounds. 



The blueprint involves loading helicopters with 600 tons of cereal pellets laced with rodenticide and spreading them across the island’s 15.5-mile length and 10.6-mile width. 



Of the $29 million price tag, about a quarter is already in the bank.



“We have to get rid of every last mouse,” emphasized Anderson. “If there were a male and female remaining, they could breed and eventually get back to where we are now.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-a-previous-fiasco">Lessons from a previous fiasco</h2>



Conservationists have tried drastic fixes here before. In the 1940s, cats were introduced to curb the rodents; instead, the felines multiplied and devoured roughly 450,000 birds each year. 



A massive trapping campaign finally removed the last cat in 1991, but the mice inherited an island free of natural enemies.



That cautionary tale hangs over today’s planning sessions. Project leaders stress that baiting must be swift and island-wide - no gaps, no second chances. 



Precision GPS flight lines and winter timing, when most summer-nesting birds are offshore, aim to protect non-target wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-is-everything">Timing is everything</h2>



Winter 2027 is the chosen window, when food is scarce for mice yet most seabirds have migrated north. Helicopters, weather permitting, will crisscross Marion in overlapping swaths to rain down pellets. 



Comparable missions on <a href="https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/south-georgia-mainland-islands-islets-and-stacks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Georgia</a> and New Zealand’s <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/southland/places/subantarctic-islands/antipodes-islands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antipodes Islands</a> wiped out rats and mice in recent years, showing the blueprint can work even in harsh sub-Antarctic weather.



Logisticians still face headaches: sudden katabatic winds, hidden lava domes, and thick coastal fog that can ground aircraft for days. Even so, a successful first pass is cheaper and kinder than chasing survivors for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-mice-and-invasive-species">Seabirds, mice, and invasive species</h2>



The Marion saga isn’t an isolated oddity. Islands make up barely two percent of Earth’s land, yet they hold an outsize share of endangered species. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive predators</a> - rats, cats, pigs, and now even mice - have driven 75 percent of recorded bird, mammal, and reptile extinctions on islands worldwide. 



Climate change intensifies that pressure, allowing hardy generalists to outcompete specialists already living on the edge.



Protecting seabird strongholds pays off far beyond the shoreline. Albatrosses and petrels fertilize oceans with guano rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-are-key-players-in-carbon-cycle-regulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boosting plankton</a> and fish that feed coastal communities. 



Lose the birds, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-hijack-ocean-plants-to-control-marine-food-webs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine food webs</a> feel the pinch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Funding gaps still loom, and the clock keeps ticking. Yet every dollar pledged brings the Mouse-Free Marion Project closer to takeoff. 



If helicopters lift off in 2027 and every pellet lands where it should, Marion could echo with healthy albatross calls again within a decade. That would free the conservationists to tackle other invaded islands before more birds vanish.



For now, researchers keep watch through wind-lashed winters, counting nests and documenting each fresh wound. 



The task is grim, but the payoff - restoring one of the world’s greatest seabird nurseries - would be well worth the sleepless nights. 



Should the plan succeed, Marion Island might one day be known not for its tragedy, but for showing how persistence, good science, and a bit of grit can tip the balance back in favor of the wild.



<a href="https://www.birdlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Visit BirdLife International</a> for more information on this and other topics.



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Officials plan to literally “bomb” invasive mice that are eating seabirds alive

Marion Island, a speck of volcanic rock about 1,243 miles...

When ships travel to the ends of the Earth, their anchors leave more than temporary marks - they create lasting scars on fragile marine life and ecosystems. 



From tourism vessels to research ships, maritime traffic is growing even in the far reaches of Antarctica. And with every anchor dropped, the seafloor is at risk.



Undersea cables, pipelines, and sensitive wildlife habitats can all be damaged by this simple act. Yet, anchoring remains almost completely unregulated in polar waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anchors-leave-their-mark-in-antarctica">Anchors leave their mark in Antarctica</h2>



Scientists have recorded new underwater footage that reveals the impact of ship anchoring in Antarctica’s remote marine environments. Their findings offer a rare look into an underreported environmental issue that’s hidden from view.



“This is the first time the impacts of ship anchoring and chain damage are documented in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-antarctic-waters-are-cooling-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic waters</a>," explained Matthew Mulrennan, a marine scientist and founder of KOLOSSAL, an ocean exploration and conservation nonprofit in California.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_undisturbed_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_undisturbed_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1s.webp" alt="Directly adjacent to the anchoring sites, marine life flourished. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL." class="wp-image-1973330"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Directly adjacent to the anchoring sites, marine life flourished. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL.</figcaption></figure>



"Activities in Antarctica have a lot of strict rules around conservation, yet ship anchoring is almost completely unregulated."



Study co-author Dr. Sally Watson, a marine geophysicist from New Zealand’s National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, emphasized the urgency of the situation.



"Documentation is way overdue, given the importance of these ecosystems and the protections we place on them. Anchoring impacts are understudied and underestimated globally. It’s so important to recognize and mitigate the impacts across all industries and limit planned anchoring,” said Dr. Watson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-cameras-revealed">What the cameras revealed</h2>



During the austral summer of 2022-23, researchers recorded underwater footage across 36 sites near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-in-tasman-sea-is-melting-the-antarctic-peninsula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic Peninsula</a> and South Georgia Island. 



Cameras were positioned at various depths - close to the surface, midwater, and just one meter above the seabed. What they captured was alarming.



In areas where ships had dropped anchor, the ocean floor was visibly disturbed. Grooves and striations crisscrossed the seabed, and patches of mud covered the habitat. 



At these sites, marine life was sparse or entirely absent. Sponge colonies were crushed, and overall benthic biomass was nearly nonexistent. Yet, just meters away, life thrived - showing that the destruction was highly localized and recent.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_crushed-stars-sponges_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_crushed-stars-sponges_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1s.webp" alt="Striations, grooves, and mud deposits from anchor retrieval were visible in the substrate of the ocean floor. The researchers observed crushed sponge colonies. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL" class="wp-image-1973333"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Striations, grooves, and mud deposits from anchor retrieval were visible in the substrate of the ocean floor. The researchers observed crushed sponge colonies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL</figcaption></figure>



“The observed damage was a near miss to three giant volcano <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sponges-are-mysteriously-moving-across-the-arctic-seafloor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sponges</a>, believed to be the oldest animals on the planet, which may live up to 15,000 years,” said Mulrennan.



The team also observed other species at risk, including Antarctic sun stars, giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-cold-adaptations-in-nervous-system-of-antarctic-octopus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic octopuses</a>, sea spiders, and various fish, all of which dwell at depths that make them vulnerable to anchoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chain-reaction-across-ecosystems">Chain reaction across ecosystems</h2>



According to the researchers, the impacts of ship anchors to marine life extend beyond individual species.



“The weird and wonderful animals that are impacted, like sponges, are important for filtering water, carbon sequestration, and providing shelter, food, and complex habitats which benefit the whole marine ecosystem, including penguins and seals - the animals tourists come to see,” noted Mulrennan.



This ripple effect could alter the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-is-transforming-the-marine-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food web</a>, and affect iconic Antarctic wildlife that draws attention and resources for conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-recovery-in-cold-waters">Slow recovery in cold waters</h2>



Life in Antarctica is tough, slow, and highly adapted. That makes it especially vulnerable to disruption. Many organisms in anchor zones are slow-growing and can’t relocate. Recovery could take decades - or more.



“We know that anchor impacts in tropical reefs can last a decade. In muddy sediment the scours can still be visible over a decade later,” said Dr. Watson.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_Antarctic-sun-stars_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Antarctic-seabed_Antarctic-sun-stars_anchor-damage-ships_credit-KOLOSSAL_1s.webp" alt="The researchers recorded giant volcano sponges, Antarctic sun stars, giant Antarctic octopus, sea spiders, and a variety of fish at anchorable depths. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL" class="wp-image-1973328"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The researchers recorded giant volcano sponges, Antarctic sun stars, giant Antarctic octopus, sea spiders, and a variety of fish at anchorable depths. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matt Mulrennan / KOLOSSAL</figcaption></figure>



“Ecological recovery is really site specific. Things in cold waters are much slower growing than in warmer temperatures so I expect that recovery would take longer the higher the latitude.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anchor-impacts-on-marine-life">Anchor impacts on marine life</h2>



The researchers say more work is needed. Studies should examine both short- and long-term effects of anchoring, recovery timelines, and how broader ecological functions are disrupted. 



