<p>Amazona arausiaca NatureServe Explorer Species Reports &#8212; NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.</p>
<p>ITIS Reports &#8212; ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=35f8c824aab647a19217981e91ae23f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0.1017j0j1&amp;pglt=299&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.</p>
<p>FWS Digital Media Library &#8212; The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service&#8217;s National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The red-necked amazon, also known as the red-necked parrot, Dominican blue-faced amazon, lesser Dominican amazon, and Jaco parrot, is an amazon parrot endemic to Dominica. It is green, with bright splashes of various colours. Its name is due to the area of red plumage commonly found at its throat.Species Profile. Genus: <strong>Amazona</strong> | Species: <strong>arausiaca</strong> Size: 40cm (15.6 in) Weight: 620g (21.7 oz) Races including nominate: one. Colour Adult: Both adults body colour green, the feathers of the nape, neck, and mantle edged with dusty black; purple/blue face; red foreneck; secondary feathers 1-3 red turning into yellow and tipped with purple/blue, secondary feather 4 yellow tinged with green and .</p>


Amazona arausiaca

<p>Deep beneath the icy waters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/east-antarctica-once-thought-to-be-stable-is-on-the-verge-of-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>, a silent crisis is brewing. As the Antarctic deep sea warms, it sets off a chain reaction that reaches the far-off waters of the North Atlantic, causing sea levels to rise. </p>



<p>This alarming phenomenon threatens not just marine life but also the millions of people living in coastal areas. This scenario connects distant corners of our planet in ways we are only beginning to understand.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amoc-earth-s-ocean-conveyor-belt">AMOC: Earth's ocean 'conveyor belt'</h2>



<p>At the heart of this story is the AMOC (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation). This is a complex system of currents within the Atlantic Ocean, acting to transport heat, essential nutrients, and carbon dioxide from the tropics to the higher latitudes. </p>



<p>The AMOC plays a vital role in regulating Earth's climate on a global scale. It functions much like the various branches of a river system, with different components contributing to its overall flow and direction.</p>



<p>Scientists have been meticulously studying a specific part of the AMOC: the "abyssal limb." This refers to a current residing thousands of meters below the ocean's surface, fueled by the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water (ABW). </p>



<p>ABW is an extremely cold and dense water mass that forms around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-force-moves-ross-ice-shelf-antarctica-every-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a> under specific conditions. Due to its density, ABW sinks to the ocean floor and flows northwards. It becomes a primary driver of the AMOC's abyssal limb.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowdown-in-crucial-ocean-current">Slowdown in crucial ocean current</h2>



<p>Scientists at University of Miami <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science</a>, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s <a href="https://www.aoml.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory</a> have dedicated over twenty years to meticulously tracking this deep, Antarctic-sourced water.</p>



<p>The experts used specialized instruments moored thousands of meters below the surface. The findings are truly chilling: the abyssal limb of the AMOC is weakening. The measured slowdown, approximately 12%, might seem small at first glance. However, it's crucial to grasp the sheer scale of the AMOC and this deep-ocean flow.</p>



<p>We're talking about a current system that spans the entire Atlantic basin, moving a volume of water greater than all the world's rivers combined. A slowdown of even a small percent translates to a massive change in the transport of cold water from the Antarctic towards the North Atlantic.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-dynamics-and-warming">Antarctic dynamics and warming</h2>



<p>During the Antarctic winter, the formation of sea ice plays a vital role. As seawater freezes, the ice structure itself excludes salt, which is concentrated into the surrounding liquid water. This increases both the salinity and density of the unfrozen water, making it significantly heavier.</p>



<p>This newly-formed, extremely dense water, ABW, sinks towards the ocean floor. Driven by its density, ABW becomes the primary fuel for the abyssal limb of the AMOC, initiating a vast northward flow within the Atlantic Ocean basin.</p>



<p>A weaker abyssal limb indicates that less ABW is being formed and transported towards the North Atlantic. This leads to a reduced influx of cold, dense water in those regions, resulting in the gradual warming of the deep North Atlantic.</p>



<p>Thermal expansion is a fundamental physical property of water. As the deep North Atlantic warms, even slightly, the affected water molecules occupy a greater volume. </p>



<p>“The areas affected by this warming spans thousands of miles in the north-south and east-west directions between 4,000- and 6,000-meters of depth,” said&nbsp;William Johns, a co-author and professor of ocean sciences at the Rosenstiel School. “As a result, there is a significant increase in the abyssal ocean heat content, contributing to local sea level rise due to the thermal expansion of the water.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-antarctic-warming">Impact of Antarctic warming</h2>



<p>The threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-sea-levels-spiked-dramatically-in-2023/">rising sea levels</a> is most evident for coastal cities, where flooding and erosion pose an increasing risk to infrastructure and communities. However, the weakening of the AMOC's abyssal limb has far-reaching consequences that extend well beyond coastal regions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-storms">Stronger storms</h3>



<p>The amount of heat stored in the ocean has a direct link to the intensity of tropical storms and hurricanes. Warmer oceans evaporate more readily, providing additional moisture that fuels these powerful weather systems. </p>



<p>The warming of the deep North Atlantic contributes to an overall increase in the ocean's heat content, which ultimately intensifies these destructive storms.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-ecosystems">Shifting ecosystems</h3>



<p>Marine organisms have evolved to thrive within specific temperature ranges. Disruptions to these temperature patterns, even in the deep ocean, have cascading effects on marine food webs. </p>



<p>Changes in temperature can impact the distribution of plankton, disrupting the base of the food chain, and impact the migration patterns and reproductive cycles of larger marine species.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-unexpected-connection">The unexpected connection</h3>



<p>Changes in the abyssal regions of the ocean might feel far removed from everyday life for many people. However, these changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-protective-ice-barriers-are-melting-at-double-the-pace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a> and the Atlantic highlight a core concept of Earth's climate system: our planet is an intricately interconnected web. Actions or changes occurring in one region can have far-reaching consequences on a global scale.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-to-control-antarctic-warming">Tips to control Antarctic warming</h2>



<p>The primary factor driving the changes observed in the Antarctic and the weakening of the AMOC is human-caused climate change. </p>



<p>Greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from burning fossil fuels, trap excess heat within Earth's atmosphere. This excess heat is absorbed by the oceans, leading to warming trends even in the most remote regions, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-experiencing-rapid-plant-growth-concerning-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic</a>.</p>



<p>Here's how the responsibility, and power, shift towards personal decisions and collective action:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-be-aware">Be aware</h3>



<p>Building a strong knowledge base is essential. Climate change is a complex issue, but reliable sources such as <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Global Climate Change</a> provide accurate, science-based information about causes, impacts, and potential solutions. Staying informed empowers individuals to make better choices and advocate for informed policy decisions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-change-your-habits">Change your habits</h3>



<p>Reducing your carbon footprint has multiple benefits. Energy-efficient homes conserve resources and lower bills. Opting for greener transportation methods, such as cycling, public transit, or electric vehicles, directly reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Supporting businesses with sustainable practices sends a clear message that consumers prioritize environmental responsibility.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vote-with-your-voice">Vote with your voice</h3>



<p>Elected officials are tasked with representing their constituents. Communicating with local, state, and national representatives demonstrates that climate action matters to voters. Supporting candidates whose platforms clearly address climate solutions is crucial.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spread-the-word-on-antarctic-warming">Spread the word on Antarctic warming</h3>



<p>Open dialogue and information sharing within your social circles can have a ripple effect. Discussing climate change, its impacts, and actionable solutions with friends, family, and your broader community builds awareness and encourages collective engagement for climate-conscious decisions.</p>



<p>The story of the AMOC's abyssal slowdown underscores the web of our planet's climate systems. It highlights how individual choices, multiplied across billions of people, truly shape the future health of our oceans and the wellbeing of those who rely on them. </p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01422-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Antarctic warming triggers rising North Atlantic sea levels

Deep beneath the icy waters of Antarctica, a silent crisis...

