<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> features Messier 82, a starburst galaxy located in the constellation Ursa Major. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceers-2112-ancient-galaxy-looks-strikingly-similar-to-ours/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> is actively forming new stars at a rate ten times that of the Milky Way.</p>



<p>In a groundbreaking study using the <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST), an international team of astronomers has taken an unprecedented look at Messier 82 (M82), revealing intricate details about its frenzied star formation. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-nircam-and-infrared-observations">The power of NIRCam and infrared observations</h2>



<p>The study, led by Alberto Bolatto, utilized Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) to penetrate the thick dust and gas veiling the galaxy's core, a region critical to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>. </p>



<p>"M82 has garnered a variety of observations over the years because it can be considered as the prototypical starburst galaxy," noted Bolatto. “With Webb’s size and resolution, we can look at this star-forming galaxy and see all of this beautiful new detail.”</p>



<p>Webb's NIRCam has proven crucial for observing areas like M82’s center, where layers of dust typically obscure the view in other wavelengths. The camera's ability to capture infrared light allows it to reveal the galaxy's core and its dynamic processes.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-messier-82-image-shows-the-power-of-webb-nbsp">Messier 82 image shows the power of Webb&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“This image shows the power of Webb. Every single white dot in this image is either a star or a star cluster. We can start to distinguish all of these tiny point sources, which enables us to acquire an accurate count of all the star clusters in this galaxy,” noted study second author Rebecca Levy from the University of Arizona.</p>



<p>One of the NIRCam's innovative features is its mode that prevents bright sources from overwhelming the detector, which was particularly useful in studying the intensely active center of Messier 82.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In the image, the dark brown tendrils of dust weave through the galaxy's glowing white core, interspersed with small green specks that represent concentrated areas of iron from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova</a> remnants. Red patches highlight regions where molecular hydrogen is illuminated by the radiation from nearby young stars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-galactic-winds">Insights into galactic winds</h2>



<p>The study also focused on understanding how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spin-of-a-new-black-hole-is-unlocking-galactic-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic wind</a>, driven by the rapid rate of star formation and subsequent supernovae, influences M82’s environment. The NIRCam images showed clumpy tendrils of gas, appearing in red, which extend above and below the galaxy's plane, marking the path of this wind rushing out from the starburst's core.</p>



<p>A key revelation came from the NIRCam’s tracing of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), sooty chemical molecules that map out the structure of the galactic wind. To the surprise of researchers, the PAH emissions closely resembled the patterns of the hot, ionized gas, suggesting a more complex interaction within the wind than previously understood.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"It was unexpected to see the PAH emission resemble ionised gas," said Bolatto. "PAHs are not supposed to live very long when exposed to such a strong radiation field, so perhaps they are being replenished all the time. It challenges our theories and shows us that further investigation is required."</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-observations-of-messier-82">Future observations of Messier 82</h3>



<p>The findings from Webb are just the beginning. The team plans to further analyze Messier 82 with additional data, including spectroscopic observations, to determine the ages of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collisions-hubble-spots-a-string-of-pearls-star-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star clusters</a> and the duration of each star formation phase within the starburst environment. </p>



<p>These observations will also assist in a broader understanding of similar processes in early galaxies, which were common in the young universe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



<p>Study co-author Torsten Böker of the European Space Agency (ESA) emphasized the broader implications of these findings.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“With these amazing Webb images, and our upcoming spectra, we can study how exactly the strong winds and shock fronts from young stars and supernovae can remove the very gas and dust from which new stars are forming,” explained Böker.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“A detailed understanding of this ‘feedback’ cycle is important for theories of how the early universe evolved, because compact starbursts such as the one in M82 were very common at high redshift.”</p>



<p>The study not only illuminates the specific mechanics of star formation in M82 but also enhances our general understanding of galactic evolution and the lifecycle of galaxies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA</p>



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Messier 82: Unlocking the mysteries of star formation

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> features the spiral galaxy IC 5332, which is located over 29 million light-years away from Earth and spans approximately 66,000 light-years in diameter. This makes it notably smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is about a third larger.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-look-at-ic-5332">Unprecedented look at IC 5332</h2>



<p>In a stunning photo release by NASA and ESA in 2022, the spiral galaxy IC 5332 was presented in an unprecedented level of detail in images captured by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-incredible-new-image-of-uranus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>.</p>



<p>This feat was made possible through the use of the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI), which captures images in the mid-infrared spectrum.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-perspective-from-earth">Unique perspective from Earth</h2>



<p>One of the most striking features of IC 5332, as revealed by these observations, is its almost perfect face-on orientation relative to Earth. </p>



<p>This unique perspective allows astronomers to clearly observe and admire the symmetrical arrangement of its spiral arms.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-unveils-ic-5332-in-new-light">Webb unveils IC 5332 in new light</h2>



<p>The clarity of these images represents a significant advancement over previous observations made by the Hubble Space Telescope, which imaged IC 5332 in ultraviolet and visible light.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While Hubble’s images revealed the galaxy’s symmetrical spiral arms, James Webb’s MIRI has unveiled these structures as a complex web of gas that emits infrared light at various temperatures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-miri-instrument-on-james-webb-nbsp">The MIRI instrument on James Webb&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Capturing this range of infrared light is no simple task. It requires highly specialized instruments that must be maintained at extremely cold temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The MIRI instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope is specifically designed for this purpose and performs exceptionally well. Its capabilities allow astronomers to see aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> that are otherwise hidden in other wavelengths.</p>



<p>The detailed images provided by MIRI offer more than just a visual spectacle; they provide valuable data about the composition and temperature of the gases that make up the spiral arms of IC 5332. This can help scientists understand the processes of star formation within the galaxy and how these processes compare to those in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-finds-hidden-features-of-the-universe-nbsp">Webb finds hidden features of the universe&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Moreover, the images of IC 5332 serve as a critical test of the James Webb Space Telescope’s capabilities in observing the universe in infrared light. As astronomers continue to deploy Webb’s full suite of instruments to explore the cosmos, it is expected that many more hidden features of the universe will be revealed.</p>



<p>The information provided by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-second-most-distant-galaxy-in-pandoras-cluster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> not only expands our understanding of the cosmos but also enhances our appreciation for the complex and beautiful structures that exist in our universe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>We can anticipate many more insights from Webb that will deepen our understanding of the fundamental processes governing galaxies and the broader universe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-spiral-galaxies-like-ic-5332">More about spiral galaxies like IC 5332</h2>



<p>Spiral galaxies are some of the most visually striking objects in the universe, characterized by their rotating arms that extend from a central nucleus, giving them a distinct spiral appearance.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These galaxies are primarily made up of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are often surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.</p>



<p>Spiral galaxies differ from other galaxy types, such as elliptical and irregular galaxies, in their structure and content. The spiral arms are sites of ongoing star formation and are brighter than the rest of the disk because of the young, hot stars that are typically found there. The arms appear distinct because of their density waves, which compress the gas and dust, leading to star formation.</p>



<p>The rotation of the spiral arms also contributes to the galaxy's flat shape due to the centrifugal forces acting on the disk. The central bulge can vary in size and often contains older, red stars.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Barred spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Some spiral galaxies have a bar-shaped structure that extends from the central bulge, making them barred spirals. This bar affects the motion of stars and gas within the galaxy and can influence star formation activity.</p>



<p>The Milky Way, where our solar system resides, is an example of a barred spiral galaxy. Spiral galaxies are an important focus of study because they contain a significant amount of visible matter and play a crucial role in understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their distinct features also make them particularly useful for studying the laws of physics under extreme conditions, such as high densities and velocities.</p>



<p>Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, J. Lee and the PHANGS-JWST and PHANGS-HST Teams</p>



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Webb unveiled spiral galaxy IC 5332 in new light

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Corbassière glacier, a high-altitude glacier in Switzerland. The glacier originates on the northern slope of the Grand Combin, which is one of the highest peaks in the Pennine Alps.</p>