But a major hurdle remains: there is no global database tracking where and how often ships anchor in polar regions.



“Anchoring is likely the most overlooked ocean conservation issue in terms of global seafloor disruption; it is on par with the damages from bottom trawling,” Mulrennan concluded. “It’s a pressing environmental issue, but it’s out of sight, out of mind.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2025.1500652/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



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Ship anchors are doing great harm to protected ocean life on the Antarctic seafloor

When ships travel to the ends of the Earth, their...

Fossilized plant fragments preserved inside the belly of an Australian sauropod dinosaur have given researchers the first complete snapshot of what these long-necked giants actually ate. The evidence firmly backs the long-held view that they were voracious herbivores.



The findings are based on a subadult specimen of Diamantinasaurus matildae that roamed what is now Queensland between 94 and 101 million years ago. Its last meals reveal a mixed, unchewed salad of conifer foliage, seed-fern fruiting bodies, and flowering-plant leaves.



The dinosaur broke off these plant fragments instead of chewing them, leaving the gut microbes to do the hard work of digestion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-dinosaur-discovery">Unique dinosaur discovery</h2>



“No genuine sauropod gut contents had ever been found anywhere before, despite sauropods being known from fossils found on every continent” said lead author Stephen Poropat, a paleontologist at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a>.



Until now, scientists pieced together sauropod menus indirectly - examining tooth scratches, jaw mechanics, and neck reach. 



The new discovery provides something more definitive: a preserved cololite, or fossil gut content. Scientists can analyze this down to the species of plant it contains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-discovery-in-australia">Big discovery in Australia</h2>



The breakthrough came during the 2017 field season at the <a href="https://www.australianageofdinosaurs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum</a>. Volunteers preparing the Diamantinasaurus skeleton noticed a fractured, oddly packed slab of sediment lodged among the ribs.



Careful extraction revealed dozens of delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant fossils</a>: scales from conifer needles, seed-fern pods. The researchers also found tender angiosperm leaves and even tiny shoots and bracts.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-guts_fossilized_australia_credit-Stephen-Poropat_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-guts_fossilized_australia_credit-Stephen-Poropat_1s.webp" alt="Australian Age of Dinosaurs Collection Manager Mackenzie Enchelmaier holds up sauropod gut content fossil. Credit: Stephen Poropat" class="wp-image-1973337"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Australian Age of Dinosaurs Collection Manager Mackenzie Enchelmaier holds up sauropod gut content fossil. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Stephen Poropat</figcaption></figure>



Chemical analyses later detected biomarkers of both angiosperms and gymnosperms, confirming the findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-sauropod-feeding">New insights into sauropod feeding</h2>



Microscopic inspection revealed that the sauropod had snapped, not shredded, most plant fragments.



“The plants within show evidence of having been severed, possibly bitten, but have not been chewed, supporting the hypothesis of bulk feeding in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauropods</a>,” noted Poropat.



The conclusion matches anatomical expectations: sauropod teeth evolved for nipping vegetation rather than grinding it. 



Instead, these dinosaurs likely swallowed mouthfuls whole, letting fermentation chambers and resident microbes break down the cellulose.



Chemical signatures in the cololite point to an “eat what’s within reach” strategy rather than selective browsing.



“This implies that at least some sauropods were not selective feeders, instead eating whatever plants they could reach and safely process,” Poropat explained.



That indiscriminate appetite would have amplified the ecological influence of sauropods. It allowed their vast bodies to recycle nutrients across entire landscapes during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprise-serving-of-flowers">A surprise serving of flowers</h2>



The team expected to find conifer and seed-fern remains, but the presence of flowering-plant foliage caught them off-guard.



“Angiosperms became approximately as diverse as conifers in Australia around 100 to 95 million years ago, when this sauropod was alive,” Poropat said.



“This suggests that sauropods had successfully adapted to eat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowering-plants-appeared-two-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> within 40 million years of the first evidence of the presence of these plants in the fossil record.”



The finding suggests these dinosaurs quickly incorporated new plant types as they emerged in Mesozoic ecosystems.



Because the specimen was a subadult, the researchers infer it could graze both low and mid-story vegetation. Hatchlings grazed only on groundcover, while fully-grown adults could strip branches from treetops.



The abundance of soft shoots and seed pods suggests that younger Diamantinasaurus individuals targeted nutrient-rich new growth, which ferments more easily than woody tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-stomach-many-questions"><a></a>One stomach, many questions</h2>



Poropat stresses that the study offers “a single data point.” The snapshot captures only the last few meals of one individual and may not represent typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-poop-reveals-the-diet-of-dinosaurs-200-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diets</a>, seasonal shifts, or adult feeding habits.



Even a single case shows that gut-content fossils, though rare, can confirm hypotheses and refine our view of dinosaur ecology.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-dinosaur_Diamantinasaurus-matildae_illustration_credit-Travis-Tischler_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/sauropod-dinosaur_Diamantinasaurus-matildae_illustration_credit-Travis-Tischler_1s.webp" alt="Artist impression of Diamantinasaurus matildae feeding. Credit: Travis Tischler" class="wp-image-1973335"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Artist impression of Diamantinasaurus matildae feeding. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Travis Tischler</figcaption></figure>



The team hopes further excavations in the Winton Formation and other Cretaceous sites will yield additional cololites to broaden the picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-for-giants">Feeding for giants</h2>



Taken together, the findings bolster the idea that “indiscriminate bulk feeding” underpinned sauropod dominance for roughly 130 million years.



By gulping vast quantities of whatever greenery was available and outsourcing digestion to microbial partners, these giants could fuel bodies the size of whales on land.



As Poropat and colleagues point out, understanding that strategy not only illuminates dinosaur biology but also helps reconstruct the plant communities and nutrient cycles of ancient Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225005500" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Fossilized guts reveal the eating habits of sauropod dinosaurs

Fossilized plant fragments preserved inside the belly of an Australian...

Springtime in the Arctic is a spectacular show of life, as millions of birds gather to nest and raise their young under the midnight sun. Remarkably, this annual ritual traces its roots back much further than previously believed - 73 million years ago. 



That’s the conclusion of a recently published study that identifies the oldest known evidence of birds nesting in the polar regions.



The discovery was made in northern Alaska’s Prince Creek Formation. It reveals that several types of birds were already breeding in the Arctic during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/late-cretaceous-dinosaur-was-sluggish-and-nearly-deaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Cretaceous</a> period, when dinosaurs still ruled the land.



These findings challenge previous assumptions about where and when ancient birds reproduced - and expand the timeline of avian life in Earth’s most extreme environments by more than 25 million years.



“For half of the time they have existed, they have been nesting in the Arctic,” said Lauren Wilson, the study’s lead author and a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>. Wilson completed her master’s degree at the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> (UAF), where the research began.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-fossils-rewrite-history">Bird fossils rewrite history</h2>



Using a collection of over 50 fossilized bird bones and teeth excavated from Alaska’s North Slope, Wilson and her team made an important discovery. They identified several species of birds that appear to have nested in the region.



These included diving birds similar to modern loons, gull-like species, and various duck- and goose-like waterfowl. 



The bones representing juveniles - some likely still nest-bound - offer strong evidence that these birds were not merely passing through but breeding in the Arctic.



“Finding bird bones from the Cretaceous is already a very rare thing,” Wilson said. “To find baby bird bones is almost unheard of. That is why these fossils are significant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-fragile-fossil-evidence">Saving fragile fossil evidence</h2>



The mere existence of such delicate remains is extraordinary. Bird bones are lightweight and fragile by design, and juvenile bones are even more prone to destruction over time.



Yet, thanks to meticulous excavation efforts, researchers were able to recover and identify these fossilized traces of ancient avian life.



The fossils were found in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018218306667" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prince Creek Formation</a>, a remote site along the Colville River renowned for its Cretaceous dinosaur remains.



