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Troides alexandrae

<p>Psilocybin, the primary psychoactive component in “magic mushrooms” of the genus <em>Psilocybe</em>, has recently gained attention not only as a popular recreational drug but also in the realm of medicine for its potential therapeutic benefits.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-is-psilocybin-produced-by-magic-mushrooms">How is psilocybin produced by magic mushrooms?</h2>



<p>Notably, the psilocybin found in magic mushrooms has shown promise in treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-depression-brain/">depression</a>, addiction, and anxiety, reaching advanced stages of clinical trials as a potential pharmaceutical treatment. Now, a study led by the <a href="https://www.i-med.ac.at/universitaet/index.html.en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Medical University of Innsbruck</a> has comprehensively examined how psilocybin is produced by magic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-why-psilocybin-mushrooms-make-you-hallucinate/">mushrooms</a>.</p>



<p>Produced by a complex biochemical process from the amino acid L-tryptophan, psilocybin's synthesis involves critical enzymes, including PsiM, a methyltransferase.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There are many methyl transfer reactions in nature,” said co-author Dirk Hoffmeister, a professor of pharmaceutical microbiology at <a href="https://www.uni-jena.de/en">Friedrich Schiller University Jena</a> and leader of a research group at the <a href="https://www.leibniz-hki.de/en/">Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute</a> (Leibniz-HKI). “Here, we asked ourselves how exactly psilocybin production is accomplished.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psim-enzyme-s-role-in-psilocybin-production">PsiM enzyme's role in psilocybin production</h2>



<p>In&nbsp; a collaborative effort, experts from the Medical University of Innsbruck, led by crystallographer Bernhard Rupp, and Hoffmeister's team at Jena delved into the PsiM enzyme's role in psilocybin production using biochemical analysis and X-ray crystal structure analysis, which visualizes proteins at the atomic level.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their findings revealed that PsiM, crucial for the last two steps of psilocybin synthesis, bears significant structural similarities to enzymes typically involved in RNA modification. Despite some differences, these similarities suggest that PsiM evolved from an RNA methyltransferase, which originally could attach only one methyl group to its target.</p>



<p>The experts also found that a single amino acid change in PsiM enabled it to carry out two consecutive methylation reactions, crucial for converting the psilocybin precursor norbaeocystin into psilocybin. This precursor structurally mimics part of RNA but undergoes double methylation, a key step in psilocybin production.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-biotechnological-applications-in-creating-psilocybin">Future biotechnological applications in creating psilocybin</h2>



<p>Moreover, the researchers explored whether PsiM could add a third methyl group to convert psilocybin into aeruginascin, a naturally occurring psilocybin analog. The scientific community has long debated whether aeruginascin is a byproduct of psilocybin biosynthesis.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This is clearly not the case. PsiM is not able to convert psilocybin to aeruginascin,” Hoffmeister said. While definitively ruling out PsiM's involvement in aeruginascin production, this finding highlights its potential for future biotechnological applications in creating psilocybin.</p>



<p>“Overall, our results can help to develop new variants of psilocybin with improved therapeutic properties and to produce them biotechnologically,” Hoffmeister concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-magic-mushrooms">More about magic mushrooms</h2>



<p>Magic mushrooms have been used for thousands of years in various cultural and religious rituals, primarily for their ability to induce profound changes in perception, mood, and thought. Upon ingestion, psilocybin is converted in the body to psilocin, which is responsible for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-offers-new-explanation-for-how-psychedelic-drugs-work/">psychedelic effects</a>.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experience-of-magic-mushrooms-nbsp">Experience of magic mushrooms&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The experience of taking magic mushrooms can vary greatly depending on the dose, individual psychology, and environmental setting. </p>



<p>Common effects include visual and auditory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-learn-why-psilocybin-mushrooms-make-you-hallucinate/">hallucinations</a>, an altered sense of time, euphoria, and a feeling of deep connection to others and the natural world. However, users can also experience negative effects such as anxiety, paranoia, and nausea.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-interest-nbsp">Scientific interest&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Scientific interest in psilocybin has grown in recent years, especially for its potential therapeutic benefits. Research suggests that psilocybin may help treat depression, anxiety, PTSD, and addiction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These studies have shown that psilocybin can create lasting changes in personality and attitude towards life, often characterized by increased openness and a greater sense of peace.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legal-landscape-nbsp">Legal landscape&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Despite their potential benefits, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/">magic</a> mushrooms are classified as Schedule I substances in the United States and are illegal in many other countries. This classification is due to their high potential for abuse and lack of recognized medical value under current laws.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the legal landscape is slowly changing as more research highlights the therapeutic potential of psilocybin, leading some regions to reconsider their stance on these substances.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46997-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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How did magic mushrooms evolve to contain psilocybin?

Psilocybin, the primary psychoactive component in “magic mushrooms” of the...

<p>Have you ever wondered what secrets lie hidden in the Sun's atmosphere? Scientists have been puzzled by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/sun-moss_nasa-TRACE-mission_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peculiar structure</a> on the Sun that they've dubbed "moss" due to its resemblance to the earthly plants. </p>



<p>This bright, patchy plasma formation has been a mystery for decades, but recent research is shedding light on its superheating mechanism.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-sun-s-moss">Discovering the Sun's moss</h2>



<p>Souvik Bose, a research scientist at Lockheed Martin <a href="https://www.lmsal.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory</a> and <a href="https://baeri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bay Area Environmental Institute</a>, NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/ames/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ames Research Center</a> in California's Silicon Valley, and his team have made significant progress in understanding the "moss" on the Sun.</p>



<p>First identified in 1999 by NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/trace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TRACE mission</a>, this structure is found around the center of sunspot groups, where magnetic conditions are strong. It spans two atmospheric layers, the chromosphere and corona, and lies beneath the feathery ropes of plasma known as coronal loops.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunspot-groups-dark-regions-on-the-sun-s-surface">Sunspot groups: Dark regions on the Sun's surface</h2>



<p>Sunspot groups are areas on the Sun's surface that appear darker than their surroundings due to their lower temperatures. These fascinating features have captivated astronomers for centuries and play a crucial role in our understanding of solar activity and its impact on Earth.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-and-structure">Formation and structure</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sunspots</a> form when intense magnetic fields emerge from the Sun's interior and pierce through its surface. These magnetic fields inhibit the upward flow of hot gases from below, causing the affected areas to cool down and appear darker. Sunspots typically develop in pairs or groups, with each spot having opposite magnetic polarities.</p>



<p>Within a sunspot group, the largest and most dominant spot is called the "leader," while the smaller spots are known as "followers." The leader spot usually appears first and is located closer to the Sun's equator, while the followers trail behind and are positioned at higher latitudes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-moss-and-the-sunspot-cycle">Sun moss and the sunspot cycle</h3>



<p>Sunspot groups are not static features; they evolve and change over time. The number and size of sunspot groups on the Sun's surface vary in a periodic manner known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-may-soon-disrupt-earths-power-grids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspot cycle</a>, which lasts approximately 11 years. </p>



<p>During the peak of the cycle, known as the solar maximum, the Sun exhibits a higher number of sunspot groups and increased solar activity. Conversely, during the solar minimum, sunspot groups are less frequent, and the Sun is relatively calm.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-solar-activity">Impact on solar activity</h3>



<p>Sunspot groups are often associated with intense solar activity, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMEs</a>). These events occur when the magnetic fields in and around sunspots become entangled and release a tremendous amount of energy. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-disturbances-throw-nocturnal-birds-off-course/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar flares</a> and CMEs can have significant impacts on Earth, including disrupting satellite communications, affecting power grids, and triggering beautiful auroral displays.</p>



<p>Astronomers monitor sunspot groups using various ground-based and space-based observatories. The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (<a href="https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOHO</a>), a joint mission between <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>, provides continuous observations of the Sun and helps scientists track the development and evolution of sunspot groups.</p>



<p>Ground-based solar telescopes, such as the <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/programs/kitt-peak-national-observatory/mcmath-pierce-solar-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope</a> in Arizona and the <a href="https://www.iac.es/en/observatorios-de-canarias/telescopes-and-experiments/swedish-solar-telescope" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swedish Solar Telescope</a> in La Palma, offer detailed views of sunspot groups and their intricate structures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-moss-heating-enigma">Sun moss heating enigma</h2>