<p>Soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-soil-microbes-could-revolutionize-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> face extreme challenges for survival in desert environments, which are characterized by prolonged drought and scarce rainfall. Despite these harsh conditions, an invisible world thrives below the surface. </p>



<p>The microbes reside in the desert's biocrust - the uppermost layer of soil. They play a crucial role in enriching the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dormant-soil-microbes-survive-in-a-60-year-old-fire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a> with essential nutrients like carbon and nitrogen. </p>



<p>Additionally, they help prevent erosion and retain moisture, contributing significantly to ecosystem health. Yet, the survival strategies of soil microbes in such a punishing environment have long baffled scientists.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-dormancy-to-dynamism">From dormancy to dynamism</h2>



<p>A recent study has shed light on how these resilient microorganisms manage to survive and even thrive under extreme conditions. Dagmar Woebken and her team in the Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> published their findings in the journal <em><em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46920-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em></em>.</p>



<p>The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-microbes-release-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desert soil</a> microbes are uniquely adapted to swiftly respond to the infrequent moisture provided by rainfall. The bacteria enter a dormant state during dry periods, springing to life almost immediately following a rainfall event. This fascinating phenomenon was closely studied in the biocrusts of the Negev Desert, Israel. </p>



<p>The researchers discovered that within a very short time frame after rain - sometimes as little as 15 to 30 minutes - nearly all of the diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life</a> present in the soil transitions from dormancy. They quickly reach full activity. This rapid shift is not commonly seen in other soil types, where bacteria reactivation takes significantly longer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-desert-soil-microbes">A closer look at desert soil microbes </h2>



<p>The researchers used advanced techniques involving stable isotope-labeled water, which contains a form of heavy hydrogen, to simulate rainfall events. By using NanoSIMS, a sophisticated imaging technology, they were able to observe how individual cells responded to simulated rainfall.</p>



<p>The method allowed the researchers to identify which cells were reactivating and assess their growth potential during these brief periods of moisture.</p>



<p>Interestingly, while almost all of the biocrust cells reactivated quickly, only a minority were capable of cell division. This occurred within the short span of rain, typically lasting just one to two days. The majority of cells focused on regeneration, preparing themselves for the next dry spell rather than dividing.</p>



<p>"These data help us understand how biocrust bacteria make optimal use of the short activity windows they experience in deserts. They are ideally adapted to withstand short-term changes in soil water content, a very stressful situation for the cells. This allows them to survive the sudden increase in water content during rain, as well as the subsequent drying out,” noted Dagmar Woebken, principal investigator of the study.</p>



<p>“Additionally, the diverse microbial community is capable of immediate reactivation, which is of great benefit when it must return to a dormant state within a few hours to days.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-ecological-insights">Broader ecological insights</h2>



<p>The insights gained deepen our understanding of desert microbial life and have broader ecosystem implications. </p>



<p>Furthermore, as global droughts become more frequent and intense due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-soil-microbes-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, understanding microorganism responses to water scarcity is crucial. </p>



<p>The desert-adapted strategies of soil microbes showcase resilience and adaptability, providing valuable lessons for managing soil health in other vulnerable areas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Why are desert soil microbes important?</h2>



<p>Desert soil microbes play a vital role in decomposing organic matter, which is scarce in deserts. This decomposition releases nutrients back into the soil, making them available to plants. Microbes such as bacteria and fungi are particularly crucial in the nitrogen cycle, converting atmospheric nitrogen into forms that plants can absorb and use.</p>



<p>Microbes also help to maintain and improve soil structure. Their activity helps bind soil particles together, which improves soil's ability to retain water and resist erosion, a critical function in arid environments where water is limited and soil erosion can be a severe problem.</p>



<p>Many desert plants rely on symbiotic relationships with microbes to survive in such extreme conditions. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a> colonize plant roots and extend far into the soil, increasing a plant’s reach for water and essential nutrients, which is particularly important in nutrient-poor desert soils.</p>



<p>Furthermore, desert microbes sequester carbon in the soil, contributing to the mitigation of climate change. Their ability to survive in extreme conditions also provides insights into resilience strategies that could be useful in managing ecological responses to climate change.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Soil microbes survive the desert by 'sleeping' through the dry spells

Soil microbes face extreme challenges for survival in desert environments,...

<p>Plant stress is a critical concern in agriculture, where timely and accurate information about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-use-ai-and-drone-images-to-interpret-crop-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop health</a> is crucial for maintaining productivity and reducing losses. A recent advancement in this field involves sensors capable of detecting plant signaling molecules. </p>



<p>The sensors provide farmers with an early warning system. They help preemptively address issues such as excessive light, heat, or attacks from insects and microbes.</p>



<p>Working on this technology, scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) and the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SMART</a>) have recently made significant strides.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molecular-markers-to-sense-plant-stress">Molecular markers to sense plant stress</h2>



<p>Utilizing carbon nanotube-based sensors, the experts have identified distinct signals which indicate various types of stress in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-new-way-to-measure-stress-in-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, such as heat, light, or microbial and insect attacks. </p>



<p>The sensors target two key signaling molecules: hydrogen peroxide and salicylic acid. Hydrogen peroxide is used by plant cells as a distress signal under attack scenarios. Meanwhile, salicylic acid plays a role in regulating growth, development, and stress response in plants.</p>



<p>The innovative sensors developed by the team are capable of detecting these molecules, which produce distinct patterns at different times depending on the type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-plants-emit-sounds-when-they-are-stressed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> experienced by the plant.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plant-sensors-detect-stress">How plant sensors detect stress</h2>



<p>The plant stress sensors are initially dissolved in a specialized solution. The solution is then carefully applied to the underside of the leaves of the plants. This strategic application allows the sensors to seamlessly penetrate the stomata, which are tiny openings on the leaf surfaces. </p>



<p>Once inside, the sensors navigate through to the mesophyll, a layer within the leaf where essential plant processes occur. Within the mesophyll, the sensors begin their crucial work. </p>



<p>They detect and monitor any chemical changes signaling stress, such as alterations due to excessive light, heat, or the presence of pests and pathogens. These changes are crucial indicators of the plant's health and its immediate environment.</p>



<p>To capture this data, an infrared camera is used. The camera is sensitive enough to detect the subtle chemical shifts triggered by the sensors. It converts these signals into visual data that is both actionable and timely. </p>



<p>The system allows farmers to receive real-time insights into the health of their crops. With this information, they can make informed decisions quickly, potentially preventing significant stress or damage to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-leaves-send-signals-to-their-roots-on-dry-days-telling-them-to-keep-digging-deeper-for-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. </p>



<p>This technology represents a significant step forward in agricultural practices, providing a tool that enhances crop management and sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-application">Real-world application</h2>



<p>In a recent study, the researchers used the plant stress sensors on pak choi plants. These plants were exposed to various stressors including heat, intense light, insect bites, and bacterial infections.</p>



<p>The results were telling; each stress type triggered a specific production timeline of hydrogen peroxide and salicylic acid. This created a biochemical "language" or fingerprint that identifies the type of stress encountered.</p>



<p>The technology represents a significant leap forward from traditional methods, which often involve genetically engineered fluorescent proteins specific to certain plant types, like tobacco or Arabidopsis thaliana. </p>



<p>The new sensors, however, can be universally applied to nearly any plant, providing a versatile tool for farmers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-farm-management">Implications for farm management</h2>



<p>Michael Strano, a professor of Chemical Engineering at MIT and senior author of the study, emphasized the potential of the plant sensors in agriculture.</p>



<p>"What we found is that these two sensors together can tell the user exactly what kind of stress the plant is undergoing. Inside the plant, in real time, you get chemical changes that rise and fall, and each one serves as a fingerprint of a different stress,” explained Professor Strano.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the team is working on integrating the plant sensors into diagnostic systems that could not only detect stress but also initiate responses, such as adjusting greenhouse conditions to mitigate stress factors automatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>The next steps for the researchers involve adapting these sensors to detect other plant signaling molecules. This could further enhance our understanding of plant responses and potentially lead to new strategies for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-insect-pollinator-communities-boost-crop-production/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop management</a> and protection.</p>



<p>In summary, this novel sensor technology offers farmers a powerful tool to monitor and respond to plant stress more effectively and in real time. As this technology develops, it could revolutionize the way we approach farming, making it more responsive, efficient, and sustainable.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-47082-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



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Sensors that detect plant stress could revolutionize farming

Plant stress is a critical concern in agriculture, where timely...

