A new study from <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> reveals what is going on inside of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-brain-interactions-have-an-influence-on-diseases/">brain</a> when you get lost in a fictional fantasy. The experts discovered that the more immersed we become in the lives of our favorite characters of fiction, the more our brain activity reflects how much we identify with them.
&#8220;When they think about a favorite fictional character, it appears similar in one part of the brain as when they are thinking about themselves,&#8221; said study lead author Timothy Broom.
The research was focused on self-described fans of the HBO series &#8220;Game of Thrones.&#8221; The individuals were instructed to think about themselves, nine of their friends, and nine characters from the drama series. The participants also reported on which character they felt closest to and liked the most.
According to Broom, Game of Thrones was ideal for this study because it attracted a devoted fan base and the large cast presented a variety of characters that people could become attached to.
One of the key findings involved participants who scored highest on &#8220;trait identification.&#8221; These individuals agreed most strongly with statements like &#8220;I really get involved in the feelings of the characters in a novel.&#8221;
&#8220;People who are high in trait identification not only get absorbed into a story, they also are really absorbed into a particular character,&#8221; said Broom. &#8220;They report matching the thoughts of the character, they are thinking what the character is thinking, they are feeling what the character is feeling. They are inhabiting the role of that character.&#8221;
The researchers used an fMRI machine to measure activity in various parts of the brain through small changes in blood flow. As the participants&#8217; brains were scanned, they were evaluating themselves, their friends, and Game of Thrones characters. 
A part of the brain called the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) is known to show increased activity when people think about themselves and, to a lesser extent, when they think about close friends.
While in the fMRI, the individuals were shown a series of names &#8211; including themselves, friends, or characters &#8211; along with a trait, such as lonely, sad, trustworthy, or smart. The participants simply said &#8220;yes&#8221; or &#8220;no&#8221; to imply whether the trait fit the person.
As expected, the vMPFC was most active when people were evaluating themselves, less active when they evaluated friends, and least active when they evaluated characters from Game of Thrones.
However, among those who were high in trait identification, the vMPFC was more active when they thought about the fictional characters than it was for participants who identified less with the characters. This region of the brain was particularly active when the individuals evaluated the character they identified with the most.
Study co-author Dylan Wanger said the findings help explain how fiction can have such a big impact on some people.
&#8220;For some people, fiction is a chance to take on new identities, to see worlds though others&#8217; eyes and return from those experiences changed,&#8221; said Wagner.
&#8220;What previous studies have found is that when people experience stories as if they were one of the characters, a connection is made with that character, and the character becomes intwined with the self. In our study, we see evidence of that in their brains.&#8221;
The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/scan">Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</a>.
&#8211;&#8212;
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What happens in your brain while you're lost in fiction

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/119/2/e2023340118">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> has found that the mechanisms behind the sense of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-a-smell-transport-us-to-another-place/">smell</a> may be far simpler than previously thought. By studying the olfactory sense of locusts, a research team led by the <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis</a> mapped the neuronal underpinnings behind invariant odor recognition.



“The smell of coffee is the same whether it is smelled in a coffee shop or grocery shop (different backgrounds), on a hot day or a cold day (different ambient conditions), after lunch or dinner (different temporal contexts), or using a deep inhalation or normal inhalation (different stimulus dynamics),” explained the study authors.



“This feat of pattern recognition that is still difficult to achieve in artificial chemical sensing systems is performed by most sensory systems for their survival. How is this capability achieved?”



In order to answer this question, the scientists first trained locusts to associate a specific odor with some of their favorite foods, such as blades of grass. After staying without food for a day, the locusts were exposed to a puff of odor (hexanol or isoamyl acetate), then given a blade of grass. After only six such presentations, the locusts learned to open their palps (the sensory appendages close to its mouth) in expectation of food immediately after smelling the “training odorant.”



The researchers then mapped which neurons were activated when the locusts were exposed to the odorant under different environmental conditions, such as in conjunction to other smells, in humid or dry conditions, or when the locusts were fully fed or starving. Even though the locusts opened their palps every time, different patterns of neurons were activated, depending upon each specific context.



"The neural responses were highly variable," said study senior author Baranidharan Raman, a professor of Biomedical Engineering at Washington University. "That seemed to be at odds with what the locusts were doing, behaviorally."



To understand how variable neural responses produced stable behavior, Professor Raman and his colleagues used a machine-learning algorithm that exploited two functional types of neurons: “ON neurons,” which were activated when an odorant was present, and “OFF neurons,” which fired only after the odor presentation had ended.&nbsp;



"You can think of the ON neurons as conveying 'evidence for' an odor being present, and OFF neurons as 'evidence against' that odor being present," explained Professor Raman.&nbsp;



To recognize the presence of an odorant, the scientists simply needed to add evidence for the odorant being present (add the spikes across all ON neurons), and subtract evidence against the odorant being present (add the spikes across all OFF neurons). If the result was above a certain threshold, the machine learning algorithm would reliably predict that the locust smelled the odor and opened its palps.



“We were surprised to find that this simple approach is all that was needed to robustly recognize an odorant,” Professor Raman concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Locusts have a surprisingly simple way of sensing smells

A new study published in the journal Proceedings of the...

The health benefits associated with exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-nature-affect-human-health-in-urban-areas/">nature</a> are remarkable. Experts have found that spending time in natural environments can enhance memory and mood, reduce stress and anxiety, and improve heart health, among other benefits. 



Many studies have shown that nature and green spaces can make urban environments healthier and improve the well-being of millions of city dwellers. With this goal in mind, researchers at the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> are urging governments to consider nature-based citizen science as part of their public health policies.



"Despite being a named component of scientific and environmental strategies of governments, to our knowledge, the intrinsic health benefits of citizen science in natural environments do not form part of public health policy," wrote the study authors.



"We contend that citizen science programs that facilitate exposure to natural environments in urban areas may represent an important public health policy advance."



The United Nations estimates that 88 percent of the global population will be living in urban areas by the middle of this century. According to UniSA Professor Craig Williams, it is more important than ever to maintain a connection with natural environments.



“Whether you’re watering the garden, taking a stroll around the block, or simply watching the world go by, getting out into nature is good for your health,” said Professor Williams.



“Natural environments can enhance human performance, improve success at work (or school) and are known to provide significant mental, emotional, and physical health benefits."



“Conversely, urbanization can negatively affect human health by increasing the prevalence of allergic, autoimmune, inflammatory, and infectious diseases, with some of these factors contributing to rise in cancers, depression and cardiovascular disease."



“As cities grow, fewer people have access to natural environments, which is part of the reason urban living can be bad for your health."



“Citizen science can change this. Nature-based citizen science projects can motivate people to engage with natural environments. And if they can be orchestrated, organised, and promoted in cities - particularly as part of a public health policy - then we have the potential to improve people’s health through that mechanism.”



Professor Williams pointed out that citizen science can also alleviate stress and isolation. “In as little as 15 minutes in a natural environment, a person can experience lower stress levels as measured by blood pressure, cortisol levels and pulse rate."



He noted that in Australia, the outdoors remains one of the few places where people can safely get together despite the persistent risk of COVID-19.



“Being out and about in nature – whether in person, or by electronic means (as are many of our projects), is a great way to help people stay connected, while also providing them with a purpose, helping them feel like they’re contributing to something, and being part of a community."



“At the same time, they’re discovering great places to go in their city, and hopefully improving their well-being by doing so.”



The paper is published in the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Natural environments play an overlooked role in public health

The health benefits associated with exposure to nature are remarkable....

Observing animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-disrupts-the-behavior-of-fish-shoals/">behavior</a> and ecology in the wild is the basis of conservation planning. However, the cost, time commitment, and danger involved in basic observational work can make it extremely challenging.&nbsp;



Scientists often substitute observations with data collected through biologging devices. These high-tech devices can monitor heart rate, breathing, animal movement, and more. To accurately interpret data from logging devices, statistical analysis is needed. Like other scientific technologies, statistical tools are always evolving. A new study from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> improves on statistical tools used for interpreting data from biologgers.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The thing we really tackled with this paper was trying to get at some of those fine-scale behaviors that aren’t that easy to model,” said study lead author Evan Sidrow, a doctoral student in the UBC Department of Statistics.&nbsp;



“It’s a matter of finding behaviors on the order of seconds - maybe 10 to 15 seconds. Usually, it’s a matter of a whale looking around, and then actively swimming for a second to get over to a new location. We are trying to observe fleeting behaviors, like a whale catching a fish.”



The researchers improved a statistical tool based on a hidden Markov model, which is used to interpret animal movement datasets.



“Traditional hidden Markov models break down at very fine scales,” said Sidrow. “That’s because there’s structure in the data you can’t capture using the basic type of hidden Markov model. We’re trying to capture it with this model - we’re trying to account for this ‘wigglyness' that a traditional hidden Markov model wouldn’t be able to account for.”



Because modern data logging devices collect data almost continuously, an enormous amount of data points are collected in a relatively short period of time. The Markov model has a hard time interpreting such a large amount of data. The new statistical modeling method allows a finer scale look into the data, which produces greater information for conservation planning by decision makers, including those working on orca conservation.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"As a case study, we use this framework to model the fine-scale kinematic movements of a northern resident killer whale ( Orcinus orca) off the western coast of Canada," wrote the study authors.&nbsp; "Through simulations, we show that our model produces more interpretable state estimation and more accurate parameter estimates compared to existing methods."



According to study senior author Dr. Marie Auger-Méthé, the study is one of the first steps on the road to fully understanding why southern resident killer whales are not faring as well as their northern counterparts.



“Using our methods to detect when the animals are catching prey and to model their energy expenditure will be key to understanding the differences between these neighbouring whale populations,” said Dr. Auger-Méthé.