<p>One of the biggest challenges scientists have faced is understanding how the mossy region is connected to the Sun's lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-very-first-time-a-spacecraft-has-touched-the-sun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric layers</a>. </p>



<p>In addition, how is the material there heated from 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit to nearly 1 million degrees Fahrenheit -- a staggering 100 times hotter than the bright surface below? This heating mechanism has been a puzzle for the past quarter of a century.</p>



<p>Thanks to observations from NASA's High Resolution Coronal Imager (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/soundingrockets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hi-C</a>) sounding rocket and the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/iris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IRIS</a>) mission, combined with complex 3D simulations, scientists have gained new insights into the superheating mechanism at play in the moss.</p>



<p>"Thanks to the high-resolution observations and our advanced numerical simulations, we're able to figure out part of this mystery that's stumped us for the past quarter of a century," said Bose. "However, this is just a piece of the puzzle; it doesn't solve the whole problem."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-electrical-currents">Role of electrical currents</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that electrical currents may contribute to heating the moss. Throughout this region, there is a tangle of magnetic field lines, like invisible spaghetti. </p>



<p>This mess of magnetic spaghetti creates electrical currents that can help heat material to a wide range of temperatures, from 10,000 to 1 million degrees Fahrenheit. </p>



<p>The local heating in the moss appears to occur in addition to heat flowing from the hot, multi-million-degree overlying corona.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-understanding-the-sun-s-corona">Implications for understanding the Sun's corona</h2>



<p>The findings, published in the journal <em>Nature Astronom</em>y, can help scientists understand the larger question of why the Sun's entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/total-solar-eclipse-captured-from-one-million-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corona</a> is so much hotter than the surface. However, to fully address how the corona and moss are heated, more observations are needed.</p>



<p>Hi-C is scheduled to launch again this month to capture a solar flare and possibly another moss region together with IRIS. </p>



<p>Scientists and engineers are also working on developing new instruments onboard the future MUlti-slit Solar Explorer (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/muse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MUSE</a>) mission to further investigate this fascinating phenomenon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sun-moss-and-the-future-of-solar-research">Sun moss and the future of solar research</h2>



<p>In summary, as scientists continue to unravel the mysteries of the Sun's atmosphere, the discovery of electrical currents contributing to the superheating of solar moss marks a significant milestone. </p>



<p>This breakthrough, made possible by advanced observations and complex simulations, brings us one step closer to understanding the perplexing heating mechanism of the Sun's corona. </p>



<p>With upcoming missions like Hi-C and MUSE, researchers are poised to delve deeper into the secrets of the solar moss and its role in the larger puzzle of the Sun's atmospheric heating. </p>



<p>As we eagerly await further revelations, this fascinating cosmic garden reminds us that even the most familiar celestial object still holds countless mysteries waiting to be explored.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02241-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a></em>.</p>



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The Sun is covered with moss, though not the kind you’re thinking

Have you ever wondered what secrets lie hidden in the...

Spirobranchus,Giganteus,,Christmas,Tree,Worms,Extended,On,Caribbean,Coral,Reef

<p>Individual behaviors and rhythms in even the simplest marine creatures, like the polychaete worm <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em>, have been captivatingly showcased in a recent study. </p>



<p>Published in the journal <em>PLOS Biology</em>, this research was carried out by an international team from the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (<a href="https://www.awi.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AWI</a>), and various universities.</p>



<p>The findings offer profound implications for our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circadian-rhythms-persist-during-bear-hibernation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological rhythms</a> and their applications in both medicine and ecology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-platynereis-dumerilii"><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em></h2>



<p><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em>, often referred to as a ragworm or clam worm, is a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Platynereis-dumerilii-worms_Alfred-Wegener-Institute_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine polychaete worm</a> found in temperate and tropical coastal waters worldwide. </p>



<p>This worm is particularly interesting to scientists because of its well-defined life cycle and relatively simple nervous system, making it an excellent model organism for biological studies.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics">Key characteristics</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Size and Appearance:</strong> <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> is typically a few centimeters long, with a segmented body and a pair of distinctive, paddle-like parapodia on most segments, which aid in swimming.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Habitat:</strong> These worms thrive in shallow marine environments, often burying themselves in sediments or hiding in crevices during the day and becoming more active at night.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Reproduction:</strong> They have a fascinating reproductive behavior known as "swarming," where mature individuals synchronously release eggs and sperm into the water column, often influenced by the lunar cycle.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-importance">Scientific importance</h3>



<p><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> is widely used in research related to developmental biology, neurobiology, and evolutionary biology. </p>



<p>Studies on this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-teenage-worms-angsty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worms</a> help scientists understand basic biological processes such as circadian and lunar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-moonlight-affects-the-circadian-clocks-of-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhythms</a>, which are applicable to other species, including humans. </p>



<p>This research can have implications for medicine, particularly in understanding body clocks and their effects on health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-platynereis-dumerilii-biological-timing"><em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> biological timing</h2>



<p>Kristin Tessmar-Raible, a biologist at AWI, explains the importance of timing in biology. She states, "Biological timing is crucial across multiple levels, from the ecological interactions between species to cellular biochemical processes."</p>



<p>This study primarily focused on understanding how these worms' internal clocks help them adapt daily. It examined their responses to changing conditions such as temperature, light, and food availability.</p>



<p>The implications are vast, as Sören Häfker, the study's lead author, points out. This is especially true as marine organisms face challenges from human-induced changes such as global warming and light pollution.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spectrum-of-behaviors">A spectrum of behaviors</h2>



<p>During the experiments, researchers observed distinct patterns in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunger-alters-the-behavior-of-worms-and-perhaps-humans-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worms' activity</a>. Some were consistently active at the same time each night, while others showed sporadic activity, akin to "couch potatoes," with many variations in between. </p>



<p>What was particularly striking was the consistency of these patterns over time, suggesting ingrained biological rhythms. </p>



<p>"We were very surprised to see how reproducible the individual behavioral rhythms were," Tessmar-Raible remarks. "This shows us that even worms have tiny, rhythmic personalities, so to speak."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-rhythms-of-platynereis-dumerilii">Genetic rhythms of <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em></h2>



<p>The study went further to compare the genetic activity in the heads of both rhythmic and arrhythmic worms. Results showed that all worms maintained a robust internal clock, regardless of their activity pattern.</p>



<p>This finding suggests a diverse range of survival strategies among the worms. These strategies potentially offer evolutionary advantages in their fluctuating coastal environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-and-medicine">Implications for conservation and medicine</h2>



<p>This diversity not only speaks to the resilience of <em>Platynereis dumerilii</em> but also has broader implications for how we understand the adaptability of all species to environmental changes. </p>



<p>It suggests that individual variability might be a key factor in the survival of species under the pressures of climate change and other anthropogenic impacts.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the study's findings resonate beyond marine biology into human medicine. The concept of individual biological rhythms plays a significant role in chronomedicine, which considers patients' natural rhythms in treatment plans. </p>



<p>Tessmar-Raible elaborates, "That's why such findings are also exciting for fields like chronomedicine," indicating that the variability seen in worms could mirror the human condition, impacting how treatments are tailored for different individuals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



<p>This research not only broadens our understanding of marine life but also reinforces the significance of individual biological rhythms in both ecology and medicine. </p>



<p>As we continue to explore the intricate dance of life's timings, from the smallest worm to human beings, embracing these natural variations could be crucial to future biomedical advances and conservation efforts.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><em><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002572" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS Biology</a></em></em>.</p>



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Even the simplest organisms, like worms, have unique personalities

Individual behaviors and rhythms in even the simplest marine creatures,...