Until recently, the area was not known for yielding fossil birds. This changed recently, thanks in part to the excavation strategy used by the UAF Museum of the North’s research team.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-bones-from-arctic-bird-fossils">Tiny bones from Arctic bird fossils</h2>



Traditional vertebrate paleontology often focuses on recovering large, visible bones - those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, for example. But the team working at Prince Creek takes a more comprehensive approach.



Alongside the big finds, they also gather large volumes of sediment and screen them for microscopic remains. Researchers then carefully examine these samples under microscopes back at the lab, revealing a world of small, often-overlooked fossils.



“We put Alaska on the map for fossil birds,” said Pat Druckenmiller, the paper’s senior author and director of the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Museum of the North</a>. “It wasn’t on anyone’s radar.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_bird-beak-fossil_credit-Pat-Druckenmiller_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_bird-beak-fossil_credit-Pat-Druckenmiller_1s.webp" alt="The tip of a hatchling bird beak sits on the end of a finger. Credit: Pat Druckenmiller" class="wp-image-1973308"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tip of a hatchling bird beak sits on the end of a finger. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Pat Druckenmiller</figcaption></figure>



Druckenmiller credits the fine-grained approach with revealing new insights into Cretaceous Arctic ecosystems. The same methods have also led to the discovery of new dinosaur and mammal species in the region.



“In terms of information content, these little bones and teeth are fascinating and provide an incredible depth of understanding of the animals of this time,” Druckenmiller said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-arctic-bird-nursery">Ancient Arctic bird nursery</h2>



The findings show that birds have been using the Arctic as a breeding ground far longer than previously thought.



Earlier evidence of polar bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tangled-twigs-the-secrets-of-sturdy-bird-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nesting</a> dated to around 47 million years ago - well after the mass extinction event that wiped out most of Earth’s species, including the non-avian dinosaurs. 



The new discovery pushes that timeline back by 25 to 30 million years, deep into the age of dinosaurs.



“The Arctic is considered the nursery for modern birds,” Druckenmiller said. “It’s kind of cool when you go to Creamer’s Field [a well-known stopover for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a> in Fairbanks], to know that they have been doing this for 73 million years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-origins-of-modern-birds">The origins of modern birds</h2>



Beyond expanding the record of avian life in the polar regions, the fossils raise intriguing questions about the origins of modern birds.



Some of the bones appear to belong to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-tropical-birds-are-so-strikingly-colorful-and-iridescent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neornithes</a> - the group that includes all living birds. These fossils show skeletal traits exclusive to modern birds. Some even lacked teeth, a feature seen in today’s avian species.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_with-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/birds_arctic-nesting_with-dinosaurs_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="An illustration of Cretaceous Period birds with other dinosaurs from the same time period in the background. A paper in the journal Science documents the earliest-known example of birds nesting in the polar regions. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1973310"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An illustration of Cretaceous Period birds with other dinosaurs from the same time period in the background. A paper in the journal Science documents the earliest-known example of birds nesting in the polar regions. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



“If they are part of the modern bird group, they would be the oldest such fossils ever found,” Druckenmiller said. 



At present, the oldest known Neornithes fossils date to around 69 million years ago. “But it would take us finding a partial or full skeleton to say for sure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The implications of the study go beyond the Arctic. They suggest that ancient birds - despite their small size and delicate physiology - were able to thrive in high-latitude environments long before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-polar-regions-changing-fundamental-alarming-ways/">polar climates</a> we know today fully developed.



During the Cretaceous, the Arctic was warmer but still experienced seasonal extremes of light and darkness, posing significant challenges for any nesting animals.



That these birds not only survived but reproduced successfully hints at a more complex evolutionary history than previously assumed. It also suggests modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-geese-adapt-by-finding-a-new-migratory-route/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory waterfowl</a> echo ancient patterns by returning to northern wetlands each spring to raise their young.



As researchers continue to study the Colville River fossils, they hope to uncover additional material that can confirm the identity and relationships of these Arctic avian pioneers.



For now, the Prince Creek Formation stands as one of the world’s most important sites for understanding the early history of birds. It shows what can be found when scientists search for both big and small bones.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt5189" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: &nbsp;Gabriel Ugueto



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Scientists find proof that birds nested in the Arctic alongside dinosaurs

Springtime in the Arctic is a spectacular show of life,...

Two notorious hybrid termite species have found a surprising way to become even more destructive. Researchers in Florida report that these wood-eating insects are forming hybrids that might spread into many parts of the world.



Both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-play-an-unexpected-role-in-rainforest-revival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are known for their ability to damage timber and invade new places with ease. The research was led by Thomas Chouvenc at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-termites-may-survive-in-more-places">Hybrid termites may survive in more places</h2>



Invasive termites have already caused massive economic losses, with <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100634" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimated</a> worldwide damage of $40 billion each year.



This figure covers structural repairs, preventive treatments, and other costs tied to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. Experts worry that combining two invasive species might produce termites that thrive in more environments than either parent.



These interbreeding pests are believed to hail from <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN278" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coptotermes formosanus</a> (the Formosan subterranean termite) and <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coptotermes gestroi</a> (the Asian subterranean termite).



Hybrids could open doors to new areas if they tolerate different climates better than either <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-desert-structure-termite-mound-built-by-insects-can-be-seen-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-traits-from-both-parent-termites">Hybrid traits from both parent termites</h2>



Some hybrid termites have been found to carry traits from both parent species, including the ability to tolerate a wider range of temperatures.



Edouard Duquesne at the Free University of Brussels in Belgium, who was not involved with the research, elaborated on the significance of the study.



“The findings are interesting and alarming. Viable hybrids of these two species would likely lead to a super-invasive termite that could potentially have a huge suitable range worldwide, and that could do important damages,” said Duquesne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-termites-could-spread-through-boats">Hybrid termites could spread through boats</h2>



Hybrid termites are not just concerning because of what they are, but because of how easily they could travel. With both parent species already established in southern Florida, opportunities for hybridization increase every year.



“It’s just a matter of time before they get a chance to hybridise,” said Chouvenc. Ships and leisure boats might carry them from infested areas to new coastal regions, making Florida’s global boat traffic a major risk factor for future outbreaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-this-hybrid-unique">What makes this hybrid unique</h2>



The hybrid termites don't just survive - they reproduce. The researchers confirmed that hybrid females can mate with either parent species, forming second-generation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a>.



This genetic flexibility may allow the hybrids to evolve quickly and adapt to new challenges. Early studies show that while some of these colonies struggle, others can grow and mature over time.



In one case, a second-generation colony reached over a thousand workers in under three years, showing surprising resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-florida-the-perfect-launchpad">Florida: The perfect launchpad</h2>



Florida isn’t just a mixing zone for these two termite species, it’s a global hub for their spread. With nearly a million privately owned leisure boats <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1155988/us-recreational-boating-vessels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">registered</a> in the state, the potential for unnoticed transport is sky-high.



The first confirmed hybrid colony was found just over half a mile from a dense marina district. That proximity makes it likely that flying <a href="https://www.orkin.com/pests/termites/colony/termite-alates" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alates</a> could settle onto boats and travel to distant coastlines without ever being detected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-for-pest-control">Problems for pest control</h2>



Most termite treatments are tailored to specific species. Pest management companies often adjust their methods depending on whether they’re dealing with C. formosanus or C. gestroi.



But hybrids could blur that line. Their mixed traits might respond unpredictably to current treatments, making control efforts more complicated and potentially less effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-early-detection-matters">Why early detection matters</h2>



Spotting these hybrids early could prevent bigger problems later. The longer they go unnoticed, the more likely they are to spread through infested wood, soil, or boats.



Unfortunately, identification isn’t always straightforward. Some hybrid termites show features that fall between the two parent species, making them hard to classify without genetic testing or detailed knowledge of termite morphology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-steps-ahead">Practical steps ahead</h2>



In some cases, local authorities try to prevent termite travel by inspecting cargo, but private vessels often escape such checks. Researchers advise owners of docked vessels to inspect wooden parts carefully and seek professional help if they find signs of infestation.