<p>Collectively, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-glaciers-will-lose-half-of-their-volume-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpine glaciers</a> of Switzerland have lost more than half of their volume since the 1930s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-archives-of-past-climate">Natural archives of past climate </h2>



<p>"Glaciers are natural archives of past climate. In their frozen layers lies evidence of Earth’s changing temperature and atmospheric composition. But as the climate warms, some of the longest records of our changing planet are melting away," said NASA.</p>



<p>"In just over two decades, Corbassière has shrunk in area and surface mass. The glacier was darker in 2023 due to lack of snow, and the glacier’s tongue had retreated."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cores-from-the-corbassiere-glacier">Ice cores from the Corbassière glacier</h2>



<p>To reconstruct past concentrations of atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-aerosols-impact-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, a team of scientists analyzed ice cores that were collected from the Corbassière glacier in 2018 and 2020. </p>



<p>Aerosols are tiny airborne particles that are deposited in the ice. "Such information from glaciers around the world can provide clues about past environmental conditions thousands of years ago," noted NASA.</p>



<p>"Ice cores contain ammonium, nitrate, and sulfate ions - signatures of aerosols lacing the snow that’s deposited on glaciers year after year. Ion concentrations are lower in winter than in summer because less polluted air can rise from the valley when the air is cold."</p>



<p>When the researchers analyzed the ice core from 2018, they found seasonal fluctuations in the amount of ion deposits - which is what they expected to find.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"But when we went to core the glacier in 2020, we noticed melting on the surface right away,” said Margit Schwikowski, an environmental chemist at <a href="https://www.psi.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul Scherrer Institute</a> in Switzerland.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-surface-melting-on-corbassiere-glacier">Rapid surface melting on Corbassière glacier</h2>



<p>The experts determined that melting on the glacier's surface likely penetrated the glacier layers below and carried away the aerosol ions. "This melting rendered the core unusable in the team’s research, and other attempts to core the glacier had the same result. The valuable information stored in the ice was destroyed," explained NASA.</p>



<p>Schwikowski has joined a team of other experts in an effort to preserve cores from the last remaining glaciers. Led by the <a href="https://www.ice-memory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ice Memory Foundation</a>, the goal of the project is to obtain ice cores from 20 endangered glaciers around the world in 20 years and collect them in a global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-ice-has-a-history-of-rapid-and-unexpected-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate archive</a>.</p>



<p>“Glaciers are retreating worldwide, and we may find similar issues at other sites,” said Schwikowski. She added that even at the highest altitudes in the Alps, "glaciers are on the verge of becoming unsuitable as natural paleo-archives."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">More about the Corbassière Glacier</h2>



<p>The Corbassière Glacier is a captivating natural feature located in the Swiss Alps, part of the canton of Valais. This glacier stretches over approximately 9 kilometers, making it one of the significant glaciers in the region. It originates from the Grand Combin, an imposing mountain massif that reaches heights of over 4,300 meters, contributing greatly to the glacier's nourishment through snow and ice accumulation.</p>



<p>A distinct feature of the Corbassière Glacier is its accessibility and the dramatic scenery it offers, which attracts many hikers and nature enthusiasts. One of the most notable attractions near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doomsday-glacier-seems-to-have-lost-its-ability-to-recover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> is the Corbassière footbridge, a 210-meter long suspension bridge that provides stunning views of the glacier and the surrounding peaks. </p>



<p>This bridge not only enhances the experience for visitors but also serves as a crucial observation point for scientists studying glacier dynamics and the effects of climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Swiss Alps&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Swiss <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-cover-in-the-alps-could-soon-be-cut-in-half/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alps</a> are a majestic and expansive mountain range that stretches across the southern part of Switzerland, forming a part of the greater Alpine region that spreads across several countries in Europe. </p>



<p>Renowned for their stunning beauty and formidable peaks, the Swiss Alps are not just a geographical landmark but also a cultural symbol of Switzerland, epitomizing its identity as a nation of scenic landscapes and outdoor adventure.</p>



<p>The region is famous for its dramatic scenery, including towering mountains, pristine lakes, and picturesque valleys. Among these peaks are some of the highest in Europe, such as the Dufourspitze, part of the Monte Rosa massif, which is the highest point in Switzerland. </p>



<p>The Matterhorn, perhaps the most iconic of all Swiss mountains, is celebrated for its unique, pyramid-like shape and is a magnet for climbers and tourists alike.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory</p>



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Corbassière glacier: Earth's climate archives are melting away

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features dust streaming from Lago Colhué Huapi, a shallow endorheic lake located in the Chubut Province in southern Argentina.</p>



<p>"Strong northwesterly winds often race down the eastern side of the Andes Mountains and whip across the central Patagonian Desert. In the process, they sometimes lift dust from Argentina’s drying Lago Colhué Huapi, fueling intense dust storms," said NASA.</p>



<p>"Lago Colhué Huapi is a particularly rich source of dust because the shallow lake regularly grows and shrinks with variations in the flow of the Senguer River and the pace of evaporation. When lake water levels are low, as they were when MODIS captured this image, fine-grained, lightweight particles are easily transported by the wind."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-activity-from-lago-colhue-huapi">Dust activity from Lago Colhué Huapi</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dust storms</a> in this region are most common during the summer months from December to March. There are 15 to 30 dust storms in a typical year. </p>



<p>"Dust storms are frequent and persistent enough in this area that they have exposed an open-air archaeological site along the lake’s edge," said NASA.</p>



<p>"The Puesto Roberts 1 site, located in an old floodplain on the southeast side of Lago Colhué Huapi, was first identified in 2019 when archaeologists noticed that winds had exposed a five-centimeter layer of sandy loam soil littered with stone tools and the bones of a wild species of llama called guanaco."</p>



<p>"Archaeologists identified 427 artifacts at the site - including stone cutting blades, milling tools, scrapers, and egg-shaped bola stones used for hunting - spread across 15 square meters, according to a 2022 study led by Heidi Hammond, an archaeologist at the National University of the Patagonia San Juan Bosco."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-lago-colhue-huapi">More about Lago Colhué Huapi</h2>



<p>This lake is an interesting geographical feature primarily because it acts as a seasonal sink for the Senguerr River, which in turn gathers waters from various smaller streams in the region.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



<p>Due to its shallow nature, the size of Lago Colhué Huapi can vary significantly with the seasons and the amount of water it receives from its sources. During times of drought or reduced rainfall, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-lakes-to-their-boiling-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> can shrink considerably, affecting the local ecosystem and the wildlife that depends on it.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate">Climate</h3>



<p>The lake's surroundings are characterized by a semi-arid climate, which influences the type of vegetation and animal life that can thrive in the area. Despite the harsh conditions, the region around Lago Colhué Huapi supports a variety of bird species, making it a site of interest for birdwatchers and naturalists.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-challenges">Environmental challenges </h3>



<p>In recent years, Lago Colhué Huapi has faced environmental challenges, including the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, which has led to lower water levels and increased salinity. These changes pose threats to the lake's ecological balance and the species that inhabit its waters and shores. The situation at Lago Colhué Huapi serves as a reminder of the broader environmental issues facing water bodies in arid and semi-arid regions around the world.</p>



<p>The image was captured on March 29, 2024 by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Aqua satellite.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory</p>



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Dust streams from Lago Colhué Huapi in Argentina 

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> features the star-forming region NGC 604, which is located 2.73 million light-years away from Earth in the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.</p>



<p>By studying regions like NGC 604, astronomers can gain insights into the complex interactions between stars and the interstellar medium, as well as the conditions that lead to the birth of stars. This, in turn, helps in understanding the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-like-our-own-milky-way-are-not-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> and the universe as a whole.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-stars-of-ngc-604">Massive stars of NGC 604</h2>



<p>"Sheltered among NGC 604’s dusty envelopes of gas are more than 200 of the hottest, most massive kinds of stars, all in the early stages of their lives," said ESA.</p>



<p>"These types of stars are known as B-types and O-types, the latter of which can be more than 100 times the mass of our own Sun. It’s quite rare to find this concentration of them in the nearby Universe. In fact, there’s no similar region within our own Milky Way galaxy."</p>



