<p>Phoca (=Pusa) hispida ochotensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports &#8212; NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.</p>
<p>FWS Digital Media Library &#8212; Phoca (=Pusa) hispida ochotensis The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=5700827a1a294ff195a4d64d052bdaa9&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j0l6.861j0j1&amp;pglt=299&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service&#8217;s National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The ringed seal is an earless seal inhabiting the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. The ringed seal is a relatively small seal, rarely greater than 1.5 m in length, with a distinctive patterning of dark spots surrounded by light grey rings, hence its common name. It is the most abundant and wide-ranging ice seal in the Northern Hemisphere, ranging throughout the Arctic Ocean, into the Bering Sea and Okhotsk Sea as far south as the northern coast of Japan in the Pacific and throughout the North Atlantic coasts of Greenland and Scandinavia as far south as Newfoundland, and including two freshwater subspecies in northern Europe. Ringed seals are one of the primary prey of polar bears and killer whales, and have long been a component of the diet of indigenous people of the Arctic.</p>


Phoca (=Pusa) hispida ochotensis

<p>A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has recently found a significant connection between social organization and cognitive skills in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-stone-tools-look-like-early-human-artifacts/">monkeys</a>, with the most socially tolerant species of macaques having greater self-control than their more authoritarian and violent counterparts. These findings could also shed new light on how humans evolved to become more cooperative and cognitively sophisticated.</p>



<p>Through a series of cognitive touchscreen tasks, the experts evaluated the performance of 66 macaques from the&nbsp;<a href="https://cfm.har.mrc.ac.uk/">Medical Research Council Center for Macaques</a>&nbsp;in the UK and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.euprim-net.eu/management/consortium_UdS-CdP_photo_banner.htm">Center of Primatology of the University of Strasbourg</a>&nbsp;in France to identify interspecies differences in impulsive behaviors.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experiments revealed that Tonkean macaques, which get along with each other the most and tend to form diverse, complex relationships, exhibited better overall control of distractions, emotions, and actions compared to the less socially-tolerant long-tailed and rhesus macaques.</p>



<p>“This relationship between social tolerance and cognitive abilities could explain why Tonkean macaques are better at managing complex relationships with others,” said study lead author Louise Loyant, a doctoral student in Comparative and Evolutionary Psychology at Portsmouth.</p>



<p>“This is important, as it improves our understanding of our own social evolution. Macaques live in complex communities, not too dissimilar from our own, and we can learn a lot from them. Existing research on human inhibitory control, or self-control, suggests the better a person is at managing their emotions and reactions, the more successful they’re likely to be in life; whether that be in relationships, work, or just generally. Our results support this hypothesis.”</p>



<h2 id="h-environmental-pressures-play-a-role">Environmental pressures play a role</h2>



<p>Moreover, the investigation highlighted the important role ecological factors play on self-control skills. According to the researchers, the different risks and environmental pressures faced by each species have likely shaped their behaviors, emotions, and impulsivity levels.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, long-tailed and rhesus macaques living in areas with a greater number of predators usually display more reactive and cautious behaviors, while Tonkean macaques that face lower risks of predation exhibit quieter and less reactive behaviors. Thus, both social and ecological factors are likely to influence self-control skills in primates.</p>



<p>“A macaque living in a more competitive environment would benefit from learning how to contain inappropriate behaviors, like feeding or mating, if they’re around others higher up in the social pyramid. But there’s also the hypothesis that our closest primate species have evolved over time to have increased brain size and higher cognitive performances, including better self-control,” said senior author Marine Joly, an expert in the evolution of human and non-human primates at Portsmouth.</p>



<p>“Our findings support both of these potential explanations, as well as suggest that species living in more complex societies might have better socio-cognitive skills too, including perception, attention, memory, and action planning.”</p>



<p>However, since the study has some limitations – such as the small sample size and some prior cognitive testing experience among the species - further research is needed involving a larger cohort and a closer evaluation of monkeys’ complex behaviors. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10071-023-01789-8"><em>Animal Cognition</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-self-control">More about self control</h2>



<p>Self-control, often referred to as self-regulation, is the ability to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts that often leads to long-term benefits. It is considered a crucial skill in achieving personal and professional success.</p>



<p>This trait enables individuals to resist immediate desires and impulses in favor of actions that align with their long-term goals. Self-control is also closely related to the concept of willpower, the capacity to resist short-term temptations to meet long-term goals.</p>



<p>Self-control has been extensively studied in various disciplines such as psychology, neuroscience, and behavioral economics. In psychology, for instance, the concept of self-control is a key element of many theories of personality and development. Some psychological research, such as the famous "marshmallow test", has demonstrated that early self-control abilities can predict important outcomes later in life, such as academic success and physical health.</p>



<p>In the context of social interactions and group living, self-control can also refer to the ability to regulate one's behavior in ways that are socially acceptable or beneficial for group cohesion.</p>



<p>However, self-control is not always beneficial. There can be circumstances where excessive self-control can lead to over-regulation, denying oneself the experience of pleasure or joy, or to mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. Thus, a balance is necessary.</p>



<p>Self-control is not a fixed trait; it can be improved with practice and training. Techniques like mindfulness meditation, cognitive behavioral therapies, and certain types of physical exercise are often suggested to improve self-control.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Monkeys with greater social tolerance have more self-control

A team of scientists led by the University of Portsmouth...

<p>This week, a colossal asteroid, nearly the size of a skyscraper and labeled "potentially hazardous," is set to zoom past our planet. However, scientists assure us that there's no reason for alarm. This celestial event will even be available for live viewing.</p>



<p>The Virtual Telescope Project reveals that Asteroid 1994 XD, the aforementioned asteroid, will reach its nearest proximity to Earth on the evening of Monday, June 12, right before 9 p.m. EDT. You can watch a livestream of the <a href="https://www.virtualtelescope.eu/2023/05/30/potentially-hazardous-asteroid-488453-1994-xd-close-encounter-a-image-29-may-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flyby at this website</a>.</p>



<p>Various groups, including the Virtual Telescope Project, are vigilantly tracking this asteroid as it approaches our planet in its orbit. Furthermore, plans are underway to provide a live feed of the asteroid's fly-by.</p>



<h2 id="h-don-t-let-the-potentially-hazardous-label-scare-you">Don’t let the "potentially hazardous" label scare you</h2>



<p>Despite its potentially hazardous tag, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> confirms that there's no cause for concern about this asteroid striking Earth. It's termed "potentially hazardous" because its orbit crosses the minimal distance between Earth and the Sun, thus fulfilling the requisite criteria.</p>



<p>The NASA Center for Near Earth Object Studies (NEOS) uses complex computer models to ascertain the orbits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-telescope-near-earth-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">near earth asteroids and comets</a>, and calculate their likelihood of colliding with Earth. In the month of June alone, NEOS is monitoring more than a dozen such close approaches.</p>



<p>Even as the asteroid nears, there will be ample distance separating us from it, ensuring we can observe it in the night sky without apprehension.</p>



<p>The Virtual Telescope Project emphasizes that while Asteroid 1994 XD will have a close encounter with Earth on June 12, the term "close" is relative in the vast expanse of space. At its closest, the asteroid will be about eight times the Earth-moon distance away, or over 1.9 million miles away.</p>



<p>Making its journey around the sun approximately every 3.6 years, Asteroid 1994 XD is scheduled to make another fly-by of Earth in 2041.</p>



<h2>Details about "potentially hazardous" Asteroid 1994 XD</h2>



<p>The naming of this asteroid harks back to the year of its discovery. The Spacewatch group at the Kitt Peak Observatory in Arizona first spotted it in December 1994.</p>



<p>Despite being relatively small for an asteroid, with an estimated diameter of about 370 to 830 meters (or 1,214 to 2,723 feet), Asteroid 1994 XD would still overshadow most skyscrapers in New York City.</p>



<p>Intriguingly, using the Arecibo radio telescope in Puerto Rico in 2005, astronomers discovered that 1994 XD is a binary asteroid. This means it's a larger asteroid with a moonlet in orbit around it.</p>



<p>Thankfully, despite being labeled potentially hazardous, Asteroid 1994 XD poses no direct threat to life on Earth. However, if a large asteroid were to ever pose a direct threat to the Earth, NASA believes they have a plan to save us.</p>



<p>In 2022, NASA successfully executed its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-will-crash-a-spacecraft-into-an-asteroid-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Double Asteroid Redirection Test mission (DART)</a>. The mission intentionally propelled a rocket into an asteroid to manipulate the space rock's orbital speed.</p>



<p>Rather than obliterating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-building-blocks-of-life-may-come-from-asteroids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> completely, the mission demonstrated that direct rocket attacks can indeed effect significant changes in a space rock's orbital parameters. According to NASA, this proves the viability of missions like these as a method of planetary defense.</p>



<h2>NASA's Asteroid Watch program</h2>



<p>NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory is at the helm of an initiative that's keeping a vigilant eye on the skies: the Center for Near Earth Object Studies (CNEOS). The Center's mandate is to precisely characterize the trajectories of all known near-Earth objects, forecast their close encounters with our home planet, and conduct in-depth assessments of any potentially hazardous impact possibilities.</p>



