Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Pterodroma aterrima NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Pterodroma aterrima The U.S. Fish an<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1656eca93af342bcb4d467915a50d7a5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1337j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">d Wildlife</a> Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 40,000 to 17,000

Pterodroma aterrima

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Pterodroma axillaris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=03f0d6c9a8754b2d840f9b3a7b296609&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.931j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The Chatham petrel or ranguru is a medium-sized, grey, white and black gadfly petrel. It is endemic to the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, and until recently was restricted to the 218-hectare Rangatira or South-East Island.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Chatham petrel is a medium-sized petrel with a mottled dark-grey and white forehead, dark grey back and upper wings, and white underparts. A black diagonal bar extends from the leading edge of underwing to a black ‘armpit’. The shoulders and upper-wing <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Covert%20feather%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">coverts</a> are a deeper grey giving a dark M pattern across the spread upper wings.

The bill is black and strongly hooked tip. The eye is dark, and the legs and feet are pink, with dark outer toes and webs. The sexes are alike.

Pterodroma axillaris

Pterodroma axillaris NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pterodroma cahow NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. The <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=bermuda&amp;cvid=0d81ea6387c840aab0d80177102e5b5b&amp;aqs=edge.0.0l7.1013j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Bermuda</a> petrel is a gadfly petrel. Commonly known in Bermuda as the cahow, a name derived from its eerie cries, this nocturnal ground-nesting seabird is the national bird of Bermuda and can be found pictured on Bermudian currency. It is the second rarest seabird on the planet and a symbol of hope for nature conservation. They are known for their medium-sized body and long wings. The Bermuda petrel has a greyish-black crown and collar, dark grey upper-wings and tail, white upper-tail coverts and white under-wings edged with black, and the underparts are completely white.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pterodroma cahow

Pterodroma cahow NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pterodroma madeira NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=03f0d6c9a8754b2d840f9b3a7b296609&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.931j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. Zino's petrel or freira is a species of small seabird in the gadfly petrel genus, endemic to the island of Madeira. This long-winged petrel has a grey back and wings, with a dark "W" marking across the wings, and a grey upper tail. The undersides of the wings are blackish apart from a triangle of white at the front edge near the body, and the belly is white with grey flanks. It is very similar in appearance to the slightly larger Fea's petrel, and separating these two Macaronesian species at sea is very challenging. It was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the soft-plumaged petrel, P. mollis, but they are not closely related, and Zino's was raised to the status of a species because of differences in morphology

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The gadfly petrels in the genus Pterodroma are seabirds of temperate and tropical oceans. Many are little-known, and their often similar appearance have caused the taxonomy of the group to be rather fluid. The forms breeding in Macaronesia on Madeira, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Bugio%20Island%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Bugio</a> in the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Desertas%20Islands%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Desertas Islands</a>, and in the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Cape%20Verde%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Cape Verde</a> archipelago were long considered to be subspecies of the Southern Hemisphere soft-plumaged petrel, P. mollis, but mitochondrial DNA analysis, and differences in size, vocalisations, breeding behaviour, showed that the northern birds are not closely related to P. mollis

Pterodroma madeira

Pterodroma madeira NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pterodroma magentae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pterodroma magentae ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=03f0d6c9a8754b2d840f9b3a7b296609&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.931j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The magenta petrel, or Chatham Island tāiko, is a small seabird in the gadfly petrel genus, Pterodroma. Found exclusively on Chatham Island, New Zealand it is one of the rarest birds in the world, believed to be extinct for over 100 years before its rediscovery in the 1970s.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.
<ul class="b_vList b_divsec">
 	<li data-priority="">
<div>This medium-sized petrel has a brownish-grey head, neck, and upper breast, with white underparts. The undersides of the wings are brown. It has a black bill and pink legs. Adults weigh 400–580 g. The bird nests in 1–3 m long burrows under dense forest. They form long-term monogamous pair bonds, raising one egg at a time, and both partners incubate the egg and feed the chick. The breeding season is between September and May, during which time the birds forage over the open ocean.</div></li>
</ul>

Pterodroma magentae

Pterodroma magentae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pterodroma phaeopygia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. The Galápagos petrel is one of the six endemic seabirds of the Galápagos. Its scientific name derives from Ancient Greek: Pterodroma originates from pteron and dromos, meaning "wing" and "runner", and phaeopygia comes from phaios and pugios, meaning "dusky" and "rump". Members of Pterodroma genus are also called the gadfly petrels because their erratic twisting and turning in flight resemble that of gadflies.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=03f0d6c9a8754b2d840f9b3a7b296609&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.931j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Galápagos and Hawaiian petrels are very similar. They are large, long-winged gadfly petrels with an overall dark-gray topside which darkens gradually towards the tip of the wings and tail. A narrow white line on each side of their rump is often present. The species are also characterized by a distinct black hood that extends to the sides of their neck. In contrast, their face and underparts are white,

Pterodroma phaeopygia

Pterodroma phaeopygia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pterodroma sandwichensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pterodroma sandwichensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=03f0d6c9a8754b2d840f9b3a7b296609&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.931j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The birds nest in <a class="mw-redirect" title="Burrow nest" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrow_nest">burrows</a> or rock crevices. The breeding extends from March to October. The female lays one white egg. When the chick hatches, the parents go out to sea and feed during the day, and return only at night. They pass their food on to the chicks by means of regurgitation. The chicks are charcoal-gray colored and were considered a delicacy by early Hawaiians. Scientists previously thought that the petrels remained relatively close to shore during the breeding season. New research employing microwave <a title="Telemetry" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry">telemetry</a> shows that the birds travel as far as <a title="Alaska" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska">Alaska</a> and <a title="Japan" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan">Japan</a> during two-week-long feeding trips.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.  The endangered ʻuaʻu are around 16 inches long and have a 36-inch wingspan. Their head, wings and tail are a sooty color with a slightly paler back and their forehead and underparts are white with a short tail. They are usually only seen near land during their breeding season (March to October). where they nest in burrow colonies after dark.

Pterodroma sandwichensis

Pterodroma sandwichensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pteronura brasiliensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pteronura brasiliensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=13b1d1ef5fa544a5b4a5ebc5ef530df5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.698j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pteronura brasiliensis

Pteronura brasiliensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pteropus mariannus mariannus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=3c8a34fa078f484992a21f2a67c91086&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j0l6.620j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Mariana fruit bat is a mid-sized bat which weighs 0.6 to 1.1 lb (270 to 500 g), and has a forearm length of 5.3 to 6.1 in (13.4 to 15.6 cm). Males of the species are slightly larger in size than the females. Their abdomens are colored from black to brown, while also having gray hairs. The mantle and the neck are a brighter brown to golden brown color and the head varies from brown to black

The Mariana fruit bat (Pteropus mariannus), also known as the Mariana flying fox, and the fanihi in Chamorro, is a megabat found only in the Mariana Islands and Ulithi (an atoll in the Caroline Islands). Habitat loss has driven it to endangered status, and it is listed as threatened by the US <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=3c8a34fa078f484992a21f2a67c91086&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j0l6.620j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service. Poachers and food hunters, other animals, and natural causes have led to the decline.

Pteropus mariannus mariannus

Pteropus mariannus mariannus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Pteropus rodricensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pteropus rodricensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=fce417056c8243339e1ac7586a553780&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1303j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Rodrigues flying fox or Rodrigues fruit bat is a species of bat in the family Pteropodidae, the flying foxes or fruit bats. It is endemic to Rodrigues, an island in the Indian Ocean belonging to Mauritius. Its natural habitat is tropical lowland forests. The bats are sociable, roost in large groups during the day and feed at night, squeezing the juice and flesh out of fruits. They are hunted by humans for food and their numbers have been dwindling, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated the species as being "endangered". In an effort to preserve them from extinction, some bats have been caught and are being bred in various zoos around the world. It is a sociable species which lives in large groups. It can reach 350 g in weight and has a wingspan of 90 cm. At night, the bats forage in dry woodland for fruit of various trees, such as <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Tamarind%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">tamarinds</a>, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Syzygium%20jambos%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">rose-apples</a>, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Mango%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">mangoes</a>, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Arecaceae%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">palms</a>, and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ficus%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">figs</a>. Like many other fruit bats, they squeeze out the juices and soft pulp, rarely swallowing the harder parts. Observations in captivity show each dominant male gathers a harem of up to ten females, with which he roosts and mates. Subordinate and immature males tend to roost in another part of the camp.

Pteropus rodricensis

Pteropus rodricensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pteropus tokudae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=03f0d6c9a8754b2d840f9b3a7b296609&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.931j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Guam flying fox, also known as the little Marianas fruit bat, was a tiny megabat from Guam in the Marianas Islands in Micronesia that was confirmed extinct due to hunting or habitat changes. It was first recorded in 1931 and was observed roosting with the larger and much more common Mariana fruit bat. The last specimen was a female found roosting at Tarague cliff in March 1967, but it escaped capture. An unconfirmed sighting took place sometime during the 1970s and no other individuals have been sighted since then.