<p>"This concentration of massive stars, combined with its relatively close distance, means NGC 604 gives astronomers an opportunity to study these objects at a fascinating time early in their life."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gigantic-region-of-ionized-hydrogen">Gigantic region of ionized hydrogen</h2>



<p>NGC 604 is one of the largest known regions of ionized hydrogen, also known as an H II region. This nebula is significantly larger than the Orion Nebula, which is one of the most well-known H II regions in our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>. </p>



<p>NGC 604 spans about 1,500 light-years across, making it one of the largest H II regions in the Local Group of galaxies, which includes the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, and about 54 other smaller galaxies. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-604-starburst-phenomenon">NGC 604 starburst phenomenon </h2>



<p>Within NGC 604, there are hundreds of young, hot, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stars-at-the-edge-of-our-milky-way-galaxy-travel-more-slowly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>. These stars have ionized the surrounding gas, causing it to glow and creating the nebula. The region is a prime example of a starburst phenomenon, where stars form at a much higher rate than in typical galactic conditions.</p>



<p>“The bright orange streaks in this image signify the presence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs," explained ESA.</p>



<p>"As you travel further from the immediate cavities of dust where the star is forming, the deeper red signifies molecular hydrogen. This cooler gas is a prime environment for star formation. Ionized hydrogen from ultraviolet radiation appears as a white and blue ghostly glow."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-star-formation">More about star formation </h2>



<p>Star formation is crucial for the evolution of galaxies and the synthesis of heavy elements. Elements heavier than helium are created in the cores of stars and spread throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-stars-shakti-shiva-shaped-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> when stars reach the end of their lives and expel their material, either gently through winds or violently via supernova explosions. This enriching process allows for the formation of new stars and planets, and ultimately, the potential for life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-process-of-star-formation">Process of star formation</h2>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cloud collapse</h3>



<p>The process begins when part of a molecular cloud becomes unstable and starts to collapse under its own gravity. This can be triggered by events like shock waves from nearby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, galactic collisions, or the influence of other massive stars.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Formation of a protostar</h3>



<p>As the cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller clumps. Each clump will eventually form one or more stars. The material within these clumps continues to fall inward, heating up as it does so, eventually forming a warm core called a protostar. At this stage, the protostar is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion, the process that powers stars, to occur.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Accretion disk</h3>



<p>Around the protostar, material from the surrounding cloud continues to fall inward, forming a rotating disk. This material slowly accretes onto the protostar, increasing its mass.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nuclear fusion begins</h3>



<p>Once the core of the protostar reaches a high enough temperature and pressure, hydrogen atoms begin to fuse into helium, releasing energy in the process. This marks the transition from a protostar to a main sequence star, like our Sun.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Main sequence and beyond</h3>



<p>The star will spend the majority of its life in the main sequence stage, where it balances the gravitational forces trying to collapse it and the outward pressure from nuclear fusion. </p>



<p>Eventually, the star will exhaust its hydrogen fuel. Its subsequent evolution will depend on its initial mass, leading to various end stages such as red giants, supernovae, neutron stars, or black holes.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope</p>



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NGC 604 is home to hundreds of hot, massive stars

<p>Today's <strong>Image of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features thick haze over Thailand during the fire season. The photograph was captured by the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on the Suomi NPP satellite on March 16, 2024.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waves-of-smoke-and-haze">Waves of smoke and haze</h2>



<p>"Each year in January and February, satellites begin to detect waves of smoke and fire in Southeast Asia, particularly in highland forests in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. Fire activity continues to increase through March and April, reaches a peak during the height of the dry season, and then fades in May with the start of the rainy season," noted NASA.</p>



<p>"Individual fires are usually small and short-lived. But they are often so numerous that smoke, along with air pollution from rural and urban areas, mixes to produce thick layers of haze that blanket the landscape." </p>



<p>"Such hazes contain mixtures of small airborne particles called aerosols and gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone that degrade air quality and have harmful health effects."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-in-thailand-nbsp">Haze in Thailand&nbsp;</h2>



<p>An international field campaign - the Airborne and Satellite Investigation of Asian Air Quality (ASIA-AQ) - was recently launched to investigate the haze in Thailand.</p>



<p>"During the last two weeks of March 2024, NASA’s DC-8 and Gulfstream III aircraft flew several flights over Chiang Mai, Bangkok, and rural areas surrounding the cities to sample air quality with several sensors. At the same time, satellites observed the haze from above," said NASA.</p>



<p>James Crawford, ASIA-AQ’s principal investigator, said the team is collaborating closely with national and local government entities in Thailand.</p>



<p>“The goal is to take as many simultaneous measurements of pollutants as possible from the ground, air, and space,” said Crawford. The team will use the data to gain a better understanding of how the haze forms, evolves chemically over time, and moves throughout the region.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-and-public-health-in-thailand">Haze and public health in Thailand </h2>



<p>According to media reports, nearly 200,000 people have been hospitalized this year due to air quality in the region, with over 1.3 million people falling ill since January.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-root-causes">Root causes</h3>



<p>The root causes of the haze include agricultural burning, particularly of corn fields, as part of slash-and-burn practices to prepare land for the next planting cycle. This is exacerbated by the dry season when there's little rain to wash the pollutants away. </p>



<p>The situation is worsened by industrial emissions and vehicle fumes, particularly in urban areas like Bangkok​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-solutions-are-needed">Sustainable solutions are needed</h3>



<p>Efforts to address the crisis have been complex, involving local and transboundary issues. Much of the agricultural burning occurs not only within Thailand but also in neighboring countries like Myanmar and Laos, contributing to the transboundary nature of the haze. </p>



<p>Activists and local communities have called for sustainable solutions that do not exacerbate the poverty of smallholder farmers, emphasizing the need for affordable and realistic alternatives to burning​.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-measures-nbsp">Mitigation measures&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The Thai government has implemented a no-burning rule until the end of April to combat wildfires and haze, but enforcement and effectiveness remain challenges​​. </p>



<p>Some measures taken to mitigate the immediate effects of pollution in urban areas include spraying water and seeding clouds to encourage rain, although these have had limited success​​.</p>



<p>This ongoing environmental crisis has sparked widespread concern among citizens, who are increasingly using public interest litigation to hold companies and the government accountable for environmental commitments. </p>



<p>With recent political changes, there is hope that the new administration will take more decisive action against the haze, possibly through more stringent regulations and international cooperation​​.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impacts-of-haze">Health impacts of haze</h2>



<p>Haze poses several health hazards for those exposed to it, particularly when it contains fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Here are some of the main health risks associated with exposure to haze:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respiratory-problems">Respiratory problems</h3>



<p>Haze can aggravate conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD). The fine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-and-air-pollution-may-double-fatal-heart-attack-risk/">particles</a> can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing inflammation and reducing lung function.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cardiovascular-issues-and-haze">Cardiovascular issues and haze</h3>



<p>Exposure to fine particulate matter can also affect the cardiovascular system, leading to increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, and high blood pressure. Particles can affect blood vessel function and promote the formation of blood clots.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-irritation">Eye irritation</h3>



<p>Haze can cause eye irritation, leading to conditions such as conjunctivitis (pink eye) or exacerbated symptoms in people with existing eye conditions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-problems">Skin problems</h3>



<p>For some people, exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/">polluted air</a> can cause skin irritation or exacerbate skin conditions like eczema or psoriasis.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-immune-function">Reduced immune function</h3>



<p>There is evidence to suggest that prolonged exposure to polluted air can weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-mental-health">Impact on mental health</h3>



<p>There are growing concerns about the impact of air pollution on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-multiple-chronic-health-conditions/">mental health</a>, with studies suggesting a link between exposure to polluted air and an increased risk of depression and anxiety.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-women-and-children">Pregnant women and children</h3>



<p>Pregnant women, children, and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the effects of haze. There may be increased risks of preterm birth and low birth weight in babies, and children may experience delayed development and reduced lung function.</p>