<p>What exactly are these near-Earth objects? They're a motley crew of asteroids and <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/what-comets-can-tell-us-about-the-formation-of-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> whose orbits bring them tantalizingly close—within a mere 120 million miles—to the Sun. That means they frequently take a spin through our neighborhood, the Earth’s orbit. These space wanderers vary in size, from as small as 10 feet to gargantuan objects nearly 25 miles across.</p>



<h2>How NASA tracks NEOs</h2>



<p>The process of determining the orbit of these celestial bodies is akin to fitting puzzle pieces together. Scientists find the elliptical path through the cosmos that aligns best with all existing observations. These observations can span multiple orbits and stretch across years, even decades.</p>



<p>As scientists gather more data, they can refine their predictions. With increasing accuracy, they can forecast where a given object will be in the distant future, and crucially, if it might veer too close to Earth.</p>



<p>Now, don't get too alarmed. The vast majority of these objects' orbits won't ever bring them into uncomfortably close quarters with Earth. However, a minuscule percentage dubbed as potentially hazardous asteroids warrants a closer look.</p>



<p>These celestial bodies exceed about 460 feet in size and their orbits can bring them as near as 4.6 million miles of Earth’s solar orbit. It's the CNEOS' responsibility to incessantly monitor these objects, evaluating any potential risks they may pose.</p>



<h2>Where does CNEOS source this data?</h2>



<p>The primary reference point is the databases of the <a href="https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Minor Planet Center</a>, the global authority for measurements of small-body positions. Observatories scattered across the globe, including amateur observers, contribute to this data pool.</p>



<p>However, the lion's share of asteroid-tracking data comes from prominent NASA-funded observatories like Pan-STARRS, the Catalina Sky Survey, and NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/neowise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NEOWISE mission</a>. And we're anticipating significant future contributions from NEO Surveyor. Let's not forget the invaluable planetary radar projects, such as JPL’s Goldstone Solar System Radar Group, which form an integral part of NASA’s NEO Observations Program.</p>



<h2>Other CNEOS programs are equally important</h2>



<p>CNEOS is also the birthplace of the Sentry impact-monitoring system. This innovative system tirelessly conducts long-term analyses of future orbits of potentially dangerous asteroids. The good news? As of now, there are no known significant threats for the next century or more.</p>



<p>Adding another feather to its cap, CNEOS maintains the Scout system, which keeps an eye on potential near-Earth object detections even before their official recognition. Its role? To ascertain if any of these usually tiny asteroids might pose a short-term (possibly imminent) impact risk.</p>



<p>In a bid to support NASA's planetary defense initiatives, CNEOS leads mock impact exercises. These simulations provide vital insights to national and international space and disaster response agencies on how to navigate a potential asteroid impact scenario. They educate scientists and key decision-makers about the alert systems and impact mitigation strategies that could come into play if a threatening object were to be identified.</p>



<p>For more comprehensive details about near-Earth objects and to access close approach and impact-risk data for all known near-Earth objects, head over to <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNEOS' website</a>. To learn more about the Planetary Defense Coordination Office and NASA’s planetary defense strategy, visit <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA's Planetary Defense page</a>.</p>

"Potentially hazardous" asteroid will zoom by Earth this week, and you can watch it

This week, a colossal asteroid, nearly the size of a...

Northern,Light,,Aurora,Borealis,At,Kirkjufell,In,Iceland.,Kirkjufell,Mountains

<p>NASA's Parker Solar Probe, on its journey to the Sun, has revealed previously unseen structures of the solar wind, right where it is formed. The way the probe perceives it, the solar wind emanates from the Sun's surface much like water jets from a showerhead.</p>



<p>A paper published in the journal Nature this week, led by scientists Stuart D. Bale from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and James Drake of the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland-College Park</a>, illustrates how the Parker Solar Probe has detected streams of high-energy particles. These particles mirror the supergranulation flows within coronal holes, suggesting these regions as the birthplace of the "fast" solar wind.</p>



<p>Coronal holes are unique areas where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-field-solar-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> lines radiate from the Sun's surface without looping back inward, consequently forming open field lines that encompass most of the space surrounding the Sun.</p>



<p>During quiet periods of the Sun, these holes are primarily located at the poles, preventing the fast solar wind they produce from reaching Earth. However, every 11 years, the Sun's activity peaks, its magnetic field flips, and these holes can be seen all over the Sun's surface, leading to bursts of solar wind aimed directly at Earth.</p>



<h2 id="h-origins-of-the-solar-wind">Origins of the solar wind</h2>



<p>The process of how and where the solar wind originates is crucial for predicting solar storms. These storms, while responsible for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/catch-the-aurora-borealis-in-iceland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's breathtaking auroras</a>, can also disrupt satellites and the electrical grid. As Drake puts it, "Winds carry lots of information from the Sun to Earth, so understanding the mechanism behind the Sun's wind is important for practical reasons on Earth."</p>



<p>The scientists describe the coronal holes like showerheads. From the bright spots where magnetic field lines dive into and out of the Sun's surface, evenly spaced jets burst forth. These jets of charged particles are flung out of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measures-suns-energy-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun</a> when the oppositely directed magnetic fields in these funnels collide and reconnect.</p>



<p>Bale explains, "The photosphere is covered by convection cells, like in a boiling pot of water, and the larger scale convection flow is called supergranulation." He goes on to illustrate how these supergranulation cells pull the magnetic field down with them into a funnel, intensifying the magnetic field. "The spatial separation of those little drains, those funnels, is what we're seeing now with solar probe data," he said.</p>



<p>The Parker Solar Probe's detection of some exceptionally high-energy particles - ones traveling at speeds 10 to 100 times faster than the solar wind average - led the researchers to believe that this process, known as magnetic reconnection, must be the source of the wind. The primary purpose of launching the probe in 2018 was to establish the origin of these high-energy particles: were they caused by magnetic reconnection or acceleration by plasma or Alfvén waves?</p>



<p>"The big conclusion is that it’s magnetic reconnection within these funnel structures that’s providing the energy source of the fast solar wind," Bale concluded. The research strongly suggests that it's reconnection that's responsible for the high-energy particles detected.</p>



<p>The same funnel structures, as Nour Raouafi of the <a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University</a> suggests, probably align with the bright jetlets that can be seen from Earth within coronal holes. "Solving the mystery of the solar wind has been a six-decade dream of many generations of scientists. Now, we are grasping at the physical phenomenon that drives the solar wind at its source — the corona,” Raouafi said.</p>



<h2>Sampling the solar wind</h2>



<p>The solar wind evolves into a homogeneous, turbulent flow as it traverses the 93 million miles to Earth. The charged particles and entangled magnetic fields interact with Earth's magnetic field, dumping electrical energy into the upper atmosphere, which excites atoms and produces vivid auroras. Understanding and predicting intense solar winds, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storms-earths-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar storms</a>, and their effects near Earth are some of the key goals of NASA's Living With a Star program, which funded the Parker Solar Probe.</p>



<p>The probe's main task is to determine the structure and acceleration of the solar wind near its birthplace, the Sun's surface or photosphere. The probe must approach the Sun closer than ever before - within 13 million miles, or about 25 to 30 solar radii.</p>



<p>According to Bale, once the probe dives below that altitude, the solar wind undergoes minimal evolution and displays more of its initial structure. This allows scientists to see the imprints of the Sun on the wind.</p>



<p>In 2021, the probe's instruments identified magnetic field switchbacks in Alfvén waves, closely associated with the regions generating the solar wind. As the probe neared the Sun, it became clear that the probe was moving through structured jets of material, rather than mere turbulence. Bale, Drake, and their colleagues traced these jets back to the supergranulation cells in the photosphere, where the magnetic fields accumulate and funnel into the Sun.</p>



<h2>Mysteries and questions remain</h2>



<p>The question that loomed was, what accelerates the charged particles in these funnels? Is it magnetic reconnection, which would catapult the particles outward, or hot plasma waves streaming out of the Sun, which would allow particles to ride a wave?</p>



<p>The detection of extremely high-energy particles within these jets suggested to Bale that magnetic reconnection must be responsible for particle acceleration and the generation of Alfvén waves, which could give the particles an additional thrust.</p>



<p>Bale further explained, "Our interpretation is that these jets of reconnection outflow excite Alfvén waves as they propagate out. That's an observation that's well known from Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-linked-to-electrons-traveling-at-millions-of-miles-per-hour/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetotail</a>, as well, where you have similar kind of processes. I don't understand how wave damping can produce these hot particles up to hundreds of keV, whereas it comes naturally out of the reconnection process."</p>



<p>The Parker Solar Probe can approach the Sun no closer than 4 million miles, or about 8.8 solar radii above the surface, without risking damage to its instruments. Bale anticipates that data collected from this altitude will confirm their conclusions, despite the Sun's heightened activity during its solar maximum. This increased activity might obscure the processes that scientists aim to observe.</p>



