Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features sediment swirling in the Gulf of Alaska on December 29, 2023.



"After an unusually snowy start to winter, southern Alaska’s coastline remained under a blanket of white in late December," said NASA.



"Meanwhile, greens and tans swirled in the dark blue water offshore. The dullness of the hues near shore suggests that the water is mostly colored by sediment. It is likely that phytoplankton - microscopic plant-like organisms - contributed to some of the hues farther from the coast."



According to NASA, much of the sediment in this region comes from “glacial flour” carried into the gulf by the Copper River.&nbsp;



"Glacial flour forms as glaciers move over bedrock and grind it into a fine silt. When suspended in water, glacial flour can make the water appear an opaque turquoise color - similar to phytoplankton blooms. The sediment carries iron and other nutrients that can spur the growth of these tiny marine organisms," explained NASA.



Aimee Neeley, a biological oceanographer at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, noted that there are always phytoplankton in the water, but usually at lower levels in the wintertime at these latitudes.



The Gulf of Alaska is a vast and biologically rich body of water that lies at the northernmost part of the Pacific Ocean, encircled by Alaska.&nbsp;



The gulf extends approximately 1,500 miles from the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands in the west to the Alexander Archipelago in the east.



Characterized by a subarctic climate, it's known for heavy rain and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-loss-increases-snowfall-over-west-antarctica/">snowfall</a>. The region is also prone to frequent storms and is a significant pathway for colder northern weather patterns moving into the United States.



The Gulf of Alaska is home to a diverse marine ecosystem. It supports many species of fish, such as salmon and halibut, and is also a habitat for marine mammals like whales, sea lions, and seals.



The image was captured by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument on NASA’s Aqua satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Sediment swirling in the Gulf of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut view of the Aladaghlar Mountains in northwestern Iran. These mountains are known for their strikingly colorful landscapes, which make them stand out among other mountain ranges.



"Ridges cast shadows in the valleys and other low elevation areas, creating a three-dimensional appearance. Human alterations to the landscape are most evident in riverbeds, where the even topography is easier to build on and navigate," said NASA.



"Natural processes over millions of years have folded rock layers of various compositions and colors into the curved patterns seen here. These folds are produced by tectonic forces operating along the convergent plate boundary of the Arabia and Eurasia plates. The convergence of these tectonic plates causes uplift, folding, and deformation of the colorful rock layers, and subsequent erosion exposes them."



One of the most remarkable features of the Aladaghlar Mountains is the vivid coloration of their slopes. The name "Aladaghlar" translates to "Colorful Mountains," which is a testament to their unique appearance. 



The Aladaghlar Mountains are part of a larger ecosystem that includes forests, meadows, and rivers, contributing to a rich biodiversity. The region supports a variety of wildlife, including several species that are unique to the area. The diverse wildlife add to the natural beauty and ecological importance of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/">mountains</a>.



In addition to their natural appeal, the Aladaghlar Mountains hold cultural significance. The region has a rich history, with evidence of ancient civilizations and historical sites. Local communities have their unique cultures and traditions, which have been influenced by the natural environment of the mountains.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The Aladaghlar Mountains of northwestern Iran

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a large sediment plume from the Yangtze River that extends hundreds of kilometers off the coast of China.



"Brown, sediment-laden water is visible along this shallow, turbid stretch of coast year-round, but a vast plume like the one visible here is a characteristic feature of winter. Scientists have proposed several causes of this seasonal phenomenon," said NASA.



"The ebb and flow of tides contain enough energy to stir up sediments from the seafloor, a 2017 study found. While there are also tides in the summer, the models used in the study showed that sediment only rises to the surface in the winter. That’s when temperatures and salinities at the sea surface and bottom are similar, allowing for vertical mixing to occur and for sediment to churn higher into the water column."



Additional studies have suggested that the summer monsoon’s influence on currents impedes the eastward flow of sediment out of the estuaries, noted NASA.



"Despite what looks like a glut of suspended sediment in the water, the overall amount of it flowing from the Yangtze River has declined steadily over the past several decades. The construction of dams, including the Three Gorges Dam, has been the primary driver of this trend."