<p>A study led by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has provided a fresh perspective on evolutionary processes, particularly in how species intermingle and evolve. The experts have found compelling evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybridization-evolution-life/">hybridization</a> can lead to the formation of entirely new species, challenging traditional views of evolution as a neatly branching tree.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-heliconius-butterflies-nbsp">Evolution of Heliconius butterflies&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Revisiting a fascinating observation first made by naturalist Henry Walter Bates in 1861 and shared with Charles Darwin, the scientists examined the evolution of the Heliconius <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heliconius-butterflies-have-a-surprising-aptitude-for-learning-and-remembering/">butterflies</a> of the Amazon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bates famously described these butterflies as a peek into nature's workshop for creating new species. Now, the researchers provided direct evidence of this phenomenon by documenting the evolution of a new butterfly species through hybridization.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybridization-and-new-species">Hybridization and new species</h2>



<p>The study focused on Heliconius butterflies, shedding new light on how a hybridization event from 180,000 years ago between <em>Heliconius melpomene</em> and an ancestor of today’s <em>Heliconius pardalinus</em> gave rise to a third species, <em>Heliconius elevatus</em>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This new species is not just a blend of its progenitors but has distinct ecological and physiological traits, such as unique preferences for caterpillar host plants and specific adult characteristics like male sex pheromones, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-wing-colors/">wing color</a> patterns, and mate selection.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybridization-and-evolution">Hybridization and evolution</h2>



<p>“Historically hybridization was thought of as a bad thing that was not particularly important when it came to evolution,” said Neil Rosser, an associate in entomology at the <a href="https://mcz.harvard.edu/">Museum of Comparative Zoology</a> and a former postdoctoral fellow at Harvard. “But what genomic data have shown is that in fact hybridization among species is widespread.”</p>



<p>This discovery not only challenges the traditional concept that species are distinct, non-overlapping units, but also highlights the fluidity with which genetic material is exchanged in nature. “A lot of species are not intact units,” Rosser said. “They're quite leaky, and they’re exchanging genetic material.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-completely-new-lineages-nbsp">Evolution of completely new lineages&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The research also raises important questions about how new species emerge from the intermingling of existing ones. “So the species that are evolving are constantly exchanging genes, and the consequence of this is that it can actually trigger the evolution of completely new lineages,” Rosser explained.</p>



<p>“Normally, species are thought to be reproductively isolated. They can’t produce hybrids that are reproductively fertile,” added co-author James Mallet, a professor of organismic and evolutionary biology at Harvard. Thus, although there is now evidence of hybridization between species, it was still difficult to confirm that this hybridization is, in some way, involved in speciation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-nature-of-species-boundaries-nbsp">Fluid nature of species boundaries&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The implications of this study extend beyond academic circles. Understanding the fluid nature of species boundaries is crucial for conservation efforts, particularly in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-dictates-biodiversity-hotspots/">biodiversity hotspots</a> like the Amazon. It also has potential applications in studying disease vectors, such as mosquitoes that carry malaria, and their inter-species interactions.</p>



<p>This paradigm shift in understanding hybridization and evolution marks a significant advance, suggesting that the interplay of genetic material across species boundaries can play a pivotal role in the emergence of new species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-heliconius-butterflies-nbsp">More about Heliconius butterflies&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Heliconius butterflies, also known as longwing butterflies, are a diverse and colorful group found primarily in tropical regions, particularly in Central and South America. They are notable for their striking patterns and vibrant colors, which serve as a form of defense through mimicry and warning signals. Heliconius butterflies exhibit a variety of interesting behaviors and adaptations:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mullerian-mimicry">Müllerian mimicry</h3>



<p>Heliconius butterflies are famous for their participation in Müllerian mimicry, where multiple species share similar warning coloration to protect against predators, as the colors signal toxicity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-lifespan-of-heliconius-butterflies">Diet and lifespan of Heliconius butterflies </h3>



<p>Unlike most butterflies that sip nectar, Heliconius butterflies also feed on pollen, which is rich in proteins and extends their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-autumns-reduce-the-life-expectancy-of-butterflies/">lifespan</a> significantly, often living several months rather than the usual weeks that most butterflies survive.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-habitat">Reproduction and habitat</h3>



<p>They have unique reproductive behaviors, including the use of pheromones and lekking (males display in groups). They often return to the same spot each night, showing high site fidelity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



<p>While some species are abundant and widespread, others are endangered and face threats from habitat destruction due to logging and agriculture.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-in-ecosystems">Role in ecosystems</h3>



<p>Heliconius butterflies are important pollinators in their ecosystems, helping to maintain the health and diversity of tropical forests.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07263-w"><em>Nature</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Butterflies show that new species can evolve from hybridization

A study led by Harvard University has provided a fresh...

Teddy,Bear,With,Bandages,And,Broken,Hand,On,Wood,Background,copy

<p>Experiencing trauma during childhood can have a lasting impact on muscle health in people of both sexes, according to a recent study.</p>



<p>The research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/support-in-childhood-linked-to-better-heart-health-in-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood</a> trauma can impair the muscle function of people as they age, essentially getting "under the skin" and affecting their well-being in the long term.</p>



<p>The study, led by Kate Duchowny, a scientist at the University of Michigan <a href="https://isr.umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Social Research</a>, examined the skeletal muscle function of older adults in conjunction with surveys about adverse events they had experienced during their childhood. </p>



<p>The findings revealed that individuals who reported one or more adverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adverse-childhood-experiences-lead-to-lifelong-health-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood events</a> had poorer muscle metabolism later in life compared to those who experienced fewer or no adverse events.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-muscle-function-and-childhood-trauma">Examining muscle function and childhood trauma</h2>



<p>The researchers utilized muscle tissue samples from 879 participants over the age of 70 who were part of the Study of Muscle, Mobility and Aging (<a href="https://sommaonline.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SOMMA</a>). </p>



<p>In addition to providing muscle and fat samples, as well as other biospecimens, the participants completed questionnaires, physical and cognitive assessments, and other tests.</p>



<p>The muscle biopsies were analyzed to determine two crucial aspects of muscular function: the production of adenosine triphosphate (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATP</a>) and oxidative phosphorylation, a process that contributes to ATP production. </p>



<p>ATP, produced by organelles called mitochondria within cells, provides the chemical energy necessary for cellular function.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessing-adverse-childhood-experiences">Assessing adverse childhood experiences</h2>



<p>To gather data on adverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-childhood-stress-changes-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood experiences</a>, the researchers used questionnaires that included questions such as:</p>



<ul>
<li>"Did a close family member use drugs or alcohol in a way that caused you to worry?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Did an adult or parent in your household insult you or put you down?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Were you physically abused by a parent or adult in your household?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Did you feel loved, important or special in your family?"</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>"Were either of your parents absent for a portion of your life?"</li>
</ul>



<p>Approximately 45% of the sample reported experiencing one or more adverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-could-triple-the-risk-of-headache-disorders-later-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood events</a>. Duchowny discovered that both males and females who reported these adverse experiences had poorer ATP max production. This indicated they were not producing as much ATP as those who had fewer or no adverse events in their childhood.</p>



<p>"What these results suggest is that these early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/picky-eating-habits-in-childhood-have-lingering-effects-in-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formative childhood</a> experiences have the ability to get under the skin and influence skeletal muscle mitochondria, which is important because mitochondrial function is related to a host of aging-related outcomes," Duchowny emphasized. </p>



<p>"If you have compromised mitochondrial function, that doesn't bode well for a range of health outcomes, including everything from chronic conditions to physical function and disability limitations," she noted.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-muscle-bioenergetics">Analyzing muscle bioenergetics</h2>



<p>Study co-author Anthony Molina, professor of medicine at the <a href="https://www.ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a>, contributed his expertise in muscle bioenergetics to the research. The team examined images of participants' muscles taken during exercise and rest inside an MRI machine. </p>



<p>Using a technique called 31 PMR spectroscopy, they determined the rate of ATP synthesis by observing how quickly the muscle synthesized ATP after being depleted by exercise.</p>



<p>Additionally, the researchers analyzed muscle biopsies from the participants. They separated the fiber bundles that make up the muscle and examined them using high-resolution mitochondrial respirometry. </p>



<p>This technique allowed them to measure the oxygen consumption rate in the muscle fiber bundle and generate a precise readout of muscle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cause-of-fatigue-in-long-covid-patients-has-finally-been-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondrial function</a>.</p>



<p>"You can think about oxygen consumption rate as a way to measure the flow of electrons that's going through the electron transport train, and it's these electrons that generate the membrane potential that drives the synthesis of ATP. It's a really precise way of assessing mitochondrial bioenergetic capacity," Molina explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-childhood-trauma-and-healthy-muscle-aging">Childhood trauma and healthy muscle aging</h2>



<p>Previous studies have demonstrated that these measures of muscle function are closely related to the physical abilities of older adults. </p>



<p>The researchers emphasize that the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-inactivity-during-childhood-linked-to-heart-damage-in-early-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood</a> adverse events remained significant even after controlling for other factors that could potentially impact muscle function, such as age, gender, educational attainment, parental education, body mass index, number of depressive symptoms, smoking status, and physical activity.</p>