Public agencies might focus more resources on monitoring, because identifying hybrids early could be key to containment. Yet the process of telling these insects apart can be tricky, since their features can blend.



Early identification often involves a close inspection of alates (the winged caste) that appear in warmer months. Scientists note that hybrid alates can show subtle differences in body color or size.



By staying vigilant, communities may slow the spread of these insects to new regions. Many hope that targeted strategies will limit hybrid termite expansions before they become unstoppable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-risks-for-ecosystems">Long-term risks for ecosystems</h2>



The hybrid termites don’t just threaten buildings - they could also affect forests and natural habitats. Their ability to feed on a wide range of wood sources makes them a potential danger to native trees and vegetation.



As they spread, they may disrupt local ecosystems by outcompeting native decomposer species. Over time, this could affect nutrient cycles in the soil and alter the balance of natural communities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0413" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Hybrid termites could spread worldwide from Florida boats

Two notorious hybrid termite species have found a surprising way...

In the forests of Madagascar, small lizards do more than sunbathe on rocks or snap at insects. In fact, they may be shaping the future of Madagascar’s forests, one seed at a time.



Madagascar has long fascinated scientists, naturalists, and explorers alike. This large Indian Ocean island is home to some of the world’s rarest species. More than 80% of its wildlife can’t be found anywhere else. Lemurs leap through treetops. Baobabs rise like ancient towers. Orchids bloom in forests untouched for centuries. The island is a living archive of evolution’s creativity.



Its uniqueness stems from a deep, ancient break. Around 88 million years ago, Madagascar drifted away from India. Once separated, its ecosystems evolved in isolation. As generations passed, this seclusion led to extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. But amid all the celebrated species and stories, silent helpers have gone unnoticed for too long: the lizards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-lizards-spread-seeds-in-forests">How lizards spread seeds in forests</h2>



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-forests-that-benefit-people-also-shelter-endangered-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> don’t just drop seeds nearby. They depend on animals to move them across the land. This natural process, called endozoochory, involves an animal eating fruit or seeds. Later, those seeds get expelled in the animal’s droppings. Carried far from the parent plant, the seeds land in fresh ground, ready to sprout.



Most of what we know about endozoochory comes from studying mammals and birds. Lemurs, for example, are known for their role in this cycle in Madagascar. Birds also help, flying great distances and spreading seeds with every flight. But reptiles, particularly lizards, haven’t received the same attention.



That’s a mistake, say researchers at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>. They argue that lizards have an important part to play too. These animals may not be classic fruit-lovers, but a few species do consume fruits and other plant parts. Their habits, movement, and resilience may allow them to serve as crucial seed dispersers in ways we’ve only just begun to understand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lizards-matter-in-forest-ecosystems">Why lizards matter in forest ecosystems</h2>



Unlike lemurs or fruit bats, most lizards don’t depend on fruit. Less than 10% of lizard species are considered frugivores. Yet those that do eat fruit may influence plant life in ways researchers are only now beginning to measure. Some species even serve as primary seed dispersers for specific plants, especially in areas where larger animals have disappeared.



"Lizards are under-appreciated as seed dispersers in many forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>, but we hypothesized that they may play a more important role across a broader range of regions than previously recognized," said corresponding author Ryobu Fukuyama.



To test this idea, Fukuyama and his colleagues designed a study focused on three lizard species in Madagascar. These were the Malagasy Giant Chameleon, Cuvier's Madagascar Swift, and the Western Girdled Lizard. 



All three species are omnivorous and known to eat fruit occasionally. However, their potential as seed spreaders had never been seriously evaluated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-lizard-behavior">Observing lizard behavior</h2>



The team set up camp in a tropical dry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> in Madagascar. They watched the lizards carefully, recorded their feeding behavior, and collected fecal samples. 



They also ran germination tests to see if the seeds could still grow after passing through a lizard’s gut. This detailed approach helped them track not just what lizards eat, but what they contribute to the ecosystem.



Their findings surprised them. The lizards consumed fruits from more than 20 different plant species. Even more interesting, these plants were often not the same ones favored by lemurs. This suggested that lizards might not just support the same trees as other animals. They might help expand the forest’s botanical diversity.



Fecal analyses confirmed that many seeds remained viable. The lizards were not just accidental consumers. They acted as functioning carriers in the seed cycle, allowing new plants to take root away from their original source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-lizards-help-forests-recover">How lizards help forests recover</h2>



Madagascar’s forests face serious threats. Logging, slash-and-burn farming, and habitat destruction have left scars across the landscape. As forests shrink, large fruit-eaters like lemurs lose their homes. When they vanish, the trees that rely on them struggle to reproduce.



But lizards are survivors. They adapt to disturbed environments. Where lemurs falter, these reptiles often continue to thrive. That adaptability may give them a vital role in the regrowth of damaged forests. As long as they keep consuming fruit and dispersing seeds, they could help heal the land.



Their contributions might not replace larger animals completely. But they offer hope for certain plant species that would otherwise vanish. In places where biodiversity is already under pressure, every small helper matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-still-don-t-know">What we still don’t know</h2>



The Kyoto University team views this study as only the beginning. They’ve revealed that lizards do eat fruit and spread seeds. But many questions remain. How far do these lizards travel? Do they prefer certain plants over others? Can they truly support forest restoration over time?



"Although lizards in Madagascar consume fruits from many plant species, other aspects of their role as seed dispersers, such as dispersal distances, remain poorly understood," commented Fukuyama.



Future research will explore these unknowns. Understanding dispersal distance, for instance, will help determine how effective lizards really are in forest regeneration. Scientists also want to study whether lizard seed dispersal supports tree diversity, or whether it favors only a few resilient species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-look-at-old-forests">A new way to look at old forests</h2>



Madagascar’s ecological story is still unfolding. Its forests, once dense and vibrant, now face an uncertain future. Conservation efforts often focus on charismatic animals, the ones we notice first. Lemurs, chameleons, and rare orchids get headlines. But the lizards, often silent and unnoticed, may be doing more than we imagined.



They offer us a chance to rethink how forests work. Even in the most unexpected corners of nature, there are creatures playing vital roles. By understanding them better, we can protect not only individual species but the living systems that keep our planet healthy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/btp.70052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotropica</a>.



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How lizards help keep Madagascar's forests alive

In the forests of Madagascar, small lizards do more than...

Somewhere in what is now northern Cameroon, a single stride pressed into wet river mud - three clawed toes, each the length of a hand. Minutes later, the water receded, silt drifted over the mark, and the print was saved for posterity. 



Fast-forward 120 million years, and that fossilized step helps rewrite the map of an ancient world.



Back in the Early Cretaceous, Cameroon was stitched to the elbow of northeastern Brazil. There was no Atlantic Ocean, only a low, swampy plain linking the two landmasses. 



Long-necked plant-eaters lumbered through reed beds, sharp-toothed hunters trailed them, and every footfall wrote a record in clay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-tracks-pre-atlantic-ocean">Dinosaur tracks pre-Atlantic Ocean</h2>



Geologists call that vanished landscape <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/gondwana" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gondwana</a>, the southern supercontinent that had only recently split from Pangea. 



Around 140 million years ago, tectonic forces tugged at its seams, opening rifts that would become the South Atlantic. 



Even as magma welled up offshore, rivers still braided across the future ocean floor, allowing wildlife to wander freely between the continents. 



Those paths are now exposed in two places more than 3,700 miles apart: the Koum Basin of Cameroon and the Borborema region of Brazil.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_ornithopod_Passagem-das-Pedra_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_ornithopod_Passagem-das-Pedra_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="A long ornithopod trackway at Passagem das Pedra, Sousa Basin preserved in floodplain deposits of Lower Cretaceous. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho." class="wp-image-1973174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A long ornithopod trackway at Passagem das Pedra, Sousa Basin preserved in floodplain deposits of Lower Cretaceous. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho.</figcaption></figure>



The connection comes into sharp relief thanks to a study led by paleontologist <a href="https://www.smu.edu/dedman/academics/departments/earth-sciences/people/emeriti/l-jacobs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Louis L. Jacobs</a> of Southern Methodist University (<a href="https://www.smu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMU</a>). 