She explained that the next goal is to understand when the whales are capturing prey and applying the models to both northern and southern resident killer whale populations to see how they are behaving differently.



“The paper offers many ‘building block’ solutions that can be used together or independently,” said Dr. Auger-Méthé. “In essence, we are providing a toolbox to researchers using high-frequency movement data, and other similar high-frequency time series.”



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1708945x">The Canadian Journal of Statistics</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New statistical tool could improve killer whale conservation

Observing animal behavior and ecology in the wild is the...

The turning blades on wind turbines and drones make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-linked-to-higher-risk-of-dementia/">noise</a>, as do the airfoils used on planes and helicopters. Most of the nose that arises as an object moves through air originates at the trailing edge as air flowing over and under the object meet. The same is true for the noise that a bird’s wings make as it flies overhead – except, of course, in the case of owls. They are renowned for being able to fly silently.



In&nbsp;a quest to design airfoils that produce less noise pollution, researchers from <a href="http://en.xjtu.edu.cn/">Xi'an Jiaotong University</a> mimicked the characteristics of owl wings to inform a new design of airfoil that significantly reduces the trailing-edge noise. Details of the study are published today in the journal <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/journal/phf">Physics of Fluids</a>.



“Nocturnal owls produce about 18 decibels less noise than other birds at similar flight speeds due to their unique wing configuration,” said study co-author Xiaomin Liu. “Moreover, when the owl catches prey, the shape of the wings is also constantly changing, so the study of the wing edge configuration during owl flight is of great significance.”



When air flows over the top of an airfoil-shaped surface, it forms a layer of turbulence. Similarly, air flowing underneath also forms a layer of turbulence, and these two layers meet at the trailing edge of the structure. When they meet and air flows back through the trailing edge, it scatters and radiates noise.&nbsp;



The wing feathers of owls form a serrated edge at the trailing end of the wing, and this is thought to minimize turbulence and the associated noise. Previous studies have explored the use of serrated trailing edges and found that the serrations effectively reduce the noise of rotating airfoils. However, the noise reduction was not universal, depending heavily on the way in which the airfoil was used.



“At present, the blade design of rotating turbomachinery has gradually matured, but the noise reduction technology is still at a bottleneck,” said Liu. “The noise reduction capabilities of conventional sawtooth structures are limited, and some new non-smooth trailing-edge structures need to be proposed and developed to further tap the potential of bionic noise reduction."



The researchers used noise calculation and analysis software to conduct a series of detailed theoretical studies of simplified airfoils that had characteristics reminiscent of owl wings. They applied their findings to suppress the noise of rotating machinery.



The study showed that improving flow conditions around the trailing edge of the airfoil and optimizing the shape of the edge did suppress the noise. The experts also found that asymmetrical serrations reduced the noise more than symmetrical serrations.&nbsp;



However, the extent of noise reduction varied with different operating conditions, so the scientists emphasized that the airfoil designs should be further evaluated based on the specific application for which they would be used.



For example, wind turbines have complex incoming flow environments that require a more general noise reduction technology. Examining noise reduction techniques under the influence of different incoming flows would make their conclusions more universal.



The researchers believe their work will serve as an important guide for airfoil design and noise control in the future.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Owl wings inspire noise reduction in wind turbines and aircraft

The turning blades on wind turbines and drones make a...

Mammals in general are not able to digest cellulose, the carbohydrate that is found in the cell walls of plant cells. Even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivores-must-be-restored-to-balance-ecosystems/">herbivores</a>, such as cows, horses and elephants do not produce the enzyme that breaks down cellulose. Instead, mammals (including humans) need gut microbes to carry out this function and enable them to access the nutrients found inside plant cells.&nbsp;



Giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) are unusual because they are bears, in the order Carnivora, but their diet consists entirely of bamboo leaves and shoots. Carnivores have short gastrointestinal tracts, geared for digesting animal flesh, and this makes the herbivorous diet of giant pandas even harder to process efficiently. Pandas are thus heavily dependent on the microbes in their guts for breaking down cells in leaves and shoots to make the contents available.



In the wild, pandas feed on fibrous old bamboo leaves for eight months of the year. This diet is poor in nutrients and contains almost no fat. However, during late spring and early summer the bears feed on new shoots that have a higher nutritional value that enables them to gain weight.&nbsp;



Previous research has shown that the gut microbiome of giant pandas changes between the leaf-eating season and the shoot-eating season. However, there has been no research on the effects of these seasonal changes on the body characteristics or physiology of the pandas.&nbsp;



A study published today in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/home">Cell Reports</a> addresses this gap in current understanding and finds that shifts in the gut microbes enable pandas to gain weight and store fat when bamboo shoots are available to eat.&nbsp;



“This is the first time we established a causal relationship between a panda’s gut microbiota and its phenotype,” said study first author Guangping Huang from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>. “We’ve known these pandas have a different set of gut microbiota during the shoot-eating season for a long time, and it’s very obvious that they are chubbier during this time of the year.”



The team of scientists, led by Fuwen Wei at the CAS Institute of Zoology, has been studying wild giant pandas living in the Qinling Mountains in central China for decades. The team collected fecal samples from eight adult pandas during the leaf-eating season (14 samples) and the shoot-eating season (15 samples). These were assessed for the presence and numbers of different types of gut microbes.&nbsp;



Wei says that these wild pandas have distinctly different populations of gut bacteria in the two seasons. In particular, a significantly higher abundance of a bacterium called&nbsp;Clostridium butyricum&nbsp;is present in the gut during the shoot-eating season compared with during the leaf-eating season. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of the short-chain fatty acids in the feces also revealed that the fatty acids butyrate and acetate were present in greater amounts during shoot-eating season.



Although bamboo leaves and shoots contain almost no fat, pandas were able to gain weight and store fat when they preferentially ate shoots. The bacterium C. butyricum produces the fatty acid butyrate as a product of its metabolism in the gut of the pandas, and the scientists were interested in the effects of this fatty acid on panda metabolism.



To investigate whether the change in gut microbiota could affect a panda’s metabolism, the researchers performed a fecal transplant of panda feces, collected in the wild, to the intestinal tracts of germ-free mice. They introduced fecal matter from panda donors during the leaf-eating season into some mice, while other mice received feces collected from pandas during the shoot-eating season. A third group of mice – the control group – received no panda fecal matter.&nbsp; Then they fed the mice for 3 weeks with a bamboo-based diet that simulated what pandas eat. &nbsp;



The experts found that mice transplanted with panda feces collected during shoot-eating season gained significantly more weight and had more fat after 21 days than mice transplanted with feces from leaf-eating season, despite consuming the same amount of food. Further analysis revealed that the fatty acid butyrate, a metabolic product of&nbsp;C. butyricum, could upregulate (enhance) the expression of a gene called&nbsp;Per2, which increases lipid synthesis and storage. Thus, the mice showed the same patterns of seasonal weight gain as the pandas do, indicating the critical role of the gut microbiome in panda metabolism.



Fat storage is important in many animals that eat a nutrient-poor diet. The bamboo eaten by pandas in the wild is deficient in fat but the shoots, eaten in late spring and early summer, contain higher levels of protein and carbohydrate. The gut bacteria in these mammals enables them to use the protein and additional carbohydrates in the shoots, to synthesize lipids that are then available for storage.&nbsp;



Many animals experience a seasonal shift in gut bacteria as a result of changes in food availability. For example, certain species of monkeys have different gut microbiota in summer, when they eat fresh leaves and fruits, compared with that in winter, when they feed on leaves and tree bark. A similar shift has also been observed in the digestive systems of Hadza people, modern hunter-gatherers living in Tanzania, as the type of available food changes through the year.



The researchers plan to investigate and map out more microorganisms in the panda’s gut in future, and to find out how they affect the animals’ health. “Causal research of host phenotype and gut microbiota in wild animals is just beginning. Identifying what bacteria are beneficial for animals is very important, because one day we may be able to treat some diseases with probiotics,” said Huang.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant pandas’ gut bacteria turn nutrient-poor food into fat

Mammals in general are not able to digest cellulose, the...

Scientists estimate that 19 million people in the United States live in so-called “food deserts” – places with low access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-should-eat-the-same-healthy-foods-as-adults/">healthy</a> and nutritious food. In addition, more than 32 million people live below the poverty line, and are forced to buy the cheapest available food, regardless if it is less healthy than other options available in their proximity. 



However, the complex ways in which diet and health are influenced by individual and community characteristics - such as education and food access - are still not fully understood.&nbsp;



An interdisciplinary team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> and <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> has recently completed the largest nationwide study in the United States on the intricate relationship between food environments, demographics, and dietary health.&nbsp;



Using the <a href="https://www.myfitnesspal.com/">MyFitnessPal</a> app, a popular smartphone-based food journaling application, the scientists collected a vast amount of data, spanning over five years.&nbsp;



"Our findings indicate that higher access to grocery stores, lower access to fast food, higher income and college education are independently associated with higher consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables, lower consumption of fast food and soda, and less likelihood of being classified as overweight or obese," reported study lead author Tim Althoff, an assistant professor of Computer Science at the University of Washington.



According to Professor Althoff and his colleagues, previous understanding of the relationship between environment, socioeconomic factors, and diet has been challenged by small sample sizes, single locations, and non-uniform design across studies. By contrast, this new study analyzed data from over 1.1 million users, spanning 2.3 billion food entries, and encompassing more than 9,800 U.S. zip codes.



Scientists discovered that higher educational attainment was the greatest positive predictor of a healthier diet and body mass index (BMI). However, high family income was associated with a marginally higher percentage of people with a BMI verging towards obesity, regardless of their educational status.