<p>"All of my previous studies have been focused on contemporaneous measures: mitochondria and physical function, mitochondria and cognitive function. These studies have shown that these measures are strongly related to our strength, fitness and numerous conditions that impact physical ability," Molina said, highlighting the novelty of the study. </p>



<p>"I've also shown that these measures are related to cognitive ability and dementia. But here's the first time we're looking backwards, at what kinds of things that could lead to those differences in mitochondrial function that we know can drive differences in healthy aging outcomes among older adults," she concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-and-preventing-adverse-childhood-experiences">Addressing and preventing adverse childhood experiences</h2>



<p>In summary, this important study unveils the long-lasting impact of childhood trauma on physical health, particularly muscle function, in later life. </p>



<p>By examining the muscle tissue of older adults and analyzing their experiences of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kindergarten-conduct-childhood-behavioral-problems-will-cost-society-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">childhood adversity</a>, the study establishes a clear link between early life experiences and the cellular processes that influence healthy aging. </p>



<p>The findings emphasize the critical importance of addressing and preventing adverse childhood experiences to promote better health outcomes in older age. </p>



<p>This research provides new pathways for understanding the complex interplay between early life events and the biological mechanisms that shape our well-being throughout life, ultimately paving the way for interventions that can mitigate the long-term effects of childhood trauma and foster healthier aging for all.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.adj6411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Childhood trauma can cause muscle decline in adult life

Experiencing trauma during childhood can have a lasting impact on...

<p>Think a stroll through the neighborhood park does wonders for your mood? Sure, any kind of nature is better for physical and mental health than being stuck indoors, but according to new research, it's the <em>type</em> of natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-time-machine-reveals-a-century-of-biological-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> that makes a huge difference in how your brain feels afterward. </p>



<p>The scientists found that spending time with a diverse range of trees, plants, water features, and wildlife can make us feel significantly happier and calmer than manicured green spaces.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-mind">Urban mind</h2>



<p>A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King's College London</a> tackled this question with the help of nearly 2,000 people and a cool smartphone app called Urban Mind. </p>



<p>In the study, participants logged their surroundings and their mental state several times a day for two weeks, making this the first study to look at "in-the-moment" reactions to nature.</p>



<p>Ryan Hammoud, lead author of the study, sums up the importance: "To our knowledge, this is the first study examining the mental health impact of everyday encounters with different levels of natural diversity in real-life contexts. Our results highlight that by protecting and promoting natural diversity we can maximize the benefits of nature for mental well-being."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-biodiversity-and-mental-well-being">Natural biodiversity and mental well-being</h2>



<p>The researchers didn't simply compare time spent in nature versus indoors. Instead, they carefully analyzed how the <em>variety</em> of natural elements influenced people's well-being. Here's how they categorized this diversity:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Trees:</strong> This included a wide range of species, from tall and sturdy oaks to slender, swaying palms – each with its own unique shape and texture.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Plants:</strong> Everything from soft grasses and vibrant flowers to leafy bushes and shrubs filled the spaces. This variety provided different colors, scents, and textures for the participants to experience.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Birds:</strong> The study observed common birds like sparrows and pigeons, but also the excitement of spotting a less frequent visitor like a hawk. The variety in their size, color, and calls likely enhanced the experience.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Water:</strong> Natural bodies of water like lakes, ponds, streams, and rivers were included as well as smaller water features like fountains. These offer unique visual appeal and sounds.</li>
</ul>



<p>Surprisingly, the scientists discovered a clear pattern: the more biodiverse a person's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-walking-quantifiably-improves-brain-health-and-functioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural surroundings</a> -- meaning they included a higher number of these different elements -- the more positive and relaxed that person felt mentally.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cities-with-natural-biodiversity-boost-mental-health">Cities with natural biodiversity boost mental health</h2>



<p>"In the context of climate change, we are witnessing a rapid decline in biodiversity in the UK as well as globally," explains senior author Andrea Mechelli. </p>



<p>"Our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-patterns-of-biodiversity-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> is critical not only for the health of our natural environments but also for the mental well-being of the people who live in these environments," she continued.</p>



<p>This research sends a clear message to city planners and officials around the world. If you aim to genuinely enhance the mental health of your residents, you must not overlook the importance of biodiversity. Emphasizing diverse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-experiences-alter-time-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural environments</a> is crucial for fostering healthier urban living.</p>



<p>For too long, cities might think they've addressed mental health needs by adding a few parks or greenbelts. However, this research shows that simply having&nbsp;<em>some</em>&nbsp;nature isn't enough. It's the rich variety within those spaces that makes the real difference.</p>



<p>Urban planning needs to move away from the idea of nature as decoration or an afterthought. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodiversity</a> needs to become a central design principle, where every new development is carefully assessed for how it contributes to – or detracts from – the existing natural ecosystem.</p>



<p>Investing in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-could-promote-the-spread-of-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiverse</a> urban environments isn't just about making people feel good in the moment. Research suggests that exposure to nature can have lasting positive effects on mental health, reducing stress, and potentially lowering the risk of conditions like depression and anxiety.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-embracing-nature-s-biodiversity-for-better-mental-health">Embracing nature's biodiversity for better mental health</h2>



<p>Okay, so what does this mean for the average person?</p>



<p>"In practice, this means moving away from heavily curated monocultural pockets and parks of mown grass, which are typically associated with low biodiversity, towards spaces which mirror the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-energy-biodiversity-wildlife-habitats-delicate-balancing-act/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> of natural ecosystems. By showing how natural diversity boosts our mental wellbeing, we provide a compelling basis for how to create greener and healthier urban spaces,” Hammoud explained.</p>



<p>It's time to rethink what a "nature outing" means. Instead of that same old park with manicured grass and a handful of predictable trees, seek out wilder, more diverse places. </p>



<p>Here are a few ideas to start:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explore-a-local-forest-preserve">Explore a local forest preserve</h3>



<p>Lose yourself among the trails of a protected natural area. Pay attention to the variety of plant life around you. Notice the different shapes of leaves, textures of bark, and any wildflowers sprouting between tree roots. </p>



<p>Also, keep an eye out for signs of animal life. Look for tiny insects, animal tracks in the mud, and listen for the calls of birds echoing through the trees.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-find-a-rambling-garden">Find a rambling garden</h3>



<p>Many cities have community gardens or arboretums that intentionally cultivate a wide range of plants. </p>



<p>These places provide a feast for the senses, showcasing different colors, textures, and scents. Plus, they create an ideal home for butterflies, bees, and other fascinating insects.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-walk-along-a-river-or-lake">Walk along a river or lake</h3>



<p>Opt for shorelines that haven't been overly landscaped. Look for natural biodiversity like fallen logs, reeds, and a variety of rocks near the water's edge. </p>



<p>You might spot unique birds like herons, see turtles basking in the sun, or even discover interesting frogs or fish if you peer into the water.</p>



<p>After all, nature at its most vibrant and diverse offers a richer, more engaging experience than perfectly manicured lawns and predictable plantings.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-55940-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a></em>.</p>



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Areas with natural biodiversity have greater mental health impact

Think a stroll through the neighborhood park does wonders for...

