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Heat has dominated the climate headlines in 2024 as the year cements itself in the history books as the hottest ever recorded. 



What remains less reported, however, is the uneven distribution of these dangerous, record-breaking temperatures.



Some regions are experiencing unprecedented heatwaves that push human and environmental resilience to their limits, while others remain relatively unscathed.



A recent study highlights how specific regions around the globe are bearing the brunt of this escalating climate crisis and feeling the heat far more intensely than others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-hotspots">Mapping the hotspots</h2>



The study, a collaborative effort by researchers at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (<a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IIASA</a>) and <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>, offers a comprehensive look at where on Earth these temperature spikes are most prevalent.



The research provides the first-ever global map of such high-risk areas, which some researchers have begun referring to as "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate danger zones</a>."



Study lead author Kai Kornhuber is as an adjunct professor at the Columbia Climate School and leads the Weather Extremes and Climate Dynamics theme of the IIASA Energy, Climate, and Environment Program.



“This is about extreme trends that are the outcome of physical interactions we might not completely understand. These regions become temporary hothouses, ” said Kornhuber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-data-and-extreme-heat">Climate data and extreme heat</h2>



The researchers examined data from the past 65 years to identify these hot zones. By analyzing decades of temperature records, they revealed patterns that point to regions disproportionately affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-events-are-becoming-increasingly-common/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat events</a>.



The experts focused on locations where extraordinary heatwave events are occurring at an alarming rate, and surpass average warm-season temperatures overall.



These instances of extreme heat have increased in frequency in the last five years, with occasional spikes since the early 2000s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regions-bearing-the-brunt-of-the-heat">Regions bearing the brunt of the heat</h2>



Regions severely affected by this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rise in temperature</a> include central China, Japan, Korea, the Arabian Peninsula, eastern Australia, parts of South America, and the Arctic. 



However, the most intense and consistent heat surges were recorded in northwestern Europe, where they led to the deaths of around 60,000 people in 2022 and 47,000 in 2023.



Maximum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-shatters-heat-records-earths-hottest-year-is-here/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature records</a> were shattered in Austria, France, Hungary, Slovenia, Norway, and Sweden during these years. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/world-temperature-changes_1958-2022_map-illustration_credit-IIASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/world-temperature-changes_1958-2022_map-illustration_credit-IIASA_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of changes in the range of high temperatures recorded between 1958 and 2022. Credit: IIASA" class="wp-image-1952769"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of changes in the range of high temperatures recorded between 1958 and 2022. Credit: IIASA</figcaption></figure>



In addition, some parts of the U.S. Southwest and California experienced record temperatures well into October.



While these locales have seen temperatures soar at a rate far surpassing climate model predictions, not all regions have experienced this unprecedented warming. 



In many areas, the rise in temperature is, in fact, lower than model predictions. Among these are large expanses of the north-central U.S., south-central Canada, the South American interior, northern Africa, northern Australia, and much of Siberia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-extreme-temperatures">Consequences of extreme temperatures</h2>



Extreme heat waves can have serious consequences that impact both people and the environment. 



For humans, intense heat can lead to dangerous health problems like heat exhaustion and heatstroke, especially for older adults, young children, and those with preexisting conditions. 



Dehydration is another big risk, and heat waves often lead to more hospital visits and even fatalities.



Cities suffer the most because of the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-urban-heat-continues-to-rise-birds-are-moving-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat island</a>” effect, where buildings and pavement trap heat, making temperatures even hotter. 



Heat waves also strain power grids as people crank up air conditioning, sometimes causing blackouts when demand spikes.



The environment takes a beating too. Prolonged heat can dry out soil, damaging crops and leading to lower food production. 



Wildfires become more frequent and intense during heat waves, destroying forests, wildlife habitats, and even homes. 



Rivers and lakes can dry up, stressing ecosystems and water supplies for humans and animals alike. Even aquatic life suffers, as high temperatures reduce oxygen levels in the water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-in-a-warming-climate">Extreme heat in a warming climate </h2>



“In most areas, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-earths-hottest-day-ever-was-recorded-on-july-22-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hottest days</a> of the year are warming about as fast as typical summertime days, which is the dominant signal of climate change, and in some areas even slower," noted study co-author Samuel Bartusek, a PhD candidate at Columbia University.



"In the hotspots that we point out, however, the hottest days have been warming particularly fast, which could be for various reasons."



In some places there could be more occurrences of specific heatwave-inducing weather patterns, or soil drying could be amplifying the hottest temperatures - and it will be important to untangle these specific local drivers.



“Due to their unprecedented nature, these heat waves are usually linked to severe health impacts, and can be disastrous for agriculture, vegetation, and infrastructure. We’re not built for them, and we might not be able to adapt fast enough,” Kornhuber concluded.



In charting these heatwave hotspots, the study has taken a significant step towards mapping the emerging risk of extreme, unprecedented heat and quantifying our capacity to predict these perilous signals. 



The findings open up a new avenue of climate change research and policy-making, emphasizing the need to target interventions and resources to the areas that need them most.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2411258121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Earth's climate danger zones revealed in new global heat map

Heat has dominated the climate headlines in 2024 as the...

Brazilian scientists have made a fascinating discovery about the history of maize, also known as corn. 



They've found traces of this ancient, partially domesticated plant in Brazil, which is farther from the crop's historic point of origin in Mexico than any other similar evidence. But the story doesn’t just end here.



The maize specimens discovered by the scientists were found hidden away in the Peruaçu Valley of Minas Gerais state, and they offer a fresh perspective on our understanding of the plant’s history.



The study was led by a group of dedicated researchers from the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) and the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-history-of-maize">The history of maize </h2>



According to commonly accepted theory, maize was domesticated in Mexico by early farmers. 



When archeologists from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) conducted initial excavation work in the Peruaçu Valley back in 1994, they discovered maize cobs, straw, and seeds of partially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domesticated maize</a>. They dismissed these as domesticated maize that simply hadn't grown properly, rather than imagining that it was still in the process of domestication.



The current research findings indicate that the crop may have been exported before being fully domesticated, and may actually have undergone the final stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-plants-permanently-alters-their-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication</a> in South America - far from its Mexican origins.



This controversial idea was first proposed in 2018. Back then, genetic studies on living plants gave a hint that our age-old understanding of maize history might need a revision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots-with-genetic-evidence">Connecting the dots with genetic evidence</h2>



The magical world of genetics brought these forgotten specimens from 1994 back into the limelight.



A re-examination of the old material revealed traits that tied it to the ancestral plant, Teosinte, which was native to Mexico, and was first domesticated around 9,000 years ago. This ancient plant reportedly arrived in southwestern Amazonia about 6,000 years ago.



The current findings have been published in the journal Science Advances. Study lead author Flaviane Malaquias Costa was part of the research team while she was a PhD candidate and postdoctoral researcher at Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ-USP).



“These samples were initially considered specimens of domesticated maize that had failed to grow sufficiently," said Malaquias Costa.



"However, in light of genetic evidence that the final domestication process may have occurred in South America, we analyzed the material again and found several traits shared with the ancestral plant from which maize originated in Mexico 9,000 years ago and that arrived in southwestern Amazonia 6,000 years ago."



Peruaçu Valley is approximately 4,400 miles (7,150 km) from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-agave-and-bats-face-a-sustainability-crisis-in-mexico/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mexico</a>, and the samples found there exhibit the most primitive characteristics ever discovered at such a distance from maize’s center of origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timeline-of-maize-arrival-in-brazil">Timeline of maize arrival in Brazil</h2>



Though there were human populations in Peruaçu Valley around 10,000 to 9,000 years ago, maize seems to have arrived in the region relatively late - around 1,500 years ago.