<p>"We're lucky that we launched it in the solar minimum," Bale commented, reflecting on the Parker Solar Probe's journey. He implied that the quieter solar activity during the probe's launch allowed them to make discoveries that would have been impossible during more chaotic solar conditions.</p>



<h2>More about NASA’s Parker Solar Probe</h2>



<p><a href="http://parkersolarprobe.jhuapl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Parker Solar Probe</a> is a pioneering mission that has set its sights on our very own star, the Sun. The probe's main goal is to uncover the mysteries of the corona, the Sun's outer atmosphere, and to learn more about the highly energetic particles present in the solar wind.</p>



<p>Named after astrophysicist Eugene Parker, the probe was launched on August 12, 2018. It's the first spacecraft to be named after a living individual. <a href="https://news.uchicago.edu/story/eugene-parker-legendary-figure-solar-science-and-namesake-parker-solar-probe-1927-2022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eugene Parker</a> is the scientist who first theorized the existence of the solar wind back in 1958.</p>



<p>The Parker Solar Probe is unique because it ventures closer to the Sun than any previous spacecraft. It's designed to withstand the extreme temperatures and conditions near the Sun. The probe is shielded by a 4.5-inch-thick carbon-composite shield, which can withstand temperatures up to about 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit.</p>



<p>The probe is equipped with four major instrument suites that are designed to measure magnetic fields, plasma and energetic particles, and capture images of the solar wind. These suites include the Fields Experiment (FIELDS), the Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun (ISIS), the Wide-Field Imager for Solar Probe (WISPR), and the Solar Wind Electrons Alphas and Protons (SWEAP) investigation.</p>



<p>Over the course of its seven-year mission, the probe will complete 24 orbits of the Sun, coming within 4 million miles of the Sun's surface. This is about seven times closer than any previous mission.</p>



<p>The Parker Solar Probe has several primary science objectives. One is to trace the flow of energy that heats and accelerates the solar corona and solar wind. Another is to determine the structure and dynamics of the plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of the solar wind. The probe also aims to explore the mechanisms that accelerate and transport energetic particles.</p>



<p>By achieving these objectives, scientists hope to improve their ability to forecast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-weather-forecast-data/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather</a> events that impact life on Earth, as well as satellites and astronauts in space. The mission encapsulates the essence of exploration, as it journeys into a region of space never before explored by human-made objects.</p>

The solar wind, which creates beautiful auroras on Earth, is now less mysterious

NASA's Parker Solar Probe, on its journey to the Sun,...

<p>A recent exploration into the prehistoric past by a research team from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has unveiled fascinating aspects about the Rhynchosaur, an ancient reptile that roamed our planet between 250 and 225 million years ago, predating the era of dinosaurs.</p>



<p>Rhynchosaurs are often clouded in mystery. Imagine ancient creatures, roughly the size of modern-day sheep, prevailing during the Triassic Period, an era characterized by its warm climate and hardy vegetation (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/ancient-reptile_rhynchosaur-Bentonyx_Credit-Mark-Witton.jpg">here</a>).</p>



<h2 id="h-how-researchers-studied-the-rhynchosaur">How researchers studied the Rhynchosaur&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To pierce this veil of obscurity, the Bristol team embarked on an investigative journey, scrutinizing specimens unearthed in Devon. They utilized cutting-edge CT scanning to examine the wear and tear on the rhynchosaur's teeth as they munched through their meals, and to observe how new teeth were continually added at the back of the dental rows as the creatures grew.</p>



<p>The results, published in the latest edition of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pala.12654"><em>Palaeontology</em></a>, reveal an intriguing yet grim aspect of these early plant-eaters' lives. They would most likely starve to death in their old age as a result of the relentless wear on their teeth caused by tough vegetation.</p>



<p>“I was amazed to find that in many cases they dominated their ecosystems. If you found one fossil, you found hundreds. They were the sheep or antelopes of their day, and yet they had specialized dental systems that were apparently adapted for dealing with masses of tough plant food," said Professor Mike Benton, the team leader from Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences.</p>



<h2 id="h-rhynchosaur-fossils-are-a-rare-find">Rhynchosaur fossils are a rare find</h2>



<p>It was Dr. Rob Coram who discovered the fossils in Devon. “The fossils are rare, but occasionally individuals were entombed during river floods. This has made it possible to put together a series of jaw bones of rhynchosaurs that ranged in age from quite young, maybe even babies, through adults, and including one particularly old animal, a Triassic old-timer whose teeth had worn right down and probably struggled to get enough nutrition each day," said Dr. Coram.</p>



<p>Thitiwoot Sethapanichsakul, who examined the jaws for his MSc in Palaeobiology, explained the wear patterns in more detail: “As the animals aged, the area of the jaws under wear at any time moved backwards relative to the front of the skull, bringing new teeth and new bone into wear. They were clearly eating really tough food such as ferns, that wore the teeth down to the bone of the jaw, meaning that they were basically chopping their meals by a mix of teeth and bone.”</p>



<p>However, there was a limit to this system. “Eventually, after a certain age – we’re not sure quite how many years – their growth slowed down and the area of wear was fixed and just got deeper and deeper," said Dr. Coram.</p>



<p>"It’s like elephants today – they have a fixed number of teeth that come into use from the back, and after the age of seventy or so they’re on their last tooth, and then that’s that. We don’t think the rhynchosaurs lived that long, but their plant food was so testing that their jaws simply wore out and presumably they eventually starved to death.”</p>



<h2 id="h-played-a-crucial-role-in-triassic-ecosystems">Played a crucial role in Triassic ecosystems</h2>



<p>Rhynchosaurs served as a significant cog in the Triassic ecosystems as life reemerged from the world’s largest mass extinction that marked the end of the Permian Period. These creatures played a crucial role in this resurrection, setting the stage for new types of ecologies where dinosaurs, and later mammals, would reign supreme, thereby laying the groundwork for the modern world.</p>



<p>Upon comparing earlier rhynchosaurs, like those from Devon, with later ones from Scotland and Argentina, the researchers also unearthed how their dentitions evolved over time, facilitating two spurts of diversification in the Middle and then the Late Triassic. But these evolutionary triumphs ultimately found their terminus as changes in climate and available vegetation paved the way for dinosaurs to replace rhynchosaurs as the dominant species.</p>



<h2 id="h-incredibly-interesting-narrative-emerged-from-the-research-results">Incredibly interesting narrative emerged from the research results</h2>



<p>The findings from this study take us on a deep dive into the life of a creature that has long since vanished from our planet, but whose story remains embedded in the rocks beneath us. It's a narrative of success, adaptation, struggle, and ultimately, extinction - a sobering reminder of nature's impermanence and the constant flux of life on Earth.</p>



<p>Yet, the importance of the rhynchosaurs goes beyond their own species. By studying them, we gain a broader understanding of the Earth's history and the forces that have shaped it.&nbsp;</p>



<p>From the debris of their downfall, a new world rose - a world of dinosaurs, and much later, a world dominated by mammals. The teeth of these ancient herbivores reveal not only the story of their lives and deaths but also the dawn of the world as we know it today.</p>



<p>Professor Benton’s fascination and admiration for these ancient creatures are clear. "I first studied the rhynchosaurs years ago, and I was amazed to find that in many cases they dominated their ecosystems." That domination may be long past, but the legacy of the rhynchosaurs continues to be felt in the ongoing saga of life on Earth.</p>



<p>This research also reminds us that the world is not static. Species rise and fall, climates change, and life adapts. The extinction of the rhynchosaurs paved the way for the rise of the dinosaurs, who themselves would later give way to mammals. It's a cycle that continues today, and by understanding it, we can better prepare for the changes still to come.</p>



<p>So, let us remember the rhynchosaurs - not just as the "sheep of their day," but as crucial players in the grand tapestry of Earth's history, serving a vital role in the ever-evolving narrative of life on our planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-triassic-period">More about the Triassic period</h2>



<p>The Triassic Period, occurring between approximately 252 million and 201 million years ago, marks the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, often referred to as the "Age of Dinosaurs". However, the Triassic itself was a time of transition and recovery, following the end-Permian mass extinction event, the most devastating extinction event in Earth's history.</p>



<h3 id="h-here-s-an-overview-of-what-we-know-about-the-triassic-period">Here's an overview of what we know about the Triassic Period:</h3>



<h4 id="h-life-after-the-mass-extinction">Life After the Mass Extinction</h4>



<p>The Permian-Triassic extinction event killed off an estimated 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. Life in the Triassic period, therefore, began with relatively few species. However, this allowed for a great deal of diversification and adaptive radiation, as species evolved to fill the ecological niches left vacant by the extinction event.</p>



<h4 id="h-flora">Flora</h4>



<p>The Triassic saw the continued dominance of gymnosperms, a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers. The first true mammals also appeared during this period. Ferns, horsetails, and ginkgo trees were prevalent, and it was during the Triassic that the first types of modern conifer trees emerged.</p>