Pteropus tokudae

Pteropus tokudae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ptychobranchus greenii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. The triangular kidneyshell is a species of freshwater mussel, in the family Unionidae, the river mussels. It is endemic to Alabama in the United States, where it is known from several rivers and streams in the Mobile River Basin. It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

ITIS Reports -- Ptychobranchus greenii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=03f0d6c9a8754b2d840f9b3a7b296609&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.931j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The triangular kidneyshell (Ptychobranchus greenii) is a species of freshwater mussel, in the family Unionidae, the river mussels. It is endemic to Alabama in the United States, where it is known from several rivers and streams in the Mobile River Basin.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Ptychobranchus greenii

Ptychobranchus greenii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ptychobranchus jonesi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Common names Southern kidneyshell in English southern kidneyshell in English Southern kidneyshell in English Bibliographic References. Graf, Daniel L., and Kevin S. Cummings, 2007: Review of the systematics and global diversity of freshwater mussel species

ITIS Reports -- Ptychobranchus jonesi ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=fce417056c8243339e1ac7586a553780&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1303j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The southern kidneyshell is a species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Unionidae, the river mussels. This species is endemic to the United States. Ptychobranchus jonesi (van der Schalie, 1934) The southern kidneyshell ( Ptychobranchus jonesi ) is a species of freshwater mussel , an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Unionidae , the river mussels.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Ptychobranchus jonesi

Ptychobranchus jonesi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ptychobranchus subtentum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Ptychobranchus subtentum, also known as the fluted kidneyshell, is a species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Unionidae, the river mussels. This species is endemic to the drainages of the Cumberland River and the Tennessee River in the United States. Ptychobranchus subtentum, also known as the fluted kidneyshell, is a species of freshwater mussel, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in the family Unionidae, the river mussels.
This species is endemic to the drainages of the Cumberland River and the Tennessee River in the United States.

ITIS Reports -- Ptychobranchus subtentum ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=fce417056c8243339e1ac7586a553780&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1303j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

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Ptychobranchus subtentum

Ptychobranchus subtentum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ptychocheilus lucius NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Ptychocheilus lucius ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe

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Ptychocheilus lucius

Ptychocheilus lucius NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ptychocheilus lucius NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Ptychocheilus lucius ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1656eca93af342bcb4d467915a50d7a5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1337j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pudu pudu NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1656eca93af342bcb4d467915a50d7a5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1337j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pudu pudu

Pudu pudu NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Puffinus auricularis newelli NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=1656eca93af342bcb4d467915a50d7a5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l5.1337j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Puffinus auricularis newelli

Puffinus auricularis newelli NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Mycorrhizal,Symbiosis,Between,Mushroom,And,Green,Plant.,Digital,Illustration.

Plants do not wave warning flags when a hungry caterpillar shows up. Yet for years scientists wondered if roots guide underground networks that let one plant alert its neighbors before the first bite lands.



A modeling study released in January, 2025 suggests the picture is far less neighborly. Lead author <a href="https://www.biology.ox.ac.uk/people/thomas-w-scott" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr Thomas Scott</a> of the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> argues that most plants would lose more than they gain by sounding a genuine alarm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-plants-play-tricks">Why plants play tricks</h2>



Natural selection rewards thrift, so every calorie sunk into defense is a calorie that cannot go into growth or seeds. Because neighbors compete for the same sunlight and minerals, helping them makes little evolutionary sense.



The models draw on the idea of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/kin-selection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kin selection</a>, the notion that genes “care” about relatives who share those genes. When the same genetic relatives also fight for the same patch of soil, the benefit of warning kin evaporates.



Simulations showed that honest signals kept disappearing from the virtual population. False alarms, however, sometimes stuck around long enough to handicap competitors by pushing them into needless chemical warfare.



“Our results indicate that it is more likely that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-defy-gravity-when-water-is-scarce/">plants</a> will behave deceptively toward their neighbours, rather than altruistically, even when no herbivore is present,” said Dr Scott, adding that a plant might fake an attack draining rivals of resources in the process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus-helps-plants-communicate">Fungus helps plants communicate</h2>



Much of the debate centers on the mycorrhizal fungi that lace through the soil, forming what ecologists nickname the “<a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/wood-wide-web-underground-network-microbes-connects-trees-mapped-first-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood wide web</a>.” 



These threads trade phosphorus and nitrogen for plant‑made sugars and can physically link roots from different species.



Laboratory work with Solanum lycopersicum showed that when one tomato in a shared fungal network met a caterpillar, connected tomatoes cranked up four defense enzymes within hours. The reaction happened even though the “listener” plants never touched the insect.



Defensive cues may move as <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/what-are-volatile-organic-compounds-vocs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volatile organic compounds</a> drifting through the hyphae or leaking from wounded roots. 



Scott’s team argues that such cues are hard to suppress completely, creating an involuntary “tell” rather than an intentional SOS.



Model runs where the victim plant tried to hide the cue found that full suppression was rarely worth the metabolic fee. That fits the tomato result, where receivers benefitted even though senders paid the cost of damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungus-as-mediators-between-plants">Fungus as mediators between plants</h2>



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-build-their-cell-walls-is-seen-by-scientists-for-the-first-time-ever/">plants</a> are unlikely whistle‑blowers, someone else must be moving the news. The models showed that the fungi themselves could profit by monitoring each host and relaying danger to all partners.



A healthy green plant pumps more sugar into the network than a chewed‑up one. By nudging the rest of the network into pre‑emptive defense, the fungus protects its own carbon income.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_information-transfer_fungal-networks_illustration_credit-PNAS_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_information-transfer_fungal-networks_illustration_credit-PNAS_1s.webp" alt="Hypotheses for information transfer in plant–fungal networks. Two plants are connected via a mycorrhizal network. One plant is under attack (e.g., by aphids), and this information may be transferred via the mycorrhizal network to the other plant, allowing it to up-regulate its defense mechanisms. There are three hypotheses regarding how this information is transferred: (blue) signaling by the attacked plant; (cyan) cues, which are potentially vulnerable to suppression by the attacked plant; and (orange) monitoring and signaling by the mycorrhizal network. Credit: PNAS" class="wp-image-1977443"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Hypotheses for information transfer in plant–fungal networks. Two plants are connected via a mycorrhizal network. One plant is under attack (e.g., by aphids), and this information may be transferred via the mycorrhizal network to the other plant, allowing it to up-regulate its defense mechanisms. There are three hypotheses regarding how this information is transferred: (blue) signaling by the attacked plant; (cyan) cues, which are potentially vulnerable to suppression by the attacked plant; and (orange) monitoring and signaling by the mycorrhizal network. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PNAS</figcaption></figure>



“Maybe it is the fungal networks themselves that are sending the warning signals,” Dr Scott suggested. Co-author <a href="https://www.spun.earth/team-members/dr-toby-kiers#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Toby Kiers</a> added that a neighbor may simply be “eavesdropping,” not altruistically sharing information.



Unlike deceptive plants, a cheating fungus would only hurt its paycheck. That steers evolutionary pressure toward honest fungal monitoring, at least until someone proves otherwise in field trials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-farms-and-forests">What this means for farms and forests</h2>



Agronomists dream of crops that switch on defenses before pests build an army. If fungi, not plants, drive advance warning, inoculating fields with the right spores might someday cut pesticide use.



The new study also tempers popular stories claiming that old trees “care” for their sapling offspring. Mutual benefit can still happen, but the math says it must be weighed against relentless competition for limited light.



Some breeders already select <a href="https://treefruit.wsu.edu/varieties-breeding/rootstocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rootstocks</a> that recruit efficient fungal partners. Future programs may screen those partners for their talent at early pest detection instead of simple nutrient delivery.



Forest managers experimenting with assisted migration should remember that uprooted seedlings leave their native fungal counselors behind. Re‑establishing key networks could be as vital as matching temperature or rainfall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-plant-behavior-in-evolution">Rethinking plant behavior in evolution</h2>



These findings challenge the common tendency to describe plants using human social terms like friendship, cooperation, or mutual aid. 



Such language can oversimplify complex ecological relationships shaped by evolutionary tradeoffs rather than intentional kindness.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_communication_fungal-network_underground_illustration_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/plants_communication_fungal-network_underground_illustration_1s.webp" alt="Fungal networks help plants communicate and sometimes play &quot;referee&quot; to settle disputes" class="wp-image-1977466"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fungal networks help plants communicate and sometimes play "referee" to settle disputes. Click image to enlarge.</figcaption></figure>



Plants don't choose to help or harm. They respond to selective pressures based on survival and reproduction. 