It is important for scientists to track the movement of suspended sediment. This material can cause direct harm to marine life, as well as indirect harm by blocking sunlight.



The Yangtze River, also known as the Chang Jiang in Chinese, is the longest river in Asia and the third-longest in the world, following the Nile and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-river-dolphins-are-at-great-risk-of-extinction-due-to-human-activities/">Amazon</a>. It flows for over 6,300 kilometers (about 3,917 miles) from the glaciers of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in western China to the East China Sea at Shanghai.&nbsp;



The Yangtze River basin is a key region for China's agriculture, industry, and hydroelectric power production. The river's waters are used for irrigation, navigation, and as a source of freshwater. The basin is home to diverse wildlife, including the critically endangered Yangtze river dolphin or Baiji, which may now be extinct.



The image was captured on February 12, 2024 by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite sensor on the NOAA-20 satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Sediment flows offshore from the Yangtze River 

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is a tributary of the Congo River, one of the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warmer-rivers-keep-antimicrobial-resistant-genes-at-bay/">rivers</a> in the world by discharge and depth. 



The Ruki River, previously known as the Busira, merges with the Momboyo River near the town of Basankusu to become the Lulonga River, which eventually flows into the Congo River at the town of Lisala.



"If the appearance of the muddy Amazon River evokes a coffee cut with cream, the Ruki River, coursing gently through the Congo Basin, is like a dark tea," said NASA.



"On its slow path through mostly untouched lowland rainforest in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the water leaches organic material from vegetation, prompting some researchers to think it is one of the darkest blackwater rivers on Earth. The dissolved material in this distinctive water, scientists are finding, offers clues into the carbon cycle of tropical forests."



In a recent study, researchers measured the chemical composition and flow of the Ruki for the first time.&nbsp;



"The study reported that, as the water color suggests, the Ruki is rich in dissolved organic carbon compounds. It contains four times as much organic carbon as the Congo River and 1.5 times as much as the Rio Negro, the world’s largest blackwater river and a major tributary of the Amazon," said NASA.



Due to this heavy carbon load, the researchers concluded that “tropical forests like those around the Ruki might not accumulate quite as much carbon as we once thought.”



The region around the Ruki River is rich in biodiversity, hosting various species of flora and fauna. It is part of the Congo Basin, the second-largest tropical rainforest area in the world, which is a critical habitat for endangered species and a significant carbon sink.



The river is vital for the livelihoods of local communities. Fishing is a crucial activity, with many people depending on it for sustenance and income. The river also supports agriculture along its banks, where communities grow crops.



In many parts of the DRC, rivers like the Ruki are crucial transportation corridors due to the challenging and often nonexistent road infrastructure. The river enables the movement of people and goods, facilitating trade and access to markets, health care, and education.



The region faces several challenges, including deforestation, overfishing, and environmental degradation, which threaten its ecological balance and the livelihoods of people who depend on it. Efforts to manage and conserve the river's resources are vital for sustainable development.



Understanding and protecting the Ruki River and its surroundings are crucial for the DRC's environmental sustainability, economic development, and the well-being of its communities.



The image was captured by the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The Ruki River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features dust streaming from Lago Colhué Huapi, a shallow endorheic lake located in the Chubut Province in southern Argentina.



"Strong northwesterly winds often race down the eastern side of the Andes Mountains and whip across the central Patagonian Desert. In the process, they sometimes lift dust from Argentina’s drying Lago Colhué Huapi, fueling intense dust storms," said NASA.



"Lago Colhué Huapi is a particularly rich source of dust because the shallow lake regularly grows and shrinks with variations in the flow of the Senguer River and the pace of evaporation. When lake water levels are low, as they were when MODIS captured this image, fine-grained, lightweight particles are easily transported by the wind."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-activity-from-lago-colhue-huapi">Dust activity from Lago Colhué Huapi</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/">Dust storms</a> in this region are most common during the summer months from December to March. There are 15 to 30 dust storms in a typical year.&nbsp;



"Dust storms are frequent and persistent enough in this area that they have exposed an open-air archaeological site along the lake’s edge," said NASA.