As the researchers stress though, these broad, population-level results fail to do full justice to the complexity of individual and community differences. "When we dug into the data further, we discovered that the population-level results masked significant differences in how the food environment and socioeconomic factors corresponded with dietary health across subpopulations," said study co-author&nbsp;Hamed Nilforoshan, a doctoral student in Computational Social Science at Stanford.



Further research is needed to assess whether population-level findings can be applied to smaller communities. “While policies aimed at improving food access, economic opportunity and education can and do support healthy eating, our findings strongly suggest that we need to tailor interventions to communities rather than pursuing a one-size-fits-all approach," concluded study co-author Jenna Hua, a former postdoctoral fellow at Stanford.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27522-y">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Healthy diets linked to education and food access

Scientists estimate that 19 million people in the United States...

Many birds learn their songs in the same way that humans learn a language or dialect –from their parents and neighbors, through mimicry. According to most biologists, this is an uncertain and error-prone method, often resulting in slow but unmistakable changes in the nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-songs-are-used-to-locate-not-attract-other-whales/">songs</a> over the years.



However, new research led by the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> has found that some isolated populations of double-collared East African sunbirds have been singing the same songs - passed down to each new generation - for up to a million years.&nbsp;



The amazingly static nature of their songs may be due to the birds’ unchanging environment. The birds have inhabited so-called sky islands on East African mountaintops since ancient times.



"If you isolate humans, their dialects quite often change; you can tell after a while where somebody comes from. And song has been interpreted in that same way," said study senior author Rauri Bowie, a professor of Integrative Biology at UC Berkeley. "What our paper shows is that it's not necessarily the case for birds. Even in traits that should be very labile, such as song or plumage, you can have long periods of stasis."



According to Professor Bowie and his colleagues, the idea that birdsong changes very often likely arose from studies of Northern Hemisphere birds, which have repeatedly encountered environmental changes, such as glaciers coming and going over the last thousands of years. These changing environmental conditions can cause significant modifications in plumage, song, and mating strategies.



However, since mountaintop environments in the tropics, particularly in East Africa (such as Mount Kenya or Kilimanjaro) have witnessed very little geological change over the millennia, the birds living there faced no evolutionary pressure to change their plumage or songs.



"We are showing, using a really nice setup where we could look at song evolution using naturally isolated populations, that [in East African sunbirds] you don't see this gradual change through cultural or genetic drift at all," Bowie said. "You see these sharp bursts of change in a trait such a birdsong and lots and lots of evidence for stasis, even when that trait should be very plastic. To me, that was a really fascinating result."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.2062">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The song of the East African sunbird may be a million years old

Many birds learn their songs in the same way that...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c04158">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a> has recently assessed the stability of the Earth system based on the impact of the cocktail of synthetic chemicals and other “novel entities” flooding the environment. The experts warn that humanity has exceeded a <a href="https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries/the-nine-planetary-boundaries.html">planetary boundary</a> related to environmental pollutants, placing the Earth and all of its species at risk.



There are over 350,000 different types of human-made chemicals on the global market, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-are-damaging-their-health-by-eating-plastic/">plastics</a>, industrial chemicals, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. The total mass of plastics on the planet is now more than twice the mass of all living mammals, and over 80 percent of all plastics ever produced are still present in the environment.&nbsp;



Since plastics contain roughly 10,000 different chemicals, their environmental degradation creates new and dangerous combinations of materials and, thus, unprecedented environmental hazards. Additionally, significant amounts of other novel entities continuously enter the environment, endangering our planet and its various ecosystems.&nbsp;



“There has been a 50-fold increase in the production of chemicals since 1950. This is projected to triple again by 2050,” said study co-author Patricia Villarubia-Gómez, a doctoral candidate in Sustainability Science at the <a href="https://www.stockholmresilience.org/">Stockholm Resilience Center</a>. “The pace that societies are producing and releasing new chemicals and other novel entities into the environment is not consistent with staying within a safe operating space for humanity.”



“Some of these pollutants can be found globally, from the Arctic to Antarctica, and can be extremely persistent.&nbsp;We have overwhelming evidence of negative impacts on Earth systems, including biodiversity and biogeochemical cycles,” added study co-author Bethanie Carney Almroth, an associate professor of Ecotoxicology at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a>.&nbsp;



“The rate at which these pollutants are appearing in the environment far exceeds the capacity of governments to assess global and regional risks, let alone control any potential problems.”



According to the scientists, these environmental pollutants negatively impact our planet in multiple ways, deteriorating the climate and fresh water sources, helping the spread of invasive species, and increasing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-reach-catastrophic-levels/">antibiotic resistance</a> of various microbes.&nbsp;



“We need to be working towards implementing a fixed cap on chemical production and release,” advised Professor Carney Almroth.&nbsp;“And shifting to a circular economy is really important,” added Villarubia Gómez. “That means changing materials and products so they can be reused not wasted, designing chemicals and products for recycling, and much better screening of chemicals for their safety and sustainability along their whole impact pathway in the Earth system.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Safe planetary boundary for pollutants has been exceeded

A new study published in the journal Environmental Science &amp;...

The Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay is quite threatened, so it’s no surprise that lowland tapirs in this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-exposes-coastal-cities-to-more-deadly-storms/">forest</a> are severely endangered as well. Although tapirs are adaptable and found in a wide variety of habitats across South America, they are still declining in numbers across their range. Lowland tapirs are now found in only 1.78 percent of their original range in the Atlantic Forest.&nbsp;



A new study published in the journal <a href="https://neotropical.pensoft.net/">Neotropical Biology and Conservation</a> warns of the dire need for conservation actions to protect lowland tapirs of the Atlantic Forest. The research was headed up by Dr. Kevin Flesher of Biodiversity Study Center, Michelin Ecological Reserve and Dr. Patrícia Medici of the <a href="https://tapirconservation.org.br/">Lowland Tapir Conservation Initiative</a>.



"Of the 48 tapir populations identified during the study, between 31.3% and 68.8% are demographically unviable (low number of individuals), and between 70.8% and 93.8% of the populations are genetically unviable (low gene flow). Only 3-14 populations are still viable in the long run when both criteria are considered. The evidence suggests that with the appropriate conservation actions, the lowland tapir could be broadly distributed throughout the Atlantic Forest," explained Dr. Flesher.&nbsp;



"Tapirs have low reproductive potential, including a long reproductive cycle with the birth of just one young after a gestation period of 13-14 months and intervals of up to three years between births. Our populational simulations clearly show how, in the case of small populations, even the loss of a single individual per year can result in rapid extinction of an entire local population," added Dr. Medici.&nbsp;



Dr. Flesher spent 15 years visiting 93 reserves in the Atlantic Forest, conducting interviews and analyzing 217 data sets to create a conservation plan for tapirs in the area. Unfortunately, tapirs in the states of São Paulo and Paraná in Brazil - where the largest number of populations remain - are isolated from each other.



"As far as our knowledge goes, there is no evidence of movement of tapirs between these populations," said Dr. Medici.&nbsp;



The fragmented populations aren’t connecting with each other, not because of great distances but the threat from cars involved. "The central problem is the multiple threats they face while crossing the habitat," said Dr. Flesher.&nbsp;



Highways and attendant motor traffic are a huge obstacle and threat to disbursing tapirs. "For example, the heavy traffic on highway BR-101 (which cuts the Brazilian Atlantic Forest from North to South) is a death trap to wildlife. Tapirs often die when attempting to cross it," explained Dr. Medici.&nbsp;



Highway traffic is a significant cause of death for tapirs in six out of eight reservations where highways cross tapir populations. However, the situation seems to call for a small amount of optimism. "Despite these continuing challenges for tapir conservation, most populations appear to be stable or increasing and the conservation outlook for the species is better than several decades ago, when the first efforts to protect the species began," said Dr. Flesher.



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lowland tapirs in the Atlantic Forest are at risk of extinction

The Atlantic Forest of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay is quite...

In collaboration with citizen scientists, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> has identified a giant gas planet that was basically hidden in plain sight. The research, which was presented at the American Astronomical Society virtual press event, describes the discovery of TOI-2180 b, a Jupiter-sized planet located about 379 light-years away from Earth.



"TOI-2180 b is such an exciting planet to have found," said study lead author and UCR planetary astronomer Paul Dalba. "It hits the trifecta of 1) having a several-hundred-day orbit, 2) being relatively close to Earth (379 lightyears is considered close for an exoplanet), and 3) us being able to see it transit in front of its star. It is very rare for astronomers to discover a planet that checks all three of these boxes."



According to Dalba, the new planet is special because it takes 261 days to complete a journey around its star, a relatively long time compared to many known gas giants outside our solar system. The planet should be easy for experts to study in further detail due to its relative proximity to Earth and the brightness of the star it orbits.



NASA's TESS satellite is designed to observe one particular section of the sky for a month, before moving on. The goal is to identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-discover-366-new-exoplanets/">exoplanets</a>, which orbit stars other than the Sun.&nbsp;



"The rule of thumb is that we need to see three 'dips' or transits before we believe we've found a planet," said Dalba. He explained that a single transit event could be caused by a telescope with a jitter, or a star masquerading as a planet.&nbsp;



Former U.S. naval officer Tom Jacobs is a participant in Planet Hunters, a NASA-funded citizen science project run through the online platform Zooniverse.



While examining data collected by TESS, Jacobs and his teammates saw light from the TOI-2180 star dim, just once, and then alerted Dalba.



Using the Automated Planet Finder Telescope at the <a href="https://www.lickobservatory.org/">Lick Observatory</a>, Dalba managed to observe the planet's gravitational tug on the star. This allows him and his colleagues to calculate the mass of TOI-2180 b.