<p>In the intricate world of human vision, color perception remains one of the most fascinating puzzles. Experts at the <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> have recently made a significant breakthrough in this area, which might help explain some longstanding mysteries. </p>



<p>The study explores the potential role of rare retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in understanding how our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eyes-windows-soul/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eyes</a> perceive different colors and interpret the world. This offers new insights into this complex process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-cells-and-color-perception">Eye cells and color perception </h2>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/experts-give-human-eyes-new-life-after-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human eye</a> uses three types of cone photoreceptors, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light: short, medium, or long. These cones transmit signals through retinal ganglion cells to the central nervous system, forming the basis of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colorful-primates-oddly-enough-dont-have-great-color-vision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color vision</a>. </p>



<p>There are inconsistencies between how our eyes detect colors and how we perceive them. This discrepancy suggests that our understanding of color vision might be incomplete. To address this, researchers have proposed the existence of non-cardinal RGCs. </p>



<p>These cells differ from the traditional pathways of color detection. David Williams, the William G. Allyn Professor of Medical Optics, first introduced this theory in the 1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-cells-in-the-eye-and-color-vision">Key cells in the eye and color vision</h2>



<p>Sara Patterson, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.cvs.rochester.edu/#gsc.tab=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Visual Science</a>, recently led a study that successfully identified these elusive non-cardinal RGCs in the fovea.</p>



<p>This significant discovery could be crucial for understanding complex color perception. It sheds light on how humans perceive intricate blends of colors such as red, green, blue, and yellow. </p>



<p>The non-cardinal RGCs diverge from traditional color detection pathways, suggesting a more complex system at play within our vision.</p>



<p>Patterson's findings open up potential avenues for exploring how our eye cells translate the physical world into the vivid colors we experience, deepening our grasp of visual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/">processing</a>.</p>



<p>Patterson shared her excitement about the findings. She stated: "We don’t really know anything for certain yet about these cells other than that they exist. There’s so much more that we have to learn about how their response properties operate, but they’re a compelling option as a missing link in how our retina processes color."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptive-optics">Adaptive optics</h2>



<p>Adaptive optics, a technology initially developed for astronomy to reduce image blur in telescopes, enabled the breakthrough.</p>



<p>Subsequently, this technology was adapted in the 1990s by Williams and his colleagues to study the human eye. It involves a deformable mirror that corrects light distortion. This allows researchers to bypass the eye's natural aberrations and capture clear images of individual photoreceptor cells.</p>



<p>“The optics of the eye’s lens are imperfect and really reduce the amount of resolution you can get with an ophthalmoscope,” explained Patterson. “Adaptive optics detects and corrects for these aberrations and gives us a crystal-clear look into the eye. This gives us unprecedented access to the retinal ganglion cells, which are the sole source of visual information to the brain.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vision-loss-treatments">Vision loss treatments</h2>



<p>This refined view not only deepens our understanding of how the retina functions but could also pave the way for advanced treatments for vision loss. </p>



<p>Patterson elaborated on the broader implications of their research: "Humans have more than 20 ganglion cells and our models of human vision are only based on three. There’s so much going on in the retina that we don’t know about." </p>



<p>This is one of the rare areas where engineering has totally outpaced visual basic science. People are out there with retinal prosthetics in their eyes right now, but if we knew what all those cells do, we could actually have retinal prosthetics drive ganglion cells in accordance with their actual functional roles.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-frontier-in-visual-science">The next frontier in visual science</h2>



<p>The research represents the beginning of what promises to be an exciting journey into the depths of visual science. </p>



<p>Supported by funding from the National Institutes of Health, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, and Research to Prevent Blindness, the experts will continue their work. The researchers plan to further explore the newly discovered eye cells and their roles in our color perception.</p>



<p>As this research unfolds, it has the potential to revolutionize treatments for those with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-linked-to-vision-impairment/">impaired vision</a>, truly showcasing the power of merging advanced technology with biological science.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><em><a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2024/03/27/JNEUROSCI.1738-23.2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JNeurosci</a></em></em>.</p>



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Rare retinal cells explain complex color perception

In the intricate world of human vision, color perception remains...

<p>In 2009, countries worldwide gathered in Copenhagen with promises to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that fuel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> change. But a recent study paints a disappointing picture of progress: a lot of pledges, not a lot of follow-through. Did many countries drop the ball on their climate commitments? </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-copenhagen-summit-2009-climate-goals">Copenhagen summit 2009 climate goals</h2>



<p>The Copenhagen Summit in 2009, formally known as the 15th session of the Conference of the Parties (<a href="https://www.unep.org/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COP15</a>) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (<a href="https://unfccc.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNFCCC</a>), was a critical event with high expectations for advancing global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-emissions-reduction-20-percent-possible-only-2-percent-economic-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> policy. </p>



<p>The summit brought together leaders and delegates from around the world with the aim of forging a comprehensive and legally binding agreement to significantly reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Here’s a more detailed look at the key goals and outcomes of the summit:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legally-binding-agreement">Legally binding agreement</h3>



<p>The primary objective was to create a successor to the <a href="https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto Protocol</a>, which was set to expire in 2012. The hope was to establish a robust, legally binding international treaty that would commit all participating nations, including major emitters like the United States and China, to specific emission reduction targets.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limit-global-warming">Limit global warming</h3>



<p>The summit aimed to secure commitments sufficient to limit global warming to a maximum of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. This threshold is considered critical to preventing the most catastrophic impacts of climate change.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-support-for-developing-nations">Financial support for developing nations</h3>



<p>Developing countries are often the most affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-arent-u-s-climate-policies-effective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> change while being the least equipped to deal with its impacts. A significant goal of the Copenhagen Summit was to establish a financial framework that would support these nations in adapting to climate impacts and transitioning to cleaner energy sources. This included the proposal to create a "Green Climate Fund" to channel this aid.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transparency-and-verification">Transparency and verification</h3>



<p>A mechanism for monitoring, reporting, and verifying (MRV) the emissions of participating countries was a critical aspect of the negotiations. Ensuring transparency in how countries report their emissions and progress toward targets is essential for the credibility and effectiveness of any agreement.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Criticism and impact</h3>



<p>The Copenhagen Summit was widely regarded as a disappointment and a missed opportunity due to its failure to produce a binding treaty. The voluntary nature of the Accord meant that it had limited impact on actual emission reductions. </p>



<p>However, the summit did serve to highlight the complexities of international <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/formal-agreement-needed-to-define-the-current-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> negotiations and set the stage for future discussions and agreements, such as the Paris Agreement in 2015, which built upon the groundwork laid in Copenhagen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-copenhagen-climate-promise-vs-reality">The Copenhagen climate promise vs. reality</h2>



<p>Researchers from University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>) meticulously compared climate pledges from over 30 countries to the actual numbers. Here's the takeaway:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-success">Success </h3>



<p>15 countries successfully achieved the emission reductions they pledged to make. This means they implemented changes to their industries and energy sources, resulting in a measurable decrease in their carbon pollution.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-failed">Failed</h3>



<p>12 countries were unable to meet their promised emission goals. This indicates that despite their commitments, they were unable to make sufficient changes to reduce their carbon pollution levels as intended.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stuck-in-the-middle">Stuck in the middle</h3>



<p>Seven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-every-nations-contribution-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">countries</a> made some progress in reducing their emissions, but not enough to fully meet their pledged targets. Additionally, their progress was partly achieved by shifting their pollution elsewhere, rather than making significant reductions within their own borders. </p>



<p>This means they may have imported more goods manufactured in countries with less strict environmental regulations, thus reducing their own emissions on paper while still contributing to global carbon pollution.</p>



<p>"Our concern is that the countries that struggled to reach their commitments... will likely encounter even more substantial difficulties reducing emissions even further" says lead researcher Professor Jing Meng.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-copenhagen-climate-goals">Significance of Copenhagen climate goals</h2>



<p>If you're wondering why all this matters, here are the main reasons:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-clock-is-ticking">The clock is ticking</h3>



<p>When we talk about uncontrolled emissions, we mean releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere at an unsustainable rate. This directly contributes to a warming planet, which has serious consequences:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Rising temperatures:</strong> Global average temperatures are increasing, leading to more extreme heat events that are harmful to human health, agriculture, and ecosystems.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Melting ice:</strong> Warming temperatures cause glaciers and ice sheets to melt, leading to rising sea levels that threaten coastal communities and displace populations.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Extreme weather:</strong> Climate change disrupts weather patterns, leading to more frequent and severe storms, droughts, wildfires, and other disasters.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accountability-is-key">Accountability is key</h3>



<p>We can't address the climate crisis if we don't know where we're succeeding and where we need more effort. Here's why tracking progress is so important:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Identifying success stories:</strong> We need to learn from countries that are effectively reducing emissions so we can replicate effective strategies around the world.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li><strong>Highlighting areas for improvement:</strong> Understanding which countries aren't meeting their targets helps us focus resources, offer support, and find solutions to overcome those challenges.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-copenhagen-climate-successes-and-failures-matter">Why Copenhagen climate successes and failures matter</h2>



<p>It's important to understand the reasons behind both the successes and failures of different countries. Countries that achieved their goals likely implemented effective policies, invested in clean technology, or made positive changes to their industries. Understanding these strategies can help other countries learn and adapt them to their own circumstances.</p>



<p>Moreover, identifying why some countries struggled reveals specific challenges they face. This allows for focused support, collaboration, and development of solutions tailored to their needs.</p>