"The Puesto Roberts 1 site, located in an old floodplain on the southeast side of Lago Colhué Huapi, was first identified in 2019 when archaeologists noticed that winds had exposed a five-centimeter layer of sandy loam soil littered with stone tools and the bones of a wild species of llama called guanaco."



"Archaeologists identified 427 artifacts at the site - including stone cutting blades, milling tools, scrapers, and egg-shaped bola stones used for hunting - spread across 15 square meters, according to a 2022 study led by Heidi Hammond, an archaeologist at the National University of the Patagonia San Juan Bosco."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-lago-colhue-huapi">More about Lago Colhué Huapi</h2>



This lake is an interesting geographical feature primarily because it acts as a seasonal sink for the Senguerr River, which in turn gathers waters from various smaller streams in the region. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size">Size</h3>



Due to its shallow nature, the size of Lago Colhué Huapi can vary significantly with the seasons and the amount of water it receives from its sources. During times of drought or reduced rainfall, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-lakes-to-their-boiling-point/">lake</a> can shrink considerably, affecting the local ecosystem and the wildlife that depends on it.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate">Climate</h3>



The lake's surroundings are characterized by a semi-arid climate, which influences the type of vegetation and animal life that can thrive in the area. Despite the harsh conditions, the region around Lago Colhué Huapi supports a variety of bird species, making it a site of interest for birdwatchers and naturalists.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-challenges">Environmental challenges </h3>



In recent years, Lago Colhué Huapi has faced environmental challenges, including the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/">climate change</a>, which has led to lower water levels and increased salinity. These changes pose threats to the lake's ecological balance and the species that inhabit its waters and shores. The situation at Lago Colhué Huapi serves as a reminder of the broader environmental issues facing water bodies in arid and semi-arid regions around the world.



The image was captured on March 29, 2024 by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Aqua satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Dust streams from Lago Colhué Huapi in Argentina 

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features thick haze over Thailand during the fire season. The photograph was captured by the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on the Suomi NPP satellite on March 16, 2024.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waves-of-smoke-and-haze">Waves of smoke and haze</h2>



"Each year in January and February, satellites begin to detect waves of smoke and fire in Southeast Asia, particularly in highland forests in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. Fire activity continues to increase through March and April, reaches a peak during the height of the dry season, and then fades in May with the start of the rainy season," noted NASA.



"Individual fires are usually small and short-lived. But they are often so numerous that smoke, along with air pollution from rural and urban areas, mixes to produce thick layers of haze that blanket the landscape." 



"Such hazes contain mixtures of small airborne particles called aerosols and gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone that degrade air quality and have harmful health effects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-in-thailand-nbsp">Haze in Thailand&nbsp;</h2>



An international field campaign - the Airborne and Satellite Investigation of Asian Air Quality (ASIA-AQ) - was recently launched to investigate the haze in Thailand.



"During the last two weeks of March 2024, NASA’s DC-8 and Gulfstream III aircraft flew several flights over Chiang Mai, Bangkok, and rural areas surrounding the cities to sample air quality with several sensors. At the same time, satellites observed the haze from above," said NASA.



James Crawford, ASIA-AQ’s principal investigator, said the team is collaborating closely with national and local government entities in Thailand.



“The goal is to take as many simultaneous measurements of pollutants as possible from the ground, air, and space,” said Crawford. The team will use the data to gain a better understanding of how the haze forms, evolves chemically over time, and moves throughout the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-haze-and-public-health-in-thailand">Haze and public health in Thailand </h2>



According to media reports, nearly 200,000 people have been hospitalized this year due to air quality in the region, with over 1.3 million people falling ill since January.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-root-causes">Root causes</h3>



The root causes of the haze include agricultural burning, particularly of corn fields, as part of slash-and-burn practices to prepare land for the next planting cycle. This is exacerbated by the dry season when there's little rain to wash the pollutants away. 