<p>The health impacts of haze can be mitigated by staying indoors on days when air quality is particularly poor, using air purifiers, wearing masks designed to filter out fine particles, and following local health advisories.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory</p>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp">&nbsp;</h3>

Haze pollution is an environmental crisis in Thailand

<p>In a study involving zebrafish, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL) has explored how the brain manages synaptic connections during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cleaning-the-brain-neurons-flush-out-waste-while-we-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts found that the brain weakens new neural connections that were forged during waking hours, but this process only accounts for the first few hours of sleep.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-function-of-sleep-is-still-unclear-nbsp">Function of sleep is still unclear&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"Although sleep is conserved across the animal kingdom, the precise functions of sleep remain unclear. As sleep deprivation leads to acute impairment of cognitive performance, many theories posit that synaptic plasticity associated with learning and memory preferentially occurs during sleep," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"For example, the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis (SHY) proposes that synaptic potentiation during wakefulness results in an ultimately unsustainable increase in synaptic strength and number that must be renormalized during sleep through synaptic weakening and pruning. Such sleep-dependent renormalization has been postulated to broadly affect most excitatory synapses throughout the brain."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-synaptic-homeostasis-hypothesis">The synaptic homeostasis hypothesis</h2>



<p>The findings support the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, positing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-impairs-the-brain-potentially-causing-neurological-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> functions as a crucial reset mechanism for the brain, ensuring energy sustainability and readiness for new learning.</p>



<p>"Some studies examining either large neuronal populations or small patches of dendrites have found evidence consistent with the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, but whether sleep merely functions as a permissive state or actively promotes synaptic downregulation at the scale of whole neurons is unclear," wrote the researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-goes-offline">The brain goes offline</h2>



<p>“When we are awake, the connections between brain cells get stronger and more complex. If this activity were to continue unabated, it would be energetically unsustainable,” said senior author Jason Rihel, a professor in the UCL Cell &amp; Developmental Biology department.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Too many active connections between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain cells</a> could prevent new connections from being made the following day. While the function of sleep remains mysterious, it may be serving as an ‘offline’ period when those connections can be weakened across the brain, in preparation for us to learn new things the following day.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synaptic-connections-in-the-brain-nbsp-during-sleep">Synaptic connections in the brain&nbsp;during sleep</h2>



<p>The researchers used optically translucent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-zebrafish-heart-regeneration-could-transform-human-cardiac-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zebrafish</a> with genes that allow for easy imaging of synapses - the structures enabling communication between brain cells.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"To examine the scope and selectivity of sleep-linked synaptic plasticity, it is vital to comprehensively track the synaptic changes of individual neurons through sleep-wake states," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"To that end, we used in vivo synaptic labeling tools in larval zebrafish to image the same neurons and their synapses repeatedly over long timescales, enabling us to map single-neuron synapse changes across sleep and wake states."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-changes-in-the-first-half-of-the-night">Significant changes in the first half of the night</h2>



<p>By observing these fish over multiple sleep-wake cycles, they discovered that synaptic connections increase during wakefulness and decrease during sleep, particularly when sleep was postponed, indicating that sleep pressure intensifies this reduction.</p>



<p>The study revealed that the significant synaptic changes primarily occur during the first half of the night, coinciding with the peak period of slow-wave activity, a critical phase of the sleep cycle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-dampens-connections-in-the-brain">Sleep dampens connections in the brain</h2>



<p>“Our findings add weight to the theory that sleep serves to dampen connections within the brain, preparing for more learning and new connections again the next day,” said lead author Anya Suppermpool from UCL Cell &amp; Developmental Biology and UCL Ear Institute.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“But our study doesn’t tell us anything about what happens in the second half of the night. There are other theories around sleep being a time for clearance of waste in the brain, or repair for damaged cells – perhaps other functions kick in for the second half of the night.”</p>



<p>This research not only deepens our understanding of sleep’s role in synaptic management but also poses new questions about the functions of its later stages, paving the way for future investigations into the full spectrum of sleep's impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-is-a-powerful-tool-to-boost-brain-health-and-overall-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07367-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Sleep resets brain connections for a few hours, but then what happens?

In a study involving zebrafish, a team of scientists led...

<p>A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.uoguelph.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Guelph</a> in Canada has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-the-biggest-threat-to-wild-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> is increasingly posing a significant threat to bumblebee populations worldwide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the experts, the perils that rising temperatures pose to bumblebee nest viability and larvae development should urgently be taken into account in order to protect these insects.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-bumblebee-populations-nbsp">Decline in bumblebee populations&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“The decline in populations and ranges of several species of bumblebees may be explained by issues of overheating of the nests and the brood. The constraints on the survival of the bumblebee brood indicate that heat is likely a major factor, with heating of the nest above about 35 degrees Celsius being lethal, despite the remarkable capacity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> to thermoregulate,” explained Peter Kevan, an expert in environmental sciences at Guelph.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimal-temperature-range-for-bumblebee-nests">Optimal temperature range for bumblebee nests</h2>



<p>Bumblebees, diverse in species and widespread across various climates, have consistently shown an optimal nest temperature range between 28 and 32 degrees Celsius. This similarity across species suggests a limited ability to adapt to rising temperatures outside of their thermal neutral zone, where they can maintain body temperature without expending much energy.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Excessively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/death-valley-may-reach-the-hottest-temperature-ever-recorded-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high temperatures</a> are more harmful to most animals and plants than cool temperatures. When conditions are cool, organisms that do not metabolically regulate their body temperatures simply slow down, but when temperatures get too high metabolic processes start to break down and cease. Death ensues quickly,” Kevan said.</p>



<p>Through an extensive review spanning 180 years, the researchers have found that bumblebees can survive temperatures up to 36 degrees Celsius and thrive best around 30-32 degrees Celsius, though variations exist depending on species and geographic conditions. However, their innate ability to thermoregulate may not suffice against the escalating challenges posed by global warming.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collective-health-of-the-bumblebee-colony">Collective health of the bumblebee colony</h2>



<p>The study also emphasizes the concept of the bumblebee colony as a “superorganism,” highlighting that the reproductive success of the colony hinges on the collective health and survival of its members, not just individual bees. High nest temperatures, therefore, jeopardize the entire colony's future by potentially reducing the health and viability of new offspring.</p>



<p>“The effect of high nest temperatures has not been studied very much, which is surprising,” Kevan remarked. “We can surmise that nest temperatures above the mid-30s Celsius would likely be highly detrimental and that above about 35 Celsius death would occur, probably quite quickly.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elevated-nest-temperatures-nbsp">Elevated nest temperatures&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Parallel findings in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-carrying-nectar-avoid-overheating-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honeybees</a> have shown that elevated nest temperatures can weaken bee queens and result in smaller, less robust worker bees. A similar impact on bumblebees could directly contribute to their decline, suggesting an urgent need for further research.</p>



<p>The scientists advocate for deeper exploration into the understudied areas of bumblebee ecology such as nest morphology, material properties, and temperature regulation strategies. Innovative methods like ground-penetrating radar and flow-through respirometry analysis might reveal how different colonies and species manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermal stress</a>, potentially uncovering broader thermal neutral zones in some species that could confer greater resilience.</p>



<p>“We hope that future scientists may take the ideas we present and apply them to their own research on bumblebee health and conservation,” Kevan concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumblebee-nests-nbsp">Bumblebee nests&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Bumblebee nests are unique and fascinating structures usually found underground or in dense grass. Unlike honeybees, which build extensive hives, bumblebees often repurpose abandoned rodent burrows or thick grass clumps to create their homes. These nests are less populous, typically housing anywhere from 50 to 400 bees, which is considerably smaller than honeybee hives.</p>



<p>The queen bumblebee initiates the nest by laying the first batch of eggs, which she incubates with her body. As these hatch and mature into worker bees, they take over the duties of expanding the nest, foraging for food, and caring for subsequent broods laid by the queen. The interior of a bumblebee nest contains wax pots built by the workers for storing food and rearing young bees.</p>



<p>These nests have a relatively short lifespan. They are usually active for only a few months each year, from spring to late summer. At the end of the season, new queens are produced, which leave to mate and then find a place to hibernate through the winter.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The original nest is abandoned and generally does not get reused the following year. This cycle highlights the bumblebee's vital role in pollination and the ecosystem, despite their nests being less permanent than those of some other bee species.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frbee.2024.1351616" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Frontiers in Bee Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Rising temperatures are overheating bumblebee nests

A recent study led by the University of Guelph in...