<h4 id="h-fauna">Fauna</h4>



<p>This period saw the emergence and evolution of many significant groups of organisms. The first true mammals appeared during this period, as did the first dinosaurs. However, dinosaurs weren't the dominant terrestrial vertebrates in the Triassic; this role was instead filled by other reptiles such as the aforementioned rhynchosaurs and various archosaurs. In the seas, fish continued to diversify, and marine reptiles like ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs became prevalent. The first flying vertebrates, the pterosaurs, appeared in the late Triassic.</p>



<h4 id="h-climate">Climate</h4>



<p>The Triassic Period began in the aftermath of the greatest ice age known. The period was mostly hot and dry, and it had no ice caps at the poles. The interior of the supercontinent Pangaea was likely arid, with great seasonal fluctuations between hot and cold, given the vast distance from the interior of the supercontinent to the ocean.</p>



<h4 id="h-geology">Geology</h4>



<p>The Triassic was a time of significant tectonic activity. The supercontinent Pangaea was still assembled, but the first signs of stress that would eventually lead to its breakup in the Jurassic started to appear. This included the rifting of the supercontinent along what is now the eastern coast of North America and the western coast of Europe and Africa.</p>



<h4 id="h-extinction">Extinction</h4>



<p>The Triassic period ended with another mass extinction event, the causes of which are still a matter of scientific debate. Climate change, asteroid impact, and volcanic activity have all been suggested as potential culprits. This extinction led to the dominance of dinosaurs in the ensuing Jurassic Period.</p>



<p>This is a brief overview and, as with all areas of paleontology, our understanding of the Triassic period continues to evolve as new discoveries are made and existing data is reinterpreted. By examining the fossil record, scientists can piece together a picture of what life might have been like during this important period in Earth's history.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Ancient reptile Rhynchosaur died off before the dinosaurs due to weak teeth

A recent exploration into the prehistoric past by a research...

<p>Many scientists and nutritionists have argued that the tedious process of tracking everything one eats and drinks in a day is a vital component of successful weight loss. However, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oby.23795"><em>Obesity</em></a>, perfect diet tracking is not necessary to achieve significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-health-benefits-of-weight-loss-persist-for-years/">weight loss</a>.</p>



<p>To assess what the optimal thresholds were for diet tracking to predict three percent, five percent, and ten percent weight loss after six months, the experts enrolled 153 weight loss program participants, who had to self-report their food intake using a commercial digital program.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We partnered with <a href="https://www.weightwatchers.com/us/">WeightWatchers</a>, who was planning on releasing a new Personal Points program, and they wanted to get empirical data via our clinical trial,” said study senior author Sherry Pagoto, a professor of Health Sciences at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a> (UConn).</p>



<p>This program is based on a personalized approach of assigning points – including a list of “zero-point foods” – in order to eliminate the need for calculating calories for everything. By using a data science method called “receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve analysis,” the researchers estimated how many days people needed to track their food consumption to reach clinically significant weight loss.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“It turns out, you don’t need to track 100 percent each day to be successful,” said lead author Ran Xu, an applied statistician at UConn. “Specifically in this trial, we find that people only need to track around 30 percent of the days to lose more than three percent weight and 40 percent of the days to lose more than five percent weight, or almost 70 percent of days to lose more than 10 percent weight. The key point here is that you don’t need to track every day to lose a clinically significant amount of weight.”</p>



<p>Since the goal for a six-month weight loss program is typically between five and ten percent – a range where health benefits have been observed in clinical trials – these findings are highly promising.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“A lot of times people feel like they need to lose 50 pounds to get healthier, but actually we start to see changes in things like blood pressure, lipids, cardiovascular disease risk, and diabetes risk when people lose about five-to-ten percent of their weight,” Pagoto explained. “That can be accomplished if participants lose about one to two pounds a week, which is considered a healthy pace of weight loss.”</p>



<h2 id="h-different-tracking-patterns-yield-positive-results">Different tracking patterns yield positive results</h2>



<p>The scientists found three distinct trajectories of diet tracking over the six months of the program. In the first one, “high trackers” or “super users” tracked food on most days of the week, and managed to lose around 10 percent of their weight.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, many participants belonged to a second category, which started to track regularly, but then their tracking gradually declined, with only one day per week tracked after four months. Nevertheless, these participants still managed to lose about five percent of their weight. Finally, the “low trackers” started tracking only three days a week, and dropped to zero by three months, reaching about two percent of weight loss after six months.</p>



<h2 id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



<p>Clarifying such patterns could help inform future weight loss programs that could be tailored to improve user tracking based on which group they belong to. However, future research is needed to better understand why these patterns arise and develop efficient interventions to improve outcomes.</p>



<p>“For me, what’s exciting about these digital programs is that we have a digital footprint of participant behavior. We can drill down to the nitty-gritty of what people do during these programs. The data can inform precision medicine approaches, where we can take this data science perspective, identify patterns of behavior, and design a targeted approach,” Xu explained.</p>



<p>“Before, it felt like we were flying in the dark or just going by anecdotes or self-reported measures, but it’s different now that we have so much user data. We need data science to make sense of all these data. This is where team science is so important because clinical and data scientists think about the problem from very different perspectives, but together, we can produce insights that neither of us could do on our own. This must be the future of this work,” Pagoto concluded.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Diet tracking does not have to be perfect to promote weight loss

Many scientists and nutritionists have argued that the tedious process...

<p>How do the lifestyle and environment of our four-legged companions impact their health and aging? Professor Noah Snyder-Mackler from the <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">ASU</a> School of Life Sciences poses this question, underlining the fact that the shorter lifespan of dogs and the intensive care they receive from their owners make them perfect models for studying the effects of social and physical environment on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flat-faced-dogs-remain-wildly-popular-despite-severe-health-risks/">health</a>, aging, and survival.</p>



<p>Now, an enormous survey and data collection effort involving over 21,000 dog owners has shed light on key social determinants that influence the health and aging of our beloved canines.</p>



<h2 id="h-dogs-need-other-dogs">Dogs need other dogs</h2>



<p>The findings indicate that a dog's social support network has the most substantial impact on their health outcomes. In fact, social support is found to be five times more influential than financial factors, household stability, or the owner's age.</p>



<p>Under the guidance of Professor Snyder-Mackler, PhD student Bri McCoy, and MSc student Layla Brassington, the team embarked on an extensive analysis of the collected data, which represented a staggering 21,410 dogs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers aimed to identify the vital social factors for a healthy lifestyle, a significant stride in the Dog Aging Project's community-science endeavor.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-dog-aging-project">The Dog Aging Project</h2>



<p>For those unfamiliar, the Dog Aging Project is a collaborative effort spearheaded by the University of Washington and Texas A&amp;M School of Medicine.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The initiative includes over a dozen institutions around the country, including ASU. It aims to understand how genes, lifestyle, and the environment influence aging and disease outcomes. So far, more than 45,000 dogs from across the U.S. are enrolled in the project.</p>



<p>Daniel Promislow, the co-director and principal investigator, proudly describes the study's broad reach. He notes that the data gathered through the Dog Aging Project will allow follow-up studies to explore how and why environmental factors affect dogs' health.</p>



<p>The ASU team used a large survey that posed a variety of questions to dog owners about themselves and their pets. The inquiries spanned numerous areas, including physical activity, environment, dog behavior, diet, medications and preventatives, health status, and owner demographics.</p>



<h2 id="h-five-key-factors-that-influence-a-dog-s-wellbeing">Five key factors that influence a dog’s wellbeing</h2>



<p>From these responses, the team identified five key factors - neighborhood stability, total household income, social time with children, social time with animals, and owner age - that combined to shape a dog's social environment and were associated with canine wellbeing.</p>



<p>The analysis revealed that the environment in which a dog lives significantly impacts their health, disease diagnoses, and physical mobility, even after accounting for the dog's age and weight. Specifically, financial and household adversity correlated with poorer health and reduced physical mobility.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Conversely, more social companionship, such as living with other dogs, was associated with better health. The influence of social support was five times stronger than financial factors.</p>



<p>McCoy emphasizes the importance of social companionship for a dog's health, mirroring the importance of social connections among humans and other animals.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-finds-a-few-unexpected-results">Study finds a few unexpected results</h2>



<p>Two unexpected findings emerged from the study, which is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/emph/eoad011/7161464"><em>Evolution Medicine and Public Health</em></a>. First, an inverse relationship was found between the number of children in the household and dog health. Brassington explains that dedicating more time to children likely results in less time spent with the "furry" children. McCoy frames this as a "resource allocation" issue, rather than children being harmful to dogs.</p>



<p>The second counterintuitive finding highlighted the role of finance in disease diagnoses. Dogs from wealthier households tend to have more diseases diagnosed, likely due to more frequent veterinary care and the financial ability to afford additional tests.</p>



<p>The study's results were consistent across both pure and mixed breed dogs, as well as specific breeds. However, as the data was obtained through owner-reported surveys, there may be errors, biases, or misinterpretations.</p>