Based on a campaign conducted in August 2021 (which involved about 20,000 images), the researchers estimate that TESS will see TOI-2180 b transit its star again in February, when they are planning a follow up study.&nbsp;



In a press release from NASA, Dalba said that discovering TOI-2180 b was "a great group effort demonstrating that professional astronomers and seasoned citizen scientists can successfully work together."



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/1538-3881">The Astronomical Journal</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Citizen scientists have discovered a giant gas planet

In collaboration with citizen scientists, an astronomer at UC Riverside...

Accidentally trapping marine animals such as sharks, seabirds, turtles, or sea mammals in fishing gear is one of the biggest barriers for making fisheries more sustainable. While <a href="https://marineprotectedareas.noaa.gov/">marine protected areas</a> are aiming to minimize accidental catch, they often prove to be quite inefficient in protecting marine biodiversity, particularly in the case of marine species that are very mobile and constantly travel between these static areas.&nbsp;



According to new research from the <a href="http://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> (UW), “dynamic ocean management,” or the shifting of ocean closures, can be much more effective against accidental catch.



“We hope this study will add to the growing movement away from permanently closed areas to encourage more dynamic ocean management,” said study senior author&nbsp;Ray Hilborn, a professor at the UW <a href="https://fish.uw.edu/">School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences</a>. “Also, by showing the relative ineffectiveness of static areas, we hope it will make conservation advocates aware that permanent closed areas are much less effective in reducing accidental catch than changes in fishing methods.”



Professor Hilborn and his colleagues investigated 15 fisheries around the world, and modelled what would happen both to targeted fish and accidental catches (or “bycatch”) if 30 percent of the fishing grounds were permanently closed, compared with dynamic management. They found that restricting fishing by 30 percent would only diminish bycatch by 16 percent, in contrast to using dynamic closures, which could reduce accidental catch by a staggering 57 percent.



“We found we can significantly reduce bycatch without decreasing the catch of target species by closing small fishing areas that can move year to year,” said study lead author&nbsp;Maite Pons, who completed this article as a UW postdoctoral fellow. “This dynamic approach is increasingly valuable as climate change drives species and fisheries into new habitats, altering these interactions.”



However, the authors acknowledge that, in some cases, static protected areas may remain the best choice. If the main purpose is to protect a critical habitat, a biodiversity hotspot, or a critical feature, static closures might remain most effective and easier to implement. Thus, all conservation goals should be broadly considered before determining which types of ocean protections are best in a specific situation.



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dynamic ocean closures offer protection from accidental catch

Accidentally trapping marine animals such as sharks, seabirds, turtles, or...

Go to any natural history museum, watch any dinosaur movie, and undoubtedly the big bad will be a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flesh-eating-theropods-were-extremely-fast/">theropod</a>. This terrifying, exceptionally toothy group includes Tyrannosaurus, Velociraptor, Allosaurus, and many others. Paleontologists are finally unraveling how the murderous jaws of these predatory dinosaurs evolved.



A new study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a> looked at the lower jaws of over 40 theropod dinosaur species. While the most well-known theropods are big and toothy, they also came in many shapes and sizes. Some were small, and some were, in fact, toothless.&nbsp;



By running the different jaws through computer modeling to test their strength, the researchers found that over the course of their evolution, theropod jaws grew progressively stronger. The predatory dinosaurs expanded the rear, or posterior, portion of their jaws (sideways or laterally), and the mechanical strength increased over the course of their over 100-million year history.&nbsp;



“Although theropod dinosaurs are always depicted as fearsome predators in popular culture, they are in fact very diverse in terms of diets. It is interesting to observe the jaws becoming structurally stronger over time, in both carnivores and herbivores. This gives them the capacity to exploit a wider range of food items," explained study lead author Dr. Fion Waisum Ma of the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>.



"Theropod dinosaurs underwent extreme dietary changes during their evolutionary history of 165 million years. They started off as carnivores, later on evolved into more specialized carnivores, omnivores and herbivores. Studying how their feeding mechanics changed is key to understanding the dietary transitions in other vertebrate animals too.”



While it makes sense that the hypercarnivorous meat-eaters would increase their lower-jaw strength, the herbivorous lineages also developed stronger jaws.&nbsp;



“It is fascinating to see how theropod dinosaurs had evolved different strategies to increase jaw stability depending on their diet," said study co-author Dr. Stephan Lautenschlager. "This was achieved through bone remodeling – a mechanism where bone is deposited in regions of the jaw that experience high stresses during feeding.”&nbsp;



This evolutionary pattern is reflected in the ontogeny, or growth, of the individual animals. For example, juvenile tyrannosaurs possessed proportionally slimmer and downturned jaws compared to adult individuals.&nbsp;



“The similarity between jaw strengthening through growth and through time suggests that developmental patterns in juvenile dinosaurs ultimately affected the evolution of the whole group," concluded Dr. Lautenschlager&nbsp; "This likely facilitated the jaw evolution of theropod dinosaurs and their overall success for over 150 million years.”



---



By <a href="http://mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jaws of predatory dinosaurs grew stronger as they evolved

Go to any natural history museum, watch any dinosaur movie,...

We live in a diverse world with different ecosystems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-habitats-alien-species-threaten-native-trout/">habitats</a>. For centuries, scientists have been studying how flora and fauna interact within these natural communities. Some animals are creatures of habit who frequently eat in the same spots, travel on the same roads, and raise their young in the same places. The term "site fidelity" is used by ecologists to characterize the behavior of animals who are fixed in their routines and tend to return to a previously occupied location. 



The habit of many animals, from fish to birds to mammals and insects, to return to regularly frequented areas. Site fidelity is everywhere in nature, whether it's salmon returning to their native streams to breed or birds returning year after year to the same nest site.



According to a new study, while this "consistent" behavior may be beneficial when environmental conditions aren't changing rapidly, the benefits may not be realized in the ever-changing world dominated by humans. The research was focused on a literature review led by the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a>.



When animals get familiar with a location, site fidelity can help them figure out where to obtain good food or safe havens from predators, as well as how to get to and from these resources quickly. On the other hand, the research team discovered a new trend in the scientific literature.



“Animals that have strong site fidelity are having a tough time adjusting to the novel landscapes that are showing up around them as a result of humans,” said study co-lead author Professor Jerod Merkle.



The researchers pointed out that animals with strong site fidelity may not survive or reproduce as well as animals with more flexible behaviors when faced with human disturbances or climate change. When a population consists of a large number of site loyalists, a population decrease might occur due to the changes in the environment.



For instance, there are numerous mule deer winter ranges in Wyoming. With the addition of large natural gas fields, mule deer can make slight range adjustments to avoid infrastructure, but they stick to the same general area rather than abandoning it completely. The continued use of those damaged places may have detrimental implications. In one long-term study, researchers discovered a 40% drop in the mule deer population following large-scale energy development in their winter area.



Climate change also plays a major role in the adverse impacts on site-fidel animals. Under normal climate circumstances, site fidelity is a winning strategy for female northern elephant seals in the Pacific Ocean. In average years, site-faithful seals are better able to acquire food and gain fat compared to their more flexible cousins. But when aberrant climate events - such as extreme El Nios - induce major changes in the ocean ecology, behaviorally flexible seals win out. Female seals with strong site fidelity are unable to gain as much vital fat as they require to reproduce.



“Despite each of us working on very different species from one another, our group came together because we all recognized that there was a clear connection between strong site fidelity and species declines," said study co-lead author Briana Abrahms, an assistant professor at the University of Washington.



"We all thought it was important to call attention to this connection for other researchers and wildlife managers. Recognizing the types of species or behaviors that may suffer most from human-induced environmental change can help develop conservation priorities and actions."



While the analysis paints a bleak picture of the future for animals with high site fidelity, they also offer hope. The experts noted that occasionally, an animal will try something new and succeed. While such instances are uncommon, those "innovators" can be critical to a company's long-term survival in a changing environment.



"While these species appear to be stuck in their ways, many of them also have some unique but subtle ways of dealing with change,” said study co-author Jonathan Armstrong, an assistant professor at Oregon State University. “We just have to be patient and make sure populations don’t crash before such innovators come along,” Armstrong added.



The researchers offer a number of recommendations for researchers and practitioners towards the end of their paper. To begin, long-term monitoring is essential for determining how individuals and populations react to change. Second, they argue that biologists should not always expect animals to use and discover the optimal habitats. This is especially crucial when it comes to restoring new habitat regions, which may not work well for species with high site fidelity because they may not be able to "discover" these regenerated habitats.



As a result, the study authors propose that, rather than off-site mitigation, the conservation of species with high site fidelity should focus on the protection and restoration of highly frequented locations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.esa.org/frontiers-in-ecology-and-the-environment/">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



---



By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals with strong site fidelity face an uncertain future

We live in a diverse world with different ecosystems and...

Osteoarthritis (OA) affects 45 percent of all cats, and over 90 percent of those older than 12. The condition is caused by the breakdown of cartilage cushion surrounding the joints, which makes the bones rub against each other, leading to chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-our-breathing-rate-increase-when-we-feel-pain/">pain</a> and decreased joint movement.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The traditional medical treatments for cat arthritis consist of animal-specific nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), similar to ibuprofen. These drugs can only be used safely for a short period of time, and cannot be given to cats suffering from kidney disease (which is another very common cat affliction).



However, a new drug manufactured by the company <a href="https://www.zoetis.com/index.aspx">Zoetis</a> has now been approved by the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA). Solensia is a cat-specific monoclonal antibody that is injected by the veterinary under the skin once a month, and appears to be highly effective in diminishing the pains caused by OA and thus improving the animals’ mobility and overall quality of life. In two clinical trials, 77 percent of cat owners saw significant improvements in their pets after treatment with Solensia, compared to 67 percent in the placebo groups.