<p>Recent research has revealed a fascinating detail about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollution-smoke-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloud</a> formation that might significantly deepen our understanding of climate change. This collaborative study, which utilized global satellite data and direct observations off the California coast, shows that aerosol particles as small as 25-30 nanometers - considerably smaller than previously believed - are crucial for cloud development.</p>



<p>"Clouds in Earth's atmosphere are of fundamental importance for the climate by regulating the reflection of sunlight into space and interacting with thermal radiation from Earth," noted the study authors. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focusing-on-the-behavior-of-cloud-condensation-nuclei">Focusing on the behavior of cloud condensation nuclei</h2>



<p>Clouds, complex and pivotal components of Earth’s atmosphere, present the greatest challenge in accurately predicting climate changes. Their formation is influenced by large-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-clouds-may-be-affecting-the-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> systems that span hundreds of kilometers and by interactions at the molecular level.</p>



<p>"Clouds are an essential part of Earth's climate system. At the same time, clouds constitute one of the largest uncertainties in our understanding of climate change," noted the researchers.</p>



<p>The study, focusing on the behavior of cloud condensation nuclei within marine stratus clouds, reveals that the size threshold required for these nuclei to trigger cloud formation is much smaller than the established norm of 60 nanometers. </p>



<p>Cloud formation occurs under two primary conditions: the atmosphere must be supersaturated with water, and there must be a seed particle or nucleus around which water can condense. </p>



<p>Traditionally, it was believed that these nuclei had to be relatively large. However, researchers from The <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark,</a> the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a>, and the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> have found that even smaller proto-seeds can serve as effective nuclei.</p>



<p>"Here, we show that the supersaturation in marine liquid clouds is significantly higher than in the conventional view. As a consequence, much smaller aerosols can serve as cloud condensation nuclei. This can make cloud formation more sensitive to changes in aerosol properties than previously thought," wrote the researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-role-of-smaller-aerosols-in-cloud-formation">Surprising role of smaller aerosols in cloud formation</h2>



<p>Henrik Svensmark, a senior researcher at DTU Space and lead author of the study, emphasized the sensitivity of cloud formation to these smaller aerosols, especially in regions dominated by marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-co2-levels-stratus-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratus clouds</a>. </p>



<p>"Since the proto seeds can be much smaller than previously thought, cloud formation is more sensitive to changes in aerosols than previously thought, especially in pristine areas," said Svensmark.</p>



<p>This sensitivity arises because smaller aerosols can be activated into cloud droplets in conditions where water is highly supersaturated. </p>



<p>Essentially, the denser the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-vapor-buoyancy-mitigates-climate-warming-in-the-tropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water vapor</a>, the smaller the necessary seed particle. This means that in areas with higher water supersaturation, even minuscule aerosol particles can catalyze cloud formation.</p>



<p>The research utilized measurements from marine stratus clouds gathered in 2014 by Nevada researchers, alongside global data from the MODIS satellite instrument. </p>



<p>These combined observations revealed a consistent pattern of higher-than-expected supersaturation across the globe, which in turn adjusts the scale of critical seed size downwards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-implications-for-climate-modeling">Future implications for climate modeling</h2>



<p>"About half of all cloud condensation nuclei are formed by tens of thousands of molecules clumping together one by one, forming an aerosol particle. That takes time; the longer it takes, the larger the risk of getting lost," explained Svensmark. </p>



<p>"Current models show that due to the growth time, most of the small <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=aerosols&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a> are lost before they grow to the critical size, and thus, cloud formation is rather insensitive to changes in the production of small aerosols. Our results change this understanding as aerosols must grow much less, which is important for modeling clouds and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-clouds-influence-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> predictions."</p>



<p>In simple terms, the discovery that smaller aerosols can effectively contribute to cloud formation suggests that climate models need to be recalibrated to account for these dynamics. This could potentially improve our predictions of future climate scenarios and provide a clearer picture of how atmospheric changes are influencing our environment.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the study not only challenges established paradigms in climatology but also opens the door for further investigations into the delicate interplays at the heart of our planet’s climate system.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL108140" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Tiny aerosols have a major influence on cloud formation

Recent research has revealed a fascinating detail about cloud formation...

<p>The Arctic has always been a realm of ice and snow, a starkly beautiful counterpoint to the vibrant life further south. But this seemingly pristine wilderness is ground zero for an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-new-clues-about-rapid-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alarming transformation</a>. The North Pole, the heart of this frozen world, is warming at a breakneck pace that scientists are struggling to fully understand.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-north-pole-warming-faster-than-we-thought">North Pole warming faster than we thought</h2>



<p>The fact that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-influences-us-weather-patterns-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic is warming</a> several times faster than the global average isn't just a scientific curiosity; it's a red flashing siren indicating major disruption. This intense warming translates into rapid, unpredictable transformations for both the Arctic and the broader planetary systems it influences.</p>



<p>Dr. Barten's research doesn't stop at simply acknowledging the severity of Arctic warming. His work is about dissecting the precise processes that accelerate this change. </p>



<p>Understanding these processes won't tell us <em>if</em> the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-impacts-dust-levels-on-a-global-scale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> will change drastically – we know that's inevitable – but it will crucially reveal <em>how fast</em> this change will happen.</p>



<p>The speed of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-could-speed-up-global-2c-temperature-rise-by-eight-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic warming</a> is the crucial factor determining our response. Knowing whether we have decades or mere years to adapt makes the difference between a planned transition and full-blown crisis management. </p>



<p>Every fraction of a degree of warming that we can prevent will translate to more time to prepare our infrastructure, protect vulnerable communities, and shift global systems for a changing world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-driving-the-warming">What's driving the warming?</h2>



<p>The Arctic atmosphere is far from the pristine image we might hold. Instead, it's a dynamic mix of various compounds, some of which are now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-amplification-is-destabilizing-the-delicate-balance-of-the-ecosystem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amplifying warming</a> in an unexpected way. Dr. Barten's research highlights two primary culprits:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-s-unexpected-impact">Ozone's unexpected impact</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-exposes-wildlife-to-harmful-uv-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ozone</a> plays a vital role high in the atmosphere, shielding us from harmful solar radiation. However, closer to the Earth's surface, it acts as a potent greenhouse gas, contributing to the warming of the planet. In the Arctic, unique atmospheric conditions allow ozone to linger longer than anticipated, magnifying its warming effect.</p>



<p>"There, the ozone is absorbed by seawater, snow and ice, but this process is much slower than was assumed. This causes the ozone to remain in the air," explained Dr. Barten.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-intrusions">Warm intrusions</h3>



<p>The Arctic's historically stable, cold air is being increasingly disrupted by warmer air masses from lower latitudes. These warm spells are becoming more frequent and intense due to broader climate change. They transport additional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/1987-ozone-treaty-had-an-unexpected-benefit-for-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone</a> into the Arctic and accelerate ice melt through their heat alone.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-snow-problem-in-north-pole-warming">The snow problem in North Pole warming</h2>



<p>The notion of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-waters-are-emitting-more-carbon-as-they-continue-to-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> as a pristine, untouched wilderness is fading fast. The reality is that our industrial activities leave a long shadow, even reaching the farthest corners of the globe. </p>



<p>Microscopic particles called soot, a byproduct of fossil fuel combustion from factories, vehicles, and other sources, travel vast distances on air currents. These tiny, dark specks end up settling on the Arctic's once-pristine snow and ice.</p>