Interestingly, the samples dated back to between 1,010 and 500 years ago, and displayed traits of partial domestication. This time period mostly precedes the arrival of Europeans in South America.



Thus, it seems that the local Indigenous communities completed the domestication of this maize species through their relentless efforts in selecting, managing, and stabilizing traits that eventually formed today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-use-genomic-testing-to-trace-the-history-of-corn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South American maize</a> varieties.



Courtesy of Fábio de Oliveira Freitas, a researcher at EMBRAPA Genetic Resources and Biotechnology in Brasília, this piece of information becomes another chapter of the maize saga.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-family-ties">Identifying family ties</h2>



Further insights gained from the Peruaçu Valley samples revealed their close relation to the Entrelaçado variety of maize from the Brazilian states of Rondônia and Acre.



According to Elizabeth Ann Veasey, a professor at ESALQ-USP, this variety originated in South America through the selection of various other maize populations.



She extended this point by drawing parallels between the ancient traces and extant varieties discovered during the study in several locations across Brazil and Uruguay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-from-wild-to-domesticated-maize">The journey from wild to domesticated maize</h2>



The transition from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/billions-of-people-depend-on-wild-plant-and-animal-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild plant</a>, Teosinte, to domesticated maize is marked by certain morphological traits. One such marker is the number of grain rows.



While Teosinte, the wild grass native to Mexico that was first domesticated around 9,000 years ago, typically has fewer than eight rows of seeds per ear (cob), modern South American maize varieties grown in lowland areas have eight to 26 rows.



On the other hand, the ancient samples from Peruaçu Valley showcase between four and six rows per ear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-science-the-cultural-impact">Beyond the science: The cultural impact</h2>



Such a monumental discovery not only reshapes our scientific understanding but also holds a significant cultural value. The Peruaçu Valley is home to some of the rarest cave art in the world that features crops.



Besides being depicted on the cave walls, maize was discovered in buried baskets, possibly as offerings for the dead.



Furthermore, there are significant geopolitical implications. If it is established that the final domestication of maize took place in Brazil, these genetic resources can no longer be considered exotic.



This will necessitate conservation efforts and discussions regarding property rights in international treaties.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adn146" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Maize samples found in Brazil may rewrite the crop's history

Brazilian scientists have made a fascinating discovery about the history...

Animals, much like humans, accumulate knowledge and wisdom as they age. A growing body of research highlights the profound impact that older animals have on their groups and ecosystems. 



However, human activities, especially hunting and fishing, are threatening this invaluable resource, pushing many species toward instability and decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-that-defy-time">Animals that defy time</h2>



Some species achieve astonishing lifespans. Bigmouth buffalo fish can live up to 127 years, Greenland sharks can reach 392 years, and certain sponges live for over 10,000 years.



These extended lifespans allow the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> to gather knowledge about their environments and pass it on to younger generations.



In a recent paper published in&nbsp;the journal Science, researchers noted that Earth's old animals are in a state of decline.



The analysis, which was based on data from over 9,000 peer-reviewed papers, warns that the few animals reaching old age are often targeted due to their size, unique features, or reproductive potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longevity-conservation-for-old-animals">Longevity conservation for old animals</h2>



Eliminating the largest and most experienced animals has significant consequences for social structures and group survival. Keller Kopf, lead researcher and ecologist at <a href="https://www.cdu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles Darwin University</a>, advocates for "longevity conservation," which emphasizes protecting older individuals. 



"That simplistic idea about old individuals not being important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-animal-day-2024-building-a-legacy-of-compassion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>, or for environments, is really not the full story," said Kopf.



He and his co-authors argue that old animals play vital roles in biodiversity and ecosystem health, and therefore need targeted protection policies and management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-knowledge-in-animal-populations">Cultural knowledge in animal populations</h2>



Older animals often act as reservoirs of cultural knowledge, maintaining stability within their groups. 



Older female elephants, for example, possess a "social memory" that helps identify friends and foes, detect dangers like lions, and guide the group to water sources during droughts. Similarly, postmenopausal orcas excel at locating salmon for their pods.



The removal of older individuals destabilizes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-got-their-colors-150-million-years-before-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. This loss of cultural transmission explains why some fish populations fail to recover, even after fishing bans are implemented.



"The trouble is once culture is lost, it is very hard to regain," said Kopf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grandmother-hypothesis-and-group-stability">Grandmother hypothesis and group stability</h2>



Older mammals often contribute significantly to the survival of their offspring and subsequent generations - a phenomenon known as the "grandmother hypothesis."



While their reproductive output declines with age, their knowledge and assistance in raising young bolster group success. 



For instance, deep-sea corals, which can live for thousands of years, provide critical habitats for marine life. Furthermore, older birds often ensure better care for their offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fisheries-and-collapse-of-collective-memory">Fisheries and collapse of collective memory</h2>



The targeting of older fish in fisheries has dire consequences for species survival. Culum Brown, a fish biologist at Macquarie University, emphasizes that older fish carry essential cultural knowledge. 



"The key thing here is that many important behaviors, such as migration to breeding and feeding grounds, are transmitted socially in lots of species of fish," said Brown.



"Imagine a fish swimming around in the ocean. The chances of finding the best feeding or breeding locations by chance is virtually zero." Losing older fish disrupts these learned behaviors, leading to potential population collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wisdom-and-social-learning-in-conservation">Wisdom and social learning in conservation</h2>



Kopf’s research underscores the importance of "cultural transmission" in animals. This concept acknowledges that animals possess culture and that older individuals transmit critical social learning. 



The accumulated knowledge of older individuals, such as where to locate scarce resources or find shelter, becomes irreplaceable in challenging environments.



More conservationists now recognize the need to preserve social learning and cultural knowledge within animal populations. 



"A term that has definitely pretty much only been used for people in the past is ‘wisdom,’ and we’ve used that term - wise - in the title (of the study)," said Kopf. This wisdom, stored in older animals, often holds the key to a species’ survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tragic-loss-of-wisdom-and-experience">Tragic loss of wisdom and experience </h2>



Hunting practices that target older animals exacerbate species’ vulnerabilities.



For instance, older elephants, which play pivotal roles in group dynamics, are systematically hunted for their large tusks and trophy value. 



This loss impacts not just the individuals but also the social fabric of their groups.



Kopf’s findings on the importance of older animals offer a poignant reflection on human society. "It’s made me think a lot more about how we don’t value older people in our society," he noted. 



This neglect of older generations results in a loss of wisdom and experience that could benefit humanity. "What is that doing for the modern world?” said Kopf.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



Longevity conservation could provide a solution. This approach involves targeted policies to protect older individuals, recognizing their role in maintaining biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> services. 



By prioritizing these efforts, we can safeguard not just individual species but the intricate webs of knowledge and survival strategies they sustain.



Protecting older animals is not just about preserving the past. It is a step toward ensuring the future stability and richness of life on Earth. 



As researchers continue to reveal the critical roles of older animals, it becomes clear that their survival is intertwined with our planet’s ecological health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado2705" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Old and wise' animals are essential for the survival of species

Animals, much like humans, accumulate knowledge and wisdom as they...

Potatoes could hold the key to addressing the challenges posed by frequent and intense heatwaves, which are becoming more common in different regions of the world. 



These resilient crops are crucial in safeguarding global food supplies as climate change continues to disrupt traditional farming practices.



"We need to produce crops that can withstand more frequent and intense heatwave events if we are going to meet the population’s need for food in regions most at risk from reduced yields due to global warming," said Katherine Meacham-Hensold, scientific manager for the Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE) project at the University of Illinois.