<h2 id="h-next-steps-for-the-research-team">Next steps for the research team</h2>



<p>The research team's next steps involve exploring potential links between survey data and underlying physiology. Professor Snyder-Mackler is interested in understanding how these external factors are translating into tangible health effects on dogs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"We now want to understand how these external factors are getting under the skin to affect the dog's health - how is the environment altering their bodies and cells?" he noted.</p>



<p>The researchers are keeping a close eye on a subgroup of around 1,000 dogs from the larger study. These animals are part of a focused cohort where blood and other biological samples are being collected over several years to uncover these environmental impacts.</p>



<p>"In future research, we will look at electronic veterinary medical records, molecular and immunological measures, and at-home physical tests to generate more accurate measures of health and frailty in the companion dog," said Professor Snyder-Mackler.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-s-conclusions-are-very-clear">Study’s conclusions are very clear</h2>



<p>Still, the central takeaway from the study is clear. "Having a good network, having good social connectedness is good for the dogs that are living with us, said McCoy. "But the structure and equities that are in our society also have a detrimental effect on our companion animals as well. And they are not the ones thinking about their next paycheck or their health care.”</p>



<p>In conclusion, the findings could serve as a prescription for people to lead healthier lives. After all, what is good for our dogs may also be good for us.</p>



<p>“Overall, our study provides further evidence for the strong link between the social environment and health outcomes that reflects what is known for humans," said Professor Snyder-Mackler.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"We need to focus more attention to the role of the social environment on health and disease, and continued investigation of how each environmental factor can contribute to more years of healthy living (i.e., 'healthspan') in both companion dogs and humans."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-bond-between-dogs-and-humans">More about the bond between dogs and humans</h2>



<p>The bond between dogs and humans is an enduring relationship that dates back thousands of years. Dogs were among the first animals to be domesticated, and this long-shared history has resulted in a deep emotional and social bond between the two species.</p>



<h3 id="h-companionship">Companionship&nbsp;</h3>



<p>At the heart of this bond is the notion of companionship. Dogs, often referred to as "man's best friend," are cherished members of many families worldwide. They provide their owners with emotional support, companionship, and often contribute to their sense of safety and security.</p>



<p>This connection goes beyond simple companionship. Numerous studies have shown that having a dog can provide a range of health benefits. For example, dog owners tend to have lower blood pressure, lower cholesterol, and are less likely to experience heart attacks.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dogs also promote a more active lifestyle, as they require regular exercise. This increased physical activity can benefit the cardiovascular system and help maintain a healthy weight.</p>



<h3 id="h-psychological">Psychological&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Psychologically, the bond between dogs and humans can also have profound impacts. Interacting with dogs can lead to lower stress levels and can even help ease symptoms of depression and anxiety. The simple act of petting a dog can increase levels of the stress-reducing hormone oxytocin and decrease the production of the stress hormone cortisol.</p>



<h3 id="h-emotional">Emotional</h3>



<p>Furthermore, dogs have been shown to offer significant social and emotional benefits. For children, growing up with a dog can aid in their emotional development and boost their self-esteem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Dogs can also teach children about responsibility, empathy, and compassion. For older adults, dogs can provide companionship and a sense of purpose, which can help combat feelings of loneliness and isolation.</p>



<p>It's also important to note that dogs have evolved to understand human emotions and to respond in ways that provide comfort and companionship. They are attuned to human emotions and often react empathetically to their owners' feelings. This emotional intelligence, combined with their unconditional love and loyalty, makes the bond between humans and dogs truly special.</p>



<h3 id="h-two-way-street">Two-way street&nbsp;</h3>



<p>However, this bond is not a one-way street. Just as humans derive emotional and health benefits from their dogs, the dogs also thrive on the love, care, and companionship provided by their human partners. As the study we discussed earlier suggests, dogs' health and well-being can be greatly affected by their social environment, which underscores the importance of this mutual bond.</p>



<p>Ultimately, the bond between dogs and humans is a symbiotic relationship characterized by mutual affection, emotional connection, and shared benefits. It's a relationship that is treasured by many and continues to be a subject of fascinating scientific study.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Dogs live longer and happier lives when they get to socialize often

How do the lifestyle and environment of our four-legged companions...

<p>A significant upsurge in the usage of non-LSD hallucinogens among young adults in the United States is causing concern among researchers. An insightful study conducted by the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> and Columbia University reveals that in the period between 2018 and 2021, the use of these drugs by individuals aged 19 to 30 almost doubled.</p>



<p>Back in 2018, it was found that 3.4% of young adults reported having used non-LSD hallucinogens in the past year. This figure spiked to 6.6% in 2021.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-sudden-surge-is-surprising">Sudden surge is surprising</h2>



<p>While this prevalence remains relatively low compared to substance usage like alcohol and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infectious-pathogen-has-spread-to-90-percent-of-cannabis-farms-in-california/">cannabis</a>, this sudden surge over a mere three years presents potential public health worries.</p>



<p>"The increase in non-LSD hallucinogen use occurred while LSD use remained stable at around 4% in 2018 and 2021," stated Megan Patrick, a research professor in the Survey Research Center at U-M's Institute for Social Research.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Patrick, who is a co-author of the study, emphasized that the leap in prevalence is substantial and raises critical health-related concerns.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>This noteworthy information was uncovered as a part of the Monitoring the Future study, funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the results were published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/add.16259"><em>Addiction</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study, involving a longitudinal follow-up of 12th-grade students transitioning into adulthood, focused primarily on substance use and health.</p>



<p>In addition to the overall increase in hallucinogen usage, the research team discovered that the consumption of these substances was notably higher among males compared to females.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, white young adults reported higher usage rates than Black young adults, and those whose parents possessed a college education, indicating a higher socioeconomic status, were also found to use these substances more frequently.</p>



<p>While the reasons behind the usage of these drugs, whether recreational or therapeutic, were not identified in the study, previous research has shown a link between nonmedical hallucinogen use and an increased risk of substance use disorders, self-harm, injury, and anxiety.</p>



<p>"With increased visibility for medical and therapeutic use, potentially comes diversion and unregulated product availability, as well as a lack of understanding among the public of potential risks," explained Katherine Keyes, a professor of epidemiology at Columbia Mailman School and the lead author of the study.</p>



<h2 id="h-national-trend-of-psychedelic-drug-use-for-therapy-may-play-a-role">National trend of psychedelic drug use for therapy may play a role</h2>



<p>Professor Keyes noted that despite the trend of psychedelic and hallucinogenic drugs being used for therapeutic purposes, approved therapeutic use under professional healthcare supervision is still rare in the United States. Thus, the trends observed in the study most likely represent nonmedical and nontherapeutic drug use.</p>



<p>The study found the use of psilocybin, commonly found in "shrooms," to be particularly prevalent among the non-LSD hallucinogens. "This is a rising concern for young adult health," Patrick warned.</p>



<p>As part of the Monitoring the Future study, participants were asked about their usage of LSD and other hallucinogens, such as mescaline, peyote, "shrooms," or PCP. The frequency of usage varied greatly, with responses ranging from none to 40 times or more over the past year.</p>



<p>The researchers are committed to keeping a watchful eye on these trends and are eager to delve deeper into the motives behind the usage of these substances by young adults. It is critical, they stress, to understand these motivations and patterns of use to mitigate any negative repercussions effectively.</p>



<p>This crucial research work was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, part of the <a href="https://www.nih.gov/">National Institutes of Health</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-psychedelic-drugs-used-in-therapy">More about psychedelic drugs used in therapy&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The use of psychedelic and hallucinogenic substances for therapeutic purposes has been an emerging field of research over the past decade. These substances include compounds like lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin (found in magic mushrooms), dimethyltryptamine (DMT, found in ayahuasca), and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA).</p>



<p>The therapeutic value of these substances lies in their ability to profoundly alter perception and cognition, which can facilitate therapeutic introspection and personal insight when used in a carefully controlled setting under the guidance of a trained professional.</p>



<h3 id="h-mental-health-applications">Mental health applications</h3>



<p>One of the most researched applications of psychedelic therapy is in the treatment of mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).</p>



<p>For instance, studies have shown that psilocybin-assisted therapy can lead to significant and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in individuals with life-threatening cancer. Other studies have suggested that psilocybin can reset the brain's connectivity, leading to lasting therapeutic effects.</p>



<p>Similarly, MDMA has been investigated as a potential treatment for PTSD. In clinical trials, MDMA-assisted psychotherapy has been shown to produce significant improvements in individuals with severe PTSD, often in cases where traditional therapies have failed.</p>



<h3 id="h-addiction-treatment-and-therapy">Addiction treatment and therapy&nbsp;</h3>



<p>In addition to mental health applications, some researchers are exploring the use of psychedelics for addiction treatment. Certain psychedelic substances, such as ibogaine (derived from the African shrub Tabernanthe iboga), have shown promise in reducing withdrawal symptoms and cravings associated with substance abuse disorders, including alcohol and opioid addiction.</p>



<p>It's important to note, however, that while this research is promising, it is still in the relatively early stages. Most of these substances remain classified as Schedule I drugs under the U.S. Controlled Substances Act, which means they are not currently accepted for medical use and have a high potential for abuse.</p>



<h3 id="h-doctor-supervision-is-crucial">Doctor supervision is crucial</h3>



<p>Further, the therapeutic use of these substances involves carefully controlled dosages and settings, and is coupled with psychotherapy - it's not a matter of simply taking the drug. Self-medication with psychedelic substances can have serious risks and should not be attempted without professional guidance.</p>



<p>Despite these challenges, the push for further research into the therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances is gaining momentum. With ongoing clinical trials and a growing body of research, it's possible that we may see changes in the regulatory status and medical acceptance of these substances in the future.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Hallucinogen use is on the rise among young adults

A significant upsurge in the usage of non-LSD hallucinogens among...