<p>Soot acts like a miniature heat sponge. Unlike the reflective white snow and ice, which bounce sunlight back into space, soot absorbs solar radiation. </p>



<p>This absorption translates into a warming effect, similar to wearing a dark-colored shirt on a hot day. The presence of soot significantly accelerates the melting of Arctic ice, contributing to rising sea levels and disrupting delicately balanced ecosystems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-domino-effect">The domino effect</h2>



<p>It's easy to dismiss the melting Arctic as a distant concern with little impact on our everyday lives. However, this couldn't be further from the truth. The Arctic plays a crucial role in Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-arctic-glaciers-are-releasing-a-new-source-of-potent-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex climate system</a>. Changes in this cold, white expanse have cascading effects way beyond the polar regions. </p>



<p>Every chunk of ice that melts in the Arctic translates directly into higher ocean levels. Coastal communities worldwide are vulnerable to this creeping crisis. We're not just talking about more frequent flooding – we're talking about the long-term displacement of millions and the loss of precious land.</p>



<p>The Arctic plays a crucial role in regulating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global weather patterns</a>. Think of it as influencing the major currents of air and water that distribute heat and moisture around the planet. As the Arctic's systems are thrown off, we experience effects like:</p>



<ul>
<li>More intense storms in regions accustomed to mild climates.</li>



<li>Prolonged droughts that decimate crops and threaten food supplies.</li>



<li>Heatwaves and temperature swings that push infrastructure (and human bodies) to their limits.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-we-do-about-north-pole-warming">What can we do about North Pole warming?</h2>



<p>While the situation is far from hopeless, it's definitely urgent. The good news is that we have powerful tools to slow and potentially limit the Arctic's transformation. Each choice we make, and every policy change we support, directly impacts the speed and extent of further warming. </p>



<p>Our reliance on fossil fuels is the primary driver of global warming, including the accelerated changes in the Arctic. Prioritizing clean, renewable energy sources, investing in energy efficiency, and rapidly transitioning away from fossil fuel dependance are essential. These aren't abstract goals – they directly impact the fate of the Arctic.</p>



<p>Small acts, when repeated and amplified across millions of people, make a substantial difference. Conserving energy at home, opting for sustainable transportation like public transit or biking, and consciously demanding environmentally responsible practices from businesses all add up.</p>



<p>The Arctic's plight needs to be front and center in climate conversations. Make your concerns heard by leaders, representatives, and businesses. Demand bolder climate action and policies that align with the urgency of the situation.</p>



<p>Read the entire study <a href="https://edepot.wur.nl/640900" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">here</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Why the North Pole is warming faster than the rest of our planet

The Arctic has always been a realm of ice and...

Network,Of,Interconnected,People.,Interactions,Between,Employees,And,Working,Groups.

<p>"The enemy of my enemy is my friend." We've all heard this classic adage known as social balance theory. It speaks to a fundamental aspect of how we humans navigate our social world. Sure, sometimes it's messy, but now we know for certain, thanks to a fascinating new study, that there's a physics logic underlying this social theory and our other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-dance-of-dopamine-and-serotonin-influences-social-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social interactions</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-social-balance-theory">What is social balance theory?</h2>



<p>Back in the 1940s, a psychologist named Fritz Heider proposed Social Balance Theory. This theory suggests that we have a deep-seated preference for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consistency and predictability</a> in our relationships. We feel most comfortable in "balanced" social situations where the feelings between people align. </p>



<p>This could mean everyone genuinely liking each other, or, if dislikes are involved, there's a clear understanding of those negative connections (like disliking the same person as someone else).</p>



<p>When this balance is disrupted, such as when close friends have a falling out or you find yourself disliking someone your friend admires, it creates a sense of unease and social tension. </p>



<p>This tension stems from our desire for cognitive consistency – we want our understanding of our social world to make sense. Inconsistent or unpredictable relationships make that difficult, leading to discomfort.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-proving-the-theory">The challenge of proving the theory</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-behavior-helped-early-dinosaurs-thrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Social</a> scientists have spent years attempting to validate Heider's Social Balance Theory. However, this effort has proven challenging for a number of reasons. Firstly, social networks themselves are inherently intricate. Individual personalities play a significant role in how connections form and develop. </p>



<p>Secondly, social circles aren't all-encompassing. People often have limited connections within a broader network, meaning they might not be aware of all the relationships between the people they know. Early attempts at modeling social balance often treated relationships as overly simplistic. </p>



<p>These models frequently assigned positive or negative values to connections at random, failing to account for the complexities of real-world interactions. This shortcoming made it difficult to definitively determine if the patterns observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-online-gaming-improve-social-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social networks</a> aligned with the predictions of Heider's theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physics-proving-the-social-theory">Physics proving the social theory</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> have a developed a new approach using physics that provides strong evidence for the validity of Social Balance Theory at a large scale. </p>



<p>However, the key to their success wasn't necessarily a new theory. Instead, it involved a fresh perspective on established mathematical tools and their application to social networks.</p>



<p>The Northwestern team took a unique approach by analyzing four extensive collections of real-world interactions across various contexts. These datasets provided a rich tapestry of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/behavioral-changes-were-as-effective-as-lockdowns-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human behavior</a>:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>News site comments:</strong>&nbsp;Discussions and reactions to articles on a social news platform, revealing how users agreed or clashed over current events and trending topics.</li>



<li><strong>Political debates:</strong>&nbsp;Exchanges and recorded interactions between politicians, showcasing alliances, disagreements, and the dynamics of power.</li>



<li><strong>Bitcoin exchanges:</strong>&nbsp;Trading activity within the world of cryptocurrency, demonstrating trust, skepticism, and competition within the financial marketplace.</li>



<li><strong>Product reviews:</strong>&nbsp;User opinions and critiques about different products, highlighting likes, dislikes, and the spectrum of consumer sentiment.</li>
</ul>



<p>Crucially, the datasets didn't just record positive interactions. They also captured expressions of dislike, disagreement, and negative sentiment. By including both positive ("I agree!" or "Great product!") and negative ("This is terrible!" or "I disagree!") responses, the researchers were able to create a more nuanced and realistic model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strong-social-bonds-promote-healthy-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social networks</a>. This comprehensive approach was vital in finally validating Social Balance Theory on a broader scale.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-constraints-in-physics-and-social-theory">The power of constraints in physics and social theory</h2>



<p>Two major constraints were involved in the study:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constraint-1">Constraint 1</h3>



<p>Human social circles tend to have limits. We don't personally know or meaningfully interact with every single person on Earth. Realistically, our connections form within specific communities and contexts (work, hobbies, school, etc.).</p>



<p>Incorporating this constraint into the model is crucial. It prevents unrealistic scenarios where every individual ("node") within the network has the potential to form connections with everyone else. By limiting interaction possibilities, the model more accurately mirrors the way real-world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gossiping-may-actually-be-beneficial-to-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social networks</a> function.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constraint-2">Constraint 2</h3>



<p>People have wildly different personalities. Some of us are extroverted, actively seeking new connections and thriving on social engagement. Others are more introverted, preferring a smaller circle of close friends and less frequent interaction.</p>



<p>Acknowledging this variation in social behavior is essential. It ensures the model doesn't assume everyone has the same capacity or desire for interaction. </p>



<p>Social butterflies are naturally assigned more connections (both positive and negative), while those less outgoing have fewer overall links. This reflects the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-degrees-of-separation-theory-has-been-confirmed-by-experts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse social landscape</a> found in real life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-confirmation">The confirmation</h2>



<p>By incorporating these realistic constraints, the researchers observed a remarkable pattern. The results definitively demonstrated that real-world social networks strongly adhere to the principles of Social Balance Theory, including the "enemy of my enemy" concept. This validates our intuitive understanding that we strive for harmony and consistency in our social environments.</p>



<p>The far-reaching implications of this study are particularly exciting. This model has the potential to provide a powerful framework for understanding the dynamics of any system where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brief-conversations-with-strangers-boost-life-satisfaction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships and interactions</a> play a key role. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-physics-proving-social-theory">Broader implications of physics proving social theory</h2>