The situation is worsened by industrial emissions and vehicle fumes, particularly in urban areas like Bangkok​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-solutions-are-needed">Sustainable solutions are needed</h3>



Efforts to address the crisis have been complex, involving local and transboundary issues. Much of the agricultural burning occurs not only within Thailand but also in neighboring countries like Myanmar and Laos, contributing to the transboundary nature of the haze. 



Activists and local communities have called for sustainable solutions that do not exacerbate the poverty of smallholder farmers, emphasizing the need for affordable and realistic alternatives to burning​.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigation-measures-nbsp">Mitigation measures&nbsp;</h3>



The Thai government has implemented a no-burning rule until the end of April to combat wildfires and haze, but enforcement and effectiveness remain challenges​​. 



Some measures taken to mitigate the immediate effects of pollution in urban areas include spraying water and seeding clouds to encourage rain, although these have had limited success​​.



This ongoing environmental crisis has sparked widespread concern among citizens, who are increasingly using public interest litigation to hold companies and the government accountable for environmental commitments. 



With recent political changes, there is hope that the new administration will take more decisive action against the haze, possibly through more stringent regulations and international cooperation​​.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impacts-of-haze">Health impacts of haze</h2>



Haze poses several health hazards for those exposed to it, particularly when it contains fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Here are some of the main health risks associated with exposure to haze:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-respiratory-problems">Respiratory problems</h3>



Haze can aggravate conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD). The fine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heatwaves-and-air-pollution-may-double-fatal-heart-attack-risk/">particles</a> can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing inflammation and reducing lung function.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cardiovascular-issues-and-haze">Cardiovascular issues and haze</h3>



Exposure to fine particulate matter can also affect the cardiovascular system, leading to increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, and high blood pressure. Particles can affect blood vessel function and promote the formation of blood clots.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-irritation">Eye irritation</h3>



Haze can cause eye irritation, leading to conditions such as conjunctivitis (pink eye) or exacerbated symptoms in people with existing eye conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-problems">Skin problems</h3>



For some people, exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/">polluted air</a> can cause skin irritation or exacerbate skin conditions like eczema or psoriasis.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-immune-function">Reduced immune function</h3>



There is evidence to suggest that prolonged exposure to polluted air can weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-mental-health">Impact on mental health</h3>



There are growing concerns about the impact of air pollution on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-multiple-chronic-health-conditions/">mental health</a>, with studies suggesting a link between exposure to polluted air and an increased risk of depression and anxiety.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnant-women-and-children">Pregnant women and children</h3>



Pregnant women, children, and the elderly are particularly vulnerable to the effects of haze. There may be increased risks of preterm birth and low birth weight in babies, and children may experience delayed development and reduced lung function.



The health impacts of haze can be mitigated by staying indoors on days when air quality is particularly poor, using air purifiers, wearing masks designed to filter out fine particles, and following local health advisories.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nbsp">&nbsp;</h3>

Haze pollution is an environmental crisis in Thailand

Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover delicately over a flower, and wondered how they manage it? Unlike birds and other flying animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-insects-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> don't have direct muscle control in their wings. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a> have delved deep into this question, revealing the complex mechanics behind insect flight, a capability that has profoundly influenced the evolution of life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secret-s-in-the-hinge">The secret's in the hinge</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-flying-insects-fight-the-wind-to-reach-food-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect</a> wings are attached to the body by a hinge that is far more complex than any simple joint. This specialized hinge facilitates subtle rotations, precise tilting, and intricate motions, granting the insect incredible agility during flight. 



Internal muscles control the hinge, acting in a concerted way to manipulate the wings. Each muscle receives direct commands from the insect's brain, resulting in coordinated and precise alterations in wing movement that dictate the insect's flight path.