What might look like generosity from a distance could be a side effect of unavoidable signaling, or an outcome that benefits fungi more than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">plants</a> themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-questions-for-researchers">Next questions for researchers</h2>



The models assume costs and benefits averaged over many generations. Field ecologists now need to tag real roots, real caterpillars, and real fungi to test whether the numbers hold up outside a computer.



One way is to pair isotope tracing with microelectrodes in split‑root systems, watching exactly who sends which molecule where. 



Another is to compare fungal genomes for genes that sense host stress chemicals, a clue that selection favors monitoring hardware.



If dishonest plant signals do occur, greenhouse arenas seeded with mixed genotypes should reveal which seed families bluff the most. 



Researchers may also seek fungal “referees” that penalize plants that persistently cry wolf. The soil is telling a subtler story than simple plant friendship.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2420701122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Scientists change their minds about 'friendship' and cooperation between plants

Plants do not wave warning flags when a hungry caterpillar...

Diseño sin título - 1

Botanists confirmed recently that a towering tree discovered in Tanzania’s Udzungwa Mountains is an entirely new species, Tessmannia princeps.



The research team is led by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrea-Bianchi-10" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrea Bianchi</a>, a horticulturist and researcher at <a href="https://www.muse.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Muse Science Museum</a> in Trento, whose group worked with Tanzanian experts to document the species and its remote habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-tessmannia-princeps">Discovering Tessmannia princeps</h2>



Bianchi and local plant specialists were mapping plants in the Boma la Mzinga and Uluti Village Land Forest Reserves in 2019 when they nearly walked into a gray‑barked giant they could not name.



“This was already quite a shiver‑down‑your‑back moment because if they didn’t know [the species], it could have been something interesting,” Bianchi recalls. 



Follow‑up surveys in the <a href="https://arts.psu.edu/assets/uploads/documents/studyabroad-a_web_strategy_for_umnp-_2010_student_project.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Udzungwa Mountain</a> region revealed only about one hundred mature individuals scattered across two steep valleys, each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trees-decide-between-growing-and-breathing/">tree</a> crowned well above the surrounding canopy.



The specific name princeps, Latin for “most eminent,” nods to crowns that poke above neighboring foliage and to thick, consecutively buttressed trunks that command the landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-old-and-how-tall">How old and how tall</h2>



The largest measured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/">trees</a> rise roughly 130 feet and carry trunks close to nine feet across, with extra girding from three‑foot‑deep buttresses. 



Cross‑sections from a naturally fallen trunk revealed 12-15 growth rings in a single centimeter, a pace so slow it suggests an age of 2,000-3,000 years for the biggest survivors.



Bianchi describes counting those rings as “patient work that feels like peering back through the lifetimes of civilizations,” a statement he shared while discussing the discovery with colleagues. 



Such longevity places Tessmannia princeps alongside bristlecone pines and giant sequoias on the shortlist of the planet’s most durable trees, although the new species lives in humid rainforest rather than the drier mountain slopes that old bristlecones prefer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tessmannia-princeps-anatomy">Tessmannia princeps anatomy</h2>



Scientists classify the tree as a canopy emergent species, meaning its crown stands above the general forest roof, harvesting full sunlight while shaping micro‑climates below. 



Immense buttress roots fan from the base, some arching more than 49 feet high and channeling mechanical stress into the shallow rainforest soil.



Glossy leaves carry dozens of leaflet pairs, and the creamy white petals tipped with yellow glands emit a fragrance that local guides notice long before the trunk comes into view. 



Despite its stature, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-unique-fungi-partnerships-that-help-them-survive/">tree</a> is unarmed, no thorns or spines, relying instead on sheer size and chemical defenses yet to be cataloged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-they-stayed-hidden">Why they stayed hidden</h2>



The Udzungwa mountain mass sits within the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6658/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eastern Arc Mountains</a>, an ancient chain famed for pockets of endemism created by rugged topography and long‑lasting climate stability. 



Many villages in the chain lie at valley floors, while the discovered grove perches between 4,200 and 5,000 feet in elevation, far from cultivated plots and traditional footpaths.



Frequent cloud cover, steep ridges, and legally protected status after 2016 limited timber scouts and poachers, allowing the slow‑growing population to mature undisturbed. 



Until the 2019 trek, even seasoned local botanists believed all large legumes in the region had been recorded, a reminder of how easily towering organisms can evade science in dense rainforest. 



Discovering Tessmannia princeps there was a surprise to everyone, even the locals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-tessmannia-princeps-alive">Keeping Tessmannia princeps alive</h2>



The newly described species meets International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) criteria for “Vulnerable” status, owing to its tiny range and fewer than 1,000 estimated individuals. 



Logging is banned inside the reserves, yet nearby farms, bush‑meat hunting trails, and potential road upgrades pose indirect threats through soil compaction and fire risk.



<a href="https://research-nexus.net/author/1002222169/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arafat Mtui</a> of the <a href="http://www.udzungwacentre.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Udzungwa Ecological Monitoring Center</a> notes that each fresh discovery “prioritizes urgent study on ecology, distribution, and threats,” underscoring the tree’s role as a flagship for corridor restoration. 



Community‑based programs that compensate landowners for forest protection now cite T. princeps as evidence that conserving narrow habitat strips can safeguard irreplaceable biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-ancient-trees-teach-us">What ancient trees teach us</h2>



Longevity in wet tropics is rare because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-psilocybin-from-magic-mushrooms-delays-aging-and-significantly-extends-lifespan/">fungi</a>, insects, and storms accelerate decay, so the endurance of these trunks sparks new questions about wood chemistry and dendrochronology in humid settings.



Comparisons with the 4,800‑year‑old bristlecone pine <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pinlon/all.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pinus longaeva</a> highlight convergent survival strategies: dense wood, slow metabolism, and strategic growth spurts that coincide with favorable decades. 



By storing prodigious amounts of carbon for millennia, each Tessmannia princeps stabilizes soils, seeds understory diversity, and chronicles regional climate swings in its tightly packed rings.



Researchers now plan radiocarbon dating on live cores to refine age estimates and test whether rainfall patterns leave identifiable chemical signatures, data that could sharpen regional climate models.



The study is published in <a href="https://phytotaxa.mapress.com/pt/article/view/phytotaxa.694.2.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytotaxa</a>. Photo credit: Bianchi, Tomasi, et al/Phytotaxa.



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Scientists discover giant 3,000-year-old trees never before seen by humans

Botanists confirmed recently that a towering tree discovered in Tanzania’s...

We hear a lot about how climate change affects food production, especially in terms of crop yields. But a growing body of research points to a quieter, less visible threat: the nutritional quality of our food is changing - and not for the better.



New findings from researchers at <a href="https://www.ljmu.ac.uk/">Liverpool John Moores University</a> suggest that rising levels of CO2 and hotter temperatures are altering the chemistry of common crops. The result? Plants may look healthy and grow fast, but they’re packing fewer essential nutrients.



That has major implications for public health, especially in countries already battling food insecurity and chronic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-vegetables-for-tomorrow">Testing vegetables for tomorrow</h2>



“Our work looks beyond quantity to the quality of what we eat,” said Jiata Ugwah Ekele, a PhD student at Liverpool John Moores University.



Ekele’s research focuses on how environmental stressors - from increased carbon dioxide to rising temperatures - change the nutritional makeup of food crops. 



Her team grows popular leafy vegetables like kale, rocket, and spinach inside climate-controlled chambers at the university. Researchers adjust the CO2 levels and temperatures to reflect the UK’s future climate projections.



“These environmental changes can affect everything from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/">photosynthesis</a> and growth rates to the synthesis and storage of nutrients in crops,” said Ekele.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-plant-activity">Tracking plant activity</h2>



The research takes a closer look at what’s happening inside the plants. Scientists track photosynthetic activity as the plants grow, using chlorophyll fluorescence and quantum yield measurements



At harvest, the team measures yield and biomass, then runs chemical tests to see what nutrients are present. 



Using high-performance liquid chromatography and X-ray fluorescence, they analyze sugars, proteins, flavonoids, vitamins, and antioxidants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-crops-fewer-nutrients">Bigger crops, fewer nutrients</h2>



The early data shows that crops do grow bigger under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">higher CO2 levels</a>. But that doesn’t mean they’re healthier.



“After some time, the crops showed a reduction in key minerals like calcium and certain antioxidant compounds,” Ekele said.



And when heat is added to the mix, things get worse. According to Ekele, the interaction between CO2 and heat stress has complex effects - the crops do not grow as big or fast and the decline in nutritional quality intensifies.



One surprising twist in the results was that not all vegetables responded the same way. Some showed sharp declines in nutrients, while others were more resilient.