<p>Astonishing new observations from the Webb Telescope (JWST) have revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-finalizes-ambitious-rule-to-slash-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane emissions</a> from a cold brown dwarf -- a discovery that challenges our understanding of these distant celestial bodies. </p>



<p>This observation suggests potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-enigma-aurorae-discovered-on-isolated-brown-dwarf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroral activities</a> similar to those on Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn, reshaping how we perceive the atmospheres of distant, isolated worlds.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brown-dwarfs-are-an-enigma">Brown dwarfs are an enigma</h2>



<p>Brown dwarfs are intriguing cosmic entities, larger than planets yet not massive enough to ignite like stars. They populate our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> in abundance, with thousands discovered within our own solar vicinity. </p>



<p>These objects present a fascinating blend of planetary and stellar characteristics, making them a prime focus for astronomical research.</p>



<p>A particularly interesting subject of study is W1935, a brown dwarf located 47 light years away.</p>



<p>With a chilly surface temperature of about 400° Fahrenheit, this brown dwarf is as warm as an oven used to bake chocolate chip cookies. Despite this, it exhibits conditions markedly different from those of a typical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-blaze-star-explosion-visible-one-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star</a>.</p>



<p>Despite its poorly defined mass, estimates suggest it weighs between 6 and 35 times that of Jupiter, placing it squarely within the typical size range for brown dwarfs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-methane-glow-on-brown-dwarf-w1935">Unexpected methane glow on brown dwarf W1935</h2>



<p>While examining W1935 among other brown dwarfs, researchers discovered a surprising phenomenon: W1935 was emitting methane.</p>



<p>This observation marked the first instance of methane emissions on a brown dwarf, as methane typically absorbs light rather than emitting it in such cold environments.</p>



<p>“Methane gas is expected in giant planets and brown dwarfs but we usually see it absorbing light, not glowing,” said Jackie Faherty, the lead author of the study. “We were confused about what we were seeing at first but ultimately that transformed into pure excitement at the discovery.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-inversions-and-auroras">Temperature inversions and auroras</h2>



<p>Further investigation through computer modeling revealed another unexpected aspect: W1935's atmosphere exhibits a temperature inversion. In this inversion, the temperature increases with altitude.</p>



<p>While such inversions are common in planets close to a heat source like a star, the isolated nature of W1935 makes this phenomenon particularly baffling.</p>



<p>“We were pleasantly shocked when the model clearly predicted a temperature inversion,” said co-author Ben Burningham from the <a href="https://www.herts.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hertfordshire.</a> “But we also had to figure out where that extra upper atmosphere heat was coming from.”</p>



<p>The team sought answers within our solar system by examining Jupiter and Saturn. Both planets are known for methane emissions and temperature inversions likely caused by auroras.</p>



<p>Consequently, auroras result from interactions between magnetic fields and high-energy particles from the sun. These interactions lead to spectacular light displays near the poles of planets.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speculating-on-solar-and-lunar-influences">Speculating on solar and lunar influences</h2>



<p>Without a host star, the typical solar wind explanation for auroras does not apply to W1935. However, a tantalizing hypothesis emerged: an active moon, similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brilliant-new-images-of-jupiters-moon-io-captured-by-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter's Io</a> or Saturn's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-sparking-energy-source-found-on-saturns-moon-enceladus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Enceladus</a>, might be influencing the phenomenon. </p>



<p>These moons, known for their dynamic geological activity, significantly impact their planets' atmospheres.</p>



<p>“Every time an astronomer points JWST at an object, there’s a chance of a new mind-blowing discovery,” Faherty explained. </p>



<p>“Methane emission was not on my radar when we started this project but now that we know it can be there and the explanation for it so enticing I am constantly on the look-out for it. That’s part of how science moves forward," he concluded.</p>



<p>This recent discovery underscores the unpredictability of space exploration and ignites curiosity. It also drives the scientific community to further unravel the secrets of the universe.</p>



<p>Additionally, more observations are planned to enhance our understanding of W1935 and explore the potential of an undiscovered moon fostering auroral activity on this distant brown dwarf.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07190-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



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Cold brown dwarf seen emitting methane and generating an aurora

Astonishing new observations from the Webb Telescope (JWST) have revealed...

A,Saber-toothed,Tiger,Attacks,A,Lone,Mammoth,In,A,Snowstorm

<p>A team of brilliant climate scientists has taken a deep dive into Earth's Last Ice Age to unravel the complex relationship between climate change, carbon dioxide (CO2), future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global temperatures</a>. </p>



<p>By focusing on the Last Glacial Maximum (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-prove-humans-were-in-north-america-23000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LGM</a>), a period 21,000 years ago when much of North America was covered in ice, the study aims to improve our understanding of climate sensitivity and the potential warming we face in the years and decades ahead.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-last-ice-age-for-future-climate-clues">Analyzing the last ice age for future climate clues</h2>



<p>As carbon dioxide (CO2) levels continue to rise in the atmosphere, the Earth's climate will continue to change, and temperature is expected to increase. </p>



<p>However, the exact relationship between CO2 and global warming, known as climate sensitivity, is still under investigation.</p>



<p>A recent study led by <a href="https://uwpcc.ocean.washington.edu/person/Vince_Cooper" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vince Cooper</a>, a doctoral student in atmospheric sciences at the University of Washington, and senior author <a href="https://environment.uw.edu/faculty/kyle-armour/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyle Armour</a>, an associate professor of atmospheric sciences and oceanography, has shed new light on this critical relationship by analyzing data from Earth's Last Ice Age.</p>



<p>"The main contribution from our study is narrowing the estimate of climate sensitivity, improving our ability to make future warming projections," Cooper explained. </p>



<p>"By looking at how much colder Earth was in the ancient past with lower levels of greenhouse gases, we can estimate how much warmer the current climate will get with higher levels of greenhouse gases," he continued.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Data from the LGM: Coldest chapter of the Last Ice Age</h2>



<p>The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the period during the Last Ice Age when global ice sheets reached their maximum extent. This occurred around 21,000 years ago and lasted for several thousand years. </p>



<p>The LGM represents the coldest and most severe stage of the last glacial period. During the LGM, global temperatures were significantly lower than today, with average temperatures around 6 degrees Celsius cooler.</p>



<p>This extreme cooling allowed ice sheets to expand and cover vast areas of the Earth's surface. The Laurentide Ice Sheet in North America and the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet in Europe were at their peak, while glaciers advanced in mountainous regions worldwide.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Sea level changes and exposed landmasses</h3>



<p>As water became locked up in the massive ice sheets, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-sea-levels-spiked-dramatically-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global sea levels</a> dropped by approximately 125 meters during the LGM. </p>



<p>This dramatic decrease in sea levels exposed extensive areas of the continental shelves, creating land bridges between regions that are now separated by water. </p>



<p>The most famous example is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-the-americas-10000-years-earlier-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bering Land Bridge</a>, which connected Asia and North America, allowing human populations and animals to migrate between the continents.</p>



<p>The LGM also saw significant changes in the Earth's atmospheric composition. Carbon dioxide levels were much lower than today, dropping to around 190 parts per million (ppm) compared to the current level of over 400 ppm. </p>



<p>This decrease in greenhouse gases contributed to the cooler global temperatures and amplified the effects of the expanding ice sheets.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Influence on ecosystems and biodiversity</h3>



<p>The harsh conditions of the LGM had a profound impact on ecosystems and biodiversity. Tundra and steppe environments expanded, while forests retreated to smaller refugia. </p>



<p>Many plant and animal species adapted to the colder climate, with some megafauna, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/end-of-an-era-woolly-mammoth-remains-tell-an-intriguing-story/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">woolly mammoths</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-tooth-diet-giant-ground-sloth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">giant ground sloths</a>, thriving during this period. </p>



<p>However, the LGM also led to the extinction of some species that were unable to cope with the changing environmental conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-future-climate-warming-estimates-from-ice-age-data">Refining future climate warming estimates from ice age data</h2>



<p>By analyzing data from the Last Glacial Maximum, the study's results show significant deviations from current warming projections. </p>



<p>The best-case, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most likely estimates</a>, for warming due to doubling CO2 levels remain unchanged at about 2 and 3 degrees Celsius, respectively. </p>



<p>However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worst-case scenario</a> has been reduced by a full degree, from 5 to 4 degrees Celsius.</p>



<p>"This paper allows us to produce more confident predictions because it really brings down the upper end of future warming, and says that the most extreme scenario is less likely," Armour enthused. </p>



<p>"It doesn't really change the lower end, or the average estimate, which remain consistent with all the other lines of evidence," he concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-recent-climate-trends">Limitations of recent climate trends</h2>



<p>The authors caution that recent decades are not a reliable predictor of future global warming trends. </p>



<p>Shorter-term climate cycles and the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric pollution</a> are just some of the reasons why recent patterns cannot be relied upon to forecast the rest of the century.</p>



<p>"The spatial pattern of global warming in the most recent 40 years doesn't look like the long-term pattern we expect in the future -- the recent past is a bad analog for future global warming," emphasized Armour.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-paleoclimate-records-and-computer-models">Combining paleoclimate records and computer models</h2>



<p>By combining prehistoric climate records from the Last Glacial Maximum, such as ocean sediments, ice cores, and preserved pollen, with computer models of the Earth's climate, Vince Cooper and his team were able to simulate the weather conditions of this ancient period.</p>



<p>"The paleoclimate record includes long periods that were on average much warmer or colder than the current climate, and we know that there were big climate forcings from ice sheets and greenhouse gases during those periods," explained Cooper. </p>



<p>"If we know roughly what the past temperature changes were and what caused them, then we know what to expect in the future," he concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-ice-sheets-and-clouds">Role of ice sheets and clouds</h2>



<p>The study revealed that the ice sheet covering much of North America during the Last Glacial Maximum had a more significant cooling effect than previously thought. </p>



<p>In addition to reflecting summer sunlight off the continents, the ice sheet also altered wind patterns and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean currents</a>, causing the northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans to become especially cold and cloudy. </p>



<p>These cloud changes over the oceans compounded the glacier's global cooling effects by reflecting even more sunlight.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-future-climate-with-help-from-earth-s-last-ice-age">Predicting future climate with help from Earth's last ice age</h2>



<p>In summary, as we continue to face the challenges posed by climate change, studies like this one provide valuable insights into the complex relationship between CO2 and global warming. </p>



<p>By refining our understanding of climate sensitivity and improving our ability to make future warming projections, researchers are helping to inform policymakers and the public about the potential impacts of rising greenhouse gas levels.</p>



<p>While the study's findings offer some reassurance that the most extreme warming scenarios are less likely, it is crucial to remember that even moderate increases in global temperature can have significant consequences for our planet and its inhabitants. </p>



<p>As we work towards a more sustainable future, it is essential that we continue to support and invest in climate change research to better understand and mitigate the risks posed by a warming world.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adk9461" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Ice age data analysis offers good news for Earth’s current climate woes

A team of brilliant climate scientists has taken a deep...