<p>Some Eastern European countries successfully met their emission reduction goals in part due to a unique historical situation. After the fall of the Soviet Union, they were left with outdated and highly polluting industries from the previous era. Modernizing these industries naturally led to significant reductions in emissions.</p>



<p>Countries focused on economic growth and expanding their industries often face a difficult challenge. They need increasing amounts of energy to support their development, but this can lead to higher emissions. </p>



<p>Finding ways to balance economic growth with sustainable energy solutions is crucial, particularly for countries whose populations are increasing rapidly.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-leakage">Carbon leakage</h2>



<p>Remember those countries 'stuck in the middle'? They found a loophole called "carbon leakage" or "carbon transfer". </p>



<p>Imagine a country passes strict environmental regulations, making it more expensive for their factories to produce certain goods. To save costs, companies might move production to countries with less strict environmental rules. The result is that the original country lowers its own emissions, but the pollution simply happens elsewhere.</p>



<p>On paper, the country with strict regulations appears to have made progress in reducing emissions. However, they haven't actually reduced global emissions. They've merely shifted where the pollution occurs. This makes it difficult to track true progress in fighting climate change.</p>



<p>Carbon leakage highlights the interconnected nature of the world economy and the climate crisis. Solutions require international cooperation, not just individual countries working in isolation.</p>



<p>We often focus on emissions from production. But, carbon leakage shows the importance of considering the environmental impact of the goods we consume, even if those goods are made far away.</p>



<p>This is where things get tricky. As Professor Dabo Guan explains, "It's important to be able to completely track carbon emissions, even when they're offshored".</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-copenhagen-2009-climate-goals-significance">Copenhagen 2009 climate goals significance</h2>



<p>While the specific goals from the 2009 Copenhagen Summit are now outdated, this study serves as a crucial reminder of several things:</p>



<ul>
<li>While the 2009 pledges weren't met by all countries, they provided a starting point. It demonstrated that nations are willing to make commitments, even if those initial commitments weren't ambitious enough.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Progress in combating climate change often happens incrementally. The Paris Agreement builds upon those earlier pledges with stronger goals, and future climate agreements will likely continue the trend.</li>
</ul>



<p>This study highlights that we can only create effective solutions if we have an accurate picture of both our successes and failures regarding emissions.</p>



<p>Using standardized methods for tracking emissions across countries provides a fair and comparable way to measure progress for everyone.</p>



<p>Moreover, countries with advanced economies often have the technology and resources to transition to cleaner industries more easily. They have a responsibility to support less wealthy nations, sharing technology and offering financial assistance.</p>



<p>Climate change is a global threat. Even if developed nations make strong progress, everyone will suffer the consequences if developing nations cannot also reduce their emissions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-results-of-2009-copenhagen-climate-goals">Results of 2009 Copenhagen climate goals</h2>



<p>Curious about which countries aced the test and which need remedial climate action? Here's the breakdown:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-least-successful">Least successful</h3>



<p>Australia, Austria, Canada, Cyprus, Ireland, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, and Switzerland. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halfway-group">Halfway group </h3>



<p>Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Luxembourg, Malta, and Poland. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winners">Winners</h3>



<p>Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-01977-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Most nations still haven't met 2009 Copenhagen climate pledges

In 2009, countries worldwide gathered in Copenhagen with promises to...

<p>For many, watching sports is more than just a pastime -- it's a source of joy and relaxation that extends beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watching-live-sporting-events-increases-wellbeing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrill of the game</a>. </p>



<p>Recent research reveals that the act of watching sports not only entertains but also fosters a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sports-fan-or-fanatic-study-reveals-the-brain-activity-behind-fanaticism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of community</a> and belonging. </p>



<p>This can significantly boost an individual's well-being and, by extension, benefit society at large. Additionally, this includes enhancements to health and productivity and even reductions in crime rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-watching-sports-and-well-being">Link between watching sports and well-being</h2>



<p>Despite these widely acknowledged benefits, the evidence linking sports viewing to well-being remains largely anecdotal. Moreover, scientific data has not robustly supported it.</p>



<p>To address this gap, Associate Professor Shintaro Sato from Waseda University's <a href="https://www.waseda.jp/fsps/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Faculty of Sport Sciences</a> initiated a pioneering study. He collaborated with Assistant Professor Keita Kinoshita from <a href="https://www.ntu.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanyang Technological University</a> and Dr. Kento Nakagawa from Waseda University's <a href="https://www.waseda.jp/fhum/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Faculty of Human Sciences</a>.</p>



<p>Their research, published on March 22, 2024, in the <em>Sports Management Review</em>, aimed to clarify this relationship through a comprehensive approach.</p>



<p>"A significant challenge in well-being research is the subjective nature of measurement procedures, which can lead to biased findings. Therefore, our studies focused on both subjective and objective measures of well-being," explains Professor Sato. </p>



<p>By integrating secondary data analysis, self-reports, and neuroimaging measures, the team sought to explore the connection between sports viewing and well-being. Their focus was on understanding how these activities affect the general population.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-joy-of-the-game">Joy of the game</h2>



<p>The research consisted of three key studies. Firstly, the team analyzed large-scale data concerning 20,000 Japanese residents, confirming a correlation between regular sports viewing and increased well-being. </p>



<p>However, this study's scope was limited in providing deeper insights into why and how watching sports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-who-play-team-sports-have-fewer-mental-health-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts well-being</a>.</p>



<p>In the second study, an online survey involving 208 participants examined whether the type of sport viewed affected well-being. Participants watched various sports videos, and their well-being was assessed before and after. </p>



<p>The results indicated that popular sports like baseball had a more substantial effect on enhancing well-being. In contrast, less popular sports such as golf had a lesser impact.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-sports-and-the-mind-body-connection">Watching sports and the mind-body connection</h2>



<p>The most groundbreaking part of their research was the third study, which used neuroimaging techniques to observe changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/contact-sports-impact-young-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain activi</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/contact-sports-impact-young-brains/">ty</a> after participants watched sports clips. </p>



<p>Using multimodal MRI scans, the study revealed that watching sports activated the brain's reward circuits. These circuits are linked to feelings of happiness and pleasure.</p>



<p>Moreover, structural image analysis showed that frequent sports viewers had greater gray matter volume in areas associated with these reward circuits. This suggests that regular viewing could lead to long-term changes in brain structures.</p>



<p>"Both subjective and objective measures of well-being were found to be positively influenced by engaging in sports viewing. By inducing structural changes in the brain's reward system over time, it fosters long-term benefits for individuals," Professor Sato explained. </p>



<p>"For those seeking to enhance their overall well-being, regularly watching sports, particularly popular ones such as baseball or soccer, can serve as an effective remedy," Sato concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-sports-management-and-public-health">Implications for sports management and public health</h2>



<p>This study highlights the personal advantages of watching sports and significantly enriches the academic field of sports management. </p>



<p>Traditionally, sports management literature has concentrated on the behaviors and demographics of specific sports fans. </p>



<p>However, Sato and his team extended their focus to the general population, examining how sports viewing affects a broader audience's mental and social well-being.</p>



<p>By establishing a clear link between regular sports viewing and enhanced well-being, the research proposes that sports can be more than just entertainment; they can play a crucial role in improving public health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-sports-as-public-policy">Watching sports as public policy</h2>



<p>The findings suggest that encouraging the public to engage more with sports broadcasting could be a strategic move for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health policymakers</a>. This approach could leverage the widespread appeal and accessibility of sports to address public health objectives effectively.</p>



<p>Such implications are pivotal for sports management professionals and public health policymakers alike. For sports managers, understanding the broader impact of sports viewing can guide marketing and engagement strategies to attract a wider audience. </p>



<p>For public health officials, promoting sports viewing could be integrated into programs aiming to boost community health and cohesion, suggesting a novel area for policy development and community engagement initiatives.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14413523.2024.2329831" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sport Management Review</a></em>.</p>



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Watching sports has a very positive impact on mental and physical health

For many, watching sports is more than just a pastime...