Working under the auspices of this project, the research team has engineered a potato that not only withstands extreme weather conditions but also thrives in them, promising greater food security for many.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-a-climate-ready-potato">The promise of a climate-ready potato</h2>



While studying the effects of global warming on crop yields, Meacham-Hensold and her team found that this new breed of potato could yield a 30% increase in tuber mass under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-century-heatwave-may-soon-happen-every-other-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwave</a> conditions compared to its conventional counterparts.



"The 30% increase in tuber mass observed in our field trials shows the promise of improving photosynthesis to enable climate-ready crops," she said.



The team operates under the banner of RIPE, an international research project that seeks to address global food scarcity by enhancing the ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-malnutrition-new-satellite-can-monitor-nutrients-in-crops-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food crops</a> to convert the sun's energy into edible matter.



Since its inception in 2017, RIPE has garnered support from numerous entities such as the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, the Foundation for Food &amp; Agriculture Research, and the U.K. Foreign, Commonwealth &amp; Development Office.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-silent-enemy-photorespiration">The silent enemy: Photorespiration</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defy-climate-change-through-acclimation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photorespiration</a> is a core issue that reduces crop yields. It refers to an energy-consuming process wherein the plant enzyme Rubisco, which is responsible for fixing carbon dioxide into organic molecules, reacts more readily with oxygen than with carbon dioxide when the ambient temperatures are high. 



This challenge is particularly pronounced in crops like potatoes, where high temperatures can significantly hinder growth and productivity. 



The reaction results in the production of a harmful byproduct called glycolate that, if not dealt with, can severely impair the plant's growth.



"Photorespiration is a large energy cost for the plant," explained Meacham-Hensold. "It takes away from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/local-food-production-is-undervalued-in-the-context-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food production</a> as energy is diverted to metabolizing the toxin. Our goal was to reduce the amount of wasted energy by bypassing the plant’s original photorespiratory pathway.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potatoes-that-can-thrive-in-a-heatwave">Potatoes that can thrive in a heatwave</h2>



By introducing two new genes into the potato's DNA, the team managed to improve photosynthetic efficiency.



These genes, glycolate dehydrogenase and malate synthase, help the plant metabolize the toxin in the chloroplast (the leaf compartment responsible for photosynthesis), eliminating the need for energy-draining transfer of the toxin to other parts of the cell.



This solution led to substantial growth gains in the test crops. The benefits of these modifications were further intensified under heatwave conditions, making these crops more resilient to the changing climate.



On a testing field in the year 2022, during a heatwave that consistently broke over 95°F (35°C), the modified potatoes yielded 30% more tubers than the control group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-that-resist-global-warming">Crops that resist global warming</h2>



Notably, the team's genetic engineering did not compromise the nutritional quality of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-yields-have-grown-steadily-over-the-last-six-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop yield</a>. 



"Food security is not just about the amount of calories that can be produced but we must also consider the quality of the food,” noted Don Ort, the Robert Emerson Professor of Plant Biology and Crop Sciences, and Deputy Director of the RIPE project.



While further multi-location field trials are needed to confirm the findings, the promising results in potatoes open the possibility of applying similar modifications to other tuber crops. These might include cassava, a staple food in some Sub-Saharan African countries that is expected to be heavily impacted by increasing global temperatures.



In conclusion, the research by scientists from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> presents a ray of hope in the battle against climate change.



By creating crops that not only resist the impacts of global warming but also thrive under them, we are taking steps toward a future where every table has food, and no one is left hungry.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17595" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Crops of the future: Potatoes that thrive in heatwaves

Potatoes could hold the key to addressing the challenges posed...

Clothing is more than just fabric and fashion -- our clothes tell stories about who we are as humans, where we've been, and how we've adapted over time. 



But when did our human ancestors first decide that we needed to cover up and wear clothes? 



This question has puzzled scientists for years. David Reed, associate curator of mammals at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, has been digging into this mystery by studying an unlikely source: lice.



Reed's work focuses on these tiny parasites that have been our unwelcome companions for thousands of years. 



"We wanted to find another method for pinpointing when humans might have first started wearing clothing," Reed said. 



"Because they are so well adapted to clothing, we know that body lice or clothing lice almost certainly didn’t exist until clothing came about in humans."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lousy-clues-hidden-in-our-hair">Lousy clues hidden in our hair</h2>



By examining the DNA of modern human lice, Reed and his team have calculated that we started wearing clothes about 170,000 years ago. 



This was a significant technological leap that allowed our ancestors to migrate out of Africa into colder climates. 



"It’s just interesting to think that humans were able to survive in Africa for hundreds of thousands of years without clothing and without body hair," Reed noted. 



"And that it wasn’t until they had clothing that modern humans were then moving out of Africa into other parts of the world."



This research, funded by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>), suggests that there was a substantial period when humans roamed the African continent without the warmth of body hair or the protection of garments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lice-humans-and-the-first-clothes">Lice, humans, and the first clothes</h2>



Lice are more than just a nuisance; they're evolutionary markers. Unlike many parasites, lice stick closely to their hosts over long periods. 



This host-parasite relationship allows scientists like Reed to trace changes in human history based on changes in lice populations. 



"We use these lice as a marker, if you will, as a marker of their host’s evolutionary history," he explained.



Interestingly, the study shows that we began wearing clothes around 70,000 years before venturing into colder regions -- a move that started about 100,000 years ago. 



This gap implies that clothing wasn't just a response to colder climates but perhaps a development that had other social or practical motivations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-got-cold-too">Early humans got cold, too</h2>



Back in 2003, geneticist Mark Stoneking from the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> estimated that clothing use began around 107,000 years ago. 



Reed's study, however, includes new data and refined calculation methods, offering a different perspective. 



"The new result from this lice study is an unexpectedly early date for clothing, much older than the earliest solid archaeological evidence, but it makes sense," noted Ian Gilligan, a lecturer at <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Australian National University</a>.



The timing of clothing's emergence seems to align with the harsh conditions of the Ice Ages. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Last Ice Age</a> occurred about 120,000 years ago, but Gilligan suggests that humans started bundling up during the preceding Ice Age, around 180,000 years ago. 



With modern humans appearing about 200,000 years ago, this period was crucial for developing technologies that would ensure our survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-humans-needed-clothes-to-survive">First humans needed clothes to survive</h2>



Clothing wasn't the only advancement that helped our ancestors thrive. Reed pointed out that other innovations played a role. 



"The things that may have made us much more successful in that endeavor hundreds of thousands of years later were technologies like the controlled use of fire, the ability to use clothing, new hunting strategies, and new stone tools," he said.



One of the challenges in studying ancient clothing is the lack of physical evidence. Early garments wouldn't have survived millennia buried in the earth. 



Direct evidence like eyed needles only appeared about 40,000 years ago, and tools suitable for scraping animal hides date back to about 780,000 years ago. 



Reed's lice research fills in the gaps, offering a biological clue where archaeological evidence is scarce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lice-aren-t-often-seen-as-heroes">Lice aren't often seen as heroes</h2>



Collecting lice samples from around the world, including places like homeless shelters and health clinics, was essential for the study's success. 



These parasites provide a unique dataset that can be applied across various fields, from medicine to ecology. 



"It gives the opportunity to study host-switching and invading new hosts, which has everything to do with diseases that do the same thing, like emerging infectious diseases that affect humans," Reed explained.



"From an evolutionary standpoint, it’s interesting to learn about the evolutionary histories of a mammal and its parasite that are so intertwined, so interconnected over vast, long time scales. They just generate such interesting evolutionary questions," he continued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



To sum it all up, by examining lice, Reed and his team found clues about when our early human ancestors first decided to wear clothes.