His international team catalogued more than 260 dinosaur tracks in both basins across the Atlantic Ocean and showed that “in terms of age, these footprints were similar,” Jacobs said. 



“In their geological and plate tectonic contexts, they were also similar. In terms of their shapes, they are almost identical.” 



The twin sites, once side by side, preserve what researchers now call the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Late-Cretaceous-dispersal-of-dinosaurs-across-marine-barriers-1-Titanosauria-South_fig12_346582740" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaur Dispersal Corridor</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-tracks-tell-pre-atlantic-dinosaur-tales">Stone tracks tell pre-Atlantic dinosaur tales</h2>



Most of the footprints belong to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-toed theropods</a>, the fleet carnivores of their day. A handful of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauropod</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-million-year-old-dinosaur-eggs-show-glimpses-of-life-in-jurassic-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ornithopod</a> impressions round out the roster, hinting at herds of plant-eaters trudging through the same wetlands. 



Sediments alongside the tracks contain pollen that also dates to about 120 million years ago, reinforcing the match between both sides of the Atlantic rift.



“One of the youngest and narrowest geological connections between Africa and South America was the elbow of northeastern Brazil nestled against what is now the coast of Cameroon along the Gulf of Guinea,” Jacobs explained. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Sousa-Basin_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Sousa-Basin_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="Theropod footprint from Sousa Basin, Lower Cretaceous of northeastern Brazil. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho" class="wp-image-1973179"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Theropod footprint from Sousa Basin, Lower Cretaceous of northeastern Brazil. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Ismar de Souza Carvalho</figcaption></figure>



“The two continents were continuous along that narrow stretch, so that animals on either side of that connection could potentially move across it.” 



The footprints freeze that moment when the land bridge was still open yet fragile, a snapshot just before the continents drifted apart for good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-along-the-dispersal-corridor">Life along the dispersal corridor</h2>



River valleys served as natural highways. Their floodplains offered water, sheltering vegetation, and soft ground ideal for capturing prints. 



“Rivers flowed and lakes formed in the basins. Plants fed the herbivores and supported a food chain," Jacobs continued. 



"Muddy sediments left by the rivers and lakes contain dinosaur footprints, including those of meat-eaters, documenting that these river valleys could provide specific avenues for life to travel across the continents 120 million years ago.” 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_gondwana_map-path-walked_credit-NMSU_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_gondwana_map-path-walked_credit-NMSU_1s.webp" alt="Paleogeographic reconstruction of the South Atlantic during the earliest Aptian (120 Ma). Red stars represent the Borborema region of Brazil (left red star) and Northern Cameroon footprint-bearing localities (right red star). The Borborema/ Benin-Nigeria Structural Provinces (as shown by Matos et al., 2021a, fig. 1) can be imagined as an ovoid shape with the narrower end just west of the left red star, and the wider end looped beyond the right red star. (Modified from Scotese, 2021)." class="wp-image-1973172"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Paleogeographic reconstruction of the South Atlantic during the earliest Aptian (120 Ma). Red stars represent the Borborema region of Brazil (left red star) and Northern Cameroon footprint-bearing localities (right red star). The Borborema/ Benin-Nigeria Structural Provinces can be imagined as an ovoid shape with the narrower end just west of the left red star, and the wider end looped beyond the right red star. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SMU</figcaption></figure>



With every rainy season, new tracks overlapped the old, building a layered story of migration.



Beyond tracks, bones tell of a thriving ecosystem. 



Fossils from nearby basins include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/benggwigwishingasuchus-eremicarminis-new-triassic-crocodile-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodilians</a>, turtles, fish, and even early mammals such as Abelodon abeli, a curious tooth-shaped animal that hints at the deep roots of modern mammal lineages. 



Each discovery fills gaps in the puzzle of how life adapted while the ground beneath it slowly tore apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprints-meet-fossils">Footprints meet fossils</h2>



<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024JAfES.20905129N/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Koum</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-of-the-Babouri-Figuil-Basin-as-well-as-the-main-hydrographic-network-of-the_fig1_357405559" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Babouri-Figuil</a> basins are half-graben structures - troughs formed when crust stretches and drops along faults. Similar basins pepper both coasts of the South Atlantic, but few are as rich in terrestrial fossils. 



That makes northern Cameroon a focal point for anyone tracing dinosaur journeys across Gondwana. The first finds came to light in the 1980s during the multinational <a href="https://www.appluslaboratories.com/global/en/about-us/innovation/pireco-project" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIRCAOC project</a>, and newer digs still turn up surprise specimens despite the region’s remote location.



In Brazil, the matching tracks lie within red siltstones that once lined ancient lagoons. Their fine grain preserves claw imprints and skin traces in remarkable detail. 



Together, the African and South American sites confirm that dinosaurs strolled across a contiguous landmass long after <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangea</a> began unraveling, using the same river corridors that would later drown beneath the Atlantic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-tracks-matter-today">Why these tracks matter today</h2>



Studying the dispersed footprints sharpens computer models that reconstruct continental drift, improving predictions of where oil, minerals, or groundwater might reside today. 



They also highlight how living routes shift as climates and coastlines change, offering lessons for wildlife facing modern habitat fragmentation.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Koum-Basin_credit-SMU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/dinosaur-footprints_therapods_Koum-Basin_credit-SMU_1s.webp" alt="Two representative theropod tracks from the Koum Basin in northern Cameroon. Credit: SMU" class="wp-image-1973177"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two representative theropod tracks from the Koum Basin in northern Cameroon. Click image to enlarge. Credit: SMU</figcaption></figure>



Visitors can now follow marked trails to view several of the Cameroonian prints, stepping where theropods once hunted. Local guides say the site feels like “a story written in stone.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-tracks-reunited-across-the-atlantic">Dinosaur tracks reunited across the Atlantic</h2>



That story is still unfolding as researchers scan, map, and compare each trackway. Future excavations may uncover additional corridors, showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-discovered-in-australia-rewrite-dinosaur-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric migration</a> was as complex and wide-ranging as journeys undertaken by animals in the present day.



The tracks remind us that continents move at a snail’s pace, yet over millions of years that pace is enough to reshape oceans, climates, and the paths available to life. 



By reading the mudstone diaries of Cameroon and Brazil, scientists glimpse how creatures responded to those changes - walking, feeding, and multiplying across a supercontinent that no longer exists, but whose memory endures beneath our feet.



The full study was <a href="https://smu.box.com/s/e2ghm8ycjb1zf6hu9pooypdl4sosylbn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in print by New Mexico Museum of Natural History &amp; Science



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How did dinosaurs migrate to live in every part of the world? Scientists think they know

Somewhere in what is now northern Cameroon, a single stride...

Bumble bees are among the planet’s most valuable pollinators. Their colonies power ecosystems and agriculture alike. But few people know how much pressure rests on a single queen during the earliest stage of colony life. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have found that bumble bee queens deliberately pause and take breaks from egg laying. These pauses are not random - they follow a rhythm, possibly tied to the future success of the colony.



This discovery challenges our understanding of eusocial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-affect-bumble-bee-health-in-complex-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect behavior</a>. It shows that even in nature’s most cooperative systems, rest and recovery have a place. The queen bee’s pause might be one of the most important strategies in her survival playbook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-queen-starts-alone-then-takes-a-pause">Queen starts alone, then takes a pause</h2>



At the start, the queen does everything. She builds the nest, collects food, warms the brood using her wing muscles, and lays eggs. 



But researchers noticed a pattern: queens lay eggs in bursts, then pause for several days. This pause seems universal and isn’t caused by stress or lab conditions.



“I saw these pauses early on, just by taking daily photos of the nests,” said Blanca Peto, the study’s lead author. “It wasn’t something I expected. I wanted to know what was happening during those breaks.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-queen-s-pause-supports-brood-timing">Queen’s pause supports brood timing</h2>



In a controlled experiment with 62 Bombus impatiens queens, every queen paused egg-laying after an initial burst. 



On average, the pause began around 4 days after the first eggs and lasted 7 to 8 days. These breaks were not random. They matched brood development stages.