“Feline (arthritis) pain is typically undertreated because of a lack of effective solutions that are safe to use long-term, along with how difficult it can be for cat owners to administer oral medicines,” said Mike McFarland, chief medical officer at Zoetis. “The approval of Solensia is a significant step forward.”



“This is absolutely groundbreaking,” added Dr. Duncan Lascelles, a professor of Translational Pain Research and Surgery at the North Carolina State College of Veterinary Medicine. “I have been in pain research for 30 years and this is the most exciting development that has happened.”



“To be able to be mobile is so desperately important to the quality of life. Cats are described as needing 3D spaces. They need to move on the ground but they also need to be able to get to elevation.”&nbsp;



“Finally, for the first time ever in the U.S., there’s a highly efficacious treatment to manage joint pain in cats. And therefore extend their life, extend their happiness, and extend that beautiful relationship between cats and their owners,” Dr. Lascelles concluded. &nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Revolutionary treatment greatly extends the lives and happiness of cats

Osteoarthritis (OA) affects 45 percent of all cats, and over...

New research led by a team of biologists from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> has found that California mice eat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-predators-have-outsmarted-monarch-butterflies/">monarch butterflies</a> that fall to the ground. This is despite the fact that these butterflies possess a potent “chemical armor” from eating milkweed with toxic cardenolides. The milkweed toxins build up in their bodies and make monarchs unpalatable to most (but not all) predators.



Scientists have long observed that in Central Mexico, the place with the largest winter aggregations of monarchs, the black-eared mouse (Peromyscus melanotis) eats up to 40 of these butterflies each night. More recently, researchers found that the western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) also consume grounded monarchs at the Pismo State Beach Monarch Butterfly Grove in California.



To study mice-monarch interactions, the researchers first trapped rodents in the grove in February 2020 and screened their feces for monarch DNA, which they found in one sample. The scientists intended to return the next year, but unfortunately, after years of gradual decline, the monarch population finally crashed.



"At a site where 100,000 butterflies used to roost, in 2020 there where were fewer than 200 monarchs. So, we had to change tactics," said study lead author Sara Weinstein, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Utah. "We tested whether rodents would feed on the butterflies using captive-reared monarchs."



Weinstein and her colleagues found that rodents that were offered monarchs ate them, usually favoring high-calorie parts with fewer toxins such as the abdomen or thorax. "Many rodent species are likely to have some resistance to cardenolides in monarchs, due to genetic changes at the site where these toxins bind," explained Dr. Weinstein.&nbsp;



"The Pismo Grove is one of hundreds of western monarch aggregation sites, and it seems likely that, at least in the past, rodents throughout the western monarch range may have supplemented their winter diets with monarchs. If you can handle the cardenolides in a monarch, their bodies are full of fat and offer a pretty good meal."



The massive decline of monarch populations is only one example of an ongoing “insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sixth-mass-extinction-is-currently-in-progress/">apocalypse</a>.” According to Dr. Weinstein, about 40 percent of invertebrate species are currently threatened and over 70 percent of flying insect biomass may already be gone. “This is devastating on its own and is also going to have enormous impacts on the other organisms that feed on insects," Dr. Weinstein said.



"Western monarchs and other western butterflies need conservation attention and part of that awareness-raising is illuminating the many ways these animals are interconnected to other insects, birds, mammals, as well as our human communities. This study helps us appreciate more deeply how fewer butterflies means less food for other native animals," added Emma Pelton, a senior conservation biologist at the <a href="https://www.xerces.org/">Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation</a>.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.3607">Ecology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

California mice can feed on poisonous monarch butterflies

New research led by a team of biologists from the...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a>, researchers have discovered that a type of brightly colored jumping spider is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-had-pops-of-color-like-modern-ducks/">color</a> blind. The study was focused on Saitis barbipes, a common jumping spider found in Europe and North Africa. 



The males of this species have a furry red crown and legs. They are known for performing elaborate courtship dances.



“We assumed they were using color for communication. But we didn’t know if their visual system even allowed them to see those colors,” said study co-first author David Outomuro.



Using microspectrophotometry to examine jumping spiders collected in Slovenia, the team found no evidence of a red photoreceptor. The experts also looked for colored filters that might shift green sensitivity to red, but found that there were none.



The researchers ultimately determined that, most likely, bright red colors appear no different than black markings to these jumping spiders.



"To quantify and visualize whether females may nevertheless be capable of discriminating red from black color patches, we take multispectral images of males and calculate photoreceptor excitations and color contrasts between color patches," explained the study authors&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Red patches would be, at best, barely discriminable from black, and not discriminable from a low-luminance green."



“It’s a bit of a head-scratcher, what’s going on here,” said study co-author Professor Nathan Morehouse. “We haven’t solved the mystery of what the red is doing.”&nbsp;



Even though animals use color in all sorts of ways, including camouflage, it’s not always apparent what bright colors might signify, according to Professor Morehouse. “We spent a lot of time talking about it as a group. What else could it be? I feel there’s an interesting story behind the mystery."



Study senior author Cynthia Tedore, a research associate at the University of Hamburg, said the results of the research were surprising.



“Males have bold red and black coloration on their forward-facing body surfaces which they display during their courtship dances; whereas, females lack red coloration altogether. This initially suggested to us that the red color must play some role in mate attraction," said Tedore.



“Instead, we found that red and black are perceived equivalently, or nearly so, by these spiders and that if red is perceived as different from black, it is perceived as a dark ‘spider green’ rather than red."



The researchers believe that the spider’s red and black colors may possibly improve defensive camouflage.



“For predators with red vision, at natural viewing distances, the spider's red and black color patches should blur together to become an intermediate orangish-brownish color, which would help the spider blend in with its leaf litter habitat better than all-black coloration would,” said Tedore.



The experts noted that there are many colorful jumping spiders that see red perfectly well. There are also many dull-colored spiders that have great color vision.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/114">The Science of Nature</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists find a colorful jumping spider that is color blind

In a new study from the University of Cincinnati, researchers...

A new study from <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> (ANU) creates a stark choice: step up conservation efforts or lose the regent honeyeater, a beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-and-humans-use-similar-speech-patterns/">songbird</a>, within 20 years. The new study reveals that even the current intensive conservation efforts aren’t enough.



“The regent honeyeater population has been decimated by the loss of over 90 per cent of their preferred woodland habitats,” said study lead author Professor Rob Heinsohn.



"Less than 80 years ago, it was one of the most commonly encountered species, ranging from Adelaide to Rockhampton. Now it is on track to follow the dodo into extinction.”



There are currently less than 300 regent honeyeaters left, making it one of Australia’s rarest birds. Habitat destruction forces the remaining honeyeaters to compete with larger birds for less habitat.



In 2015 the ANU researchers began an intensive research project focused on gaining greater understanding of the regent honeyeater’s decline. After years of field work, the scientists discovered that the decline in nest success was due to predation by other bird species and possums.&nbsp;



In the new research, the scientists used their hard won field data to create a population model that predicts the bird’s future population.&nbsp;



“Our models show that current conservation efforts have provided essential life support for the regent honeyeaters, but do not go far enough," said study co-author Dr. Ross Crates. “We were able to isolate the three key conservation priorities necessary to secure the birds’ future."&nbsp;



The first conservation priority the research lays out is a doubling of nest success rates in both wild and zoo bred animals, facilitated by protecting the nests from predators.&nbsp;



Next captive breeding efforts releasing birds into the Blue Mountains must increase and remain steady for twenty years in addition to nest protection.&nbsp;



Lastly, the research emphasizes that the regent honeyeater can only survive into the future if more habitat is preserved and restored.&nbsp;



“Without more habitat, reintroductions and nest protection efforts will be futile, because the flock sizes will never reach the critical mass needed for the birds to breed safely without our protection," said Professor Heinsohn.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Our study provides both hope and a dire warning - we can save these birds, but it will take a lot of effort and resources over a long time to pull it off.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/biological-conservation">Biological Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How can we save the regent honeyeater from extinction?

A new study from Australian National University (ANU) creates a...

According to current scientific knowledge, the history of life on Earth was marked until now by five mass <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-fertilization-led-to-severe-mass-extinction-event/">extinctions</a>, which were caused by natural phenomena and resulted in great global losses of biodiversity. In a new study, a group of biologists from <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa</a> and the <a href="https://www.mnhn.fr/en">National Museum of Natural History</a> in Paris, France, argue that we are currently experiencing a Sixth Mass Extinction which, in contrast to the previous ones, is caused entirely by human activities.



By extrapolating from estimates obtained through the analysis of snail and slug populations, the scientists have shown that, since 1500, the Earth could have lost between 7.5 percent and 13 percent of the approximately two million of known species, thus between 150,000 to 260,000 species.



“Drastically increased rates of species extinctions and declining abundances of many animal and plant populations are well documented, yet some deny that these phenomena amount to mass extinction,” said&nbsp;study lead author Robert Cowie, a research professor of Biosciences at the University of Hawai’i.



“This denial is based on a biased view of the crisis which focuses on mammals and birds and ignores invertebrates, which of course constitute the great majority of biodiversity. Including invertebrates was key to confirming that we are indeed witnessing the onset of the Sixth Mass Extinction in Earth’s history.”



According to Professor Cowie and his colleagues, the situation is not the same everywhere on Earth. Although increasingly more marine species are threatened, the crisis affecting the seas and oceans is not so severe as that impacting the land. Moreover, on land, island species are more affected than continental ones, and a much larger number of terrestrial animals are endangered in comparison to plants.



Unfortunately, this ongoing extinction is denied by most of the people, including key political actors and policy-makers, and while conservation initiatives have been successful for certain charismatic animals, they cannot target all endangered species and reverse the overall thread of extinction.