This was a pivotal moment in Earth history that allowed humans to migrate around the globe and adapt to new environments and extreme weather.



If our distant relatives hadn't figured out how to create and wear clothes roughly 170,000 years ago, chances are the species would not have survived, and we wouldn't be here today reading this article.



This fun but important research highlights the fact that humans have always been resourceful, even the very first ones. 



The incremental survival steps they took during the Last Ice Age led to the complex societies we have today. Whether that's a good thing, or a bad thing, will be left open for discussion on another day.



-----



Study co-authors were Melissa Toups, previously with UF and now at Indiana University, Andrew Kitchen, formerly with UF and presently at The Pennsylvania State University, and Jessica Light of Texas A&amp;M University. The researchers completed the five-year project with the help of Reed’s NSF Faculty Early Career Development Award, which is granted to researchers who exemplify the teacher-researcher role.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/28/1/29/984822" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a>.



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When did early humans first start wearing clothes, and why?

Clothing is more than just fabric and fashion -- our...

For decades, many people pictured ancient humans as relying mostly on stone. New wood findings from early human settlements at Kalambo Falls in Zambia suggest that view may need adjusting.



Researchers have uncovered wooden structures dating back about 476,000 years, and they don't seem like random sticks piled together. 



Instead, they appear to be carefully shaped and joined, possibly forming a platform or the base of a shelter. Such woodworking extends far beyond what was once expected of humans living so long ago.



Shortly after making this discovery, Professor Larry Barham from the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liverpool</a> and his team identified a wedge, a digging stick, a log cut with the help of tools, and a branch with a deliberate notch. 



These artifacts were preserved thanks to the waterlogged conditions at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalambo_Falls" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kalambo Falls</a>. The makers lived well before Homo sapiens arose and may have been Homo heidelbergensis or a related species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-and-the-wooden-age">Early humans and the "wooden age"</h2>



Most knowledge of early humans comes from stone artifacts because stone survives the ages. Wood usually decays, leaving no trace. 



Until now, evidence of early human wood use, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-humans-used-tools-to-make-timber-for-woodworking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">woodworking tools</a>, had been limited to fire, digging sticks, or spears. The Kalambo Falls finds add a new dimension. 



They show that some early hominins understood how to shape and join logs. This changes what we know about their abilities and creativity.



“This find has changed how I think about our early ancestors. Forget the label ‘Stone Age,’ look at what these people were doing: they made something new, and large, from wood," Professor Barham enthused.



"They used their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-ancestors-woodworking-sophisticated-techniques/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence, imagination, and skills</a> to create something they’d never seen before, something that had never previously existed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-date-ancient-wood">How to date ancient wood</h2>



Wood from nearly half a million years ago is rare. The team needed methods beyond traditional approaches to confirm the age. 



“At this great age, putting a date on finds is very challenging and we used luminescence dating to do this. These new dating methods have far reaching implications -- allowing us to date much further back in time, to piece together sites that give us a glimpse into human evolution," explained Professor Geoff Duller from <a href="https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aberystwyth University</a>.



"The site at Kalambo Falls had been excavated back in the 1960s when similar pieces of wood were recovered, but they were unable to date them, so the true significance of the site was unclear until now.”



These dating techniques show that the wooden structures belong to a distant era. 



By accurately placing these artifacts in time, the team can see how early humans selected materials, planned projects, and adapted to their environment long before modern humans appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Some earlier views imagined a steady line of progress from simple to complex. They suggested that early hominins were not as inventive. 



The Kalambo Falls discovery challenges that idea. Here are ancient people who didn’t just pick up whatever lay around. 



They shaped wood with purpose and turned it into something with structure. This implies planning and the ability to think ahead.



The focus is not just on the tools they used but on the final product. They took logs and worked them into forms that required <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding material properties</a>. 



They recognized that certain pieces of wood, cut and fitted together, could create stable surfaces or supports. This level of planning and action was happening far earlier than many had believed possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-age-label-no-longer-applies">"Stone Age" label no longer applies</h2>



Calling that period the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stone Age</a>” may have unintentionally downplayed other materials. The reason stone dominates our understanding of prehistory is that it lasts. 



Wood rots, leaving open questions about what was once common. Only under special conditions, like those at Kalambo Falls, can wood survive for so many thousands of centuries.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/wooden-structure_ancient-humans-woodworking_wedge-shaped_credit_ULiverpool_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/wooden-structure_ancient-humans-woodworking_wedge-shaped_credit_ULiverpool_1s.webp" alt="A wedge shaped piece of wood discovered at Kalambo Falls is found to be 476,000 years old. Credit: Professor Larry Barham, University of Liverpool" class="wp-image-1952754"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A wedge shaped piece of wood discovered at Kalambo Falls is found to be 476,000 years old. Credit: Professor Larry Barham, University of Liverpool</figcaption></figure>



This site makes it clear that the old labels may need revisiting. Early humans likely exploited a broad range of materials to get by. Perhaps many wooden inventions were lost through time because they decayed. 



Now, with direct evidence, we see that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early hominins</a> didn’t rely solely on stone. They used wood to make tools, platforms, and other things that shaped their world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-early-humans-worked-with-wood">How early humans worked with wood</h2>



Wood is not as durable as stone, but it has its advantages. It can be worked into different shapes and is easier to manipulate. For these ancient builders, wood would have been a familiar resource. 



They knew which pieces to cut, how to notch branches, and how to create useful items. This knowledge hints at a long tradition of using wood for more than just simple objects.



Their approach to wood may have influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how they hunted</a>, gathered food, or constructed living spaces. 



The find at Kalambo Falls highlights actions that usually remain invisible, locked away in times too old to remember.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-tools-and-early-human-history">Wood, tools, and early human history</h2>



To sum it all up, this new study shows us that human technology and culture did not simply move along one narrow track. People found ways to solve problems long before anyone thought possible. 



The Kalambo Falls wood structure nudges us to think about human capabilities in a more flexible way. 



Even when brains were smaller and modern humans had not yet appeared, early hominins were still clever enough to shape their environment to meet their needs.



This single discovery does not rewrite the entire story, but it adds details that help round it out. Early humans did more than chip stones -- they worked with what was around them, including wood, to create something purposeful and enduring.



In a world that often underestimates these distant ancestors, the Kalambo Falls find proves they deserve more credit than we once gave them.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02858-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



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World's oldest wooden structure completely rewrites early human history

For decades, many people pictured ancient humans as relying mostly...

Primordial black holes are enigmatic remnants from the universe's infancy that hold the key to unlocking some of the biggest secrets in space.



These small yet powerful black holes, along with elusive dark matter, remain among the most perplexing mysteries in astrophysics. Though theorized for decades, they have yet to be directly observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primordial-black-holes-and-dark-matter">Primordial black holes and dark matter</h2>



Conventionally, when we speak of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-triple-system-first-evidence-showing-gentle-black-hole-formation-v404-cygni/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole formation</a>, we visualize a massive dying star collapsing onto itself.



Nevertheless, the early universe's turbulent environment might have allowed many minuscule black holes to form, even before the birth of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odd-galaxy-may-hold-clues-to-the-first-stars-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first stars</a>.



These black holes from the universe's dawn, known as primordial black holes (PBHs), might form mysterious dark matter, which makes up 85% of the total mass in the universe.



In a game-changing approach, new research proposes that we scale our search both up and down to uncover these elusive entities. 



This radical proposal suggests that signs of these primeval black holes could range from the enormously vast, such as empty planetary bodies, to the fantastically small, such as microscopic passageways in everyday materials on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hollow-primordial-black-holes">Hollow primordial black holes </h2>



The researchers imagine a captivating scenario where a trapped primordial black hole inside a large celestial object, such as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impact-sparked-two-years-of-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> or a planet, would consume its liquid core, leaving it hollow. 