<p>A significant space weather event has prompted the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>) to issue a Geomagnetic Storm Alert. </p>



<p>The Space Weather Message Code ALTK07, issued at 1952 UTC on April 19, 2024, indicates that the geomagnetic K-index has reached a value of 7, crossing the threshold at 1951 UTC during the synoptic period of 1800-2100 UTC.</p>



<p>Initially, space experts anticipated the storm's intensity to fluctuate between a G1 and G2 level, potentially escalating to G3 by Sunday. </p>



<p>However, the unpredictable nature of space weather has manifested itself, with a severe G3 level storm materializing within the last 24 hours.</p>



<p>The alert, classified as a G3 -- Strong event on the NOAA Space Weather Scale, suggests that the area of impact is primarily poleward of 50 degrees Geomagnetic Latitude. </p>



<p>The NOAA Space Weather Scale descriptions can be found at <a href="http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/noaa-scales-explanation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">www.swpc.noaa.gov/noaa-scales-explanation</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impacts-on-power-systems-spacecraft-navigation-and-radio">Potential impacts on power systems, spacecraft, navigation, and radio</h2>



<p>The G3 - Strong geomagnetic storm alert warns of several potential impacts across various sectors:</p>



<ol start="1">
<li><strong>Induced Currents</strong> - Power system voltage irregularities are possible, and false alarms may be triggered on some protection devices.<br></li>



<li><strong>Spacecraft</strong> - Systems may experience surface charging, increased drag on low Earth-orbit satellites, and orientation problems.<br></li>



<li><strong>Navigation</strong> - Intermittent satellite navigation (GPS) problems, including loss-of-lock and increased range error, may occur.<br></li>



<li><strong>Radio</strong>&nbsp;- High frequency (HF) radio communications may be intermittent.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aurora-visibility-extends-to-lower-latitudes">Aurora visibility extends to lower latitudes</h2>



<p>One of the most visually stunning effects of this geomagnetic storm is the increased visibility of the aurora. The alert suggests that the aurora may be seen as low as Pennsylvania, Iowa, and Oregon, providing a rare opportunity for residents in these regions to witness the mesmerizing dance of the Northern Lights.</p>



<p>In the rare event of the storm reaching a G4 level of severity, the phenomenon could be observed as far south as Alabama and Northern California, a remarkable occurrence for these latitudes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-active-warning-and-continued-monitoring">Active warning and continued monitoring</h2>



<p>The Space Weather Message Code ALTK07 indicates that an active warning is in place, emphasizing the need for continued monitoring and preparedness. </p>



<p>As the geomagnetic storm progresses, NOAA and other space weather monitoring agencies will provide updates and further guidance to help mitigate the potential impacts on technology and infrastructure.</p>



<p>It is essential for individuals and organizations in the affected regions to stay informed about the development of this geomagnetic storm and to take necessary precautions to protect sensitive equipment and systems. </p>



<p>By understanding the potential risks and staying alert to official updates, we can work together to minimize the disruptions caused by this powerful space weather event.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-predicting-geomagnetic-storms">Challenges of predicting geomagnetic storms</h2>



<p>Predicting the precise intensity of geomagnetic activity remains a complex challenge for space experts, compounded by the increasing frequency of such events. </p>



<p>The uptick in geomagnetic storms is attributed to the Sun entering the peak phase of its 11-year solar cycle, a period marked by the magnetic field's reversal.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Cycle 25</a>, which commenced in 2019, is expected to continue until approximately 2030, indicating a period of heightened solar and geomagnetic activity ahead. </p>



<p>As the world witnesses the awe-inspiring displays of the aurora, the scientific community continues to work tirelessly to better understand and predict the intricacies of space weather.</p>



<p>Visit the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Weather Prediction Center</a>&nbsp;for more information.</p>



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NOAA Alert: Severe geomagnetic solar storm warning issued

A significant space weather event has prompted the National Oceanic...

<p>In a remarkable development, NASA has given the green light to the Dragonfly mission, a revolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_titan-surface_nasa_1m.jpg">rotorcraft</a> designed to investigate the complex chemistry of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-rings-will-vanish-from-sight-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn</a>'s moon Titan. </p>



<p>This confirmation allows the mission to proceed with the final design, construction, and testing of the spacecraft and its scientific instruments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-prebiotic-chemistry-on-titan">Deciphering the prebiotic chemistry on Titan</h2>



<p>The Dragonfly <a href="https://dragonfly.jhuapl.edu/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mission</a>, led by Dr. Melissa Trainer of NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, will carry a cutting-edge instrument called the Dragonfly Mass Spectrometer (DraMS). </p>



<p>This powerful tool will help scientists delve into the intricate chemistry at work on Titan, potentially shedding light on the chemical processes that led to the emergence of life on Earth, known as prebiotic chemistry.</p>



<p>"We want to know if the type of chemistry that could be important for early pre-biochemical systems on Earth is taking place on Titan," explains Dr. Trainer, a planetary scientist and astrobiologist specializing in Titan.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Titan: Dragonfly's target</h2>



<p>Titan, the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-now-leads-the-solar-system-moon-race-with-145/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon of Saturn</a>, is shrouded in a dense nitrogen-rich atmosphere, bears a striking resemblance to Earth in many ways. With a diameter of 5,150 kilometers, Titan is the second-largest moon in our solar system, surpassed only by Jupiter's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-moon-ganymede-has-huge-internal-ocean-and-salty-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ganymede</a>.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Dense atmosphere and unique climate</h3>



<p>One of Titan's most distinctive features is its thick atmosphere, which is composed primarily of nitrogen and methane. This dense atmosphere creates a surface pressure 1.5 times higher than Earth's, making it the only moon in our solar system with a substantial atmosphere. </p>



<p>The presence of methane in Titan's atmosphere leads to a fascinating hydrological cycle, similar to Earth's water cycle, but with methane as the primary liquid.</p>



<p>Titan's surface is dotted with numerous lakes and seas of liquid hydrocarbons, predominantly methane and ethane. These liquid bodies, some of which are larger than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-great-lakes-are-running-low-on-ice-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Lakes on Earth</a>, are the result of Titan's unique climate and atmospheric conditions. </p>



<p>The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/cassini/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cassini mission</a>, which explored the Saturn system from 2004 to 2017, provided stunning images and data of these extraterrestrial lakes and seas.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Dragonfly mission to search Titan for prebiotic chemistry and life</h3>



<p>The complex chemistry occurring on Titan's surface and in its atmosphere has drawn significant attention from astrobiologists. </p>



<p>With its abundant organic compounds and the presence of liquid methane, Titan is considered a prime candidate for studying prebiotic chemistry and the potential for life to emerge in environments different from Earth. </p>



<p>Beneath Titan's icy crust lies another intriguing feature: a global subsurface ocean of liquid water and ammonia. This ocean, which is believed to be salty and have a high pH, may potentially host microbial life. </p>



<p>The presence of this subsurface ocean, along with the unique chemistry on Titan's surface, makes this moon a fascinating target for future exploration and scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-rotorcraft-exploration">Pushing the boundaries of rotorcraft exploration</h2>



<p>Nicky Fox, associate administrator of the Science Mission Directorate at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Headquarters</a>, emphasized the significance of the Dragonfly mission, stating, "Exploring Titan will push the boundaries of what we can do with <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_titan-surface_side-view_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rotorcraft outside of Earth</a>."</p>



<p>Titan's unique characteristics, including its abundant complex carbon-rich chemistry, interior ocean, and past presence of liquid water on the surface, make it an ideal destination for studying prebiotic chemical processes and the potential habitability of an extraterrestrial environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-design-and-cutting-edge-technology">Innovative design and cutting-edge technology</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_mission-concept_NASA_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dragonfly robotic rotorcraft</a> will leverage Titan's low gravity and dense atmosphere to fly between different points of interest on the moon's surface, spanning several miles apart. </p>