<p>In moments of intense stress, many of us fall into the trap of indulging in high-calorie snacks. While this may seem pretty harmless, scientists have now discovered that the combination of chronic stress and comfort food instigates a series of changes in our brain. These changes drive us to eat more, intensify our cravings for sweet food, and eventually result in excessive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fat-diet-linked-to-weight-gain-and-cognitive-decline/">weight gain</a>.</p>



<p>A research group from the <a href="https://www.garvan.org.au/">Garvan Institute of Medical Research</a> has conducted an innovative study showing how chronic stress has the power to disrupt the brain's natural response to fullness. In particular, the scientists pinpointed alterations within a brain region known as the lateral habenula. Ordinarily, when activated, the lateral habenula acts to suppress reward signals associated with eating.</p>



<p>“Our findings reveal stress can override a natural brain response that diminishes the pleasure gained from eating – meaning the brain is continuously rewarded to eat," said study senior author Professor Herbert Herzog. "We showed that chronic stress, combined with a high-calorie diet, can drive more and more food intake as well as a preference for sweet, highly palatable food, thereby promoting weight gain and obesity.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Herzog also stressed the importance of maintaining a healthy diet during periods of stress, a key implication of their research. The findings have been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2023.05.010"><em>Neuron</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-does-the-brain-react-to-chronic-stress">How does the brain react to chronic stress?</h2>



<p>The team delved into the curious phenomenon where most individuals tend to eat more and select calorie-dense options high in sugar and fat when subjected to stress. However, this is not a universal response, as some people may experience decreased appetite under stressful conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To dissect these disparate eating habits, the scientists studied how different areas in the brain reacted to chronic stress under various dietary regimes using mouse models.</p>



<p>“We discovered that an area known as the lateral habenula, which is normally involved in switching off the brain’s reward response, was active in mice on a short-term, high-fat diet to protect the animal from overeating. However, when mice were chronically stressed, this part of the brain remained silent - allowing the reward signals to stay active and encourage feeding for pleasure, no longer responding to satiety regulatory signals," explained study first author Dr. Kenny Chi Kin Ip.</p>



<p>As a result, he disclosed that mice exposed to chronic stress while on a high-fat diet gained double the weight compared to those on the same diet without stress.</p>



<p>At the heart of this weight gain was the molecule Neuropeptide Y (NPY), which the brain naturally generates in response to stress. When the researchers blocked NPY from activating brain cells in the lateral habenula of the stressed mice on a high-fat diet, the mice exhibited a reduced intake of comfort food and consequently less weight gain.</p>



<h2 id="h-chronic-stress-leads-to-an-unhealthy-diet">Chronic stress leads to an unhealthy diet</h2>



<p>The researchers further unraveled the complex relationship between stress and diet preferences using a "sucralose preference test." This involved giving mice the choice to drink either water or artificially sweetened water.</p>



<p>“Stressed mice on a high-fat diet consumed three times more sucralose than mice that were on a high-fat diet alone, suggesting that stress not only activates more reward when eating but specifically drives a craving for sweet, palatable food," said Professor Herzog. Interestingly, this predilection for sweetened water was not observed in stressed mice following a regular diet.</p>



<p>“In stressful situations it’s easy to use a lot of energy and the feeling of reward can calm you down – this is when a boost of energy through food is useful. But when experienced over long periods of time, stress appears to change the equation, driving eating that is bad for the body long term," explained Professor Herzog.</p>



<p>The findings indicate that stress is a key modulator of eating habits, capable of overpowering the brain's inherent capacity to maintain energy equilibrium. In essence, the research suggests that prolonged stress conditions can lead to unhealthy dietary habits and metabolic complications.</p>



<p>Professor Herzog concluded by reinforcing the importance of a healthy lifestyle and diet, particularly under persistent stress conditions: “This research emphasises just how much stress can compromise a healthy energy metabolism. It’s a reminder to avoid a stressful lifestyle, and crucially – if you are dealing with long-term stress – try to eat a healthy diet and lock away the junk food.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-chronic-stress">More about chronic stress&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Chronic stress is a prolonged and constant feeling of stress that can negatively affect one's health if left unmanaged. It is different from acute stress, which is a normal reaction to changes and challenges in daily life. While acute stress can even be beneficial or motivational in short bursts (known as the 'fight-or-flight' response), chronic stress can be detrimental.</p>



<h3 id="h-key-aspects-of-chronic-stress">Key aspects of chronic stress:</h3>



<h4 id="h-causes">Causes</h4>



<p>Chronic stress can be caused by various factors such as ongoing work pressure, financial strain, challenging relationships, chronic illnesses, or constant exposure to a stressful environment. Sometimes, an accumulation of small stressors can also lead to chronic stress.</p>



<h4 id="h-effects-on-the-brain-and-body">Effects on the brain and body</h4>



<p>Chronic stress releases stress hormones like cortisol over an extended period, which can impact the brain’s structure and function. This can lead to alterations in mood, decision-making, and the way one handles further stress. It also impacts physical health, contributing to issues like heart disease, digestive problems, sleep disorders, weight gain, and a weakened immune system.</p>



<h4 id="h-psychological-consequences">Psychological consequences</h4>



<p>Chronic stress is associated with mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It can cause feelings of frustration, anger, irritability, and hopelessness.</p>



<h4 id="h-behavioral-changes">Behavioral changes</h4>



<p>People experiencing chronic stress might develop unhealthy coping strategies like overeating (as highlighted in the study conducted by the Garvan Institute of Medical Research), smoking, alcohol consumption, or drug abuse.</p>



<h4 id="h-management-and-coping-strategies">Management and coping strategies</h4>



<p>Managing chronic stress typically involves lifestyle changes. This includes incorporating regular physical activity, maintaining a balanced diet, ensuring adequate sleep, and adopting relaxation techniques such as meditation, deep breathing, or yoga. It is also important to build a strong support system through friends, family, or professional counseling.</p>



<h4 id="h-professional-help">Professional help&nbsp;</h4>



<p>Sometimes, chronic stress can be overwhelming, and individuals might need professional help. This can range from counseling and therapy (such as cognitive behavioral therapy) to medication in some cases.</p>



<p>Understanding and acknowledging the impact of chronic stress is essential for well-being. It's important to recognize its signs and symptoms early and to adopt healthy coping strategies or seek professional help if necessary. By doing so, one can mitigate the adverse effects of chronic stress on both mental and physical health.</p>

Chronic stress causes the brain to crave comfort food

In moments of intense stress, many of us fall into...

<p>Each year, rescue centers release animals into the wild, assuming that they will thrive most in their natural habitat. However, such assumptions have not been tested scientifically with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-danger-extinction/">primates</a> and investigations into the most effective methods of release have been scarce.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/">Durham University</a> and the <a href="https://janegoodall.org/">Jane Goodall Institute</a> has found that a group of mandrills (<em>Mandrillus sphinx</em>) – a species of monkey native to west central Africa – who were returned to the wild using a carefully phased approach adapted well, exhibiting a lower stress response in the wild than in the sanctuary from which they were released.</p>



<p>“Many primate releases are conducted based on the assumption that it improves animal welfare, but very few studies have actually tested this,” said senior author Joanna Setchell, a zoologist at Durham. “Our work applies rigorous science to this assumption, providing evidence that a carefully planned release of mandrills can work well with the right design, monitoring, and evaluation.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) recommends a gradual release and post-release monitoring to ensure that, when animals are released into the wild, their stress responses are low, allowing them to survive and adapt to the new environment. However, this slow and steady process is rarely applied due to high costs and time restrictions.</p>



<p>For the current study, the experts transferred 15 mandrills from the Tchimpounga Sanctuary – which were orphaned by hunting and rescued by Congolese authorities - to a pre-release enclosure in the Conkouati-Douli National Park, and afterwards into the park itself.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This process involved the mandrills spending time in a pre-release enclosure built in the forest, provisions of extra food, careful observations of the animals’ condition, and interventions to remove animals that were not doing well. Even though all of the 15 mandrills survived, three of them had to be returned to the sanctuary as their transfer was not successful.</p>



<h2 id="h-measuring-the-primates-stress-response">Measuring the primates' stress response&nbsp;</h2>