In a different scenario, a fleeting primordial black hole might leave behind straight tunnels large enough to be visible under a microscope, if it passes through a solid material, including substances present on Earth.



"The chances of finding these signatures are small, but searching for them would not require much resources and the potential payoff, the first evidence of a primordial black hole, would be immense," explained Dejan Stojkovic, PhD, professor of physics in the University of Buffalo<a href="https://arts-sciences.buffalo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> College of Arts and Sciences</a> and the study's co-author.



Taking a new approach to this cosmic detective work, the researchers emphasize that conventional methods have failed in the quest to discover primordial black holes, sparking the need for innovative thinking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-in-the-universe">Clues in the universe</h2>



The experts proceeded to estimate how large a hollow celestial body could be without caving in on itself and the likelihood of a primordial black hole passing through an Earthly object.



The comforting conclusion was that such an occurrence would not be fatal to humans.



“Because of these long odds, we have focused on solid marks that have existed for thousands, millions or even billions of years," said study co-author De-Chang Dai, PhD, of <a href="https://www.ndhu.edu.tw/?Lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Dong Hwa University</a> and <a href="https://case.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Case Western Reserve University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapped-primordial-black-holes">Trapped primordial black holes</h2>



When the universe was an infant, dense zones in the rapidly expanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-claims-our-universe-is-27-billion-years-old-double-the-current-age-estimate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a> could have collapsed and formed PBHs.



While PBHs would have much less mass than stellar black holes born from dying stars, they would still be intensely concentrated. 



A PBH might become trapped within a planet, moon, or asteroid during or after its formation and absorb the liquid core of the object, leaving nothing but a hollow shell.



What happens next? The PBH might escape the object if it's hit by an asteroid. If the object survives, it could be a hollow celestial body, detectable via telescopes. 



By studying an object's orbit, scientists can deduce its mass and density.



"If the object has a liquid central core, then a captured PBH can absorb the liquid core, whose density is higher than the density of the outer solid layer," said Stojkovic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-everyday-items-as-black-hole-detectors">Everyday items as black hole detectors</h2>



On a smaller scale, PBHs might pass through objects without a liquid core, leaving behind a straight tunnel. Everyday items could, therefore, act as black hole detectors. 



The odds of a PBH passing through a human are minuscule. Even if it did, one probably wouldn't notice. 



Due to its small tension, a PBH would not tear apart human tissue. Furthermore, it moves so fast that it cannot release much of its kinetic energy during a collision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unresolved-mysteries-of-the-cosmos">Unresolved mysteries of the cosmos</h2>



Theoretical studies like these are vital as they challenge existing notions and open up new possibilities in the quest to decipher universal truths. 



The unresolved mysteries of the cosmos, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, continue to baffle us, thereby motivating us to explore new frameworks beyond the century-old theories of quantum mechanics and general relativity.



"The smartest people on the planet have been working on these problems for 80 years and have not solved them yet," stated Stojkovic. 



"We don’t need a straightforward extension of the existing models. We probably need a completely new framework altogether," he added.



 In the grand scheme of things, we've only just scratched the surface of the universe’s mysteries.



These potentially hollow celestial bodies and microscopic tunnels in everyday objects could be the breadcrumbs leading us to the holy grail of astrophysical discovery - primordial black holes.



-----



The research was supported by the National Science Foundation and National Science and Technology Council (Taiwan).



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2212686424002449" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of the Dark Universe</a>.



-----



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Tiny black holes from the early universe are zipping through our bodies

Primordial black holes are enigmatic remnants from the universe's infancy...

Scientists have made a fascinating discovery that rewrites our understanding of early American survival. For the first time, direct evidence shows that ancient Americans, specifically the Clovis people, relied heavily on mammoths and other large animals for food.



This new information about the diet of these early people not only indicates how they expanded across the Americas but also sheds light on the extinction of large, Ice Age animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-were-the-clovis-people">Who were the Clovis people?</h2>



The Clovis people arrived in North America around 13,000 years ago, likely via the Bering Land Bridge. 



Known for their unique, fluted projectile points, they weren’t just hunters but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expert toolmakers</a> who used scrapers and blades for diverse survival needs.



Once considered the first inhabitants of the Americas, the Clovis people have now been relegated to a different status as older, pre-Clovis sites have been discovered. 



The decline of the Clovis culture, which is also linked to megafaunal extinctions, suggests that environmental changes and overhunting were involved.



However, their influence persisted and impacted later cultures, with their tools and strategies becoming foundational for subsequent Paleo-Indian populations in North America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-of-ancient-americans">Diet of ancient Americans</h2>



The study, recently featured in the journal Science Advances, used stable isotope analysis to understand the diet of a Clovis mother from a 13,000-year-old burial site in Montana. 



Before this, researchers inferred <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-juluensis-new-human-species-vanished-just-fifty-thousand-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> diets by studying tools or animal remains. 



Now, for the first time, scientists have been able to analyze the food consumed by the Clovis people directly, thus offering a more complete picture of their lives.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mammoth-hunt_ancient-humans_clovis-site_credit-Eric-Carlson_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/mammoth-hunt_ancient-humans_clovis-site_credit-Eric-Carlson_1s.webp" alt="An artist’s reconstruction of Clovis life 13,000 years ago shows the Anzick-1 infant with his mother consuming mammoth meat near a hearth. Another individual crafts tools, including dart projectile points and atlatls. A mammoth butchery area is visible nearby. The scene is inspired by the La Prele mammoth site in Wyoming and set against the Montana landscape where the Anzick burial was discovered. Credit: Eric Carlson" class="wp-image-1952744"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artist’s reconstruction of Clovis life 13,000 years ago shows the Anzick-1 infant with his mother consuming mammoth meat near a hearth. Another individual crafts tools, including dart projectile points and atlatls. A mammoth butchery area is visible nearby. The scene is inspired by the La Prele mammoth site in Wyoming and set against the Montana landscape where the Anzick burial was discovered. Credit: Eric Carlson</figcaption></figure>



The findings strongly suggest that the Clovis people specialized in hunting large mammals instead of focusing on smaller animals or plants. 



These ancient humans lived in North America when mammoths roamed across both northern Asia and the Americas. 



Mammoths, being abundant and migratory, provided a stable source of fat and protein for the humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-mammoths-in-clovis-expansion">Role of mammoths in Clovis expansion</h2>



"The focus on mammoths helps explain how Clovis people could spread throughout North America and into South America in just a few hundred years," explained co-lead author James Chatters from <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMaster University</a>.



This reliance on mammoths allowed the ancient Americans to expand rapidly, as they did not need to depend on local, unpredictable food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clovis-technology-and-mammoths">Clovis technology and mammoths</h2>



The study also revealed an interesting link between Clovis technology and their diet.



"What's striking to me is that this confirms a lot of data from other sites. For example, the animal parts left at Clovis sites are dominated by megafauna, and the projectile points are large, affixed to darts, which were efficient distance weapons," said Ben Potter, co-lead author and archaeology professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (<a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UAF</a>).



This hunting technology was critical to the Clovis <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a>, enabling them to target massive, dangerous animals like mammoths from a safe distance. 



"Hunting mammoths provided a flexible way of life. It allowed the Clovis people to move into new areas without having to rely on smaller, localized game, which could vary significantly from one region to the next," Potter noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammoth-diet-of-ancient-americans">Mammoth diet of ancient Americans </h2>



The research team was able to estimate the Clovis diet by analyzing isotopic data from earlier studies of Anzick-1, an 18-month-old Clovis child. Adjustments for nursing helped researchers model the mother’s diet. 