<p>This innovative approach allows the entire suite of instruments to be relocated to new sites once the previous one has been thoroughly explored, providing access to samples from diverse geological environments.</p>



<p>DraMS, developed by the same team responsible for the Sample Analysis at Mars (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/science-instruments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SAM</a>) instrument suite aboard the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a>, will analyze surface samples using techniques tested on Mars. </p>



<p>Dr. Trainer emphasized the benefits of this heritage, stating, "This design has given us an instrument that's very flexible, that can adapt to the different types of surface samples."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-mission-challenges-and-funding">Dragonfly mission challenges and funding</h2>



<p>The Dragonfly mission successfully passed its Preliminary Design Review in early 2023. However, due to funding constraints, the mission was asked to develop an updated budget and schedule. </p>



<p>The revised plan, presented and conditionally approved in November 2023, hinged on the outcome of the fiscal year 2025 budget process.</p>



<p>With the release of the president's fiscal year 2025 budget request, Dragonfly is now confirmed with a total lifecycle cost of $3.35 billion and a launch date set for July 2028. </p>



<p>This reflects a cost increase of approximately two times the initially proposed cost and a delay of more than two years from the original selection in 2019.</p>



<p>Despite the challenges posed by funding constraints, the COVID-19 pandemic, supply chain issues, and an in-depth design iteration, NASA remains committed to the Dragonfly mission. </p>



<p>Additional funding has been provided for a heavy-lift launch vehicle to shorten the mission's cruise phase and compensate for the delayed arrival at Titan.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rigorous-testing-and-validation">Rigorous testing and validation</h2>



<p>To ensure the success of the Dragonfly mission, researchers on Earth have conducted extensive testing and validation of the designs and models for the nuclear-powered, <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/dragonfly-craft_in-flight_nasa_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">car-sized drone</a>. </p>



<p>The mission team has carried out test campaigns at NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/langley/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Langley Research Center</a>, utilizing the Subsonic Tunnel and the Transonic Dynamics Tunnel (<a href="https://aeroelasticity.larc.nasa.gov/facilities/transonic-dynamics-tunnel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TDT</a>) to validate computational fluid dynamics models and gather data under simulated Titan atmospheric conditions.</p>



<p>Ken Hibbard, Dragonfly mission systems engineer at APL, emphasized the importance of these tests, stating, "All of these tests feed into our Dragonfly Titan simulations and performance predictions."</p>



<p>As the Dragonfly mission progresses, it marks a new era of exploration and scientific discovery. Dr. Trainer expressed her excitement, saying, "Dragonfly is a spectacular science mission with broad community interest, and we are excited to take the next steps on this mission."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-science-fiction-into-fact-with-the-dragonfly-mission">Turning science fiction into fact with the Dragonfly mission</h2>



<p>In summary, the Dragonfly mission embodies the essence of human curiosity and the relentless pursuit of knowledge. As NASA prepares to send this revolutionary rotorcraft to the alien world of Titan, we stand on the brink of a new era of exploration and discovery. </p>



<p>With its innovative design, cutting-edge technology, and the unwavering dedication of the mission team, Dragonfly will unlock the secrets of prebiotic chemistry and shed light on the potential for life beyond Earth. </p>



<p>As we eagerly await the launch of this titanic mission, we can only imagine the wonders that await us on Saturn's enigmatic moon. The Dragonfly mission is a testament to the indomitable human spirit and our boundless capacity to push the frontiers of knowledge. </p>



<p>In the words of Ken Hibbard, "With Dragonfly, we're turning science fiction into exploration fact," and that fact will undoubtedly inspire generations to come.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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NASA's Dragonfly mission gets the green light to search for life on Titan

In a remarkable development, NASA has given the green light...

<p>Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover delicately over a flower, and wondered how they manage it? Unlike birds and other flying animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> don't have direct muscle control in their wings. </p>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a> have delved deep into this question, revealing the complex mechanics behind insect flight, a capability that has profoundly influenced the evolution of life on Earth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secret-s-in-the-hinge">The secret's in the hinge</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-flying-insects-fight-the-wind-to-reach-food-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect</a> wings are attached to the body by a hinge that is far more complex than any simple joint. This specialized hinge facilitates subtle rotations, precise tilting, and intricate motions, granting the insect incredible agility during flight. </p>



<p>Internal muscles control the hinge, acting in a concerted way to manipulate the wings. Each muscle receives direct commands from the insect's brain, resulting in coordinated and precise alterations in wing movement that dictate the insect's flight path.</p>



<p>"The fly wing hinge is perhaps the most mysterious and underappreciated structure in the history of life," explained Professor Michael Dickinson. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flying-is-an-insects-superpower">Flying is an insects superpower</h2>



<p>Flight offers substantial benefits that have contributed significantly to the ecological success of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-feast-on-migrating-insects-in-the-pyrenees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. Here's how aerial movement impacts their lives:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-foraging">Enhanced foraging</h3>



<p>Taking to the skies vastly expands an insect's foraging range. They can quickly locate food sources that would be difficult or tedious to reach on foot, increasing their chances of finding a meal and boosting energy intake.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dating-pool">Expanding the dating pool</h3>



<p>The ability to fly makes it significantly easier for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> to locate potential mates. Individuals can cover vast distances and increase the odds of encountering a suitable partner, contributing to successful reproduction and species continuation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-predator-avoidance">Improved predator avoidance</h3>



<p>Flight provides insects with a swift escape route. They can rapidly gain altitude or outmaneuver predators, increasing their chances of survival and ultimately, reproductive success.</p>



<p>Unlike birds, bats, and pterosaurs, who evolved flight through the modification of their forelimbs, insects took a radically different approach. Their wings are not modified limbs, but unique outgrowths of their body wall. </p>



<p>This unique evolutionary trajectory and specialized wing system is one crucial reason behind the incredible diversification and dominance of insects around the globe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-behind-insect-flight">Complexity behind insect flight</h2>



<p>Scientists at Caltech are exploring the intricacies of insect flight, focusing on the remarkable aerial capabilities of the fruit fly. Their research reveals the complexity and precision of these small creatures’ flight mechanisms.</p>



<p>"We didn't want to just predict the wing motion; we wanted to know the role of the individual muscles," said study first author Johan Melis. "We wanted to tie together the biomechanics of the wing hinge to the neural circuits that control it."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-behind-insect-flight">Mechanisms behind insect flight </h2>



<p>In the wing hinge of a fly, a specific set of 12 muscles directly controls the movement of the wings. Each of these muscles receives signals directly from the fly's brain, guiding their precise and quick actions necessary for flight. </p>



<p>To understand the significance of this, compare it to a hummingbird, which is also renowned for its agile flight. Despite its small size, a hummingbird relies on thousands of neurons to coordinate the complex movements needed for its flight maneuvers. </p>



<p>Essentially, while both creatures are masters of flight, the fly achieves similar levels of control and agility with far fewer neural resources, indicating a highly efficient and specialized flight control system within these tiny insects.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-insect-flight">Machine learning and insect flight</h2>



<p>To better visualize these processes, the researchers engineered fruit flies with wing muscles that emit a glow when active. This genetic modification allowed clearer observation of muscle activity during flight.</p>



<p>The team used high-speed cameras and microscopes to gather extensive data, recording over 80,000 wingbeats from their test subjects. This highlights the dynamic and rapid nature of insect flight.</p>



<p>Finally, to manage and interpret this vast amount of information, machine learning algorithms were utilized. These tools analyze the data and generate detailed maps that show how the fly's muscles work together seamlessly to control flight, often making adjustments faster than the blink of an eye.</p>



<p>This exploration not only increases our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-insects-seem-to-be-attracted-to-light-has-long-been-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> fly but also enhances our appreciation for the complex biological systems that govern seemingly simple actions like flight.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wing-movements-facilitated-by-the-insect-s-hinge">Wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge</h2>



<p>The ultimate objective of this research extends beyond simply understanding the intricate wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge. Scientists strive to unravel how these complex wing motions are orchestrated by the insect's brain. </p>



<p>The wing hinge, despite its remarkable design, is merely a tool – it's the brain that issues the commands and directs aerial maneuvers.</p>



<p>As some of the first creatures to take to the air, insects hold invaluable insights into the evolution of early flight control systems. Their brains contain the neural circuits that allowed for this remarkable adaptation, blueprints that offer a glimpse into the origins of flight.</p>



<p>Moreover, an insect's brain seamlessly coordinates flight and their numerous walking legs. This showcases an incredible ability to control vastly different movement systems, requiring sophisticated neural networks and information processing within their compact brains.</p>



<p>The connection between the physical structures that enable flight – like the hinge and muscles – and the neural commands that control them is fundamental to understanding the amazing aerial abilities of insects.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>The Caltech team hopes to create intricate models that fully combine the muscle control, the mechanics of the hinge, the way air flows around the wings, and the fly's inner command center. </p>



<p>By studying other insects like mosquitos and bees, they could reveal how different wing structures and brain systems give insects their unique flying styles.</p>



<p>"We want to understand the circuitry between the biomechanics and the neurobiology. Very few times in evolution has an animal had one very successful form of locomotion - walking - and simply added another one - flying. This means that the brains of insects must have all the circuitry to regulate to completely different means of moving," said Dickinson.</p>



<p>Understanding the incredible engineering that underpins insect flight is about more than just satisfying our curiosity. This research might ultimately lead to better flying robots – such as tiny drones with the adaptability of a housefly. </p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07293-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Insect flight is powered by an extraordinary structure

Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover...