Additional tests showed that when researchers added pupae or older larvae to nests, queens resumed egg-laying sooner. With no brood, queens took 12.5 days to restart. With pupae, they resumed in just 1.5 days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-of-the-queen-pause">Purpose of the queen pause</h2>



“There’s something about the presence of pupae that signals it’s safe or necessary to start producing again,” Peto explained. 



This suggests that queens are responding to the developmental status of their brood. The pause may allow queens to avoid producing more eggs than they can support.



Older larvae and pupae in the brood act as signals that help is coming. Once these brood members mature, they become workers and take over care duties. This frees the queen to focus on egg-laying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-and-social-cues">Biological and social cues</h2>



Ovarian resorption adds another layer. During the pause, queens not only stop laying eggs, they also resorb oocytes, redirecting resources away from reproduction. This likely helps the queen focus on caring for the existing brood.



After the pause, oocyte production increases again, especially when late-stage brood or workers are present.



Even when well-fed in lab conditions, queens paused. That suggests an internal biological or social cue, not environmental stress, drives the behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaks-seen-in-other-species-too">Breaks seen in other species too</h2>



The research did not stop at one species. Queens from three other bumble bee species (B. vosnesenskii, B. mckayi, and B. frigidus) also paused during early nest founding. That hints at a common strategy across solitary-founding eusocial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebee-queens-have-an-odd-preference-for-contaminated-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>.



The researchers propose that this pause represents a life history strategy. It allows queens to time egg-laying with the emergence of helpers. This helps them balance care for current brood with future colony expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-workers-keep-the-momentum-going">Workers keep the momentum going</h2>



The study also found that workers are critical to keeping queens productive. In experiments where newly emerged workers were removed, queens laid fewer eggs than those with workers present. Egg cup numbers and total brood size dropped significantly in nests without workers.



This shows that queen egg-laying isn’t only internally controlled. It is also socially regulated. Once workers appear, they relieve the queen of caregiving, which enables her to focus on reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



With bumble bee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> in decline due to pesticide use, habitat loss, and climate change, understanding queen behavior becomes crucial. 



Conservation efforts that support queens during the vulnerable solo-founding phase may boost colony survival.



“Without queens, there’s no colony. And without colonies, we lose essential pollinators,” said Peto. “These breaks may be the very reason colonies succeed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colonies-depend-on-flexible-queen-pauses">Colonies depend on flexible queen pauses</h2>



This study challenges the long-standing belief that social insect queens are constantly reproductive. For bumble bees, at least, reproduction is more flexible. Queens adjust their output based on nest conditions, brood development, and social signals.



By focusing on the solitary nest founding stage, this work offers fresh insight into how social structures shape reproductive strategies. And it all starts with a queen bee taking a pause.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-025-02364-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Bumble bee queens take strategic 'breaks' while forming their colonies

Bumble bees are among the planet’s most valuable pollinators. Their...

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured out. Animals like lizards and snakes, they said, relied mostly on their senses of sight and smell, while their inner ears handled balance and little else. 



That tidy picture just got a shake-up - literally. Fresh research finds that a gecko’s balance organ also acts as a sensitive microphone for ground-borne vibrations, giving the animal a stealthy extra sense.



That discovery matters because it rewrites part of the evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-hawks-evolved-super-hearing-abilities-to-locate-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">story of hearing</a>. It hints that an ancient vibration pathway never vanished when vertebrates crawled onto land; it merely slipped below the scientific radar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-tokay-gecko">Studying the tokay gecko</h2>



The new study zeroed in on the tokay gecko, a hardy lizard famous for its loud bark. Deep inside its skull sits the saccule, a fluid-filled pouch long tagged as a balance sensor. 



Researchers gently recorded nerve signals while delivering low-frequency shakes - think deep rumbles between 50 and 200 Hz. The saccule lit up. 



Those frequencies fall well below the range the gecko’s eardrum usually detects, showing that the animal runs two parallel sound channels: one for airborne squeaks, one for tremors underfoot.



“The ear, as we know it, hears airborne sound. But this ancient inner pathway, which is typically linked to balance, helps geckos detect vibrations that travel through media such as ground or water,” explained study co-author Catherine Carr, a Distinguished University Professor of Biology at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>. 



“This pathway exists in amphibians and fish, and now it has been proven to be preserved in lizards as well. Our findings shed light on how the auditory system evolved from what you see in fish to what you see in land animals including humans.”



Carr and her colleagues published their findings in Current Biology, under the title “Auditory pathway for detection of vibration in the tokay gecko.” Leading the bench work was postdoctoral researcher Dawei Han, who first explored the idea during his graduate studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-some-animals-sense-vibrations">How some animals sense vibrations</h2>



Electrical traces told only part of the story. The team also mapped the gecko brain and found a relay station called the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39368471/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nucleus vestibularis ovalis</a>. 



This pocket receives input solely from the saccule, then forwards the information to higher auditory centers. It behaves like a dedicated vibration highway, separate from the regular hearing roadbed. 



Similar brain nuclei turned up in snakes and the ancient New Zealand reptile Sphenodon, hinting at a shared blueprint across the reptile family tree.



“Many snakes and lizards were thought to be ‘mute’ or ‘deaf’ in the sense that they do not vocalize or hear sounds well,” Han explained. 



“But it turns out they could potentially be communicating via <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treehoppers-secretly-communicate-by-making-plants-vibrate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vibrational signals</a> using this sensory pathway instead, which really changes the way scientists have thought about animal perception overall.” 



Desert sand-diving snakes, burrowing skinks, and even turtle hatchlings thumping inside their nests may all trade information by shaking their surroundings rather than shouting through the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-this-new-animal-sense">Evolution of this new animal sense</h2>



Fish rely on inner-ear organs to feel pressure waves in water, while amphibians straddle both water and land. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geckos-can-recognize-their-own-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gecko</a> work suggests that early tetrapods carried a vibration sense ashore and kept it alongside eardrum-based hearing. 



Over millions of years, some lineages dialed it down, but others - like the tokay - held on. That persistence reminds biologists that evolution often repurposes old tools instead of discarding them.



“Think about when you’re at a live rock concert. It’s so loud that you can feel your whole head and body vibrate in the sound field. You can feel the music, rather than just hearing it," Carr continued.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1s.webp" alt="University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Credit: Duncan Leitch" class="wp-image-1973168"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Duncan Leitch</figcaption></figure>



"That feeling suggests that the human vestibular system may be stimulated during those loud concerts, meaning our senses of hearing and balance may also be closely linked.” 



Her point: our own balance organs might pitch in when sounds get strong enough, blurring the line between feeling and hearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“The implications of this research extend beyond the world of reptiles,” Han said. “As we uncover these hidden mechanisms, we’re also gaining a richer and more nuanced picture of how animals perceive and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-has-its-own-internet-and-were-only-beginning-to-understand-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with their environments</a> - and potentially, new insights into our own sensory experiences.” 



If the vestibular system partners with the cochlea at extreme volumes, it could influence therapies for balance disorders or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicadas-deafening-noise-can-cause-ear-ringing-worsen-tinnitus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tinnitus</a>. 



Engineers designing earthquake sensors or underwater microphones might also borrow tricks from the saccule’s elegant hair cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-never-ceases-to-amaze">Nature never ceases to amaze</h2>



Geckos clinging to cave walls are now known to sense the faint shiver of approaching footsteps. Snakes gliding through leaf litter likely feel the scurry of prey. And humans, rocking out in packed arenas, might engage an ancient inner circuit we rarely acknowledge. 



The new research opens a wider conversation about how vertebrates keep tabs on their world - through both ears and bones.



By tuning into the quiet language of vibrations, scientists are uncovering a sensory mosaic that stretches back hundreds of millions of years.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01227-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Animals found to have a 'sixth sense,' changing some evolutionary theories

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured...

Mercury levels in Arctic animals keep climbing even though the world has reduced new emissions. A new study shows that mercury already in the ocean is drifting northward on century-long currents and silently refueling pollution.



Researchers from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a> and the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> analyzed more than 700 samples collected across Greenland.



The experts compared modern tissues from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-polar-bear-day-keeping-moms-and-cubs-safe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a>, seals, fish, peat, and even 40-year-old archives, then matched each sample’s six mercury isotopes - slight atomic variants that act like barcodes - to known ocean pathways.