<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-advice-leave-bats-alone-if-we-want-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bats</a> may be mysterious creatures of the night, but they're also amazing natural pest controllers with some impressive appetites. This is the conclusion of a new study focusing on bats living on the beautiful island of Madeira, Portugal. </p>



<p>The study highlights just how awesome these flying mammals are, and the amazing benefits they quietly provide us.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secret-menu-of-island-bats">The secret menu of island bats</h2>



<p>Scientists took a close look – a really close look – at what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-diets-offer-clues-on-how-to-protect-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> on Madeira are eating. They wanted to understand the role these amazing creatures play on the island. To do this, they analyzed the DNA of one very specific bat "byproduct" – droppings.</p>



<p>The study examined the dietary habits of three <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-feast-on-migrating-insects-in-the-pyrenees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> species inhabiting the island of Madeira: the Madeira Pipistrelle, the Madeira Lesser Noctule, and the Grey Long-eared Bat. </p>



<p>Through detailed analysis, researchers discovered a remarkable variety in the bats' diets, revealing a broad spectrum of prey that includes several types of insects.</p>



<p>Each bat species showed a preference for different insect groups, enriching our understanding of their ecological roles. For instance, the Madeira Pipistrelle was found to primarily consume moths and flies, which are abundant at night. </p>



<p>The Madeira Lesser Noctule, on the other hand, favored a diet rich in beetles and spiders, indicating its role in managing populations of these particular pests. </p>



<p>The Grey Long-eared Bat displayed the most diverse diet, feeding on an assortment of insects from butterflies to moths, showcasing its adaptability to available food sources.</p>



<p>This diversity is significant as it underscores the bats' ability to target a wide range of agricultural and forestry pests, thereby naturally controlling these populations. </p>



<p>The presence of such varied diets among the bats also highlights the complexity of their roles within the ecosystem, where they help maintain the balance of insect species and contribute to the overall health of their habitat.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-and-pests">Bats and pests</h2>



<p>The most significant finding? A whopping 40% of the insects the bats ate were agricultural or forest pests. These are bugs that seriously damage crops or trees, and that's where bats come in as farmers' silent partners.</p>



<p>For example, bananas are extremely important to the economy of Madeira. The banana moth poses a significant risk to this crop, directly impacting the livelihood of farmers on the island. Fortunately, bats are natural predators of the banana moth, helping to control populations of this destructive insect.</p>



<p>Bats don't just protect bananas; they target other serious agricultural pests as well. One such pest is the turnip moth, known for causing widespread damage to vegetables and cereal crops. Another problem insect consumed by bats is the golden twin-spot moth, which significantly damages crops grown in greenhouses.</p>



<p>In addition to controlling agricultural pests, bats even help protect human health. The study found they consume <em>Psychoda albipennis</em>. This insect is a parasite that can cause myiasis, a condition with unpleasant symptoms like abdominal pain and diarrhea. </p>



<p>By eating this and other pests, bats provide an essential service to both farmers and the broader community.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-and-their-smart-detection">Bats and their smart detection</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bats</a> are incredibly difficult to study in the wild. Their echolocation abilities give them a type of sonar that allows them to expertly navigate their environment. This means they can easily detect and avoid obstacles like the nets researchers traditionally use to capture them for study.</p>



<p>However, the scientists studying bats in Madeira didn't give up. They carefully observed the bats' behavior and discovered a key moment of vulnerability: bats need to drink water. </p>



<p>By focusing on water sources and waiting patiently, the researchers were able to safely and temporarily capture bats for their research. This dedication allowed them to obtain the important information they needed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-friendly-farming-to-control-pests">Bat-friendly farming to control pests</h2>



<p>Farming is crucial for providing food, but it can sometimes lead to habitat loss or conflict with wildlife. This study offers an exciting alternative approach. Its findings indicate that a mutually beneficial relationship can exist between farmers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-secrets-how-bat-teeth-adapted-to-their-diverse-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a>.</p>



<p>By strategically placing bat boxes, farmers provide shelter for bats, attracting them to the area. This benefits bats by giving them safe places to roost. At the same time, farmers gain a powerful natural ally in pest control, as bats consume large quantities of insects that damage crops.</p>



<p>This study demonstrates that this concept is not just theoretical. Researchers actively installed bat boxes in protected areas near farms and observed positive results. Endangered Madeiran Pipistrelles were found using the boxes, showing that this strategy can promote bat populations while also benefiting the agricultural community.</p>



<p>"An increasing number of farmers are using bat boxes to attract insectivorous bats to their fields. During our study, we experimented by placing some in the protected area where we were working, and to our excitement, some of these are now inhabited by the vulnerable Madeiran Pipistrelles. This suggests that deploying simple artificial bat roosts might lead to win-win outcomes for both conservation and local farmers," explained study co-author <a href="https://www.biology.ox.ac.uk/people/ricardo-rocha">Associate Professor Ricardo Rocha</a> from the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-perceptions">Changing Perceptions</h2>



<p>Bats tend to get a bad reputation, often seen as spooky or creepy. However, studies like this illuminate their true nature. Turns out, while many of us are sleeping, bats are out there, doing their part to keep ecosystems (and farms) healthy. </p>



<p>They're a hidden force for good, and maybe a source of inspiration for pest control solutions that work with nature rather than against it. This study gives us a glimpse into the world of Madeira's insect-munching bats, but the fact is, bats all over the planet provide similar services in their own ecosystems. </p>



<p>The study is published in the <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyae033" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Mammalogy</a></em>.</p>



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Bats assist farmers by consuming harmful pests

Bats may be mysterious creatures of the night, but they're...

<p>The elegant white stork, known for its long legs and large wings, offers one of the most spectacular views of animal migration. These birds, which travel from Europe to Africa each autumn and return in the spring, form visible flocks that herald the change of seasons. </p>



<p>A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/987894/animal-behavior" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> in Konstanz, Germany, has shed light on why these storks migrate in such groups: they seem to actively choose to fly together. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storks-prefer-routes-frequented-by-their-peers">Storks prefer routes frequented by their peers</h2>



<p>By tracking 158 storks, the experts found the first concrete evidence of this social behavior during migration, revealing that storks prefer routes frequented by their peers, especially when they are young.</p>



<p>“It’s exciting to see the first clues that storks are actually choosing to fly with others,” said lead author Hester Brønnvik, a doctoral student at Max Planck. “But as they gain migration experience, they also gain the independence to ignore social influences.”</p>



<p>“We can all see that storks fly in flocks, but this observation alone never told us whether or not storks are choosing the routes they take in order to migrate with others,” she added. “It could be that storks are selecting their routes based on other criteria - like good winds or a particular destination - that happen to put them in the same place.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stork-motivation-for-migration-route-selection-nbsp">Stork motivation for migration route selection&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To explore the storks' motivations for route selection, the team utilized a decade’s worth of precise GPS tracking data from storks in southern Germany. This data covered the full migratory journeys of these birds, from inexperienced juveniles to seasoned adults.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We could see the complete <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildebeest-suffer-genetically-from-blocked-migration-routes/">migrations</a> that these storks took every year for their entire lives, from a three-month-old juvenile on its first migration to a highly experienced nine-year old taking one of its last flights,” Brønnvik explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-dynamics-of-stork-migration-nbsp">Social dynamics of stork migration&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To better understand the social dynamics characterizing the 158 storks during their migrations, the experts used data from an extended sample of 400 storks. This larger dataset helped them estimate the probable locations of flocks within the migration landscape. </p>



<p>“This doesn’t tell us definitively whether storks flew with others,” Brønnvik said. “Rather, it gives us a probability, telling us whether a stork’s route would likely put it in the path of other storks.” </p>



<p>With these estimates, the researchers then employed a statistical model to analyze the chosen migration paths of the storks compared to alternative routes that were also available but not taken. This approach allowed the team to infer the reasons behind the storks' route selections, shedding light on their migratory behavior. “The model basically asked them why they chose the route that they did,” Brønnvik explained.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-storks-are-more-willing-to-fly-solo">Older storks are more willing to fly solo</h2>



<p>The analysis revealed that storks of all ages preferred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/storks-are-attracted-to-the-smell-of-freshly-mowed-grass/">routes</a> with higher concentrations of other storks, though older, more experienced birds showed a decreased preference for such routes, indicating a greater willingness to fly solo if the conditions were favorable.</p>



<p>According to senior author Andrea Flack, the leader of the Collective Migration group at Max Planck, younger storks might rely more on the flock for survival strategies, such as locating thermals - updrafts essential for flight - or finding food during stops.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Following others could help you find these essential resources faster,” she said. However, as storks become more experienced, they rely less on this group information, potentially allowing them to better time their migrations for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-snowstorms-impact-breeding-success-of-petrels/">breeding</a> and other individual needs.</p>