"Isotopes provide a chemical fingerprint of a consumer's diet and can be compared with those from potential diet items to estimate the proportional contribution of different diet items," explained Mat Wooller, the director of the Alaska Stable Isotope facility at UAF.



The isotopic fingerprint revealed that mammoths made up around 40% of the diet of the Clovis mother, while other large animals, like elk and bison, made up the rest. 



Surprisingly, small mammals contributed very little to her diet. When researchers compared her diet with that of other carnivores from the same era, including American lions and wolves, they found it most closely resembled that of the scimitar cat (Homotherium serum), a specialist mammoth predator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ice-age-extinctions">Implications for Ice Age extinctions</h2>



These findings also have implications for understanding the extinction of large animals from the Ice Age. Environmental changes reduced habitats for megafauna, which may have increased their vulnerability to human hunters.



"If the climate is changing in a way that reduces the suitable habitat for some of these megafauna, then it makes them potentially more susceptible to human predation. These people were very effective hunters," noted Potter.



"You had the combination of a highly sophisticated hunting culture - with skills honed over 10,000 years in Eurasia - meeting naïve populations of megafauna under environmental stress," said Chatters.



This mix of experienced hunters and vulnerable prey may have accelerated the extinction of animals like the mammoth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-with-indigenous-communities">Collaboration with Indigenous communities</h2>



Another important aspect of this research on ancient Americans' reliance on mammoths is its emphasis on ethical collaboration with Indigenous communities. 



Potter and Chatters actively engaged with Native Americans in Montana and Wyoming to address their concerns and interests.



"It is important and ethical to consult with Indigenous peoples on questions relating to their heritage,” said the researchers.



The team worked closely with Shane Doyle, executive director of Yellowstone Peoples, who consulted tribal representatives throughout Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho. 



"The response has been one of appreciative consideration and inclusion," noted Doyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptability-and-hunting-skills-of-early-americans">Adaptability and hunting skills of early Americans</h2>



"I congratulate the team for their astounding discovery about the lifeways of Clovis-era Native people and thank them for being tribally inclusive and respectful throughout their research," said Doyle. 



"This study reshapes our understanding of how Indigenous people across America thrived by hunting one of the most dangerous and dominant animals of the day, the mammoth."



This study not only highlights the incredible adaptability and hunting skills of the Clovis people but also stresses the importance of consulting with Indigenous communities in research involving their ancestors. 



It enriches our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> shaped the environment and their role in the extinction of some of the most iconic creatures of the Ice Age.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr3814" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



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-----

Mammoths fed and clothed early Americans, resulting in their extinction

Scientists have made a fascinating discovery that rewrites our understanding...

In the abandoned lands surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site, something unexpected is happening. Amid decaying buildings and lingering radiation, Chernobyl dogs are not just surviving -- they're thriving. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-wolves-have-evolved-resistance-to-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine communities</a> are offering scientists a unique glimpse into how life adapts in one of the most hostile environments on Earth.



"Somehow, two small populations of dogs managed to survive in that highly toxic environment," head researcher <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/norman-kleiman-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Norman J. Kleiman</a> remarked.



Dr. Kleiman's team discovered significant genetic differences between two groups of dogs. 



One group roams near the former Chernobyl reactors, while the other lives about 10 miles away in Chernobyl City. This finding suggests that these are two distinct populations that rarely interbreed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-chernobyl-dogs-the-basics">Understanding Chernobyl dogs -- the basics</h2>



The Chernobyl dogs are a heart-wrenching part of the disaster's legacy. After the 1986 nuclear meltdown explosion, many residents evacuated and were forced to leave their pets behind. 



Among them were countless dogs, now descendants of those left behind, roaming the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyls-exclusion-zone-wildlife-refuge/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a>. 



These dogs adapted to life in a harsh, radioactive environment, surviving extreme winters, limited food, and lingering radiation. 



They live around abandoned villages and near the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, often relying on scraps from workers and visitors.



Many of them form packs for protection and companionship, while some have surprisingly bonded with humans, especially the workers and scientists who still operate in the zone. 



Efforts to help these dogs have increased over the years, with organizations stepping in to provide vaccinations, medical care, and even adoption programs to give some of them a chance at a new life outside the zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-in-a-toxic-landscape">Genetic clues in a toxic landscape</h2>



This study marks the first time scientists have delved into the genetic makeup of stray dogs living near the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. 



"In addition to classifying the population dynamics within these dogs at both locations, we took the first steps towards understanding how chronic exposure to multiple environmental hazards may have impacted these populations," Dr. Kleiman explained.



According to Dr. Matthew Breen from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NC State</a>, "The overarching question here is: does an environmental disaster of this magnitude have a genetic impact on life in the region?" 



By analyzing the dogs' DNA, the team identified 391 outlier regions in their genomes that differed between the two groups.



"Think of these regions as markers, or signposts, on a highway. They identify areas within the genome where we should look more closely at nearby genes," Dr. Breen explained.



Moreover, some of these markers are pointing to genes associated with genetic repair; specifically, with genetic repair after exposures similar to those experienced by the dogs in Chernobyl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-still-unknown-about-the-chernobyl-dogs">Much still unknown about the Chernobyl dogs</h2>



Despite these intriguing findings, the researchers caution that there's still much to learn. 



"At this stage we cannot say for sure that any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-labrador-retrievers-genetic-mutation-pomc-causes-hunger-obesity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic alterations</a> are in response to the multigenerational and complex exposures; we have a lot more work to do to determine if that is the case," Dr. Breen added.



Ph.D. candidate Megan Dillion, a lead author of the study at NC State, is eager to dig deeper. 



"The question we must answer now is why are there striking genetic differences between the two dog populations?" she said. 



"Are the differences just due to genetic drift, or are they due to the unique environmental stressors at each location?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The research has broader implications beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the canine world</a>, because dogs are a sentinel species with much to teach us about human health.



"By teasing out whether or not the genetic changes we detected in these dogs are the canine genome's response to the exposures the populations have faced, we may be able to understand how the dogs survived in such a hostile environment and what that might mean for any population -- animal or human -- that experiences similar exposures," Breen concluded.



With 37 years having passed since the Chernobyl disaster, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-is-teeming-with-worms-resistant-to-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dangers of radiation</a> haven't faded. 



The approximately 30-year-long half-lives of lingering radioisotopes mean the danger posed by radiation exposure is still very much real.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-environmental-challenge">Complex environmental challenge</h2>



Radiation isn't the only concern in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-exposed-to-radiation-show-no-signs-of-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a>. The area is contaminated with chemicals, toxic metals, pesticides, and organic compounds left behind from years of cleanup efforts and decaying infrastructure. 



"When radiation exposure is combined with a complex toxic chemical mixture of uncertain composition, there are very real human health concerns raised for the thousands of people who continue to work within the Exclusion Zone," Dr. Kleiman warned.



"Understanding the genetic and health impacts of these chronic exposures in the dogs will strengthen our broader understanding of how these types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-shed-pollutants-that-are-especially-toxic-for-humans-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental hazards</a> can impact humans and how best to mitigate health risks."



The research team plans to continue their work, hoping to unravel more of the genetic mysteries held by these resilient dogs. Their findings could pave the way for new insights into genetic adaptation in extreme environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-chernobyl-and-its-dogs">Learning from Chernobyl and its dogs</h2>



To sum it all up, the story of Chernobyl's dogs is a testament to life's resilience. These animals have carved out an existence in a place deemed uninhabitable. 