“Despite the rhetoric about the gravity of the crisis, and although remedial solutions exist and are brought to the attention of decision-makers, it is clear that political will is lacking,” said Professor Cowie. “Denying the crisis, accepting it without reacting, or even encouraging it constitutes an abrogation of humanity’s common responsibility and paves the way for Earth to continue on its sad trajectory towards a Sixth Mass Extinction.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/brv.12816">Biological Reviews</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Sixth Mass Extinction is currently in progress

According to current scientific knowledge, the history of life on...

When wild creatures gather at watering holes, they also bring along their parasites, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a>. The experts report that cattle and elephants have the highest increased risk of exposure to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-primates-go-extinct-so-will-their-parasites/">parasites</a>.&nbsp;



"We think about watering holes as being iconic centers of these majestic animals, but they are also hotspots for the parasites that infect these animals," said study co-author Georgia Titcomb.&nbsp;



The researchers set out to investigate how watering holes may influence the distribution of the parasites across savannas in central Kenya.&nbsp;



The study revealed that parasite density is much higher around water sources compared to the surrounding landscape. The exposure risk varied among animal species, and the results suggest that cattle and elephants have by far the greatest risk. In fact, potential parasite exposure for cattle was 143 times higher, and 67 times higher for elephants.&nbsp;



Titcomb said she expected watering holes to aggregate parasites, leading to higher exposure for hosts. "But we didn't expect quite the degree of variation among different wildlife species. The animals that were most strongly affected, and that really followed our expectations, were ones that are quite water dependent: elephants and cattle."



The researchers also surveyed 17 watering holes and 17 dry locations at the Mpala Research Centre, in central Kenya, as well as three wet and dry sites at Ol Pejeta Conservancy. The team found that in the driest areas and time periods, parasite density around water sources was more than 150 times higher than that of locations without water.



"If a cattle herder wants to reduce the chances that their cattle are exposed to parasites, they may want to avoid grazing their animals within 150 meters of water," said Titcomb.&nbsp;



Next, she hopes to investigate how parasite infections in cattle might affect wildlife. "Because cattle are so numerous, their infection patterns have really strong potential to affect less numerous wildlife in the area."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

When animals flock to watering holes, so do their parasites

When wild creatures gather at watering holes, they also bring...

Many animal species exhibit behaviors that are linked to moon phases. A new study led by <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a> (LSU) and the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> is one of the first to investigate the connections between lunar phases and shark attacks. The findings suggest that more shark attacks occur during fuller phases of the moon.



The researchers analyzed a global shark attack record (<a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/">The International Shark Attack File</a>) collected during over half a century (from 1960 to 2015) and discovered an unmistakable correlation between a large number of these attacks and periods with higher lunar illumination. However, it is not yet clear what the precise cause of this phenomenon is.&nbsp;



“It’s not a matter of more light at night for sharks to see. Most shark attacks occur in the daylight. However, the moon can exert other forces on Earth and its oceans in ways that are much more subtle—for example, the gravitation pull that we see affect the tides,” explained study co-author Steve Midway, an associate professor of Fisheries Ecology and Statistics at LSU.



According to Professor Midway and his colleagues, it is still too early to claim that lunar illumination is a causative factor for shark attacks. Since the relationship between moon phases and shark attacks may not be causal, scientists are not necessarily claiming that there are any immediate risk management benefits arising from these findings. Yet, the study contributes to a better understanding of shark behavior, which could help risk management in the future.



“Ultimately, moon phase and lunar illumination will not likely be a strong predictor that alone can forecast risk of shark attack. Local environmental variables are expected to continue to be more practical information for assessing risk.”&nbsp;



“However, the results here strongly support the idea that moon phase does play a role in overall risk of shark attack, and if future studies are able to consider local and regional environmental conditions along with lunar illumination, both understating shark attacks and forecasting risk may improve,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.745221/full">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shark attacks linked to phases of the Moon

Many animal species exhibit behaviors that are linked to moon...

Eyes are important. They help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-wont-survive-the-loss-of-seed-dispersing-animals/">animals</a> find food and avoid becoming a meal themselves. Eyes also help animals scope out potential mates and watch out for rivals.&nbsp;



Looking into the eyes of a fossil can thus tell you a lot about how the creature once lived. Was the animal nocturnal or diurnal? An active hunter or shy and retiring? Unfortunately, however, eyes are rare fossils and scientists don’t often get an opportunity to look at them.&nbsp;



A research team spent years examining the eyes of a 95-million-year-old fossil crab,&nbsp;Callichimaera perplexa, found in the Colombian Andes. The crab was first described in 2019 by Harvard postdoctoral fellow Javier Luque. The fossil had preserved unusual elements of both the outer eye and internal structures.&nbsp;



In a new study led by Luque and scientists at Yale University, it is suggested that Callichomaera perplexa was a rare, active swimming predator. Much of this conclusion comes from examination of the eyes, which are quite large for those of an adult crab.&nbsp;



To make sure that they were in fact looking at an adult crab rather than an immature stage where eyes appear larger, Yale PhD candidate Kelsey Jenkins examined more than 1,000 crab specimens, both living and extinct. The research involved looking at crabs at different stages of development to finally determine that indeed, Callichomaera perplexa was an adult with exceptionally large eyes.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Having such big and unprotected eyes implies that they were exposed at all times, plus eyes that big impose a huge investment of energy and resources to maintain them. Thus, this animal must have relied considerably on vision,” said Luque.



&nbsp;“If something has eyes this big, they're definitely very highly visual. This is in stark contrast to crabs with tiny, vestigial eyes where they may only be 1 to 3% of the animal's body size,” said Jenkins.



Further research showed that the crab had high visual acuity, comparable to other predators such as dragonflies and mantis shrimp. Its vision was adapted to high light environments, meaning the animal was probably most actively hunting during the day.&nbsp;



“Even though it’s the cutest, smallest crab, the big eyes of Callichimaera and its overall body form with unusually large oar-like legs indicate that it might have been a fierce, swimming predator, rather than a bottom-crawler as most crabs are,” said Luque.



Image Credit: Masato Hattori



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Secrets of a big-eyed crab fossil revealed

Eyes are important. They help animals find food and avoid...

In the past, when climates changed, forests became distributed more to the north or to the south of their previous locations. This is not to say that the trees, themselves, moved. Rather, the ranges of the tree species changed. For example, fossil plant and pollen records show that the ranges of tree species shifted northward at a rate of 50km per century as the climate warmed after the retreat of the North American ice cap.&nbsp;



Tree range migration is facilitated by the movement of seeds. When the climate changes, trees begin to form more seeds; these get spread around by dispersal agents and may germinate in areas that are more favorable for growth. Although wind and water may carry some seeds, the vast majority of trees depend on animals to disperse them to new areas. But now, many of these seed-dispersing animals are themselves threatened, as climate changes and habitats are lost.



In&nbsp;<a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abk3510?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D84587913426847399401258317155412422308%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1641994662">a study</a>&nbsp;featured on the cover of this week’s issue of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, U.S. and Danish researchers consider how the loss of species of birds and animals will impact the ability of plants to adapt to human-induced climate change in future. While animals can often fly, walk, run or swim to more suitable areas, trees cannot escape the heat. Tree species that need to move their offspring away from warmer temperatures will only be able to do so via the activities of seed-dispersal agents, such as mammals and birds.&nbsp;



“Some plants live hundreds of years, and their only chance to move is during the short period when they're a seed moving across the landscape,” said <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> ecologist&nbsp;<a href="https://www.evanfricke.com/">Evan Fricke</a>, the study's first author. “If there are no animals available to eat their fruits or carry away their nuts, animal-dispersed plants aren’t moving very far."



In collaboration with researchers from the University of Maryland, Iowa State University and Aarhus University, the Rice team used machine learning and data from thousands of field studies to map the contributions of seed-dispersing birds and mammals worldwide. They compared maps of seed dispersal today with maps showing what dispersal would look like if there were no human-caused extinctions or species range restrictions.



The experts also used data synthesized from field studies around the world to train a machine-learning model for seed dispersal, and then used the trained model to estimate the loss of climate-tracking dispersal caused by animal declines.



Fricke explained that developing estimates of seed-dispersal losses due to animal and bird extinctions or changes in their ranges required two significant technical advances: “First, we needed a way to predict seed-dispersal interactions occurring between plants and animals at any location around the world."



For this, they used data on species interactions from over 400 field studies that detailed how many seeds are dispersed by particular species of birds and mammals, how far they are dispersed and how well those seeds germinate. Based on this data, the researchers could predict interactions between plants and seed dispersers.



“Second, we needed to model how each plant-animal interaction actually affected seed dispersal,” said Fricke. “For example, when an animal eats a fruit, it might destroy the seeds or it might disperse them a few meters away or several kilometers away.”



The results of the study showed that many seed-dispersing mammals and birds have already been lost, particularly in temperate regions across North America, Europe, South America and Australia. In addition, if currently endangered species go extinct, tropical regions in South America, Africa and Southeast Asia would be severely affected.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We found regions where climate-tracking seed dispersal declined by 95%, even though they’d lost only a few percent of their mammal and bird species,” said Fricke.&nbsp;



The findings showed that the ability of animal-dispersed plants to keep pace with climate change has been reduced by 60% due to the loss of mammals and birds that help such plants adapt to environmental change.&nbsp;



“In addition to the wake-up call that declines in animal species have vastly limited the ability of plants to adapt to climate change, this study beautifully demonstrates the power of complex analyses applied to huge, publicly available data,” said Doug Levey, program director of the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) Directorate for Biological Sciences, which partially funded the work.



Fricke explained that the study is the first to quantify the scale of the seed-dispersal problem globally and to identify the regions most affected. He emphasized that declines in the populations of seed dispersers highlight an important intersection between the climate and biodiversity crises impacting natural environments today.