<p>At every stage of the transfer, the scientists collected fecal samples from the mandrills, which they then used to measure their stress response non-invasively. As expected, the animals’ stress response initially increased after their move from the sanctuary to the pre-release enclosure, most likely due to their being transported in crates by car and boat.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, in the pre-release enclosure, which provided the mandrills a safe place to adjust to their new environment, their stress response dropped again and did not increase after they were released in the forest. In fact, just one month after their release into the wild, their stress response dropped below the levels observed while they were in the sanctuary.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, after one year spent in the wild, the response was nearly half what it had been in the sanctuary, suggesting that the mandrills were faring quite well in their natural habitat. The results are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/coad025"><em>Conservation Physiology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>“This project was ultimately successful because of years of pre-release preparation and extensive post-release support.&nbsp;We went to the extreme lengths to conduct this study because it’s important that all releases are&nbsp;learnt from and the results are reported,” said lead author Miles Woodruff, a primatologist at Durham.</p>



<p>“We are dealing with the life and death of critical&nbsp;species in sensitive environments and every individual matters.&nbsp;Our findings are very exciting because we now have physiological evidence to support the ‘why’ behind the IUCN’s suggestions to conduct soft releases of animals.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-mandrills">More about mandrills&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) are a type of primate that are native to rainforests in equatorial Africa, specifically in countries like Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Congo. They're a member of the Old World monkey family, Cercopithecidae, and are close relatives of baboons and drill monkeys.</p>



<p>Physically, mandrills are recognized for their vibrant, multicolored facial and rump markings. Males, in particular, have incredibly vivid markings, with blue and red skin on their faces and a yellow beard, while their rumps feature similar coloration. These striking colors become brighter when the animal is excited.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mandrills are sexually dimorphic, meaning males and females have different physical characteristics. Male mandrills are significantly larger and more colorful than females, with males weighing up to 54 kilograms (120 pounds) and females usually around 12 kilograms (26 pounds).</p>



<p>In terms of behavior, mandrills are social animals, living in large groups called hordes, which can number in the hundreds. These groups are typically dominated by a single, older male and consist of several females and their young. They are primarily terrestrial animals, spending much of their time on the ground, but they can climb trees and often sleep in them.</p>



<p>Mandrills are omnivorous and their diet consists of a mix of fruits, roots, and insects, but they can also eat small vertebrates. Their cheek pouches allow them to carry food to be eaten later.&nbsp;</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Gradual release of rescued primates into the wild is highly effective

Each year, rescue centers release animals into the wild, assuming...

<p>According to a new study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehjqcco/qcad025"><em>European Heart Journal – Quality of Care and Clinical Outcomes</em></a>, individuals who had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-attacks-young-women/">heart attacks</a> during the first Covid-19 lockdown in the UK and Spain are predicted to live 1.5 and 2 years less, respectively, than their pre-pandemic counterparts. </p>



<p>Moreover, the experts estimate the additional costs to the UK and Spanish economies to rise as high as £36.6 million (€41.3 million) and €88.6 million, respectively, largely due to work absenteeism.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Heart attacks require urgent medical interventions with stents – called “percutaneous coronary intervention” (PCI) – to open the blocked arteries and restore blood flow. Delays resulting in lack of oxygen can lead to irreversible damage to the heart muscle and can cause heart failure or other complications.</p>



<h2 id="h-fewer-patients-went-to-the-hospital-during-lockdown">Fewer patients went to the hospital during lockdown</h2>



<p>During the first wave of the pandemic, as officials told people to stay at home and some routine emergency care was halted, about 40 percent fewer heart attack patients went to hospital. Those remaining at home following a heart attack were more than twice as likely to die, while those who delayed going to the hospital were nearly twice as likely to have significant complications which could have been avoided compared to people receiving prompt treatment.</p>



<p>“Restrictions to treatment of life-threatening conditions have immediate and long-term negative consequences for individuals and society as a whole,” said study corresponding author William Wijns, a professor of Interventional Cardiology at the <a href="https://www.universityofgalway.ie/">University of Galway</a> in Ireland. “Back-up plans must be in place so that emergency services can be retained even during natural or health catastrophes.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers estimated the long-term clinical and economic implications of reduced heart attack treatment during the first lockdowns in the UK and Spain in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), in which an artery supplying blood to the heart is completely blocked.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Survival projections took into account age, hospitalization status, and time to treatment using published data from both countries and compared them to data from one year before the pandemic. The data analysis revealed that 77 percent of STEMI patients in the UK were hospitalized before the pandemic compared to 44 percent during the first lockdown, with the equivalent rates in Spain being 74 percent and 57 percent.</p>



<h2 id="h-long-term-repercussions">Long-term repercussions&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By using a model estimating long-term survival, quality of life, and costs related to STEMI, the scientists found that patients who had a STEMI during the first UK lockdown would lose an average of 1.55 years compared to those presenting with this condition before the pandemic.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, those with a STEMI during the lockdown were predicted to lose about one year and two months of life in perfect health. In the case of Spain, the equivalent figures were 2.03 years of life lost, and one year and seven months of life in perfect health lost.</p>



<p>In addition, the researchers performed a cost analysis that took into account factors such as initial hospitalization and treatment, follow-up treatment, management of heart failure, and productivity loss in patients unable to return to work.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The investigation revealed that, in the UK – with an incidence of 49,332 STEMIs per year – reduced access to PCI during the first month of lockdown would cost an extra £36.6 million (€41.3 million) over the lifetime of the patients, while in Spain – with an annual incidence of 52,954 STEMIs – reduced access to PCI at the beginning of the pandemic would cost an additional €88.6 million over the patients’ lifetimes.</p>



<p>“The findings illustrate the repercussions of delayed or missed care. Patients and societies will pay the price of reduced heart attack treatment during just one month of lockdown for years to come. Health services need a list of lifesaving therapies that should always be delivered, and resilient healthcare systems must be established that can switch to emergency plans without delay. Public awareness campaigns should emphasize the benefits of timely care, even during a pandemic or other crisis,” Wijns concluded.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Covid lockdown cost heart attack patients up to two years of life

According to a new study published in the European Heart...

Seaweed,Farming,In,The,Clear,Coastal,Waters,Of,Zanzibar,Island

<p>A new study led by <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-farming-could-boost-food-security-yet-preserve-nature/">seaweed</a> farming could help mitigate hunger and malnutrition while also slowing climate change. Furthermore, the experts report that producing and selling seaweed could boost incomes for farmers in low- and middle-income countries, particularly across coastal regions in Africa and Southeast Asia.</p>



<p>Since seaweed farming requires no land, freshwater, or chemical fertilizers, it is a much more sustainable alternative for raising livestock and could become highly profitable as demands for nutrient-rich seaweed products grows around the globe. Such profits would increase the buying power for the households and communities who produce, process, package, and export it, which in turn could lead to healthier diets worldwide.</p>



<p>“One of the biggest problems of food insecurity in LMICs is the unaffordability of healthy diets,” said study lead author Patrick Webb, a professor of Nutrition Science at Tufts. “There are roughly 3.5 billion people in the world who can’t afford a healthy diet even if they choose local foods at local prices. For many of those people, cultivating and selling seaweed would lead to higher incomes and improved nutrition through purchases on the market.”</p>



<h2 id="h-simple-techniques">Simple techniques&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Historically, seaweed has been grown in parts of Asia for centuries, using simple techniques. For instance, farmers attach long lines of rope to the roots of the algae, which help nourish the plant by absorbing nutrients from the water. About two months later, they gather the seaweed by hand and let it dry in the sun.</p>



<p>“A lot of what we’re looking at on the farming side is not about finding new crops or different kinds of crops. It’s about what’s already being grown that could be scaled up cost-effectively,” Webb explained.</p>



<h2 id="h-low-carbon-footprint">Low carbon footprint&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Besides being relatively easy to grow, seaweed has a very low carbon footprint, and could even help decrease the ocean’s carbon levels. Although little is yet known about how much carbon dioxide seaweed releases during harvest, perennial brown algae farms were found to absorb up to ten tons of CO2 per hectare of sea surface each year. Moreover, when added to livestock feed, seaweed could help substantially reduce methane emissions.</p>



<p>“Unless we get significant warming of the oceans, cultivating seaweed offers a way that is not just climate friendly, but climate proof,” said Webb. “We don’t know how soon the industry will start to experience the negative effects of climate change, but the potential looks good. By farming seaweed, it’s not going to accelerate those negative effects. Whereas cutting down trees and adding more livestock certainly would.”</p>



<h2 id="h-challenges-of-seaweed-farming">Challenges of seaweed farming&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Unfortunately, there are several challenges for producing and processing seaweed. Since ocean waters are becoming increasingly acidic due to climate change, growing healthy, edible seaweed in such conditions is not easy. Moreover, seaweed’s main value as an export lies in some of its extracts as ingredients for other products, rather than as a vegetable to be eaten whole, and many LMICs&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; do not yet have a proper infrastructure to effectively process, test, and regulate what will eventually land on consumers’ plates.</p>