Saguaros,In,Sonoran,Desert,After,Snow,Storm.

<p>Global warming is undeniable, yet recent winters have witnessed record-breaking, extreme cold temperatures in unexpected areas. This paradoxical situation has scientists investigating the Warm Arctic-Cold Continent (WACC) phenomenon and its far-reaching impacts.</p>



<p>A study by the <a href="https://www.gist.ac.kr/en/main.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology</a> underscores a significant change in WACC patterns from the 2030s onward, with implications for weather forecasting, climate modeling, and community preparedness.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-arctic-cold-continent-wacc-phenomenon">Warm Arctic-cold continent (WACC) phenomenon</h2>



<p>The WACC phenomenon centers on how rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-could-speed-up-global-2c-temperature-rise-by-eight-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic warming</a> and diminishing sea ice disrupt large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns, specifically the jet stream. </p>



<p>The jet stream functions as a boundary separating cold Arctic air from warmer air to the south. A warming Arctic shrinks the temperature difference between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes, weakening the jet stream. </p>



<p>This leads to a wavier jet stream that becomes prone to forming large, meandering loops. These loops allow frigid Arctic air to escape and plunge far southward into regions like North America, Europe, and Asia. </p>



<p>Consequently, these areas experience intense cold snaps, demonstrating how a warming Arctic has far-reaching impacts on weather patterns well beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-may-be-ice-free-sooner-than-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> region itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wacc-pattern-and-extreme-cold-events">WACC pattern and extreme cold events</h2>



<p>The team behind this research at the Gwangju Institute dove into the science behind WACC.</p>



<p>"The WACC pattern has significantly influenced winter climates, but what we see currently is merely the start of a drastic shift," explained Professor Jin-Ho Yoon, lead researcher of the study. </p>



<p>The WACC pattern is likely at its strongest in the 2020s.</p>



<p>"These events will sharply decline post-2030s. Yet, this decline does not mean reduced extreme weather events in the future. Instead, winters will get warmer as global warming intensifies. Although cold snaps will occur less frequently, they may have more severe consequences when they do happen," Professor Yoon warned.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-altered-arctic-warming-and-wacc-pendulum">Altered Arctic warming and WACC pendulum</h2>



<p>Imagine a pendulum swinging between a super-warm Arctic and freezing cold continents. This pendulum represents the WACC pattern. </p>



<p>Right now, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-new-clues-about-rapid-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> is warming rapidly, causing a large temperature difference between it and mid-latitude continents. </p>



<p>This pushes the pendulum to swing wildly, resulting in the extreme cold snaps we see recently. Over the next few decades, the pendulum will start to slow down as the Arctic continues to warm and the temperature difference decreases. </p>



<p>Eventually, the swings may become so small that we might not notice the WACC pattern as strongly. Even though the pendulum will slow down, it doesn't mean the end of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-dramatically-increases-the-threat-of-desert-locusts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>. </p>



<p>Global warming means that overall, winters will become warmer. However, those occasional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">icy blasts</a> can still happen. Because they'll be less frequent than they are now, they'll be unexpected and out of the ordinary for places they hit. This makes them potentially even more severe in their impact when they do occur.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-studying-extreme-cold-events">Significance of studying extreme cold events</h2>



<p>Scientists use complex computer models to predict the weather and how the climate might change. This research shows those models need updating to reflect the upcoming changes in WACC, otherwise, our predictions might be way off.</p>



<p>"Understanding the impact of the drastic shift in WACC events and devising adaptation and mitigation strategies determines the future of our winter climate," noted Ph.D. student Yungi Hong. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerable-communities">Vulnerable communities</h2>



<p>Communities accustomed to experiencing frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-linked-to-extreme-winter-weather-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cold blasts</a> due to the WACC phenomenon are facing a new challenge. As global warming progresses, these cold events are predicted to occur less often. </p>



<p>However, when they do happen, they are expected to be more intense and severe. This change means that the usual preparedness plans might no longer be sufficient. </p>



<p>These communities will need to develop new strategies that are specifically designed to handle the increased severity of the cold events, even though they will happen less frequently. </p>



<p>This involves enhancing infrastructure, improving emergency responses, and updating safety protocols to protect against the heightened risks of these less frequent, but more intense, cold blasts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-extreme-cold-events-caused-by-wacc">Effects of extreme cold events caused by WACC</h2>



<p>The WACC phenomenon is a complex climate pattern that describes how warming in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-arctic-climate-change-is-much-more-difficult-since-russia-invaded-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> can lead to colder winters in parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. Here are the broader implications of WACC:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-effects-of-extreme-cold-events">Economic effects of extreme cold events</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Agricultural disruption</strong>: Unpredictable weather patterns can threaten agricultural production, affecting crop yields and the timing of planting and harvesting. This can lead to economic losses for farmers and increased food prices.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Infrastructure stress</strong>: Infrastructure not designed to handle extreme cold may face operational challenges, requiring significant investments in upgrades or new technologies to ensure resilience.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Energy demand fluctuations</strong>: Extreme cold events can lead to spikes in energy demand as communities need more heating. This can strain energy supplies and increase costs.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-impacts-of-extreme-cold-events">Social impacts of extreme cold events</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Increased energy poverty</strong>: Higher energy demands can exacerbate energy poverty, where households are unable to afford adequate heating. This can lead to increased rates of illness and a lower quality of life.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Emergency services strain</strong>: More frequent and severe weather can overwhelm emergency services, from road maintenance to medical response during extreme weather events.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-climate-interactions">Broader climate interactions</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Interactions with other phenomena</strong>: The effects of WACC can interact with other climatic phenomena like El Niño or La Niña, complicating predictions and impacts across different regions.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Feedback loops</strong>: Changes in sea ice and snow cover not only result from WACC but can also exacerbate warming and atmospheric changes, creating feedback loops that further destabilize climate patterns.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-climate-predictions">Long-term climate predictions</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Modeling challenges</strong>: Accurately modeling WACC impacts requires understanding these complex interactions and feedback mechanisms, which are currently challenging for climate models.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Future research needs</strong>: Continued research is essential to refine models and predictions, helping policymakers and communities better prepare for future conditions.</li>
</ul>



<p>The WACC phenomenon is a stark reminder that climate change isn't simple. It brings a whole cascade of unpredictable effects. This research is a call to action: we need to work on reducing our impact on the planet and get ready for the unexpected ways in which our world will keep changing.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-024-00611-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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How extreme cold events fit into the global warming model

Global warming is undeniable, yet recent winters have witnessed record-breaking,...

A,Man,Standing,In,A,Cave,At,Sunset,Natural,Rock

<p>The deserts of Saudi Arabia are home to a unique kind of treasure: caves and lava tubes. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/7-surprising-facts-you-didnt-know-about-lava-tubes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural formations</a> were created by the intense heat from volcanic eruptions long ago. Today, these lava tubes offer insights into the lives of the early humans who managed to survive and thrive in this harsh landscape.</p>



<p>Conducted by <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>'s Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution (<a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/australian-research-centre-human-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARCHE</a>), this remarkable research focuses on one such site, the Umm Jirsan cave. </p>



<p>The study highlights new evidence of ancient human activities. It provides a deeper understanding of how people once lived in Saudi Arabia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-umm-jirsan-lava-tubes">Umm Jirsan lava tubes</h2>



<p>Deep within the expansive Harrat Khaybar <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Umm-Jirsan-Cave-system_credit-green-arabia-project_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lava field of Saudi Arabia</a> lies the archaeological treasure of lava tubes called Umm Jirsan. </p>



<p>This sprawling underground lava tube serves as a natural shelter and a time capsule preserving millennia of Arabian prehistory. </p>



<p>Led by Dr. Mathew Stewart, a team of archaeologists has discovered a wealth of artifacts at this site. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inside-caves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cave</a> has yielded numerous insights into the daily lives, cultural practices, and environmental adaptations of its ancient inhabitants.</p>