“This diversity in response highlights that we can’t generalize across crops. This complexity has been both fascinating and challenging and reminds us why it's important to study multiple stressors together,” Ekele said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-may-fuel-disease">Crops may fuel disease</h2>



A key concern is what happens when crops lose essential nutrients. Elevated CO2 can increase the sugar content in fruits and vegetables - but it often lowers levels of protein, vitamins, and minerals.



“This altered balance could contribute to diets that are higher in calories but poorer in nutritional value,” Ekele said. 



“Increased sugar content in crops, especially fruits and vegetables, could lead to greater risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/">obesity</a> and type 2 diabetes - particularly in populations already struggling with non-communicable diseases.”



When people eat food that lacks protein, iron, calcium, or other essential nutrients, it can weaken their immune system and worsen existing health conditions. This hits hardest in low- and middle-income countries where food choices are limited.



“It’s not just about how much food we grow, but also what’s inside that food and how it supports long-term human well-being,” said Ekele.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-systems-face-global-stress">Food systems face global stress</h2>



Even though the study simulates future UK climate conditions, the findings echo far beyond British borders.



“Food systems in the Global North are already being challenged by shifting weather patterns, unpredictable growing seasons, and more frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>,” noted Ekele.



“In tropical and subtropical regions, these areas also contend with overlapping stressors such as drought, pests, and soil degradation – and are home to millions who depend directly on agriculture for food and income.”



Ekele hopes this work inspires more research and cross-disciplinary collaboration. She said that food is more than just calories - it’s a foundation for human development and climate adaptation.



Connecting plant science to broader issues of human well-being is essential, especially as the climate changes and nations work toward building a food system that supports not just productivity, but also health, equity, and resilience.



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Climate change is making our food less nutritious

We hear a lot about how climate change affects food...

Trees are among nature’s most effective tools for capturing carbon dioxide. They absorb this heat-trapping gas as they grow, making forests key allies in the fight against climate change.



But what happens when winters get warmer and snow becomes scarce? That’s the question <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> scientists set out to answer in a long-term forest experiment. 



The researchers used underground cables to simulate warmer soil and removed snow to mimic shifting winters. The results suggest that future forest growth - and the carbon storage it brings - might not be as strong as we hope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-snow-slows-forest-growth">Lack of snow slows forest growth</h2>



In a recent study, BU researchers showed that warmer summers do boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-still-have-much-to-learn-about-tree-growth/">tree growth</a>. But there's a catch: when snowpack is reduced in winter, that growth slows significantly. Forests may grow faster in heat, but they struggle without a protective blanket of snow.



“We know from past work that there are several negative effects of lessening snowpack, and we know that temperatures are warming and the snowpack is shrinking,” said study co-author Professor Pamela Templer. 



“We wanted to look at the interactions between climate change across the year, and we wanted to be as realistic as possible about the future climate our forests will experience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-loss-harms-tree-roots">Snow loss harms tree roots</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-droughts-could-quadruple-by-2100-harming-water-supplies/">Snow</a> insulates the forest floor. With less snow, the soil freezes more often, damaging roots and disrupting the delicate balance trees rely on.



Instead of a steady cold, the ground experiences freeze-thaw cycles that can be stressful for the plants.



At the same time, warmer summers speed up decomposition in the soil, which can help trees grow faster at least on the surface.



“When we think about climate change, it’s not just warmer temperatures in the summer or warmer temperatures overall," said Emerson Conrad-Rooney, a PhD student in Templer’s lab and lead author of the paper.



"We need to account for these changes throughout the year that can differ from season to season.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-removal-shrinks-forest-gains">Snow removal shrinks forest gains</h2>



The BU team set up six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/">forest</a> plots, each about the size of a small classroom. Four of them had underground cables that warmed the soil by 5 degrees Celsius (9 degrees Fahrenheit). Two of those were also cleared of snow in the winter. The last two were left alone for comparison.



Year after year, the team returned to measure tree growth using dendrometer bands - spring-loaded metal rings wrapped around trunks that track expansion. These readings allowed them to estimate how much carbon each tree was storing.



Trees in the plots where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-soil-is-now-the-worlds-biggest-plastic-dumping-ground/">soil</a> was artificially warmed and snow was left untouched grew 63 percent more than the trees in the unaltered plots. 



But when snow was removed - triggering repeated freeze-thaw cycles - the growth benefit dropped. Those trees only grew 31 percent more than the controls over the same period. 



In other words, the lack of snow cut the positive effects of warmer temperatures on tree growth by about half.



“Many Earth system models, which predict how much carbon forests can store, aren’t incorporating the complexities of winter climate change that we’re highlighting here,” said Conrad-Rooney. “This means that models might be overestimating the carbon capacity of these temperate forests.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-happening-beneath-the-ground">What’s happening beneath the ground?</h2>



Now, the team is turning its attention underground. Templer suspects that repeated freezing and thawing takes a toll on tree roots, which are adapted to the stable cold of snowy winters. 



In 2023, Conrad-Rooney buried mesh cylinders called root ingrowth cores to track how roots are growing in each plot. The results are expected by the end of this year.



“We’re going to keep this work going as long as we can,” said Templer. “We’re so fortunate to have this long-term study because we learn so much the longer we keep going." 



"Right now, we see a warming-induced response from the trees, but maybe that’s temporary - maybe the trees will acclimate and their growth will slow down. We don’t know. That’s really the value of having long-term data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-puzzle-with-many-pieces">A climate puzzle with many pieces</h2>



This study is one part of a much larger puzzle. Researchers are also looking at how trees behave in cities, along forest edges, and under threats like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-people-die-from-air-pollution-each-year-yet-theres-still-a-lack-of-monitoring/">air pollution</a>, insect loss, and diseases. 



But pulling all these pieces together into one clear forecast for forests remains a huge challenge.



“There are so many global changes happening at the same time,” said Templer. “It’s impossible to get at everything all at once, so we each do what we can."



"The reason we could do this work at all is because others before us monitored the climate. Getting to contribute to long-term science with this study is just amazing.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2412873122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Forests will struggle without winter snow

Trees are among nature’s most effective tools for capturing carbon...

A single teaspoon of healthy soil can hold as many as a billion bacteria, yards of fungal threads, and a menagerie of microscopic grazers. These organisms form the root microbiome, which helps keep plants fed, watered and defended against drought and disease.



New <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> now argues that plants are not just passive tenants in this world but active managers that build hand‑picked below‑ground crews, a process the authors call functional team selection (FTS).



The <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> is led by Regents’ Professor <a href="https://directory.nau.edu/faculty?name=nancy%20johnson&amp;person=nj4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Collins Johnson</a> of Northern Arizona University, working with <a href="https://www.ust.cl/personas/curriculum/cesar-marin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">César Marín</a> of Universidad Santo Tomás in Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-create-microbiomes">How plants create microbiomes</h2>



A <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is the collective genomes and activities of bacteria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-talk-through-fungal-networks/">fungi</a>, viruses, and other tiny life forms that live in and around a host. 



In plants the action centers on the rhizosphere, the thin <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2023-04/NRCS_Healthy%20Soils%20at%20Home_12_22_FINAL%20sent%20to%20printers.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shell of soil</a> that sticks to roots and hums with chemical chatter.



Microbes in this region swap nutrients, growth hormones, and signals with their hosts, often trading nitrogen or phosphorus for sugars. 



Under drought conditions, some bacteria exude sticky <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1253735/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofilms</a> that help roots hang on to water, improving crop yields in experimental fields.



Yet the community is no free‑for‑all; opportunistic pathogens lurk, and beneficial species can be crowded out by chance or by a sudden fertilizer surge. 



Understanding how plants steer the mix in the root microbiome is therefore critical for sustainable farming.



Scientists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2644" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sequence</a> the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/16s-ribosomal-rna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">16S rRNA gene</a> from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/rhizosphere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhizosphere</a> samples and routinely detect more than 5,000 operational taxonomic units on a single maize plant. 



That microbial diversity rivals the entire bacterial roster of many animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/">gut microbiomes</a>, underscoring how much genetic potential lies just outside a root tip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-microbiomes-shaped-by-stress">Plant microbiomes shaped by stress</h2>



Johnson’s earlier field <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1942106" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> showed that adding chemical fertilizer for eight years shifted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/arbuscular-mycorrhiza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi</a> toward strains that taxed big bluestem grass more than they helped it. 



The finding hinted that low‑nutrient stress is not just tolerated but needed to keep the symbiosis honest.



Other <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2020.622926/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> echo the pattern: under conditions of water scarcity, maize roots release flavonoids that attract drought‑tolerant microbes, whereas well‑watered plants skip the recruitment drive. 



Selective pressure, in other words, acts like an admissions test for the root community.