<p>The human brain is arguably one of the most complex networks in existence. This model could be applied to map how vast numbers of neurons form connections. </p>



<p>Researchers could then study how the balance (or imbalance) between excitatory and inhibitory signals influences brain activity, potentially shedding light on learning, memory, and even neurological disorders.</p>



<p>Moreover, drug interactions can be difficult to predict. Applying a similar framework could help doctors understand how different medications interact, both positively and negatively. </p>



<p>This could lead to more effective treatment strategies, optimizing the benefits while minimizing potential side effects for patients taking multiple prescriptions.</p>



<p>Social balance principles can even be applied to understand complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-basis-of-social-behavior-in-the-insect-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> phenomena on a broader scale. Researchers might model how political opinions spread or how extremist views gain traction within certain groups. This could potentially lead to the development of strategies for combating polarization and promoting greater social cohesion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



<p>This research highlights the interconnected nature of different systems. The tools developed to investigate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hamsters-reveal-new-clues-about-social-behavior-in-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> networks may provide the key to unlocking mysteries in fields as diverse as neuroscience and pharmacology.</p>



<p>The next time you're caught in the middle of a friend feud or feel drawn to someone because you share a common dislike, remember: there's a good reason for it. Science shows that your feelings have roots in our deep-seated desire for social harmony. </p>



<p>Of course, the real world is always a bit messier than theory, but at least now we know that the old saying has some mathematical weight behind it.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adj0104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Social theory that the 'enemy of my enemy is my friend' is proven by physics

"The enemy of my enemy is my friend." We've all...

Super,Macro,Photo,Closeup,Of,Group,Of,Red,Spider,Mite

<p>The microscopic two-spotted spider mite, with its insatiable appetite for over 1,000 plant species, ranks among agriculture's most formidable foes. </p>



<p>But recent research reveals that plant hormones aren't defenseless victims. They've cunningly adapted a drought-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-fight-or-fix-response-to-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a> mechanism to turn the tables on these pests, hindering their ability to feed and wreak havoc.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stomata-battleground-for-survival">Stomata: Battleground for survival</h2>



<p>Stomata act like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-breathe-drought-resistant-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breathing pores of a plant</a>. They are microscopic openings that allow essential gas exchange to occur. Carbon dioxide, needed for photosynthesis (the process by which plants turn sunlight into energy), enters through the stomata. </p>



<p>At the same time, oxygen, a byproduct of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, exits through these pores. Stomata also play a critical role in regulating water loss from the plant.</p>



<p>Under normal conditions, stomata remain open to facilitate gas exchange. However, during a drought, when water conservation becomes a priority, plants have a clever trick up their sleeves. </p>



<p>A hormone called abscisic acid (ABA) is produced. This hormone acts as a signal to the stomata, instructing them to close. By shutting these tiny pores, the plant significantly reduces water loss through its leaves.</p>



<p>Interestingly, this same mechanism that helps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-fruit-warns-the-rest-of-the-plant-when-attacked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> survive drought also serves as a defense against harmful pests like spider mites. These tiny, sap-sucking creatures prefer to enter plant tissues through open stomata. </p>



<p>When stomata close in response to ABA, they essentially slam the door shut on these unwelcome visitors, making it much more difficult for spider mites to feed and damage the plant.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abacus2-biosensor-plant-responses-and-spider-mite">ABACUS2 biosensor: Plant responses and spider mite</h2>



<p>This research was made possible through the combined efforts of scientists from two leading institutions: the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> in the UK and the <a href="https://www.upm.es/recursosidi/en/map/en_centre-for-biotechnology-and-plant-genomics-cbpg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Plant Biotechnology and Genomics</a> in Spain.</p>



<p>The team employed a sophisticated tool called the ABACUS2 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biosensor</a> to investigate the plant's defense response. This advanced technology allowed them to measure precise changes in the levels of abscisic acid (ABA) within individual plant cells as they were being attacked by spider mites. </p>



<p>The ABACUS2 biosensor provided an incredibly detailed view of the plant's internal defense mechanisms during the pest infestation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-s-rapid-reaction-against-spider-mite">Plant's rapid reaction against spider mite</h2>



<p>"Open stomata are natural openings where pests like mites insert their specialized feeding structures, called stylets, to pierce and then suck out the nutrient-rich contents from individual sub-epidermal cells”, elaborated Irene Rosa-Díaz, a researcher involved in the study.</p>



<p>The team discovered that plants waste no time in mounting their defense. Within hours of infestation, ABA levels spike, triggering stomatal closure. This swift action throws a wrench in the spider mites' feeding plans.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-effectiveness">Evidence of effectiveness</h2>



<p>The researchers conducted several experiments to test their hypothesis, and the results were remarkably clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-reprogram-their-cells-to-fight-pathogens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> that were pre-treated with ABA – the hormone associated with drought response – had less damage from the spider mites. This suggests that preemptively triggering stomatal closure can make plants less vulnerable to attack.</p>



<p>Plants with naturally impaired production of ABA or with an abnormally high number of stomata proved to be much easier targets for the spider mites. This finding highlights the crucial role of both the ABA hormone and stomatal regulation in pest defense.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-the-trigger">The search for the trigger</h2>



<p>While the link between spider mite infestation and the plant's defensive ABA response is established, scientists are still searching for the exact trigger. How does the plant initially sense that it's under attack? This remains a key area of active research.</p>



<p>Researchers are exploring a range of intriguing possibilities to explain how a plant might detect the presence of spider mites. </p>



<p>Could the plant sense the tiny vibrations caused by the mites' movements across its leaves as they feed? Do spider mites leave behind unique chemical traces in their saliva or elsewhere that act as a recognizable "scent" for the plant? Is it possible that the plant can directly detect the cellular damage caused by the mites' feeding?</p>



<p>Answering this fundamental question will significantly advance our understanding of plant defense mechanisms and could open new avenues for developing targeted pest control strategies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-pest-control">Natural pest control</h2>



<p>If scientists pinpoint the initial mite-produced signal, a new era of pest control could unfold. Imagine treatments that pre-arm plants, mimicking the early stages of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-leaves-send-signals-to-their-roots-on-dry-days-telling-them-to-keep-digging-deeper-for-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought response</a>, and making them less attractive to invading pests. Breeding programs could also prioritize plants with favorable stomatal traits to boost resilience.</p>



<p>This research spotlights how even the most unassuming plants possess sophisticated survival strategies. By understanding the interplay between drought resistance and defense against biotic threats like spider mites, we stand to unlock a treasure trove of insights that could revolutionize agriculture.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://academic.oup.com/plphys/advance-article/doi/10.1093/plphys/kiae215/7658819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Physiology</a></em>.</p>



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Plants use special hormones to defend against spider mites

The microscopic two-spotted spider mite, with its insatiable appetite for...