Their journey raises thought-provoking questions: How do organisms adapt to such hostile conditions? What can we learn from their survival?



As scientists continue to explore these questions, one thing is clear: the dogs of Chernobyl have much to teach us. 



Their survival offers a unique opportunity to understand the genetic impacts of environmental disasters, potentially informing how we protect both wildlife and ourselves in the face of similar challenges.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://cgejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40575-023-00124-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canine Medicine and Genetics</a>.



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Chernobyl dogs are rapidly evolving in strange ways due to radiation

In the abandoned lands surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site,...

Next time you spot a Norway rat scurrying around in Central Europe, remember, it's not technically a local. Non-native species, often introduced by humans, are causing a significant decline in indigenous species, globally.



They have been implicated in a colossal 60 percent of worldwide species extinctions in recent years. A new study shows that some non-native species are now endangered in their homeland, and would benefit from conservation measures to protect them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effect-of-globalization-on-species-distribution">Effect of globalization on species distribution</h2>



This intriguing find comes from a collaboration of biologists from the University of Vienna and La Sapienza University in Rome. 



The study, published in the journal Conservation Letters, examines the paradoxical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-conservation-day-2024-saving-species-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> predicaments posed by non-native species.



Our increasingly interconnected world has caused many animal and plant species to migrate to new areas. These invasive species can endanger local species by introducing competition or new diseases. Interestingly, though, some of these invasive species are facing extinction in their native homes. 



This presents a compelling paradox, and prompts questions about whether we should protect or control non-native populations of endangered species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extent-of-the-paradox">Extent of the paradox</h2>



The recent study explores how widespread this conservation paradox is among non-native mammal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-we-failing-the-worlds-most-threatened-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. Worldwide, humans have introduced 230 mammal species to new regions.



"We were very surprised by this high number, as we assumed that invasive species are also common in their area of origin," noted study lead author Lisa Tedeschi from <a href="https://www.uniroma1.it/en/pagina-strutturale/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">La Sapienza University</a> and the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-saviors-foreign-territories">Unexpected saviors: Foreign territories</h2>



The study details interesting instances where invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> have flourished outside their native lands. 



For example, the crested macaque and wild rabbit both face severe declines in their original habitats whereas, in new territories, their numbers have remained stable or even increased. This finding implies that invasive populations could potentially rescue these endangered species from extinction in their homelands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-globalization-in-nature-conservation">Role of globalization in nature conservation</h2>



The study raises valid questions about the current methods for assessing global extinction risks. Often, non-native populations are not considered in these assessments. 



However, the researchers argue that including these populations could improve the threat assessment for some species. 



Franz Essl, a biodiversity researcher from the University of Vienna, states that this could decrease the global extinction risk for 22 percent of the analyzed species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-efforts-for-non-native-species">Protection efforts for non-native species</h2>



While recognizing the value of non-native populations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-know-far-less-about-four-footed-animals-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> conservation, the study also warns of potential downsides. Diverting attention towards such populations could reduce protection efforts for native ranges which may be more threatened. 



Plus, these species could negatively impact the local flora and fauna of their new range. Franz Essl concludes that the future may see more species threatened in their native ranges but thriving in new areas.



Thus, the tricky task of striking a balance between the benefits and risks of non-native populations needs to be addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-non-native-species-are-not-always-invasive">Non-native species are not always invasive </h2>



Non-native species are not always considered invasive. In some cases, they integrate into ecosystems without causing significant harm. 



For example, certain plants and animals introduced centuries ago have become naturalized, contributing to biodiversity and even serving as critical resources for local wildlife. The distinction between invasive and non-invasive alien species is vital for targeted conservation efforts.



Additionally, non-native species are often unintentionally introduced through human activities such as trade, tourism, and transportation. 



For instance, the zebra mussel, native to Eastern Europe, spread across North America by hitching rides on ships. Once such species are established, controlling them can be costly and challenging, often requiring coordinated international efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-types-of-non-native-species">Different types of non-native species</h2>



While many discussions focus on mammals, non-native species include a wide range of organisms such as birds, insects, and plants.



Non-native plants like kudzu in the United States can outcompete native flora, while insect species, such as the emerald ash borer, have devastated tree populations in North America. These examples highlight the need for comprehensive management strategies across multiple species and ecosystems.



Climate change further complicates the issue, as shifting temperatures and habitats can make regions more hospitable to different types of non-native species.



This can exacerbate their spread, introducing new risks to ecosystems that are already under stress. Understanding the interplay between climate change and non-native species is critical for future conservation policies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.13069" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



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How non-native species are saving themselves from extinction

Next time you spot a Norway rat scurrying around in...

In ancient Rome, fisherman gladiators wielded nets and tridents to survive against heavily armed opponents. Today, a similar tactic is used by much smaller and more fascinating predators - slingshot spiders (Theridiosoma gemmosum).



These arachnids, also known as ray spiders, have evolved a unique hunting technique: instead of waiting for prey to fly into their web, they use it like a catapult to ensnare unsuspecting prey. 



But how do these spiders decide when to release their ballistic nets? Recent research suggests they might actually be listening for their next meal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slingshot-spider-arsenal">Slingshot spider arsenal</h2>



Slingshot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-a-spider-day-protecting-our-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> create a flat web and then pull back the center and anchor it with a taught thread. This creates a cone-shaped web that can spring forwards when released.



Perched at the back tip of the cone, they wait for the right moment to release the thread and launch it forward to entangle their prey. Their remarkable strategy inspired researchers to investigate further, which revealed surprising details about how these spiders hunt.



"Slingshot spiders are really tiny, so they can be quite hard to find," said Sarah Han, from the <a href="https://www.uakron.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Akron</a>, USA.



Han spent hours searching riverbanks for the distinctive cone-shaped webs, nestled in crevices and on rocks. "It does take some time to develop the eye for them," she noted.



Once Han relocated the spiders to a laboratory, she provided twigs for web construction and collected mosquitoes to test their hunting behavior. By attaching mosquitoes to strips of black paper and filming the spiders' interactions with them, the team gained valuable insights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-for-dinner">Listening for dinner</h2>



The experiments showed that slingshot spiders launch their webs even before their prey make physical contact with the structure. Using high-speed cameras, Han observed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-artificial-spider-silk-indistinguishable-from-natural-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> released their webs when flapping mosquitoes were nearby, despite there being no direct contact.



To probe further, Han introduced a tuning fork that replicated the frequency of mosquito wingbeats. The spiders still launched their webs, confirming that they were using sound as a means of detection when prey approached.



Han and her colleague Todd Blackledge suspect that sound-sensitive hairs on the spiders’ legs enable this extraordinary ability. By perceiving vibrations both in the web and the surrounding air, the spiders can determine when prey is within range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precision-and-speed">Precision and speed</h2>



Once the spiders release their webs, the action is astonishingly fast. Han meticulously tracked web trajectories and calculated their acceleration at an incredible 50G (504 m/s²).



The webs reach speeds of nearly 1 m/s, and capture prey within 38 milliseconds. This lightning-quick reaction leaves little chance for the insects to escape.



Moreover, the spiders showed a remarkable preference for targeting prey in front of their webs. They were successful in 76 percent of attempts when the insect was in front of the web, compared with only 29 percent when the prey was behind the web.



This precision suggests slingshot spiders might compare sound vibrations traveling through their webs to those reaching their legs via air. This mechanism helps them avoid misfires and ensures their hunting efforts are efficient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



Understanding the slingshot spider’s hunting strategy not only showcases nature’s ingenuity but also opens avenues for biomimetic applications. 



Could these precision-based mechanisms inspire new technologies in robotics or materials science? Time will tell, but for now, the slingshot spider remains a testament to evolution’s creativity and efficiency.