“Biodiversity of seed-dispersing animals is key for the climate resilience of plants, which includes their ability to continue storing carbon and feeding people,” he said, adding that restoration of ecosystem connections in natural habitats could counteract some declines in seed dispersal, but not all of them. People also rely, both economically and ecologically, on seed-dispersing birds and mammals to ensure the supply of important resources.&nbsp;



“Large mammals and birds are particularly important as long-distance seed dispersers and have been widely lost from natural ecosystems,” said Svenning, the study’s senior author. “The research highlights the need to restore faunas to ensure effective dispersal in the face of rapid climate change.”&nbsp;



“When we lose mammals and birds from ecosystems, we don’t just lose species. Extinction and habitat loss damage complex ecological networks," said Fricke. "This study shows animal declines can disrupt ecological networks in ways that threaten the climate resilience of entire ecosystems that people rely upon.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some plants won't survive the loss of seed-dispersing animals

In the past, when climates changed, forests became distributed more...

Bald eagle populations have steadily increased in recent decades, after the use of DDT was banned in 1972. However, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, this rebound is currently weakened by the threat of lead <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poisonous-frogs-warmer-temperatures/">poisoning</a> from gunshot ammunition.&nbsp;



Despite increasing numbers of bald eagles, lead poisoning from eating dead carcasses or parts contaminated by lead ammunition has reduced eagle population growth by 4 to 6 percent annually in the Northeast United States.



“Even though the population seems like it’s recovered, some perturbation could come along that could cause eagles to decline again,” said study senior author Krysten Schuler, an assistant professor in the <a href="https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments/public-ecosystem-health">Department of Public and Ecosystem Health</a> at Cornell University.



Besides being potentially threatened by habitat loss, climate change, or the West Nile virus and other viral or bacterial outbreaks, bald eagles are increasingly affected by current hunting practices. Many hunters “field dress” game they shot with lead ammunition, leaving contaminated organs where the animal was killed. Bald eagles are scavenging such carcasses, often consuming bullet fragments that later on cause lead poisoning.



Although bald eagle numbers nearly <a href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2021/03/bald-eagle-count-quadruples-thanks-part-ebird-data-boost">quadrupled</a> in the lower 48 states between 2009 and 2021, reaching about 316,000, the current findings on the dangers of lead poisoning raise alarms among scientists and conservationists.



“Hopefully, this report will add information that compels hunters, as conservationists, to think about their ammunition choices,” said Professor Schuler. In her view, a better alternative would be the use of copper-based ammunition.



Bald eagles are not the only species endangered by these hunting practices. Trail cameras have repeatedly shown that owls, crows, bears, foxes, coyotes, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fisher-populations-will-struggle-to-survive-increasing-wildfires/">fishers </a>also scavenge the remains left by hunters.



“We haven’t collected data on these other species in the same way that we pay attention to eagles," said Professor Schuler. "We’re putting eagles out there as a poster species for this issue, but they’re not the only ones being impacted."



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.22177">Journal of Wildlife Management</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bald eagles are threatened by poisoning from lead ammunition

Bald eagle populations have steadily increased in recent decades, after...

The world's largest fish breeding area has been discovered in the Antarctic Weddell Sea. Using an advanced underwater camera system, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> found what is estimated to be 60 million icefish nests near the Filchner Ice Shelf.&nbsp;



The colony represents a fish biomass of more than 60,000 tons, or over 135 million pounds. According to the study authors, their findings provide support for the establishment of a Marine Protected Area in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean.&nbsp;



The researchers towed a camera system and photographed the massive breeding site. The photographs suggest that the icefish nests cover about 240 square kilometers, which is roughly the size of the island of Malta.&nbsp;



"The idea that such a huge breeding area of icefish in the Weddell Sea was previously undiscovered is totally fascinating," said study lead author Autun Purser, a deep-sea biologist at the AWI Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research.



Since the early 1980s, AWI scientists have been exploring the Weddell Sea with Polarstern, a German research icebreaker. Prior to this study, the team had only detected small clusters of nests.



The observations were made using the Ocean Floor Observation and Bathymetry System (OFOBS), a camera sledge built to survey the ocean floor in extreme conditions.&nbsp;



"After the spectacular discovery of the many fish nests, we thought about a strategy on board to find out how large the breeding area was - there was literally no end in sight. The nests are three quarters of a metre in diameter - so they are much larger than the structures and creatures, some of which are only centimeters in size, that we normally detect with the OFOBS system," said Purser.&nbsp;



"So, we were able to increase the height above ground to about three metres and the towing speed to a maximum of three knots, thus multiplying the area investigated. We covered an area of 45,600 square metres and counted an incredible 16,160 fish nests on the photo and video footage."



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Low-Res_20210216_FishnestsWeddellSea_PS124_AWI_OFOBS_Team_003.jpg.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1900975"/><figcaption>Image Credit: AWI OFOBS Team</figcaption></figure>



Based on the images, the round fish nests were about 15 centimeters deep and 75 centimeters in diameter, and were clearly distinguishable from the muddy seafloor.



The team found several types of nests, including active nests that contained an average of 1,700 eggs. About 75 percent of the time, these active nests were guarded by an adult icefish. Overall, about 100,000 nests were captured on film, and many of them were unused.&nbsp;



Further research is needed, but the experts speculate that the colony is an important source of food for predators such as Weddell seals.



“A great many Weddell seals spend much of their time in close proximity to the fish nests,” said Purser. “We know this from historical tracking data and fresh tracking data from our cruise. The nests are exactly where the warmer water is upwelling. These facts may be coincidence, and more work is needed, but the recorded seal data show seals do indeed dive to the depths of the fish nests, so may well be dining on these fish."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists have found the world's largest fish breeding site

The world's largest fish breeding area has been discovered in...

Newborn dairy calves are most often housed separately from each other after being removed from their mothers. Farmers state that keeping calves separate reduces the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-food-diets-linked-to-rise-in-autoimmune-diseases/">disease</a> transmission, prevents the calves from suckling on one another, and enables more careful feeding and monitoring of individual calves during the first weeks or months of their lives.&nbsp;



Approximately 75 percent and 60 percent of preweaning dairy calves in the United States and Europe, respectively, are housed individually, despite the growing criticisms of this practice in terms of its impacts on calf behavior, welfare and health. The alternative of raising young calves in social groups has, however, received increasing support from scientific quarters and from the concerned public.&nbsp;



A new study published this week in <a href="https://www.jdscommun.org/">JDS Communications</a>, the journal of the American Dairy Science Association, quantifies the motivation of socially naive calves to seek companionship with another calf, when they have the choice.&nbsp;



“Past behavioral studies have indicated that lack of social interaction can negatively affect calves’ feed intake, social skills, coping abilities, and cognitive performance,” stated lead investigator Dr. Marina von Keyserlingk. “However, previous studies on social motivation among young cattle have not addressed the first six to eight weeks of life, when individual housing is the most common.”&nbsp;



In the study, 10 male Holstein calves (average age 5.4 days) were separated into pairs, one of each pair being termed the “subject” while the other was the “partner.” Each pair was housed in a facility consisting of a central home pen with adjacent pens to the left and the right. Pens were separated by one-way push-gates made of plexiglass sheets. After the morning feed of milk, the subject was placed in the central pen, the partner was randomly allocated (by coin toss) to one of the side pens, and the other side pen was left empty.



For 15 days, the calves were checked twice daily at the time of milk feeding (approximately 0800 and 1600 h). At that time, the subject would be found in the central pen, or could have pushed his way through the door into a side pen, either the one containing the partner calf, or the one that was empty. The push-gates swung closed after a calf passed through and would not open in the opposite direction. The subject was returned to the central pen at feeding time.



Each time the subject had pushed his way into one of the side pens, the weight of the gate into that side pen would be increased. This meant that gates were relatively light to push open at the start of the study, when calves were learning the system, but they became more difficult to push as the experiment continued. The maximum weight pushed and number of pushes by each subject calf over the 15-day trial were recorded separately for the two side pens.&nbsp;



“Each time the test calf pushed open the gate to access a side pen, he would remain in it until the next milk feeding (approximately 0800 and 1600 h), at which time he was returned to the central home pen,” explained Dr. von Keyserlingk. “After each successful pushing event, additional weight was added to the gate – initially a small amount, then incrementally higher.”&nbsp;



With this design, the researchers were able to quantify the motivation of the young calves to access company in the form of the partner calf. No prior training of the subject calf was necessary, and the calves learned quickly how to open the gates after first coincidentally pushing a gate open as they investigated it.



The researchers found that, of the 10 calves tested, 8 pushed more weight for the pen on the social side, 1 pushed more for the empty side, and 1 pushed the same weight for both sides. Over the 15-day trial, calves pushed gates weighing, on average 1.0 kg more in order to access the social pen. All calves but one opened a gate on the first day of testing, with the remaining calf pushing a gate open for the first time on the third day.&nbsp;



The results indicate that young calves are motivated to seek full social contact, even when they have to work harder to achieve this. They are clearly social animals and derive benefit from contact with other calves.&nbsp;



A recent U.S. survey found that approximately half the participants considered individual housing of calves unacceptable, often mentioning the lack of socialization as a major issue. The results of the current study add to the body of research evidence that highlights the importance of social contact for calves.&nbsp;



The authors also note that the testing method used in this study did not require training, but calves quickly learned to use the gates on their own, suggesting that this task could be readily used to assess spontaneous motivation in other situations as well.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dairy calves prefer to be housed with a companion

Newborn dairy calves are most often housed separately from each...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">University of Columbia</a> and the <a href="https://www.wild-tiger.org/">Wild Tiger</a> non-profit organization has found that the United States plays a much greater role in illegal tiger parts trade than previously thought. While most of the studies on tiger trafficking patterns focused on 13 Asian countries, the new findings show that the United States was responsible for almost half of the global illegal tiger trade between 2003 and 2012.