This ecological sorting sets the stage for evolution, because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/">microbes</a> that pass the test multiply and share genes for the traits the plant needs. Over time the soil becomes a living memory of past hardships.



Plants secrete up to 40 percent of the carbon they fix as root exudates, a spill that serves as both payment and message to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2021.753474/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>. 



Compounds such as malic acid call in growth‑promoting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7699/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacillus</a>, while terpenes can ward off unwanted invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-team-selection-fts-idea">Functional team selection (FTS) idea</h2>



Johnson and Marín propose that four ingredients - selection force, host constitution, microbial diversity, and time - determine whether a functional team selection <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/repository/view/6944/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(FTS) pathway</a> opens. 



When the mix is right, a plant and its hand‑picked allies act as one adaptive system rather than as separate parts.



“Functional teams are unlikely to evolve in benign environments with no stress and ample resources because they lack the selection pressure that is required to curate the composition of the microbiome,” Johnson said. 



Her remark underlines why crop inoculants bought off the shelf often disappoint farmers who apply them to fertile, irrigated soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-microbiomes-and-fts">Plants, microbiomes, and FTS</h2>



The framework leans on the recently articulated <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Law of Increasing Functional Information</a>, which holds that complex systems tend to explore ever more effective configurations when variation meets selection. 



Roots and microbes, stars and minerals all follow comparable rules, differing only in the building blocks they shuffle.



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hazen and colleagues</a> illustrated the law with examples that range from heavy‑element synthesis in stars to enzyme evolution on Earth, arguing that a drive toward functional novelty bridges physics and biology. 



By situating FTS within that broader law, Johnson’s team claims no special exemption for life; they simply place roots and their microbiomes on the same playing field as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">galaxies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-agriculture">Lessons for agriculture</h2>



Worldwide sales of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.606815/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial biofertilizers</a> are booming, yet meta‑analyses show that many products fail to colonize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">roots</a> or boost yields once they leave the greenhouse. 



FTS suggests that success will improve when products are matched to the stresses and nutrient limits of specific root microbiomes rather than offered as universal cures.



Breeders could also select crop varieties that reward resident mutualists instead of favoring short‑term fertilizer responses. 



That shift would align genetic improvement with the slow buildup of local microbial teams instead of tearing them down each season.



Adopting FTS thinking could also cut greenhouse‑gas emissions because successful microbial teams often help plants capture nitrogen from air and recycle soil carbon, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-024-13347-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimming demand</a> for energy‑intensive fertilizer. Lower fertilizer demand translates to fewer nitrous oxide emissions, a potent greenhouse gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fts-from-soil-to-other-systems">FTS from soil to other systems</h2>



The authors argue that FTS can illuminate animal guts, coral reefs, and even human‑made bioreactors because each hosts a crowd whose joint output beats any single member. 



Testing the idea across systems may reveal design rules for building resilient microbiomes in medicine and industry.



A similar logic already guides fecal microbiota transplants that restore healthy gut ecosystems after recurrent infections, proving that designed consortia can outperform single‑strain probiotics. 



Cross‑talk between fields may speed the jump from proof of concept to routine practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-research-goes-next">Where research goes next</h2>



Johnson and Marín want field trials that run for multiple plant generations, use minimal fertilizer, and track microbial genomes alongside plant performance. 



Such studies would put FTS to the test by asking whether curated teams stay stable and beneficial when weather and management shift.



Meanwhile ecologists are building network models that predict which microbes form keystone partnerships under drought, salinity, or heat waves. 



If those models hold, future crops may come with recommended microbial seed mixes tailored to local stress profiles instead of chemical input schedules.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The ISME Journal</a>.



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Plants have microbiomes like humans do, now scientists have learned how they work

A single teaspoon of healthy soil can hold as many...

The dream of living beyond Earth demands fresh food far from our planet. The Moon-Rice project is pioneering this vision by experimenting with future-proof crops for space. One day, this initiative could supply nutritious food to astronauts and people living in harsh environments on Earth.



Today, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-lettuce-nasas-plans-to-grow-nutritious-plants-on-mars/">space</a> missions depend on supplies from Earth. These include ready-to-eat meals that lack fresh ingredients. Such meals often miss essential nutrients that the human body needs, especially during long missions.



For deep space exploration, we must grow food rich in vitamins and fiber. The Moon-Rice project aims to create such crops. Their goal is to sustain life in deep space missions.



“Living in space is all about recycling resources and living sustainably,” said Marta Del Bianco, a plant biologist at the <a href="https://www.asi.it/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Italian Space Agency</a>. “We are trying to solve the same problems that we face here on Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-rice-is-key-for-space-food">Tiny rice is key for space food</h2>



Dr. Del Bianco noted that the main challenge: crop size. Many dwarf rice types are still too large for space farming. “What we need is a super-dwarf, but this comes with its own challenges.”



“Dwarf varieties often come from the manipulation of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-astronauts-meals-lose-flavor-in-space/">plant</a> hormone called gibberellin, which can reduce the height of the plant, but this also creates problems for seed germination. They're not an ideal crop, because in space, you just don't have to be small, you must also be productive.”



Since space farming demands high-yield crops that are compact, scientists face the tough task of balancing plant size with productivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-united-efforts-for-innovation">United efforts for innovation</h2>



In addition to the Italian Space Agency, the research involved the work of experts from three Italian universities.



The <a href="https://www.unimi.it/en">University of Milan</a> has a strong background in rice genetics, the University of Rome ‘Sapienza’ specializes in crop physiology manipulation, and the University of Naples ‘Federico II’ has a rich heritage in space crop production.



“We started this four-year project nine months ago, so it’s very much a work in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-food-supply-transforming-co2-into-protein/">progress</a>, but the preliminary results we have now are really promising,” said Del Bianco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-rice-plants-with-more-protein">Tiny rice plants with more protein</h2>



Scientists at the University of Milan have discovered tiny rice varieties. These grow only 10 centimeters tall.



“Researchers at the University of Milan are isolating mutant rice varieties that can grow to just 10 cm high, so they’re really tiny and this is a great starting point,” said Del Bianco. “At the same time, Rome has identified genes that can alter the plant architecture to maximize production and growth efficiency.”



In addition to compactness, the team is enhancing rice protein levels. Meat production will not be practical in space, so protein-rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/novel-stretchy-sensors-could-transform-space-farming/">crops</a> are vital.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-rice-plants-in-fake-gravity">Testing rice plants in fake gravity</h2>



According to Dr. Del Bianco, the team investigated how the rice plants would respond to microgravity. This type of research helps ensure the plants can survive space conditions.



“We simulate microgravity on Earth by continually rotating the plant so that the plant is pulled equally in all directions by gravity. Each side of the plant gets activated continuously and it doesn't know where the up and down is,” she said.



“It's the best we can do on Earth because, unfortunately, doing experiments in real microgravity conditions - i.e. in space - is complex and expensive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-food-helps-mental-health">Fresh food helps mental health</h2>



Fresh food does more than nourish the body. It also boosts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-illness-is-caused-by-the-whole-body-not-just-the-brain/">mental health.</a>



“Watching and guiding plants to grow is good for humans, and while pre-cooked or mushy food can be fine for a short period of time, it could become a concern for longer-duration missions,” said Del Bianco.



Astronauts need both physical and psychological support during their missions. Their health directly affects mission success. Mistakes in space can be costly or even deadly.



“If we can make an environment that physically and mentally nourishes the astronauts, it will reduce stress and lower the chances of people making mistakes. In space, the best case of a mistake is wasted money, and the worst case is the loss of lives,” said Del Bianco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-rice-could-help-farmers">Space rice could help farmers</h2>



The Moon-Rice project has benefits beyond space. It could help farmers on Earth too.



“If you can develop a robust crop for space, then it could be used at the Arctic and Antarctic poles, or in deserts, or places with only a small amount of indoor space available,” said Del Bianco.



The research will be presented at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society for Experimental Biology Annual Conference</a> in Antwerp, Belgium, on July 9, 2025.



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Tiny rice plants could help astronauts grow food in space

The dream of living beyond Earth demands fresh food far...

Young trees in large forests are often dismissed as bit players in the fight against climate change, but new evidence shows their importance is anything but small. 



The latest study of <a href="https://www.fao.org/4/j0628e/J0628E16.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">secondary forest regrowth</a> found that young trees, only a few decades old, can lock away carbon faster than almost any other land based solution.



Researchers mapped carbon removal in regrowing woodlands worldwide and discovered a sweet spot between 20 and 40 years where <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-carbon-sequestration" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a> peaks, reaching up to eight times the rate recorded in newly sprouting forest patches.