This research, published in the&nbsp;Journal of Experimental Biology, adds yet another chapter to the fascinating world of arachnid behavior. By listening for their prey, slingshot spiders are able to capture prey that are significantly larger than themselves. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proactive-behavior-of-slingshot-spiders">Proactive behavior of slingshot spiders</h2>



Slingshot spiders belong to the family&nbsp;Theridiosomatidae, a group of orb-weaving spiders known for their unique web structures and hunting methods. 



These spiders are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, preferring humid environments near water bodies where flying insects are abundant. 



Despite their small size, slingshot spiders demonstrate remarkable engineering skills by creating highly elastic webs capable of storing immense potential energy.



Unlike many other spider species, slingshot spiders’ webs are not passive traps. These webs require constant maintenance to ensure optimal elasticity and effectiveness.



The spiders frequently rebuild and adjust their webs, particularly after a successful hunt. This proactive behavior underscores their reliance on precision and efficiency in capturing prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nocturnal-activity-of-slingshot-spiders">Nocturnal activity of slingshot spiders</h2>



Interestingly, slingshot spiders exhibit a degree of nocturnal activity, relying on low light conditions to hunt more effectively. 



This behavior helps them avoid predators and increases the likelihood of encountering prey, which is often more active during the evening and night hours. Their ability to blend into their surroundings further aids their survival, as their small size and muted coloration make them difficult to spot.



The advanced sensory abilities of these small spiders also extend beyond hearing. Some studies suggest that they may detect changes in air pressure or subtle environmental cues, which allows them to anticipate prey movements.



The combination of sensory and mechanical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-man-web-slinging-technology-has-become-a-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptations</a> places slingshot spiders among the most specialized hunters in the arachnid world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/227/23/jeb249237/363202/Directional-web-strikes-are-performed-by-ray" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



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Slingshot spiders listen for the right moment to launch their webs

In ancient Rome, fisherman gladiators wielded nets and tridents to...

Ultra-processed&nbsp;food&nbsp;products&nbsp;are convenient to eat, and&nbsp;there is no denying that the combination of sugar, salt, and fat is extremely enticing.



These food items,&nbsp;from ready-to-eat meals to packaged snacks and soft drinks,&nbsp;not only appeal to our palates but also&nbsp;affect&nbsp;our brain's reward system, thus leading us to crave&nbsp;more.



Yet&nbsp;have we ever stopped&nbsp;to think about what this convenience costs us in terms of nutrition?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ultra-processed-foods-and-muscular-health">Ultra-processed foods and muscular health</h2>



A fresh perspective has emerged from recent research that casts a shadow over the consumption of ultra-processed foods.



The study revealed that people who consume a diet with high levels of such foods tend to store more fat inside their thigh muscles. This occurs regardless of our calorie intake or physical activity.



What&nbsp;makes this study unique is its approach in&nbsp;analyzing the role of ultra-processed foods in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecule-in-coffee-trigonelline-keeps-muscles-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle health</a>.



But why focus on thigh muscles? This choice isn't random. Higher amounts of intramuscular fat in the thigh could escalate the risk for knee osteoarthritis, which is a prevalent and costly global health issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-of-diet-quality-of-life">Quality of diet, quality of life</h2>



The researchers, from the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Francisco</a>, set out to assess the potential correlation between ultra-processed food intake and intramuscular fat in the thigh.



"This is the first imaging study looking into the relationship between MRI-based skeletal muscle quality and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-diet-quality-in-adolescence-linked-to-lifelong-health-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quality of diet</a>," said Dr. Zehra Akkaya, a researcher in the UCSF Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging.



The&nbsp;results&nbsp;were&nbsp;based&nbsp;on&nbsp;data&nbsp;from&nbsp;more than 600&nbsp;participants who had not developed osteoarthritis and were part of the Osteoarthritis Initiative. The participants had an average age of 60, and an average BMI of 27, which is generally considered obese.



The&nbsp;disturbing&nbsp;news,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;was&nbsp;that nearly&nbsp;40% of&nbsp;the food they had eaten within the past year was ultra-processed.



The researchers concluded that the more ultra-processed foods participants consumed, the more intramuscular fat they had in their thigh muscles, irrespective of their overall energy (caloric) intake or level of physical activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-onset-of-knee-osteoarthritis">The onset of knee osteoarthritis </h2>



Furthermore, an intriguing correlation was observed - the fat in thigh muscles might be linked to the onset and progression of osteoarthritis in the knees.



"Research from our group and others has previously shown that quantitative and functional decline in thigh muscles is potentially associated with onset and progression of knee osteoarthritis," said Dr. Akkaya. 



"On MRI images, this decline can be seen as fatty degeneration of the muscle, where streaks of fat replace muscle fibers."



With the muscle fibers in the thighs being replaced by fatty tissue, muscular weakening and degeneration may precede the onset of osteoarthritis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-smarter-choices-for-better-health">Making smarter choices for better health</h2>



Until now, the approach to fighting osteoarthritis has focused on modifiable lifestyle factors such as sufficient exercise, a healthy diet, and obesity prevention.



But this study indicates that the consumption of ultra-processed foods may also be a modifiable factor in the prevention of this health condition.



"Since this condition is highly linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-the-epidemic-crisis-of-our-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a> and unhealthy lifestyle choices, there are potential avenues for lifestyle modification and disease management," noted Dr. Akkaya.



Understanding the relationship between ultra-processed food consumption and muscle composition can help us make better dietary choices, ultimately leading to enhanced musculoskeletal health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visceral-fat-and-chronic-diseases">Visceral fat and chronic diseases </h2>



The effects of consuming ultra-processed foods extend far beyond thigh muscles and the link to osteoarthritis.



A growing collection of evidence shows that these foods contribute significantly to the development of visceral fat - the fat stored around internal organs. Visceral fat is very closely linked with the prevalence of chronic diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-sweetener-erythritol-sugar-substitute-linked-to-blood-clots-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.



Subcutaneous fat, by contrast, is metabolically inactive and cannot induce an inflammatory response that increases systemic disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addictive-nature-of-ultra-processed-foods">Addictive nature of ultra-processed foods</h2>



Another issue is that ultra-processed foods affect the brain's reward system, making us resistant to reducing the consumption of these foods.



The addictive&nbsp;nature&nbsp;of the high sugar, salt, and fat content rewires&nbsp;our brains to crave more of these substances, leading&nbsp;to overindulgence and a vicious cycle of poor dietary choices.



The&nbsp;researchers stress that&nbsp;the reduction&nbsp;of these foods in our diet could help in improving muscle composition, as well as overall metabolic and cardiovascular health.



This broader perspective reinforces the&nbsp;need&nbsp;to&nbsp;lower&nbsp;dependence&nbsp;on ultra-processed foods and&nbsp;move&nbsp;toward nutrient-dense, whole foods that&nbsp;align with both musculoskeletal and systemic health.



The study was described in a <a href="https://press.rsna.org/timssnet/media/pressreleases/14_pr_target.cfm?ID=2536">press release</a> by the Radiological Society of North America.



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Eating ultra-processed foods makes your muscles weaker and more fragile

Ultra-processed&nbsp;food&nbsp;products&nbsp;are convenient to eat, and&nbsp;there is no denying that the...

Date	Citation Page	Title
09/21/1989	54 FR 38950 38951	ETWP; Endangered Status for Queen Alexandra's Birdwing Butterfly; 54 FR 38950 38951
03/01/1989	54 FR 8574 8576	ETWP; Proposed Endangered Status for Queen Alexandra's Birdwing Butterfly; 54 FR 8574 8576