Tigers are an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/switching-to-solar-energy-affects-endangered-florida-panthers/">endangered</a> species, with less than 5,000 specimens estimated to remain in the wild. Illegal trade in tiger parts (mostly for medicinal purposes) plays a significant role in threatening tiger populations worldwide.



While China has been and remains the main destination and consumer of tiger parts, data from the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services</a> shows that the United States’ import seizures of tiger parts between 2003 and 2012 represented a staggering 46.8 percent of total global seizures.



“People in the U.S. have this false notion that the illegal trade in tiger parts is half a world away. In reality, we in the U.S. are involved in and driving a large portion of the illegal trade,” said study lead author Sarika Khanwilkar, a Ph.D. candidate at Columbia University and the founder of the non-profit&nbsp;organization Wild Tiger. “This research is a step to better understand the role of the U.S. in the global tiger trade, which will improve policy and enforcement and direct future research efforts.”



According to Khanwilkar and her colleagues, there were 292 seizures of tiger parts illegally entering the United States between 203 and 2012, the majority of them being imported from China (34.2 percent) and Vietnam (29.5 percent). However, since the use of digital platforms to trade illegal wildlife products has increased, and economic prosperity has expanded demand, the current study may underestimate the full scale of illegal tiger parts trafficking in the United States.



In order to better monitor the source and trafficking routes of tiger parts, the researchers propose enhancing detection efforts in main hotspots for illegal tiger imports such as San Francisco, Dallas, and Atlanta. They also recommend using forensic DNA analysis to determine the origin and source (wild or captive) of the tiger parts and thus help providing guidance on where to focus conservation and enforcement efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.622">Conservation Science and Practice</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The U.S. plays a major role in the illegal tiger trade

New research led by the University of Columbia and the...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.rsmas.miami.edu/">University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science</a> has found that the locations and timing of tiger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-important-deserve-protections/">shark</a> movements in the western part of the North Atlantic Ocean have shifted due to rising ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-could-severely-affect-the-fishing-industry/">temperatures</a> caused by climate change. By pushing tiger sharks outside of protected areas, these climate-induced factors make the animals more vulnerable to commercial fishing.&nbsp;



The tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) is the largest cold-blooded predator in tropical and warm-temperate seas and oceans. While waters off the United States’ northeast coast have historically been too cold for these fierce predators, recent increases in ocean temperatures have made them suitable.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag, the director of the University of Miami’s <a href="https://sharkresearch.rsmas.miami.edu/">Shark Research and Conservation Program</a>. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



Professor Hammerschlag and his colleagues analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, together with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/document/cooperative-shark-tagging-program">Cooperative Shark Tagging Program</a>, in order to assess how changes in water temperatures affected shark habitats and movements.



They found that during the last decade (when ocean temperatures were the warmest on record), for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. Moreover, they also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



According to the scientists, these results have greater ecosystem implications. “Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16045">Global Change Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiger shark migrations are shifting as temperatures rise

A new study led by the University of Miami Rosenstiel...

Thailand is often overlooked in terms of its natural beauty and biodiversity, even as its natural environments face the threats of development that loom everywhere in the world. Illustrating this point is the discovery of a new genus of tarantula that lives inside of bamboo stalks.



Dr. Narin Chomphuphuang, an arachnologist at Khon Kaen University, explained the context of the discovery. “Few people realize how much of Thailand's wildlife remains undocumented. Thai forests now cover only 31.64% of the country's total land area. We are primarily on a mission to research and save the biodiversity and wildlife within these forests from extinction, especially species-specific microhabitats.”



The tarantula was first found by JoCho Sippawat, a famous Thai wildlife YouTuber, who later teamed up with Dr. Chomphuphuang. The pair also collaborated with Chaowalit Songsangchote of Kasetsart University, who formally described the newly discovered tarantula.



The scientists named the spider Taksinus bambus, the generic name honors the Thai king Taksin the Great, who was once governor of Tak province - where the tarantula was found. Bambus is in reference to the arachnids' curious way of living in bamboo, something never before seen in a tarantula.&nbsp;



The spiders themselves do not create holes or cracks in bamboo stalks but instead rely on other animals such as bamboo worms, carpenter beetles or rodents to do this work. Once the spider moves into a bamboo stalk, the animal lines the new home with silk.&nbsp;



There are other arboreal tarantulas found in southeast Asia, but this is the first to be discovered in northern Thailand. It’s also unusual because it specializes in one particular type of plant.



&nbsp;“We examined all of the trees in the area where the species was discovered. This species is unique because it is associated with bamboo, and we have never observed this tarantula species in any other plant. Bamboo is important to this tarantula, not only in terms of lifestyle but also because it can only be found in high hill forests in the northern part of Thailand, at an elevation of about 1,000 m. It is not an exaggeration to say that they are now Thailand's rarest tarantulas,” said Dr. Chomphuphuang.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/">ZooKeys</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Image Credit: JoCho Sippawat

New tarantula found in Thailand lives in bamboo stalks

Thailand is often overlooked in terms of its natural beauty...

A study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-03599-9">Nature Scientific Reports</a> reveals fascinating new details about Struthiosaurus austriacus, a relatively small nodosaurid from the Ankylosaur family that lived in the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-pterosaurs-were-fierce-competitors-in-the-late-cretaceous/">Cretaceous</a>. The experts report that the dinosaur had a lonesome lifestyle due to its inferior sense of hearing and sluggish movement.&nbsp;



Ankylosaurs are a group of herbivorous dinosaurs that grew up to eight meters and had bodies cluttered with bony plates and spikes, resembling “living fortresses.” Some of their most representative members, such as ankylosaurids, has a club tail, while nodosaurids were famous for their elongated spikes on their necks and shoulders.



While many dinosaurs were rather gregarious creatures, living in social groups, at least some ankylosaurs seemed to prefer a lonesome life. By studying with a high-resolution computer tomograph the fossil braincase of a specimen discovered near Muthmannsdorf, a town south of Vienna, Austria, a team of paleontologists led by the <a href="https://www.uni-greifswald.de/">University of Greifswald</a> and <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a>, has found that Struthiosaurus austriacus most probably had significant difficulties in locomotion and audition, which made it less prone to social interaction.



The dinosaur’s flocculus, an evolutionary old part of the brain responsible for the fixation of the eyes during motions of the head, neck, and body was very small. Together with the extremely short lagena (the part of the inner ear where hearing takes place), this feature suggests that the dinosaur probably had an exceptionally sluggish lifestyle compared to other species.&nbsp;



“In contrast to its Northamerican relative Euoplocephalus, which had a tail club and a clear flocculus on the brain cast, Struthiosaurus austriacus may have rather relied on its body armor for protection,” said study lead author Marco Shade, a paleontologist at the University of Griefswald.



“The short anterior and angular lateral semicircular canals, combined with the relatively shortest dinosaurian cochlear duct known so far and the lack of a floccular recess suggest a rather inert lifestyle without the necessity of sophisticated senses for equilibrium and hearing in&nbsp;S. austriacus. These observations agree with an animal that adapted to a comparatively inactive lifestyle with limited social interactions,” concluded the study authors.



Image Credit: © Fabrizio De Rossi



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Late Cretaceous dinosaur was sluggish and nearly deaf

A study published in the journal Nature Scientific Reports reveals...

Florida is rapidly increasing the installation of utility-scale solar energy (USSE) facilities, aiming to decrease greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-greenhouse-emissions-rebounded-in-2021/">emissions</a> and mitigate climate change. Over the next decade, the solar capacity of the state is expected to increase from 1,743 to 12,537 megawatts. However, the expansion of sustainable energy comes with a cost: the installation of USSE facilities may significantly impede the habitats and movements of an already endangered species, the Florida panther.



This magnificent animal once ranged throughout the entire southeastern United States. Today, it is restricted to roughly five percent of its historical range in South Florida. The panthers need corridors for dispersal and have extremely large home ranges of up to 200 square miles. Their survival relies on their ability to move unimpeded from one protected area to another through wildlife corridors.



By using panther radio-telemetry data collected by the <a href="https://myfwc.com/">Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission</a> (FWC) from 1981 to 2020, a research team led by <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) analyzed the impact the installation of USSE facilities may have on panther habitat suitability and mobility. The scientists found nine facilities located within major corridors currently used by Florida panthers, as well as over 20 other facilities that may impede to some degree the animals’ core habitats and dispersal areas.



“Our study suggests that in the drive to shift our energy production to carbon neutral sources, while maintaining maximum profitability, wildlife outside human dominated landscapes with large ranges and dispersal potentials may be pushed into less favorable habitat or cut off completely from available habitat by degradation of corridors,” said study senior author Olena V. Leskova, a doctoral student in Geosciences at FAU.



“Formally protecting and enhancing the remaining corridors between core areas at the landscape-scale will potentially ameliorate, or mitigate, the impacts already evident after installation of some facilities, and may prevent foreseeable impacts with additional planned facilities,” added study co-author Scott H. Markwith, a professor of Geosciences at FAU.



“Restoring dispersal corridors and gene flow throughout Peninsular Florida is critical to the Florida panther, its prey, and ancillary species that benefit from a connected Florida ecosystem. This, in turn, will benefit biodiversity and species resiliency at the landscape-scale.”



The researchers expect other species, such as gopher tortoises, Florida scrub jays, eastern indigo snakes, Florida black bears, or Florida burrowing owls, to be affected by the building of these large facilities in parts of their territories too.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Switching to solar energy affects endangered Florida panthers

Florida is rapidly increasing the installation of utility-scale solar energy...

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