<p>"Our findings at Umm Jirsan provide a rare glimpse into the lives of ancient peoples in Arabia, revealing repeated phases of human occupation and shedding light on the pastoralist activities that once thrived in this landscape," said Dr. Stewart.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-in-saudi-arabia-s-lava-tube">Rock art in Saudi Arabia's lava tube</h2>



<p>Archaeologists have managed to reconstruct a detailed account of how ancient travelers and inhabitants used this underground sanctuary. Among the fascinating discoveries within these ancient walls is an array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-artists-carved-incredibly-detailed-animal-tracks-onto-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rock art</a>. </p>



<p>The lava tube's surfaces are adorned with artistic depictions of cattle, sheep, goats, and even dogs. These images provide a window into the types of animals that were raised by these early peoples. They offer insights into the nascent days of animal domestication.</p>



<p>The rock art found within the Umm Jirsan lava tube  serve as historical records, narrating the story of early domestication practices. Each scene offers insights into the animals that were raised and revered by these early communities.</p>



<p>Archaeologists have meticulously analyzed these drawings to construct a vibrant and detailed portrayal of life in and around Umm Jirsan. These illustrations reveal the daily survival strategies of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-the-americas-10000-years-earlier-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient humans</a>. </p>



<p>Moreover, it also signified the cultural and social activities that flourished in this unique environment. Umm Jirsan was a key site for both practical survival and the development of early societal norms.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bones-offer-human-life-clues-in-saudi-arabia-s-lava-tubes">Bones offer human life clues in Saudi Arabia's lava tubes</h2>



<p>The story doesn't end with the artwork. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal bones</a>, left behind after feasts of the past, give us even greater detail. Scientists analyzed these remains and made a fascinating discovery.</p>



<p>"Isotopic analysis of animal remains indicates that livestock primarily grazed on wild grasses and shrubs, while humans maintained a diet rich in protein,” explained Dr. Stewart. This tells us they were skilled herders, moving with the seasons to find grazing for their animals.</p>



<p>The detailed analysis of the rock art and other archaeological findings within the Umm Jirsan lava tube also reveals a significant shift in the human diet over time. It points to a major developmental milestone in the region: the rise of oasis agriculture. </p>



<p>The rise in consumption of C3 plants, including various grasses and trees, hints at a shift toward a settled agricultural lifestyle. </p>



<p>This dietary change suggests that ancient inhabitants started to cultivate and depend more on local plant sources. They strategically moved away from a lifestyle solely based on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting and gathering</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-demonstrated-environmental-adaptation">Early humans demonstrated environmental adaptation</h2>



<p>This move towards agriculture is a critical indicator of the evolving human adaptation to the environment. It implies that the historically arid landscape of Arabia may have undergone periods of climatic change. The change made it more hospitable for settled life and enabling the growth of oasis agriculture. </p>



<p>The emergence of this type of farming likely transformed the social structures of the time. These findings challenge the traditional view of ancient Arabia as an unchanging desert landscape. They highlight the dynamic nature of human adaptation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-climate-change-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lava-tubes-and-early-humans-beyond-saudi-arabia">Lava tubes and early humans beyond Saudi Arabia</h2>



<p>This isn't just about a single lava tube or the people who sheltered there. "This site likely served as a crucial waypoint along pastoral routes, linking key oases and facilitating cultural exchange and trade,” Dr. Stewart emphasized. </p>



<p>Imagine Umm Jirsan as a prehistoric highway rest stop, a place where ideas, goods, and people from all over Arabia mingled.</p>



<p>"While underground localities are globally significant in archaeology and Quaternary science, our research represents the first comprehensive study of its kind in Saudi Arabia," said Professor Michael Petraglia, Director of ARCHE.&nbsp;</p>



<p>What happens in the lava tubes of Arabia helps us better understand the grand story of human resilience and adaptation all across the globe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-saudi-arabia-s-lava-tubes">Cultural significance of Saudi Arabia's lava tubes</h2>



<p>As discussed, the artifacts and rock art found in Saudi Arabia's lava tube serve as vibrant cultural expressions. These historical treasures shed light on the beliefs, values, and social structures of the people who created them.</p>



<p>The symbolism in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-cave-bears-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cave</a>'s rock art is especially revealing. It shows a society that was deeply connected to its surrounding environment and the animals that inhabited it.</p>



<p>The scenes painted and carved onto the walls of Umm Jirsan include depictions of cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs, which were crucial to the livelihood and survival of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-families-crawled-caves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient communities</a>. </p>



<p>These images suggest that pastoralism was not merely an economic activity but also held significant cultural importance. </p>



<p>The prominence of these animals in the art could indicate their role in religious or ritual activities, suggesting a reverence for the life-sustaining resources these animals represented.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-community-organization">Community organization</h2>



<p>The variety of species depicted can tell us about the social stratification and community organization of the time. For instance, the ownership and breeding of larger herds might have been a sign of wealth and status. It could influence social hierarchies within the group. </p>



<p>Additionally, the communal nature of pastoral life, as suggested by the art, implies a collaborative social structure where group cooperation was necessary for managing herds and sustaining the community.</p>



<p>The art also provides clues about the spiritual and existential views of the people. Animal figures could have been totemic symbols or part of mythological narratives, serving as protectors, symbols of fertility, or emblems of clan identities.</p>



<p>Such depictions allow archaeologists to infer not only the economic priorities of these ancient peoples but also their cosmological and spiritual landscapes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-ancient-knowledge">Redefining ancient knowledge</h2>



<p>The discovery of such art in the secluded and enduring space of a lava tube highlights the importance of these locations not just as shelters but as cultural repositories.</p>



<p>Saudi Arabia is changing our understanding of the ancient world. It isn't all about Egypt or Mesopotamia – the desert has its own epic to tell. Umm Jirsan is just the beginning. </p>



<p>"These findings underscore the immense potential for interdisciplinary investigations in caves and lava tubes, offering a unique window into Arabia's ancient past," Professor Petraglia explained.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0299292" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Early humans lived in lava tubes in the scorching Arabian deserts

The deserts of Saudi Arabia are home to a unique...

<p>A remarkable study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> proposes a dramatic shift in our understanding of human evolution. The research suggests that interspecies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-change-their-schedules-to-adapt-to-city-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a>, rather than climate alone, significantly shaped the evolutionary trajectory of early humans.</p>



<p>Interspecies competition is a form of interaction where individuals of different species compete for the same resources in an ecosystem, such as food, space, or light. This type of competition can occur when resources are limited, leading to a struggle for survival among the competing species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-vs-interspecies-competition">Climate vs. interspecies competition</h2>



<p>Traditionally, researchers have viewed climate change as the primary driver of the emergence and extinction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-hominins-migrating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominin</a> species. This view is consistent with the patterns observed in most vertebrates. </p>



<p>However, this new research indicates a crucial detail: for hominins - a group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a> and our extinct relatives - competition between species was a crucial factor. This competition significantly influenced our evolutionary history.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimal-interspecies-competition">Minimal interspecies competition</h2>



<p>The study reveals that over five million years, competition was fundamental to "speciation," the emergence of new species in hominins.</p>



<p>"We have been ignoring the way competition between species has shaped our own evolutionary tree. The effect of climate on hominin species is only part of the story," explained Dr. Laura van Holstein, a biological anthropologist at <a href="https://www.clare.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clare College</a>.</p>



<p>Using Bayesian modeling and phylogenetic analyses, van Holstein and her team demonstrated a key finding. Like in other vertebrates, most hominin species emerged when interspecies competition for resources was minimal. </p>



<p>This pattern, where speciation rates increase and then plateau before extinction rates rise, is consistent across many mammalian groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-evolutionary-trends">Unique evolutionary trends</h2>



<p>However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-rewriting-the-evolutionary-history-of-the-largest-animals-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary pattern</a> of our own genus, Homo, is strikingly different. "The more species of Homo there were, the higher the rate of speciation," noted Dr. van Holstein. </p>



<p>"This suggests that competition between species actually resulted in the appearance of even more new species - a complete reversal of the trend seen in almost all other vertebrates."</p>



<p>This unique pattern of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-may-be-the-biggest-roadblock-to-solving-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> in Homo is paralleled only by certain beetle species that inhabit islands. In these isolated ecosystems, unusual evolutionary trends can emerge.</p>



<p>"The patterns of evolution we see across species of Homo that led directly to modern humans is closer to those of island-dwelling beetles than other primates, or even any other mammal," said Dr. van Holstein.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-records-and-beyond">Fossil records and beyond</h2>



<p>Dr. van Holstein created a new database which tracked each time an example of a species was found and dated in the hominin fossil record - including around 385 occurences.</p>



<p>This comprehensive data allowed the researchers to reconsider the start and end dates for most known hominin species, totaling 17. </p>