<p>“The steps taken between the farm and the fork, that’s what we need to focus on,” Webb argued. “We need to work more closely with governments and the private sector to figure out where the bottlenecks are and how to overcome them.”</p>



<h2 id="h-unlimited-opportunities">Unlimited opportunities&nbsp;</h2>



<p>However, if these obstacles are successfully addressed, the opportunities of seaweed farming are boundless. The industry has already flourished in countries such as Indonesia, where seasonal labor is always available and farms have managed to achieve industrial-level economies of scale. The country is now a key exporter of two seaweed species from which carrageenan – a thickener found in meats and nut milks – is extracted.</p>



<p>“There are many different types of seaweed, and they all require somewhat of a different environment in which to grow. The vast coasts of Africa and Asia, not all of it will be prime real estate. But much of it will be,” Webb said.</p>



<p>In order for seaweed farming to expand and flourish in these regions, government should create food safety regulations and help attract local and international investment. “The Ministry of Agriculture, or even the Ministry of Fisheries in these countries probably never discusses seaweed. What if they did? They might discover a goldmine,” Webb concluded. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2023.100686"><em>Global Food Security</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-seaweed-farming">More about seaweed farming&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Seaweed farming is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed. In many parts of the world, it's a significant industry that can be a vital source of income and food.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultivating-seaweed">Cultivating seaweed</h3>



<p>There are various methods for cultivating seaweed, depending on the species and environmental conditions. Most methods involve using a substrate like ropes or nets, which the seaweed can attach to and grow from. The substrate is then anchored to the seabed using weights or floats to maintain its position in the water. For some species, such as kelp, farmers use horizontal long-lines near the water's surface, to which juvenile kelp is attached. The seaweed then grows hanging downwards.</p>



<h3 id="h-harvesting-seaweed">Harvesting seaweed</h3>



<p>Once the seaweed has grown sufficiently, it is harvested. The method of harvest again depends on the type of seaweed and its growth. Some seaweeds can be harvested by hand or using simple tools, while others may require more complex machinery. After the seaweed is harvested, it can be dried, processed, or sold fresh, depending on the market.</p>



<h3 id="h-applications-of-seaweed">Applications of seaweed</h3>



<p>Seaweed has a wide variety of uses, including food, fertilizer, and various industrial uses. It's a popular food item in many Asian countries, particularly in Japan, Korea, and China, where it's used in soups, salads, snacks, and sushi. Seaweed is also a source of carrageenan and agar, which are used as thickening and gelling agents in the food industry. Seaweed is also being researched for its potential uses in biofuel production, carbon sequestration, and as a source of valuable compounds for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.</p>



<h3 id="h-sustainability">Sustainability</h3>



<p>Seaweed farming is considered a sustainable practice as it doesn't require fresh water, arable land, or fertilizers, which are resources commonly used in traditional agriculture. It can also help improve water quality by absorbing excess nutrients, and some types of seaweed can even absorb carbon dioxide, helping mitigate climate change.</p>



<p><em>—-</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Seaweed farming could boost food security, slow climate change

A new study led by Tufts University has found that...

<p>Tens of thousands of aircrafts face severe turbulence each year, with an estimated cost to the global aviation sector of up to $1 billion from structural damage to airplanes, flight delays, and costs of injuries. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a> in the UK has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humanity-should-brace-for-catastrophic-climate-change/">climate change</a> could be the main culprit behind this phenomenon, leading to more turbulence during flights, which drive up maintenance costs and increase the risks for both passengers and crews.</p>



<p>While some aircraft turbulence occurs in well-defined places, such as within the vicinity of convection storms or over mountain ranges, a particular type called “clear-air turbulence” (CAT) is caused when bodies of air moving at different speeds meet. Unlike the other types of turbulence, CAT is highly difficult to observe and forecast.</p>



<p>“The main problem [with CAT] is that you can’t see it,” said Ramalingam Saravanan, a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, who was not involved in the current study.</p>



<p>“The best way I think pilots know about it is when some other pilot has flown through it and radios back, letting them know its location. You can try to predict it statistically, but you can’t predict it by individual case because it is a random process, and the air looks clear and harmless – hence the name.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experts analyzed clear-air turbulence trends globally during 1979 and 2020 by using a dataset called <a href="https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/cdsapp#!/dataset/reanalysis-era5-single-levels">ERA5</a>. “This dataset contains information about the past atmosphere – e.g. temperature, wind speed – that we have used as the basis for this study,” said lead author Mark Prosser, a doctoral student in Meteorology at Reading. “Although information automatically recorded from aircraft do go into this dataset, other observations – such as those from satellites and weather balloons – do so too.”</p>



<p>The analysis revealed that the skies aircrafts fly through have becoming increasingly “bumpier” during the past four decades in various regions of the world.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, over the North Atlantic – one of the busiest flight routes in the world – the total annual duration of severe turbulence has increased by 55 percent, from 17.7 hours in 1979 to 27.4 hours in 2020, while moderate turbulence has risen by 37 percent (from 70 to 96.1 hours) and light turbulence by 17 percent (from 466.5 to 546.8 hours).</p>



<h2 id="h-global-warming-is-to-blame">Global warming is to blame</h2>



<p>The experts argue that these increases are consistent with the effects of climate change, with warmer air caused by rises in greenhouse gas emissions increasing windshear in the jet streams - the narrow currents of fast-moving air that planes fly along to get a speed boost - and consequently strengthening clear-air turbulence in the North Atlantic and other busy flight routes over the US, Europe, the Middle East, and the South Atlantic.</p>



<p>“Turbulence makes flights bumpy and can&nbsp;occasionally&nbsp;be dangerous.&nbsp;Airlines will need to&nbsp;start thinking&nbsp;about how they will manage&nbsp;the increased&nbsp;turbulence,&nbsp;as&nbsp;it&nbsp;costs&nbsp;the industry&nbsp;$150–500m&nbsp;annually in the USA alone. Every&nbsp;additional&nbsp;minute spent travelling through&nbsp;turbulence&nbsp;increases&nbsp;wear-and-tear on the&nbsp;aircraft,&nbsp;as well as&nbsp;the&nbsp;risk of&nbsp;injuries&nbsp;to passengers and flight attendants,” Prosser said.</p>



<p>&nbsp;“Following a decade of research showing that climate change will increase&nbsp;clear-air&nbsp;turbulence in&nbsp;the&nbsp;future, we now&nbsp;have evidence&nbsp;suggesting&nbsp;that the increase has already begun.&nbsp;We should be investing&nbsp;in&nbsp;improved&nbsp;turbulence&nbsp;forecasting and detection systems,&nbsp;to prevent&nbsp;the rougher air&nbsp;from&nbsp;translating&nbsp;into bumpier flights&nbsp;in&nbsp;the coming decades,” concluded co-author Paul Williams, a professor of Atmospheric Science at Reading.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023GL103814"><em>Geophysical Research Letters</em></a><em>.</em>&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-airplane-turbulence">More about airplane turbulence&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Airplane turbulence refers to irregular motion of an aircraft, caused by changes in air pressure or air currents, particularly when the plane is flying through a weather system. It's one of the common situations that can occur during a flight, and while it might feel unsettling or uncomfortable, it's usually not a cause for concern. There are several types of turbulence:</p>



<h3 id="h-clear-air-turbulence-cat">Clear air turbulence (CAT)</h3>



<p>This is the most common type of turbulence. It's caused by fast moving air near the jet stream (usually at high altitudes) and is often not detectable by weather radar, which can make it difficult to avoid. Despite the abrupt jolts, CAT is generally not dangerous, though passengers are still advised to keep their seatbelts fastened when seated.</p>



<h3 id="h-thermal-turbulence">Thermal turbulence</h3>



<p>This is caused by hot air rising and cold air descending. This often happens on sunny days when the sun heats the earth's surface, causing pockets of warm air to rise. This is most common during the summer and in tropical areas.</p>



<h3 id="h-mechanical-turbulence">Mechanical turbulence</h3>



<p>This type of turbulence is caused by the wind blowing over rough terrain or buildings, creating eddies in the air. These eddies can cause turbulence when an aircraft flies through them.</p>



<h3 id="h-wake-turbulence">Wake turbulence</h3>



<p>This is caused by the spinning vortices that form at the tips of an aircraft's wings. These vortices can persist in the air and cause turbulence for aircraft flying behind. Air traffic control keeps aircraft separated by specific distances to prevent encounters with wake turbulence.</p>



<p>Although turbulence can be uncomfortable, modern aircraft are built to withstand even severe turbulence. The main danger with turbulence is not to the aircraft itself, but to unsecured objects and people inside the cabin.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Pilots and air traffic control use weather radar and other information to try and avoid turbulent areas when possible. Despite these efforts, turbulence is sometimes unavoidable, but again, it's usually not a threat to the safety of the flight.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Climate change has caused more severe turbulence on airplanes

Tens of thousands of aircrafts face severe turbulence each year,...