The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02355-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> was led by ecologist <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/staff/profiles/gees/muelbert-adriane-esquivel" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adriane Esquivel-Muelbert</a> at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>, whose team says protecting these adolescent forests could keep billions of tons of CO2 out of the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-forests-trap-more-carbon">Young forests trap more carbon</h2>



“Our research underscores the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-fire-smoke-boosts-ocean-life-but-with-a-hidden-cost/">critical role</a> of young secondary forests in the global fight against climate change,” said Esquivel-Muelbert. 



Overlooking their protection could forfeit the opportunity to capture carbon more quickly and at a larger scale when it's needed most.



The emphasis on youth contrasts with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">reforestation</a> drives that prioritize planting, then wait decades for stored carbon to accrue. 



Keeping a 25 year old stand standing can deliver as much carbon benefit as planting several acres of new trees because its engines are already running at full speed.



A global <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2686-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synthesis</a> published in 2020 showed that natural forest regrowth could capture 226 gigatons of carbon over the century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maps-reveal-fastest-carbon-gains">Maps reveal fastest carbon gains</h2>



The new paper applies a random forest model, crunching 109,708 field plots and 66 environmental layers to generate one kilometer growth curves for stands up to 100 years old. 



That computational lift produced the first fine scale map of how fast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">above-ground biomass</a> piles up decade by decade.



Across 800 million hectares of land identified as restorable, starting regeneration in 2025 could remove 20.3 billion metric tons of carbon by 2050. 



Delay the start to 2035 and the budget shrinks by almost half, underscoring the cost of procrastination.



Machine learning also revealed how growth spurts shift with latitude, offering a tool planners can use to rank projects by speed of return. Such spatial precision was impossible a decade ago.



Earlier satellite <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36922608/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> led by Viola Heinrich showed recovering humid tropical forests store an average 3.6 billion tons of carbon but only if they survive interruptions from fire or fresh clearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-forests-left-out-of-climate-plans">Young forests left out of climate plans</h2>



The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/2023-ipcc-ar6-synthesis-report-climate-change-findings" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>) warns that deep emissions cuts alone will not limit warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre industrial levels, making carbon removal essential. 



Yet current market rules rarely pay for preserving forests younger than 20 years, creating a blind spot that could derail mitigation efforts.



Co‑author <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/staff/profiles/gees/pugh-thomas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tom Pugh</a>, from the School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, at the University of Birmingham, notes that young stands “aren’t even on the books” for many offset schemes, despite their outsized impact. 



Fixing that oversight, the team argues, would steer finance toward projects that begin sequestering carbon within a single election cycle instead of a generation.



A persistent global forest sink of roughly <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1201609" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2.4 petagrams</a> of carbon per year from 1990 to 2007 already helps offset emissions, but analysts say ramping up the sink during the decisive 2020s could keep warming targets within reach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-location-changes-forest-carbon-speed">Location changes forest carbon speed</h2>



<a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-biomes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biome</a> type influences when forests hit their peak carbon removal rates. In <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/biome/biorainforest.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warm tropical zones</a>, forests often reach their highest rates in their early 20s, while <a href="https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/mediterranean-woodlands-and-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mediterranean woodlands</a> may not hit that point until they're closer to 50 years old.



Even so, the per hectare advantage of youth appears everywhere. In the Amazon, a forest that is eight years old today would draw 36 percent more carbon by 2030 than a clear cut plot replanted next year.



Similar arithmetic holds in <a href="http://costarica-information.com/nature/ecosystems-of-costa-rica/Lowland%20Rainforest" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Costa Rica’s wet lowlands</a>, where a 20 year old stand can outperform seedlings by 65 percent over the same window. That universality makes age tracking as important as area.



Journalist <a href="https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/climate-energy/policymakers-often-ignore-forest-regeneration-fight-against-climate-change-2025-06-24/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> show that fewer than six percent of young forests in the tropics survive long enough to reach their twentieth birthday, often sacrificed to repeat agricultural cycles or burned in accidental fires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-trees-saves-money">Saving trees saves money</h2>



Carbon credits linked to young forest protection could offer investors quicker returns than tree planting programs because monitoring tools can confirm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">biomass gains</a> within a few years. That speed matters to companies racing toward net zero pledges set for 2030.



Maintaining existing young stands is also cheaper for governments. Studies suggest natural regeneration costs a fraction of active planting while delivering side benefits such as better soil structure and wildlife habitat.



A fresh economic <a href="https://www.nature.org/content/dam/tnc/nature/en/documents/N4C_NaturePositiveRecoveryReport_063020.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> estimated that every dollar spent on safeguarding regrowth can yield climate returns three to four times higher than planting efforts in the same region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-talks-may-boost-forests">Global talks may boost forests</h2>



The study lands months before negotiators gather in Belém, Brazil, for <a href="https://cop30.br/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COP30</a>. The hosts sit amid the world’s largest tropical forest and also the fastest disappearing, giving added weight to calls for immediate safeguards on regrowth.



“We urge policymakers to prioritize the protection and regeneration of young secondary forests,” said Esquivel‑Muelbert. She wants treaty language that treats young forests as a strategic reserve, not a placeholder. 



Brazilian officials have hinted that regrowth credits could join the country’s voluntary carbon market, a signal observers hope will ripple across the Amazon Basin. If other nations follow, the carbon math suggests the path to net zero could get a much needed boost.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02355-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Young forests, big climate punch: Why 20-year‑old trees matter most

Young trees in large forests are often dismissed as bit...

In South Florida, the sea level has been edging upward by roughly 2.4 to 3.7 millimeters a year, reshaping shorelines and pushing salt water farther inland. 



A new <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479725018183" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of Everglades wetlands shows that this slow creep of salt can boost total carbon storage, if managers leave space for migrating mangroves, while other plant communities stumble.



Sparkle Malone of the Yale School of the Environment and Amanda Richey from <a href="https://www.flbog.edu/university/florida-international-university/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida International University</a> led the field team that measured carbon flows across three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">habitat</a> types in 2021.



Rising oceans create what ecologists call <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12643" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate debt</a>, the lag between an ecosystem’s present state and the state best suited to new conditions. 



When that debt grows unchecked, coastal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-fire-smoke-boosts-ocean-life-but-with-a-hidden-cost/">wetlands</a> can drown, a scenario that could claim up to 78 percent of the world’s tidal marshes by 2,100 under high‑sea‑rise <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818115301879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">projections</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mangroves-excel-at-carbon-capture">Mangroves excel at carbon capture</h2>



On Everglades transects, the team tracked the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/net-ecosystem-exchange" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">net ecosystem exchange</a> of carbon dioxide, a direct measure of whether a landscape breathes in or exhales CO₂. 



The researchers found that compact “scrub” mangroves, dominated by <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FP502" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhizophora mangle</a>, kept absorbing about 294 grams of carbon per square meter each year even when water levels covered a quarter of their stems, outperforming sawgrass prairies more than six‑fold.



“We expect that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">mangroves</a> will need to continue moving further inland. If this occurs, it could enhance carbon capture in those new locations,” said Malone. 



The team's models suggest that as <a href="https://esa.org/esablog/about/ecotone-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecotone zones</a> creep inland at roughly 25 yards each year the net carbon uptake of the southeastern Everglades could climb another 12 percent, adding about 131 metric tons annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freshwater-plants-struggle-in-floods">Freshwater plants struggle in floods</h2>



<a href="https://www.nps.gov/ever/learn/nature/marlprairie.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Freshwater marl prairie grasses</a> thrive when their leaves stay dry for part of the year. Once water sits above the soil for weeks, photosynthesis drops by a third and the prairie’s climate debt balloons, signaling low resilience to longer floods.



Ecotone mixtures of sawgrass and mangrove seedlings fall in the middle: tolerant of brief floods yet still losing ground when tides linger. 



Because the ecotone acts as a moving front, its health now sets the timetable for wholesale habitat turnover across the landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-mangroves-to-boost-carbon-storage">Moving mangroves to boost carbon storage</h2>



<a href="https://www.cifor-icraf.org/knowledge/publication/3401/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mangroves</a> lock away carbon three to five times more densely than most tropical upland forests thanks to deep, anoxic sediments that slow decay. 



Allowing mangroves to colonize higher ground provides room for trunks and roots to pile up sediment, a natural levee that can keep pace with moderate sea‑level rise.



Blocking this migration with roads or seawalls traps the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">forest</a> against the tide, turning a productive carbon sink into open water. 



Managers who once fought encroaching salt now face the opposite task: clearing pathways for salt‑tolerant species to race inland ahead of the water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-to-protect-mangroves">Steps to protect mangroves </h2>



First, map low‑lying barriers that could choke future mangrove expansion, from old spoil berms to abandoned canals. 



Second, adjust freshwater releases so that salinity gradients shift gradually; sudden pulses of salt can kill sawgrass before mangroves take hold, leaving bare mud.