<p>Such an approach helps counteract the inherent limitations of fossil records. These records may not always capture the earliest or latest members of a species, due to geological and climatic factors affecting fossilization.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interspecies-competition-coexistence-and-adaptation">Interspecies competition, coexistence, and adaptation</h2>



<p>Dr. van Holstein's findings suggest a new perspective. Some species previously thought to have evolved through "anagenesis" may have actually "budded." This indicates a branching off from an existing species rather than a linear evolution. </p>



<p>This realization implies a greater level of coexistence among hominin species. It also indicates heightened interspecies competition - more than previously acknowledged. Additionally, the study underscores the role of technology in the evolution of the genus <em>Homo</em>.</p>



<p>For example, early hominins like <em>Paranthropus</em> evolved physiologically to adapt, developing features like robust teeth. In contrast, <em>Homo</em> species adopted tools, fire, and intensive hunting techniques.</p>



<p>These advancements enabled the latter species to rapidly exploit new ecological niches, bypassing the need for significant physiological changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-interspecies-competition">A legacy of interspecies competition</h2>



<p>Ultimately, these findings underscore the complexity of interspecies competition, human evolution and the unique evolutionary path taken by our ancestors. </p>



<p>"These results show that, although it has been conventionally ignored, competition played an important role in human evolution overall," said Dr. van Holstein. "Perhaps most interestingly, in our own genus it played a role unlike that across any other vertebrate lineage known so far."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02390-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a></em></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Human evolution was shaped by interspecies competition

A remarkable study led by researchers at the University of...

<p>A new study reveals that children subjected to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-can-cause-muscle-decline-adult-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maltreatment</a> are three times more likely to be hospitalized for substance abuse disorders by the time they turn 40. This highlights the devastating long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-child-maltreatment-types">Child maltreatment types</h2>



<p>Child maltreatment refers to any behavior or action that harms or threatens to harm a child's physical, psychological, or emotional health and development. It generally includes four main types:</p>



<ol>
<li><strong>Physical abuse:</strong> Causing physical harm through hitting, shaking, burning, or other means.</li>



<li><strong>Emotional abuse:</strong> Causing emotional or psychological harm through behaviors like verbal abuse, intimidation, or neglect.</li>



<li><strong>Sexual abuse:</strong> Involving a child in sexual acts or exposing them to inappropriate sexual material.</li>



<li><strong>Neglect:</strong> Failing to provide for a child's basic needs, including food, shelter, clothing, medical care, and education.</li>
</ol>



<p>These forms of maltreatment can have long-lasting effects on a child's well-being and development.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-child-maltreatment-linked-to-substance-abuse">Child maltreatment linked to substance abuse</h2>



<p>The researchers analyzed data from over 6,000 individuals born between 1981 and 1983. Of these, 609 experienced at least one reported or substantiated incident of child maltreatment. </p>



<p>This group was significantly more likely to suffer from alcohol or substance use disorders requiring hospitalization. The study categorized maltreatment into physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. </p>



<p>"Most of the previous research into childhood adversity and alcohol and substance use disorders has focused on physical and sexual abuse. We particularly wanted to know whether emotional abuse and neglect are as strongly associated with subsequent alcohol and substance use disorders," explained study lead author Dr. Claudia Bull, of the <a href="https://qcmhr.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research</a>.</p>



<p>"As we suspected, the odds of hospital admission for alcohol and substance use disorders are comparable across all subtypes of abuse and neglect in childhood.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-child-maltreatment-severe-outcomes">Child maltreatment severe outcomes</h2>



<p>Emotional abuse and neglect, often overlooked compared to physical and sexual abuse, pose equivalent long-term risks for developing substance abuse disorders. These non-physical forms of maltreatment can deeply impact emotional health, leading to similar outcomes in terms of substance abuse in later life.</p>



<p>Research shows a clear pattern: the frequency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-psychotic-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maltreatment</a> reports correlates directly with the increased probability of hospital admissions for substance abuse as adults. </p>



<p>This suggests that repeated exposure to maltreatment intensifies the risk of severe outcomes, highlighting the cumulative effect of continuous abuse or neglect on an individual's life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-of-resulting-disorders">Nature of resulting disorders</h2>



<p>Sexual abuse emerged as the most significant risk factor for developing an alcohol use disorder. Individuals with histories of sexual abuse are notably more likely to struggle with alcohol dependency, indicating a specific traumatic impact that may drive survivors toward alcohol as a coping mechanism.</p>



<p>Emotional abuse, on the other hand, was identified as the primary risk factor for substance use disorders. This suggests that the psychological scars left by emotional abuse might make individuals more susceptible to using drugs as a form of self-medication, attempting to manage their unresolved emotional pain.</p>



<p>Specifically, those who were neglected as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-abuse-trends-much-higher-in-people-who-experienced-childhood-trauma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a> were about 2.88 times more likely to be hospitalized for alcohol-related issues. The risk was nearly the same for those who suffered emotional abuse and slightly less for those who experienced physical abuse.</p>



<p>For substance use disorders, the risk increased even more for those with a history of neglect, making them 3.10 times more likely to require hospitalization. Those who faced physical abuse had a 2.85 times higher risk, while sexual abuse led to a 2.52 times higher risk. </p>



<p>Emotional abuse resulted in a 2.47 times greater likelihood of hospitalization for substance use issues. These findings highlight how various forms of child <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-could-triple-the-risk-of-headache-disorders-later-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maltreatment</a> can lead to serious health problems in adulthood.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



<p>This study paints a stark picture of how trauma in childhood creates severe vulnerabilities that can manifest decades later in the form of substance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-abuse-cellular-imprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abuse</a>. This emphasizes the critical need for:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-intervention">Early intervention</h3>



<p>It is crucial to identify and address child maltreatment early to diminish the future risk of substance abuse. Intervening as soon as maltreatment is detected can significantly alter a child's developmental trajectory, potentially reducing the likelihood of later substance use disorders.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trauma-informed-treatment">Trauma-informed treatment</h3>



<p>Treatment plans for addiction must incorporate an understanding of the link between childhood trauma and subsequent substance abuse. By adopting trauma-informed care approaches, healthcare providers can offer more effective support that directly addresses the root causes of addiction.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-awareness">Increased awareness</h3>



<p>Elevating awareness among parents, healthcare workers, and the broader public about the deep and enduring effects of child maltreatment is essential. Understanding maltreatment risks is vital for community health and preventative strategies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-impacts-of-child-maltreatment">Additional impacts of child maltreatment</h2>



<p>Child maltreatment can lead to a wide range of long-term effects in adults beyond the risk of substance abuse disorders. These effects span psychological, physical, and social domains:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-impact">Psychological impact</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Mental health disorders:</strong> Adults who experienced child maltreatment often have a higher prevalence of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and bipolar disorder.</li>



<li><strong>Emotional difficulties:</strong> Issues like low self-esteem, difficulty trusting others, and emotional dysregulation are common.</li>



<li><strong>Cognitive effects:</strong> There may be impairments in attention, decision-making abilities, and executive functioning.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-health-issues">Physical health issues</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Chronic conditions:</strong> Increased risk of developing chronic conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and autoimmune diseases.</li>



<li><strong>Neurological problems:</strong> The stress of early abuse can affect brain development, potentially leading to neurological issues later in life.</li>



<li><strong>Somatization:</strong> Experiencing physical symptoms that stem from psychological distress is more frequent among those who were maltreated as children.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-and-behavioral-consequences">Social and behavioral consequences</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Relationship problems:</strong> Difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy relationships, including increased rates of divorce and family conflict.</li>



<li><strong>Educational and occupational impact:</strong> Higher likelihood of academic struggles and lower educational attainment, which can affect career opportunities and stability.</li>



<li><strong>Increased risk of victimization:</strong> Adults with a history of child maltreatment are more likely to experience further victimization, including domestic violence and sexual assault.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parenting-challenges">Parenting challenges</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Intergenerational transmission of abuse:</strong> Those maltreated as children are at a greater risk of adopting similar behaviors, perpetuating the cycle of abuse.</li>



<li><strong>Attachment issues:</strong> Difficulties in forming secure attachments with their own children, which can impact the child’s emotional and psychological development.</li>
</ul>



<p>These findings underscore the urgent need to prevent child maltreatment and provide effective support to those who have experienced it. By understanding the devastating consequences of childhood trauma, we can take focused action to help individuals heal.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.16479" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Addiction</a></em>.</p>



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Child maltreatment triples the risk of substance use

A new study reveals that children subjected to maltreatment are...

Date	Citation Page	Title
06/25/1979	44 FR 37124 37127	Final Endangered Status for 25 Foreign Species of Mammals and Birds
04/19/1978	43 FR 16524 16527	Proposed Endangered Status for 25 Foreign Species of Mammals and Birds