“These isotope signatures act like fingerprints, revealing the sources and transport pathways of mercury,” explained lead author Jens Søndergaard, a senior researcher at Aarhus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-emissions-ride-ocean-loops">Old emissions ride ocean loops</h2>



When smokestacks or gold mines release mercury, the vapor can circle the globe for a year before it falls out of the air. Once it sinks into seawater, however, the metal can linger for three hundred years.



The new study shows that this “legacy mercury” is now the main supplier to the Arctic. Water entering central West Greenland rides the North Atlantic’s Irminger Current and arrives with a different isotopic stamp than water feeding the north and east coasts, which drifts down from the Arctic Ocean.



In regions swept by the Atlantic branch, animals carry less total mercury but show higher values of the heavy isotope δ202Hg. Farther north and east, concentrations are higher and the isotope mix points to older Arctic stores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-climbs-in-arctic-predators">Mercury climbs in Arctic predators</h2>



Scientists have tracked Arctic mercury since the late 1970s, hoping to see a decline after many countries ratcheted down pollution.



Instead, concentrations in polar bears and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-species-of-toothed-whale-is-the-earliest-ancestor-of-modern-dolphins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toothed whales</a> are now twenty- to thirtyfold above pre-industrial levels.



“We’ve monitored mercury in Arctic animals for over 40 years. Despite declining global emissions since the 1970s, we see no corresponding decrease in Arctic concentrations - on the contrary,” said senior author Rune Dietz, an ecologist at Aarhus.



The new isotope data show why: mercury carried by currents can take up to a century and a half to reach Greenland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isotopes-trace-mercury-s-path">Isotopes trace mercury's path</h2>



Mercury atoms come in several naturally occurring forms that differ slightly in mass. Industrial smokestacks, volcanic plumes, rivers, and ocean chemistry each leave a characteristic mix.



By scanning these mixes in muscle, fur, and ancient peat layers, the team drew a map of hidden routes. In central West Greenland the isotope blend matches Atlantic inflow; in north-eastern sites it matches the high-mercury Arctic Basin.



The peat cores also tell a time-lapse story: layers laid down in recent centuries hold heavier isotopes than layers deeper in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-thaw-is-a-rising-threat-to-arctic-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost</a>, confirming that modern pollution is still piling up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impacts-of-mercury">Health impacts of mercury</h2>



“Mercury affects the immune system, reproduction, and possibly sensory functions in animals, which can impact their survival,” said co-author Christian Sonne, a professor at Aarhus.



Seals, polar bears, and seabirds already harbor levels linked to suppressed immunity and hormonal disruption. 



Indigenous communities that rely on marine mammals for food face the same toxic threat. With mercury reservoirs still drifting north, even the toughest emission cuts may not deliver quick relief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-slow-to-reflect-progress">Arctic slow to reflect progress</h2>



The <a href="https://minamataconvention.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Minamata Convention</a> aims to curb new mercury emissions. The Danish team’s work explains why Arctic numbers refuse to fall despite progress elsewhere.



Ocean inventories of legacy mercury - much of it released during the 19th- and 20th-century coal age - are simply too vast and too slow-moving. Any evaluation of the treaty’s success, the authors warn, must account for that time lag.



The group is expanding its isotope surveys through the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-awakening-arctic-food-webs-are-transforming-from-green-to-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GreenPaths project</a> and collaborating with international programs such as WhaleAdapt to follow mercury’s course through other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-awakening-arctic-food-webs-are-transforming-from-green-to-brown/">Arctic food webs</a>.



By stitching together isotope records from peat, glaciers, rivers, and marine life, they hope to predict hotspots years before the pollutant arrives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-be-done-now"><a></a>What can be done now?</h2>



Reducing modern mercury still matters; every gram kept out of the water is one less gram entering the conveyor belt.



But policymakers must pair emission goals with long-term monitoring, dietary guidance for northern communities, and studies on how climate-driven shifts in currents could speed or slow the toxic flow.



The lesson is stark: once mercury reaches the sea, it becomes a traveler with no passport expiry. And as the new isotope “fingerprints” show, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-threaten-arctic-wildlife-and-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic’s wildlife</a> - and the people who depend on it - will keep feeling the aftershocks of 19th- and 20th-century pollution well into the 22nd.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60356-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Mercury pollution rides ocean currents north, threatening Arctic wildlife

Mercury levels in Arctic animals keep climbing even though the...

The Karoo stretches across more than 150,000 square miles of semi-arid South Africa, a place where sun-bleached soil keeps secrets older than dinosaurs. Wander its stony flats and you’ll see ridges of exposed rock that look like the pages of a giant book. 



The “chapters” span hundreds of millions of years, each one packed with fossilized bone and impressions of vanished forests. For anyone fascinated by life’s backstory, the Karoo is irresistible.



Long before geology students arrived with measuring tapes and plaster, Indigenous families lived among those same outcrops. 



The San, sometimes called the /Xam, camped at waterholes, painted hunting scenes on sandstone walls, and passed down tales of shape-shifting serpents that brewed thunderstorms. 



Their art survives in shallow caves and overhangs, capturing the everyday and the uncanny with equal care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dicynodont-art-painted-in-caves">Dicynodont art painted in caves</h2>



The Karoo’s fossil fame rests on creatures named dicynodonts - chunky plant-eaters about the size of pigs, sporting a beak and two downward-pointing tusks. 



They ruled the Permian Period more than 250 million years ago, well before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first dinosaur hatched</a>. 



Because the region is dry and wind-scoured, dicynodont skulls often erode straight out of hillsides; a passerby can spot the ivory-colored bone from yards away. 



It’s not hard to imagine early herders stumbling upon those skulls and weaving them into local lore.



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_people" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The San</a> also left thousands of charcoal and ochre paintings. Some show antelope and giraffes, others depict trance dances where healers slip into the spirit world. 



Among the most intriguing images appears on a wall known as the Horned Serpent panel, created between 1821 and 1835. 



One painted figure stretches like a slender <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> but displays a pair of tusks that bend toward the ground - no living African animal matches that appearance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tusks-on-the-rock-wall">Tusks on the rock wall</h2>



When researchers first cataloged the panel, they guessed the creature might be a rain-making spirit. That interpretation fit San cosmology, where serpents often control clouds. 



Yet even a mythic animal usually borrows details from reality: hoof shapes, horn curls, or in this case, tusks. The puzzle lingered for decades.



A fresh investigation recently took a different angle. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cave-art_south-africa_1800s_dicynodont-extinct_credit-Julien-Benoit_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cave-art_south-africa_1800s_dicynodont-extinct_credit-Julien-Benoit_1s.webp" alt="Painting of the dicynodont made by the San in the early 1800s. Credit: Julien Benoit" class="wp-image-1973469"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Painting of the dicynodont made by the San in the early 1800s. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Julien Benoit</figcaption></figure>



After carefully comparing the painted outline with dozens of Karoo fossils, a paleontologist noticed striking overlap - head shape, tusk angle, and body proportions mirrored those of a typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gordonia-traquairi-pig-like-creature-discovered-roamed-earth-250-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dicynodont skeleton</a>. 



The artist seems to have sketched what looks like a fossil skull still embedded in rock, then fused it with a serpent’s sinuous torso.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-answers">Searching for answers</h2>



The idea gains strength from archaeology. Dig sites near San shelters have yielded chipped stone tools alongside fossil fragments carried from distant outcrops. 



That means people collected ancient bones, perhaps as curios or ritual objects. 



Oral traditions recorded in the late 1800s even speak of colossal beasts that once walked the land before “the ground dried and cracked.” Those tales echo the fossil record’s story of extinction during the end-Permian mass die-off.