Third, prioritize restoration projects that connect patches of existing mangrove to potential refuge sites upslope, reducing fragment stress and fostering seed dispersal. 



Finally, track <a href="https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/ear-nose-and-throat/disequilibrium-of-aging.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disequilibrium</a> indicators such as <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2021.787877/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaf‑level photosynthesis</a> and soil elevation change so that intervention happens before large carbon debts accrue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-carbon-capture-and-biodiversity">Balancing carbon capture and biodiversity</h2>



Although scrub mangroves are efficient carbon sinks, they support a narrower range of species compared to freshwater prairies. 



As salinity increases, native amphibians, fish, and wading birds adapted to low-salt environments may be pushed out or face population declines.



Land managers will need to weigh these biodiversity losses against the climate benefits of carbon storage. 



In some zones, maintaining a mosaic of habitats might offer the best of both worlds: storing more carbon while protecting ecological diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-other-coastlines">Lessons for other coastlines</h2>



The Everglades aren’t the only place where mangroves are pushing inland. Similar shifts are being observed in the Mississippi Delta, Australia’s Northern Territory, and parts of Southeast Asia where sea level rise, salt intrusion, and human disturbances are reshaping wetland boundaries.



Each site has different constraints, tidal range, land use, and species pools, but the patterns of mangroves shifting and carbon storage changes echo those seen in South Florida. 



This study offers a practical way to assess when to defend current habitats and when to help mangroves move inland for carbon benefits.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479725018183?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Environmental Management</a>.



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How mangroves could store more carbon as oceans rise

In South Florida, the sea level has been edging upward...

When a ripe fruit of the Mediterranean squirting cucumber (Ecballium elaterium) finally bursts, the show is over in a blink - unless you film it at 10,000 frames per second. 



A new study from the <a href="https://www.sgorb.zoologie.uni-kiel.de/">Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics at Kiel University</a>, Germany, used precisely that technology along with high-resolution X-ray micro-tomography.



The research reveals how the plant primes itself for one of the most spectacular examples of self-propelled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/">seed dispersal</a> in the plant kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-squirting-cucumber-explodes">Why the squirting cucumber explodes</h2>



Plants that deposit seeds right beneath a parent’s canopy face stiff competition for light, water, and nutrients. Evolution favors <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-squirting-cucumber-squirts-and-the-trigger-that-makes-it-happen/">strategies</a> that spread offspring widely - by wind, animals, or, in rare cases, by brute force.



The squirting cucumber belongs to that small third category. Once its water-rich fruit has matured, internal pressure builds up. It then suddenly ejects a viscous jet containing up to 30 seeds, launching them away at startling speed.



“Many factors have to interact perfectly to disperse the seeds in the most efficient way, while not destroying the whole plant too early,” said project leader Helen Gorges, a PhD student at Kiel. 



Untangling those factors was the goal of the research she presented this week at the <a href="https://www.sebiology.org/events/seb-annual-conference-antwerp-2025.html">Society for Experimental Biology annual meeting</a> in Antwerp, Belgium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cucumber-ripening-mapped-in-3d">Cucumber ripening mapped in 3D</h2>



The Kiel team began by scanning intact fruits with micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) to build three-dimensional models of the internal anatomy. 



Progressive scans taken during ripening charted how the tissues transformed from a firm, green cylinder into a biological pressure vessel poised to rupture.



Complementary micro-CT imaging of exploded fruit captured the aftermath in equally fine detail. This allowed the researchers to calculate how tissues deformed and ruptured in the millisecond before detonation.



Parallel high-speed videography supplied the missing frames. “We recorded the explosion of the fruit with high-speed videos at 1,000 fps and 10,000 fps to calculate the speed of the seeds and the possible shooting distances,” Gorges said.



Those recordings showed individual cucumber seeds rocketing out of the ruptured end at up to 29 miles per hour (about 13 m/s) before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/">gravity</a> began to tug them earthward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-aims-before-exploding">Fruit aims before exploding</h2>



Classical ballistics dictates that, for any projectile launched from ground level, an angle of 45° maximizes horizontal distance - assuming no air resistance. 



Because seeds leave a height above ground and endure aerodynamic drag, the optimum tilt is a little steeper.



Field measurements revealed over the final days of ripening, the fruit’s short stalk gradually straightened until the fruit nodded at 53° relative to horizontal. 



This angle is almost exactly the theoretical optimum of 50°, calculated for Ecballium’s seed mass and exit velocity.



“We also analyzed pictures during the ripening of the fruits to measure the curvature of the fruit stem and the angle between fruit and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/">stem</a>,” Gorges noted.



This revealed that the plant actively remodels its pedicel tissues so that when the moment comes, it fires each capsule along a near-perfect ballistic trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cucumber-seeds-exit-with-precision">Cucumber seeds exit with precision</h2>



High-speed footage further showed that the seeds of the squirting cucumber depart in an orderly orientation, always exiting point-first from the fruit’s basal end. That consistency may reduce drag and help minimize collisions among seeds in the gushing stream.



Once they land, another adaptation takes over: the seed coat produces a mucilaginous hydrogel that becomes glue-like as it dries.



The sticky coating helps seeds adhere to soil particles, reducing the chance they will be washed away. It may also improve local moisture retention - both advantages for germination in the cucumber’s typically arid habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-as-a-pressure-bomb">Fruit as a pressure bomb</h2>



Internal pressure estimates derived from micro-CT density measurements confirm that the fruit behaves like a hydraulic accumulator. 



Water drawn from the parent plant inflates internal cavities while secondary cell-wall thickening stiffens the outer rind.



When tension surpasses tissue strength, the weakest seam near the stalk splits like a pre-scored rupture disk. The accumulated pressure then drives the surrounding gel and embedded cucumber seeds through the opening in a fraction of a second.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/SPYZyRGwtYs?si=uzixZgHlPza7IpN6
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The fluid-mechanical secrets of the squirting cucumber (Ecballium Elaterium). Credit: American Physical Society</figcaption></figure>



“It’s super interesting to watch the explosions through high-speed recordings, as the explosions happen way too fast to see anything in real time,” Gorges said.



The 10,000 fps clips compress a chaotic spray into graceful arcs, letting the researchers trace individual seeds out to distances of 12 meters (39 feet) - an impressive range for an object smaller than a rice grain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiration-for-soft-robotics">Inspiration for soft robotics</h2>



Translating nature’s launchers into human technology is a growing pursuit in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/">soft robotics</a> and medical engineering.



In the cucumber, the driving energy is stored in a water-rich gel, a concept that might underpin future hydrogel-based actuators for microsurgery or targeted drug delivery.



“There are also many applications in soft robotics, drug delivery systems, and similar devices, where energy-efficient launching systems are desired,” Gorges explained.



Mimicking the fruit’s composite rind or its self-sealing hydrogel could yield actuators that store elastic or hydraulic energy safely until a precise trigger releases it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-launch-system-perfected">Nature’s launch system perfected</h2>



From stem straightening that fine-tunes launch angle to seed coatings that assist germination, Ecballium elaterium exemplifies how evolution can weave multiple traits into an integrated dispersal weapon.



By combining high-speed imaging with X-ray tomography, the Kiel group has mapped those traits from the cellular to the ecological scale. Their findings illuminate not just an evolutionary curiosity.



The researchers also offer a blueprint that engineers may soon tap to build miniature devices capable of their own rapid-fire feats.



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Scientists learn "squirting cucumbers" can actually aim their shots before exploding, watch how it works

When a ripe fruit of the Mediterranean squirting cucumber (Ecballium...

Wheat is a major part of our diet, especially in the form of bread. But not all wheat is the same - and the way in which it’s grown, processed, and baked affects the nutrients that are present in it.



Until now, the wheat industry has mostly focused on boosting yields, reducing inputs like fertilizers and pesticides, and ensuring good baking quality. 



What often gets overlooked, however, is that wheat can also be a valuable source of nutrients. In fact, it contributes over 20% to the global supply of fiber, minerals, and trace elements, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (<a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a>).



But getting more nutrition out of wheat isn’t just about planting a different variety. It involves the entire chain - all the way from the field to the oven.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-bread-nutrition-the-basics">Understanding bread nutrition - the basics</h2>



Bread can be surprisingly diverse when it comes to nutrition. A slice of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5310957/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whole grain bread</a>, for instance, can pack a good amount of fiber, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-b-paradox-supplement-linked-to-heart-disease-risk/">B vitamins</a>, iron, magnesium, and complex carbs. These nutrients help regulate blood sugar, support digestion, and provide long-lasting energy. 



On the flip side, white bread - made from refined flour - loses much of that fiber and many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/micronutrient-deficiency-rates-are-soaring-worldwide/">micronutrients</a> during processing. Manufacturers often enrich it to add some of those nutrients back, but it still doesn’t match the nutritional punch of whole grain varieties.