Suspicious,Man,Listening,A,Woman,Talking,In,Winter,In,The

<p>Have you felt that sinking feeling when another crisis hits, and leaders seem clueless about how to actually change people's behavior? We know changing how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-the-transition-to-sustainable-behavior-so-difficult/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people think and act</a> is vital, but the usual tactics never seem to work. </p>



<p>Professor Dolores Albarracín from the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a> has news for us: there's a science to this, and we've been doing it all wrong.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influencing-people">Influencing people</h2>



<p>This research challenges a lot of our deeply held assumptions about how to influence people. For example, spending time and effort on changing what people believe often has surprisingly little impact on how they actually behave. </p>



<p>It turns out that focusing on practical aspects, like building new habits and removing obstacles that get in people's way, is much more effective.</p>



<p>The implications here are massive. This isn't just a debate about whether people get vaccinated or choose greener options. It's about fundamentally shifting how policymakers and communities approach problems. It gives us a powerful evidence-based set of tools to create real change in people's lives. If that sounds exciting, keep reading!</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-behavior-works">How behavior works</h2>



<p>To change how people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gen-xs-attitude-toward-evolution-has-changed-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behave</a>, we need to understand two key types of factors that influence them:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-determinants">Individual determinants</h3>



<p>These are the internal building blocks that shape each person's actions. They include things like what someone already knows about a topic, the attitudes and beliefs they've formed, and the practical skills they possess (or the ones they might need to learn).</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structural-determinants">Social-structural determinants</h3>



<p>These are the external forces and systems that surround us, creating the context in which we live. They consist of legal frameworks and policies that restrict or encourage certain behaviors, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-social-media-use-makes-teens-more-likely-to-start-smoking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social pressure</a> to conform to what others do (norms), and whether essential resources for change are readily accessible (like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insurance-prescribing-healthy-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthcare</a>, education, or supportive communities).</p>



<p>To grasp the interplay, think of individual factors as the ingredients a person brings to the table – their knowledge, mindset, and abilities. The social-structural factors are akin to the kitchen itself – the tools available, the rules they must follow, and the broader environment that either supports or hinders their efforts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-educating-to-change-behavior">Educating to change behavior</h2>



<p>Let's break down the different ways we can target people's individual thoughts and motivations, and how those efforts translate into actual results. Researchers classify the impact of these strategies as "negligible," "small," "medium," or "large" when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/online-avatars-sway-our-morals-through-social-influence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influencing behavior</a>:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-factors">Individual Factors</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Negligible Effect:</strong> Trying to influence people through broader knowledge, general attitudes, or teaching generic skills shows shockingly little effect on their actions. In other words, facts alone or vague "awareness campaigns" are unlikely to make much of a dent.</li>



<li><strong>Small-Medium Effect:</strong> Strategies focused on shaping people's attitudes toward a specific behavior (like thinking recycling is "good") and helping them develop specific skills for that behavior demonstrate some impact, but it's limited.</li>



<li><strong>Large Effect:</strong> Helping people form strong habits around a behavior has the biggest payoff. This means finding ways to make the desired action automatic and routine. Similarly, fostering deep associations between a behavior and concepts like "good" or "bad" can be extremely powerful.</li>
</ul>



<p>This is a critical insight for anyone trying to encourage change. The emphasis shouldn't be on making people simply know more, or hoping they'll feel a certain way. It's about embedding actions into everyday life and forging strong mental links that guide decision-making.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laws-to-change-behavior">Laws to change behavior</h2>



<p>Let's look at the external systems and influences that can motivate (or demotivate) behavior. As with individual factors, researchers have measured the impact of different strategies as "negligible," "small," "medium," or "large":</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-structural-factors">Social-structural factors</h3>



<ul>
<li><strong>Negligible effect:</strong> Surprisingly, top-down approaches like imposing laws and regulations or trying to boost trust in institutions have very little influence on people's actions. This means that threats of punishment or making a government agency seem more trustworthy won't magically change people's choices.</li>



<li><strong>Small effect:</strong> Using social pressure via norms ("what everyone else is doing") and offering incentives (like rewards) can have some effect, but it's fairly limited.</li>



<li><strong>Large effect:</strong> Providing direct support networks and removing barriers to accessing essential resources has the most significant impact when it comes to shifting behavior. This could look like peer support groups for people trying to improve their health or making it easy and affordable to access preventative healthcare.</li>
</ul>



<p>Instead of coercion or trying to control what's inside people's heads, the biggest potential for change lies in shaping the environment around them. Support systems and easy access to what's needed create an environment where the desired behavior becomes the most natural and supported choice.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-we-change-people-s-behavior">How do we change people's behavior?</h2>



<p>The old mindset, whether applied to individuals or society, focuses on knowledge and coercion. Think of the endless warnings and information dumps coupled with the assumption that punishment will scare people into compliance. However, this new research tells us that approach is largely ineffective.</p>



<p>What truly works is a fundamental shift. Instead of fixating on what people believe, we need to prioritize:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-automatic-routines">Creating automatic routines </h3>



<p>Help people integrate desired actions into their daily lives to the point where it becomes second nature.  When we repeatedly perform an action, it creates and strengthens connections in our brains, making it increasingly easier to do with less conscious thought. Think of it like creating a well-worn path that you naturally follow.</p>



<p>The less we have to actively debate whether to do something, the more likely we are to do it without resistance. If exercising or eating healthy is automatic, we don't have to battle internal arguments or willpower.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-long-does-it-take-to-form-a-habit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habits</a> become interwoven with how we see ourselves. A person whose daily routine includes physical activity starts to think of themselves as someone who exercises, making the behavior part of their core identity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fostering-supportive-communities">Fostering supportive communities</h3>



<p>Humans are social creatures, and seeing others consistently demonstrate a desired behavior makes it feel more achievable and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-magic-number-of-people-needed-for-social-change-to-catch-on/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">socially acceptable</a>. This normalizes the behavior, making it seem like the natural thing to do.</p>



<p>Knowing others expect us to act a certain way provides positive social pressure. Supportive groups can offer encouragement, celebrate successes, and help navigate setbacks.</p>



<p>Community members become resources for problem-solving, sharing tips and strategies that have worked, and providing expertise or assistance with overcoming challenges.</p>



<p>The sense of belonging and connection fosters feelings of acceptance and encouragement. This combats isolation and builds resilience so people are less likely to give up in the face of setbacks.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-removing-barriers">Removing barriers</h3>



<p>Even if someone knows why a behavior is important and wants to change, practical obstacles can completely derail their efforts. It's about what's possible, not just what's ideal.</p>



<p>People operate within existing systems and structures that may make adopting new behaviors extremely difficult. Think of food deserts, lack of transportation, or complicated healthcare systems.</p>



<p>For many people, tangible changes in their environment will have a far greater impact than trying to change what they think or feel. This approach empowers positive action even if immediate shifts in mindset don't happen.</p>



<p>The key is identifying the specific roadblocks people face and designing interventions that dismantle them. This levels the playing field, making it possible for people to act in line with their intentions regardless of their individual circumstances.</p>



<p>Let's imagine the possibilities this approach unlocks:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Quitting smoking programs:</strong> Rather than bombard smokers with grim statistics, they'd focus on the nitty-gritty of establishing new routines and stress management techniques.</li>



<li><strong>Climate initiatives:</strong> Forget endless guilt trips about carbon footprints. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-impact-labeling-has-a-strong-influence-on-food-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Green choices</a> would become the easiest, most convenient default option for transportation, energy, and daily life.</li>



<li><strong>Healthcare systems:</strong> Healthy living would be accessible and affordable for everyone, from regular checkups to nutritious food options, regardless of income or insurance status.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-positive-behavior-change">The power of positive behavior change</h2>



<p>This research isn't about making us cynical. It's about getting smarter. No more "common sense" approaches that never pan out. Instead, we've got an evidence-based roadmap. </p>



<p>“Before this study, analyses of behavior change efforts were limited to one domain, whether that was environmental science or public health. By looking at research across domains, we now have a clearer picture of how to encourage behavior change and make a difference in people’s lives,” says Professor Albarracín.</p>



<p>“Our research provides a map for what might be effective even for behaviors nobody has studied. Just like masking because a critical behavior during the pandemic but we had no research on masking, a broad empirical study of intervention efficacy can guide future efforts for an array of behaviors we have not directly studied but that need to be promoted during a crisis.”</p>



<p>Ultimately, this is about understanding that changing the world starts with understanding the actual mechanics of how we humans work. And now, we have a much better manual.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-024-00305-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Psychology</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Science behind predicting and changing human behavior

Have you felt that sinking feeling when another crisis hits,...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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<p>The future of this particular method of scientific investigation is quite bright, it would seem. At least, that’s how Kring sees it. As he put it to <em>Science</em>, “I think we are going to get a little library of fragments of the early Earth emerging in the next few years.&#8221;</p>


1. A Bright Future

<p>According to Kring, it’s likely that researchers will now seek to analyze all the rocks that have been brought back to Earth from the Moon. Only a small amount of these fragments have apparently ever been investigated appropriately. So, who knows what secrets about the early planet they might shed light on?</p>