If the cave art painting really captures a dicynodont, it predates formal paleontology. Western science first named a species in 1845, yet the Horned Serpent panel was finished no later than 1835. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/cave-art_south-africa_1800s_dicynodont_horned-serpent-panel_credit-Julien-Benoit_1s.webp" alt="The Horned Serpent panel. A, general view of the Horned Serpent panel photographed in 2024 by the author. B, close up of the section figured in Stow and Bleek's plate 39. C, close up of the tusked animal. D, close up of the warriors painted below the Horned Serpent panel. E, close up of the warriors painted to the right of the panel. Credit: Julien Benoit, 2024, PLOS ONE" class="wp-image-1973466"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The Horned Serpent panel. A, general view of the Horned Serpent panel photographed in 2024 by the author. B, close up of the section figured in Stow and Bleek's plate 39. C, close up of the tusked animal. D, close up of the warriors painted below the Horned Serpent panel. E, close up of the warriors painted to the right of the panel. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Julien Benoit, 2024, PLOS ONE</figcaption></figure>



“The painting was made in 1835 at the latest, which means this dicynodont was depicted at least ten years before the western scientific discovery and naming of the first dicynodont by Richard Owen in 1845," noted Julien Benoit of the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a>, author of this study. 



"This work supports [the fact] that the first inhabitants of southern Africa, the San hunter-gatherers, discovered fossils, interpreted them and integrated them in their rock art and belief system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-dicynodont-art">Deciphering the dicynodont art</h2>



Benoit and colleagues photographed the panel under varying light, traced outlines digitally, and matched them with museum specimens. 



The correlation, they argue, is too tight to be chance. Their work joins a handful of cases worldwide - China, Australia, North America - where Indigenous art may double as the earliest depiction of extinct animals.



The research also nudges scientists to widen their lens. Fossil discovery stories often center on explorers in pith helmets, but communities living alongside outcrops have noticed, collected, and wondered about old bones for millennia. 



Recognizing that legacy broadens the history of paleontology and honors knowledge systems that predate universities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Beyond scholarly credit, the find invites fresh partnerships. Rock art sites need protection from erosion, vandalism, and mining. 



By linking paintings to fossils, heritage managers can argue for preserving whole landscapes rather than isolated walls. That approach safeguards both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-played-a-spiritual-role-in-prehistoric-cave-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural memory</a> and the deep-time record locked in nearby strata.



The study also sparks questions for educators. Imagine guiding school groups to a shelter where a dicynodont skull rests at the foot of a painted serpent. 



Students could trace a line from 250-million-year-old mud to a 19th-century brushstroke, then to modern CT scans revealing bone microstructure. 



Such encounters make earth science tangible and show that curiosity about ancient life is a shared human trait, not an imported discipline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-is-this-dicynodont-art-possible">How is this dicynodont art possible?</h2>



Evidence that the San looked at fossils and painted what they saw does more than solve an art mystery. It stitches together culture, geology, and memory across staggering spans of time. 



In the Karoo, one can touch Triassic bone, read a 19th-century pigment trail, and hear present-day scholars debating both. Each element enriches the others. 



The Horned Serpent panel stands as a quiet reminder that the urge to understand our planet’s past didn’t begin in lecture halls - it began wherever someone knelt beside a curious rock and started to wonder.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0309908" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Cave art discovery depicts an animal that went extinct 280-million-years ago, baffling scientists

The Karoo stretches across more than 150,000 square miles of...

A herd of mastodons, rhinoceroses, and giant deer once roamed freely across Earth. Their lives shaped landscapes for tens of millions of years. In a sweeping new study, scientists examined fossil records from more than 3,000 large herbivores to see how their world shifted, and how it didn’t.



An international team of researchers led by Fernando Blanco at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a> discovered that herbivore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivore-extinctions-drastically-affect-forest-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> remained surprisingly steady for long stretches. But they also pinpointed two pivotal moments where the balance flipped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivores-shifted-during-climate-change">Herbivores shifted during climate change</h2>



The first ripple hit around 21 million years ago. A land bridge emerged as the ancient Tethys Sea closed. Suddenly, elephants and relatives could walk from Africa into Eurasia. Other hoofed animals, deer, pigs, rhinos, joined them.&nbsp;



“The environmental pressure was so great that the entire system underwent global reorganization,” noted Blanco. At this point, hoofed communities didn’t collapse, they reassembled. 



Larger brows­ing species with mid‑to‑high crowned molars became dominant. Network analyses of those fossil data reveal a shift to a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-high-body-temperatures-often-become-herbivores/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">system</a> across continents, the first major global transformation in herbivore functional types.



Roughly ten million years later, another reinvention unfolded, this time silently. A cooling, drying climate expanded grasslands worldwide. Forest‑dwelling browsers declined. Grazers equipped with tougher teeth spread.



A functional tipping point followed, reshaping the roles of herbivores again. Grazers and mixed feeders dominated, equipped with both high‑ and low‑crowned teeth. From then on, functional diversity began a long decline, a trend scientists trace onward through the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/quaternary/ple.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a> and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-species-same-ecosystem-structure">Different species, same ecosystem structure</h2>



“It’s like a football team changing players during a match but still keeping the same formation. Different species came into play but they fulfilled similar ecological roles, so the overall structure remained the same,” explained Ignacio A. Lazagabaster of CENIEH in Spain. 



Despite these transformations, the ecosystem backbone remained intact. Even as mastodons, woolly mammoths, and giant rhinos disappeared in the last 129,000 years, the roles they played weren’t lost. 



The network models show that after these extinctions, community configurations, known as continental functional faunas, remained remarkably consistent.



That consistency holds through the last 4.5 million years, reflecting resilience through ice ages and environmental upheavals. Still, the team warns that modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tricking-animals-with-odor-could-save-plants-from-browsing-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> loss is happening much faster - and could trigger a third tipping point before ecosystems can adjust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-transitions-matter-now">Why these transitions matter now</h2>



Functional diversity began declining around 10 million years ago, during the spread of C4 grasses and shrinking forests. As herbivores with specialized teeth rose to dominance, the global count of functional roles dropped by about 65 percent in roughly 5 million years.&nbsp;



The drop intensified around 2.5 million years ago with glacial cycles and major biotic exchanges, like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2987556/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Great American Interchange</a>.



Still, the overall shape of ecosystems held firm. The continents shared similar functional configurations even as roles vanished. But today, the authors caution, biodiversity is receding much faster. They warn that another irreversible reorganization may soon be triggered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivores-and-modern-changes">Herbivores and modern changes</h2>



<a href="https://stri.si.edu/story/hungry-megaherbivores" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Megaherbivores</a>, those weighing more than a ton, have largely vanished. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/proboscidean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proboscideans</a>, which once numbered up to 33 species, now survive as just a handful. Yet scientists estimate that they comprised only about 15-18 percent of functional types in most regions. Their loss reduces ecosystem richness but didn’t break the system.



“We may soon reach a third global tipping point, one that we’re helping to accelerate,” said Juan L. Cantalapiedra of Spain’s <a href="https://www.mncn.csic.es/es" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MNCN</a>.



The study highlights the importance of large herbivores in ecosystem function. Conservation efforts that protect or reintroduce them could help restore key ecological roles lost in recent millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-from-the-fossil-record">Signals from the fossil record</h2>



The fossil record offers a rare, long-term perspective on ecological resilience. By tracking traits like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1349007922000895" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tooth morphology</a> and body size across thousands of extinct herbivores, the researchers built a detailed picture of how animals responded to shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-grazers-secretly-shape-plant-growth-and-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> over time. 



The team's data-driven approach captured how new species stepped into familiar roles, even after dramatic losses. The research reveals a disconnect between species loss and system collapse. 



While many individual species disappeared, their ecological roles often lived on through new players. That buffering capacity is what kept herbivore ecosystems functionally stable for 60 million years. The question now is whether that same resilience can hold under today’s faster pace of change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-roles-of-herbivores">Protecting the roles of herbivores</h2>



Ancient ecosystem changes took thousands to millions of years to unfold. Humans are transforming biodiversity on century scales. This study shows that large herbivore communities can adapt to change - but only up to a point.



If current declines continue, we risk triggering a shift beyond recovery. Protecting the functional diversity of herbivores is as crucial as protecting population numbers. 



Restoring or preserving herbivore populations may help systems stay resilient as conditions continue to change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59974-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Herbivores survived millions of years of change - but now face a modern crisis

A herd of mastodons, rhinoceroses, and giant deer once roamed...

species in Tjaernoeiidae

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