The kind of bread you eat matters, but so does how much. Bread is a carb-heavy food, and while carbs aren't the enemy, overdoing them - especially if the bread is low in fiber - can spike your blood sugar and leave you hungrier sooner. 



If you're aiming for a more nutritious option, look for loaves with at least 3 grams of fiber and minimal added sugar. Bonus points for sprouted grains, seeds, or sourdough, which can improve digestion and nutrient absorption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics-of-wheat-varieties">Characteristics of wheat varieties </h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hohenheim</a> and the University Medical Center at the <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Mainz</a> teamed up with four wheat breeding companies to study how wheat’s nutritional value can be improved across the whole value chain.



Over five years, they recorded more than 6,000 traits across 282 wheat varieties and 400 breeding lines.



Dr. Friedrich Longin is director of the Wheat Department at the <a href="https://lsa.uni-hohenheim.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State Plant Breeding Institute</a> and coordinator of the <a href="https://lsa.uni-hohenheim.de/en/betterwheat_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Betterwheat project</a>.



“The unique thing about the project was the holistic view of variety characteristics along the entire value chain,” explained Dr. Longin.



“In addition to important characteristics for successful cultivation, several dozen processing characteristics for bakeries were considered, as well as important ingredients and proteins that could be important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proper-nutrition-in-the-first-1000-days-of-life-is-crucial/">human</a> nutrition.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-wheat-just-has-more-nutrients">Some wheat just has more nutrients</h2>



The wheat varieties were tested in different environments across Europe to measure how both breeding and growing conditions influence the traits of the wheat.



“This allows us to estimate the extent of the influence of breeding, but also that of the growing environment, on these many traits,” noted Dr. Johannes Schacht, senior wheat breeder at <a href="https://www.limagrain.com/en">Limagrain</a> GmbH.



One of the team's main goals was to understand how nutrient levels vary between wheat types. They tested about 800 wheat samples for 13 key minerals and trace elements like iron and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/calcium-zinc-are-keys-to-healthier-pregnancy/">zinc</a> - nutrients that are important for immunity, metabolism, and cell health.



“We were able to determine that the nutrient content in different wheat varieties varies greatly - and can fluctuate by up to 50%,” stated Dr. Longin.



“Our trials also show that the nutrients in wheat can be combined well with the required baking qualities in terms of breeding. These correlated positively with the protein content and dough properties.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-wheat-nutrient-content">Measuring wheat nutrient content</h2>



To apply this research practically, the scientists explored how to quickly measure nutrient content in wheat. 



One method, x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, could be a game changer. It scans wheat with X-rays and, based on prior calibrations, provides fast, reliable nutrient readings.



“In order to use this knowledge in practice, xrf fluorescence spectrometry is a method that can be used to measure the nutrient content in wheat quickly and reliably,” explained Dr. Longin.



But using this technology widely would require investment. “This is only possible if the additional work is also paid for,” he added.



And there’s another catch: boosting wheat’s nutrition only makes a difference if people eat more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/refined-grains-increase-the-risk-of-heart-disease/">whole grains</a> or at least <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-with-less-sugar-still-tastes-great-with-a-secret-ingredient/">flours</a> with high type numbers (1050 and up). 



That’s because most nutrients are in the outer layers of the grain, which are lost in refined flours like types 405, 550, and 812.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bakers-make-wheat-digestible">Bakers make wheat digestible</h2>



Even if wheat is nutrient-rich, our bodies might not absorb those nutrients unless the bread is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/freezing-bread-could-make-it-healthier/">baked</a> the right way.



“The healthy ingredients in wheat are bound in phytic acid. However, this acid cannot be digested and is excreted along with the beneficial nutrients,” said Dr. Longin.



So the researchers partnered with artisan bakers to test four common baking methods. One technique stood out: combining a long dough cycle with sourdough. 



“We found that the phytic acid is almost completely broken down during this baking process, making the ingredients available to the body,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-bread-starts-with-better-choices">Better bread starts with better choices</h2>



From field to bakery, everyone involved in wheat production can help improve the nutritional value of bread. But it starts with us.



“All partners in the wheat value chain can influence the nutritional content of bread,” said Dr. Longin. "However, clear priorities must be set: first of all, we consumers should eat more whole grains." 



"This should then be baked with a long leavening process, and only then does breeding and targeted grain trading make sense in order to further optimize the nutrient profile."



Wheat offers more than just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-almonds-can-help-you-cut-calories/">calories</a>. With the right science, baking methods, and consumer choices, it can play a much bigger role in a healthy diet.



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Study reveals how to make wheat bread even healthier while also improving taste

Wheat is a major part of our diet, especially in...

If you've ever forgotten to water your plants for a couple of days, you probably noticed something interesting. The flowers droop quickly. The grass gets dry. But the trees? They’re fine. 



That’s because not all plants handle water the same way. Some use water freely, while others hold back, adjusting to dry conditions in very different ways.



Yet for years, many climate models haven’t taken those differences into account. They’ve relied on simple assumptions that treat every plant alike. That may soon change, thanks to new research that puts plant behavior into the equation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-model-gets-plant-upgrade">Climate model gets plant upgrade</h2>



Scientists from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and San Diego State University have built a better way to look at how soil dries out after rain. 



Their model shows that plants don’t follow a one-size-fits-all response to water stress. Instead, they behave in complex, adaptive ways - something the researchers say could help sharpen predictions about climate, weather, and water use.



Kelly Caylor, a professor at UCSB’s Bren School of Environmental Science &amp; Management, is the senior author of the study.



“We found that plants don't respond to water stress in a simple, straight-line way,” she said. “Instead, they have dynamic response patterns that reveal whether they're ‘water spenders’ or ‘water savers.’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-rainwater-really-goes">Where rainwater really goes</h2>



After it rains, water goes in a few directions. Some of it runs off into rivers. Some seeps down into the ground. 



The rest goes back up into the air - either by evaporating or by moving through plants, which release water through their leaves in a process called transpiration. Together, these are known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/water-cycle/">evapotranspiration</a>.



How quickly soil dries out affects everything from crop growth to wildfire risk to weather forecasts. But until recently, scientists didn’t have good large-scale data on how this drying process worked. Instead, they built models based mostly on rainfall and streamflow.



“Ironically, most models do not use soil moisture data, although the soil moisture is a central component to hydrological behavior,” said lead author Ryoko Araki, a joint doctoral student at UCSB and SDSU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-respond-in-unique-ways">Plants respond in unique ways</h2>



Until now, even the more advanced models made a big assumption: that all plants slow down their water use in the same way, at the same rate, under the same conditions.



“All plants - no matter young or old, summer or winter, tree or grass, small or large,” Araki said. But that assumption skips over a critical part of the picture. Different plants behave differently under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-secret-weapon-for-surviving-stress/">stress</a>.



By ignoring that, the models miss out on useful clues. So Araki and her colleagues wondered - could a nonlinear model, one that accounts for more complex plant responses, offer better insights?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-smarter-way-to-model-moisture">A smarter way to model moisture</h2>



The team began with a standard, linear model based on time and moisture levels. Then they added a nonlinear factor that could reflect how plants adjust their water use as conditions change.



One thing that set this project apart was the data. The scientists used information from NASA’s SMAP satellite, which tracks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">soil moisture</a> across the globe using microwave sensors. That gave them a way to test their model against real-world conditions.



And it worked. The nonlinear model outperformed the two most widely used linear models. The older models tended to overestimate how fast soil dries out. That can lead to bad predictions—especially in regions where water supply is already tight.



Still, not everyone in the field is on board. Some researchers say the added complexity isn’t worth the trouble.



“Even though the nonlinear model is more complicated, it fits the data better, and it captures more of the system’s behaviors,” Araki said. “It provides a way to investigate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-adapt-to-survive-a-changing-climate/">plant adaptations</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-plants-work-from-space">Watching plants work, from space</h2>



There’s no easy way to track how individual plants manage water stress. You can’t just walk into a forest and see whether a tree is slowing down its water use or pushing forward through dry soil.



“Do they keep growing as much as they can while they still have some amount of water, or do they just completely stop transpiring to prevent tissue damage?” said co-author Bryn Morgan, a former UCSB doctoral student who is now a postdoctoral fellow at MIT.



That’s why this model matters. It gives scientists a window into plant behavior on a massive scale. It also shows that there’s more going on beneath the surface - literally - than many models have accounted for.



For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardeners-can-make-small-changes-to-benefit-pollinators/">gardeners</a>, farmers, and anyone keeping an eye on climate trends, this kind of research could lead to better tools and smarter predictions. Because as it turns out, understanding how a tree survives a dry spell might help all of us prepare for what’s ahead.



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