<p>These findings&nbsp; provide insight into the decision-making processes of migrating storks while highlighting the significance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-use-collective-behavior-to-reduce-energy-costs/">collective behavior</a> in these decisions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Ultimately, we want to know how the decisions of migrating storks are affected by those around them. Our study provides the first clue of just how important the collective is to those decisions,” Flack concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-storks">More about storks</h2>



<p>Storks are quite fascinating birds, known not only for their distinctive appearance but also for their interesting behaviors and roles in various cultures.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-patterns-nbsp">Migration patterns&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Many stork species are migratory, with some species, like the white stork, known for their impressive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dads-lead-young-birds-on-their-first-migration/">migratory journeys</a>. They travel thousands of miles between Europe and Africa, crossing the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara Desert.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symbolism-and-folklore">Symbolism and folklore</h3>



<p>Storks are famous in folklore, particularly in European cultures, where they are often associated with delivering babies. This myth possibly stems from their habit of nesting on rooftops and in chimneys, making them a close presence in human lives.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-hunting">Diet and hunting</h3>



<p>Storks have a varied diet that includes insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, and even other birds. They are excellent hunters, using their long beaks to snatch up prey.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nesting-habits">Nesting habits</h3>



<p>Storks are known for building large nests, which they often use for many years. Some nests have been continuously inhabited by successive stork generations for over a century. These nests can be massive, sometimes as large as a small car.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



<p>Unlike many birds, storks are mostly silent since they lack the typical vocal organs to produce songs. Instead, they communicate through bill-clattering, which involves rapidly snapping their bills to make a loud noise that can be heard over long distances.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longevity-and-fidelity">Longevity and fidelity</h3>



<p>Storks can live for 20 to 30 years in the wild. They are also known for their strong pair bonds; many species of storks mate for life, returning to the same partner and nest each breeding season.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-success">Conservation success</h3>



<p>The white stork, in particular, has been a conservation success story in many parts of Europe, where populations have rebounded thanks to efforts to preserve their habitats and reduce hunting.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-adaptations">Physical adaptations</h3>



<p>Storks are equipped with long legs and necks, which help them wade through shallow waters while looking for food. Their legs have adaptations that allow them to shut off blood flow to prevent heat loss while standing in cold water.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.03.052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Current Biology</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Younger storks choose migration routes that are social hotspots

The elegant white stork, known for its long legs and...

<p>We all know that when it comes to life on Earth, green is where it's at. Plants, with their chlorophyll, form the basis of most ecosystems. But what if, in our grand search for life beyond Earth, we've been looking for the wrong colors? Scientists at Cornell University have a fascinating new theory – what if many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-17-exoplanets-that-have-oceans-and-possibly-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alien worlds</a> harbor purple bacteria?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-alien-hunting-using-purple-bacteria">New alien hunting using purple bacteria</h2>



<p>When we imagine a planet orbiting another star that could potentially support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-on-europa-co2-discovery-by-webb-increases-the-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>, our minds naturally jump to what we know best – Earth. We picture swirling blue oceans, vast green forests, and even continents with recognizable shapes. </p>



<p>It's a comforting image, a familiar template for what life-bearing planets might look like out there in the cosmos. However, this Earth-centric view might be limiting our search for extraterrestrial life. </p>



<p>The research from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> suggests that a significant portion of planets capable of supporting life might not resemble our blue and green home at all. Instead, they could be dominated by a surprising organism: purple bacteria.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purple-photosynthesis-and-alien-life">Purple photosynthesis and alien life</h2>



<p>Purple bacteria are a fascinating group of organisms with some key differences from the plant life we're familiar with. </p>



<p>Unlike plants, which use visible light and chlorophyll for photosynthesis, purple bacteria utilize a different type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chlorophyll</a> that absorbs infrared light, a type of light invisible to the human eye. </p>



<p>This allows them to capture energy for food production in environments where sunlight might be limited or have a different wavelength spectrum.</p>



<p>Another unique feature of purple bacteria is that they don't produce oxygen as a byproduct of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. This sets them apart from plants and some other bacteria on Earth. </p>



<p>Interestingly, these bacteria might have been the dominant photosynthetic lifeforms on our own planet before green plants took center stage.</p>



<p>Finally, purple bacteria seem particularly well-suited for colonizing planets orbiting cool red dwarf stars. These stars, which are the most common type in our galaxy, emit a significant amount of infrared radiation. This makes them ideal candidates for harboring planets where purple bacteria could thrive.</p>



<p>"'Purple bacteria can thrive under a wide range of conditions, making it one of the primary contenders for life that could dominate a variety of worlds,'" explains Lígia Fonseca Coelho, postdoctoral associate at the <a href="https://carlsaganinstitute.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carl Sagan Institute</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bio-signature-of-purple-bacteria-and-aliens">Bio-signature of purple bacteria and aliens</h2>



<p>So how do you actually spot a 'pale purple dot' tucked away in distant solar systems? Coelho and her team have been busy creating models of what these purple-dominant planets would look like. </p>



<p>They're simulating different climates, cloud levels – just to see how these purple bacteria would 'color' the light reflected from the alien planet.</p>



<p>The ultimate goal is to create what scientists call a 'biosignature'. It's like a cosmic fingerprint of life. If our next-generation telescopes catch that telltale purple fingerprint, it's game on! It means we'd have to carefully study the potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-identified-85-new-exoplanets-that-could-harbor-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alien</a> world to see if this purple haze is due to life, or maybe colorful minerals.</p>



<p>"'We need to create a database for signs of life to make sure our telescopes don’t miss life if it happens not to look exactly like what we encounter around us every day,'" says co-author Lisa Kaltenegger, director of the <a href="https://carlsaganinstitute.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carl Sagan Institute</a> and professor of astronomy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cosmos-is-colorful">The cosmos is colorful</h2>



<p>The potential discovery of purple bacteria on an alien exoplanet has significant implications beyond finding just one unique microbe. It raises the fascinating possibility that life may be able to exist in a wider range of conditions than we previously imagined.</p>



<p>"Detecting a “pale purple dot” in another solar system would trigger intensive observations of the planet to try to rule out other color sources, such as colorful minerals," said Kaltenegger. If life can exist in the form of these sturdy, independent purple bacteria, it could be surprisingly common throughout the universe.</p>



<p>Should the existence of purple bacteria be confirmed, it could fundamentally alter our understanding of how common life might be throughout the universe. </p>



<p>These adaptable organisms could potentially thrive in diverse environments that we wouldn't typically consider hospitable to life, expanding the possibilities of what constitutes a potentially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-discovered-in-the-habitable-zone-of-its-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitable planet</a>. </p>



<p>This finding would suggest that life in various forms might be far more common in the cosmos than we currently think.</p>



<p>"If purple bacteria are thriving on the surface of a frozen Earth, an ocean world, a snowball Earth or a modern Earth orbiting a cooler star...we now have the tools to search for them," explained Coelho.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-green">Looking beyond green</h2>



<p>The search for extraterrestrial life has traditionally focused on planets that resemble Earth, with an expectation of familiar signs of life like green vegetation. </p>



<p>However, this new research into purple bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extremophiles-and-the-quest-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alien</a> life broadens our search parameters substantially. It highlights the vastness of the universe and the possibility that life could exist in ways and places we never imagined.</p>



<p>By introducing a wider array of potential colors for life, scientists are acknowledging that the familiar shades associated with life on Earth might represent only a tiny fraction of the possibilities. </p>



<p>Life on other planets could manifest in entirely unexpected forms and colors, adapted to thrive in environments that seem utterly hostile to us. </p>



<p>This reminder of our limited Earth-centric perspective encourages scientists to embrace a broader approach when searching for the tell-tale signs of life outside our solar system.</p>



<p>"'We are just opening our eyes to these fascinating worlds around us. Purple bacteria can survive and thrive under such a variety of conditions that it is easy to imagine that on many different worlds, purple may just be the new green,'" says Kaltenegger.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/530/2/1363/7645230" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></em>.</p>



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Finding alien life may require looking for the color purple instead of green

We all know that when it comes to life on...

Date	Citation Page	Title
09/21/1989	54 FR 38950 38951	ETWP; Endangered Status for Queen Alexandra's Birdwing Butterfly; 54 FR 38950 38951
03/01/1989	54 FR 8574 8576	ETWP; Proposed Endangered Status for Queen Alexandra's Birdwing Butterfly; 54 FR 8574 8576