"The fly wing hinge is perhaps the most mysterious and underappreciated structure in the history of life," explained Professor Michael Dickinson. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flying-is-an-insects-superpower">Flying is an insects superpower</h2>



Flight offers substantial benefits that have contributed significantly to the ecological success of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-feast-on-migrating-insects-in-the-pyrenees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. Here's how aerial movement impacts their lives:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-foraging">Enhanced foraging</h3>



Taking to the skies vastly expands an insect's foraging range. They can quickly locate food sources that would be difficult or tedious to reach on foot, increasing their chances of finding a meal and boosting energy intake.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dating-pool">Expanding the dating pool</h3>



The ability to fly makes it significantly easier for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> to locate potential mates. Individuals can cover vast distances and increase the odds of encountering a suitable partner, contributing to successful reproduction and species continuation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-predator-avoidance">Improved predator avoidance</h3>



Flight provides insects with a swift escape route. They can rapidly gain altitude or outmaneuver predators, increasing their chances of survival and ultimately, reproductive success.



Unlike birds, bats, and pterosaurs, who evolved flight through the modification of their forelimbs, insects took a radically different approach. Their wings are not modified limbs, but unique outgrowths of their body wall. 



This unique evolutionary trajectory and specialized wing system is one crucial reason behind the incredible diversification and dominance of insects around the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-behind-insect-flight">Complexity behind insect flight</h2>



Scientists at Caltech are exploring the intricacies of insect flight, focusing on the remarkable aerial capabilities of the fruit fly. Their research reveals the complexity and precision of these small creatures’ flight mechanisms.



"We didn't want to just predict the wing motion; we wanted to know the role of the individual muscles," said study first author Johan Melis. "We wanted to tie together the biomechanics of the wing hinge to the neural circuits that control it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-behind-insect-flight">Mechanisms behind insect flight </h2>



In the wing hinge of a fly, a specific set of 12 muscles directly controls the movement of the wings. Each of these muscles receives signals directly from the fly's brain, guiding their precise and quick actions necessary for flight. 



To understand the significance of this, compare it to a hummingbird, which is also renowned for its agile flight. Despite its small size, a hummingbird relies on thousands of neurons to coordinate the complex movements needed for its flight maneuvers. 



Essentially, while both creatures are masters of flight, the fly achieves similar levels of control and agility with far fewer neural resources, indicating a highly efficient and specialized flight control system within these tiny insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-and-insect-flight">Machine learning and insect flight</h2>



To better visualize these processes, the researchers engineered fruit flies with wing muscles that emit a glow when active. This genetic modification allowed clearer observation of muscle activity during flight.



The team used high-speed cameras and microscopes to gather extensive data, recording over 80,000 wingbeats from their test subjects. This highlights the dynamic and rapid nature of insect flight.



Finally, to manage and interpret this vast amount of information, machine learning algorithms were utilized. These tools analyze the data and generate detailed maps that show how the fly's muscles work together seamlessly to control flight, often making adjustments faster than the blink of an eye.



This exploration not only increases our understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-insects-seem-to-be-attracted-to-light-has-long-been-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> fly but also enhances our appreciation for the complex biological systems that govern seemingly simple actions like flight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wing-movements-facilitated-by-the-insect-s-hinge">Wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge</h2>



The ultimate objective of this research extends beyond simply understanding the intricate wing movements facilitated by the insect's hinge. Scientists strive to unravel how these complex wing motions are orchestrated by the insect's brain. 



The wing hinge, despite its remarkable design, is merely a tool – it's the brain that issues the commands and directs aerial maneuvers.



As some of the first creatures to take to the air, insects hold invaluable insights into the evolution of early flight control systems. Their brains contain the neural circuits that allowed for this remarkable adaptation, blueprints that offer a glimpse into the origins of flight.



Moreover, an insect's brain seamlessly coordinates flight and their numerous walking legs. This showcases an incredible ability to control vastly different movement systems, requiring sophisticated neural networks and information processing within their compact brains.



The connection between the physical structures that enable flight – like the hinge and muscles – and the neural commands that control them is fundamental to understanding the amazing aerial abilities of insects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The Caltech team hopes to create intricate models that fully combine the muscle control, the mechanics of the hinge, the way air flows around the wings, and the fly's inner command center. 



By studying other insects like mosquitos and bees, they could reveal how different wing structures and brain systems give insects their unique flying styles.



"We want to understand the circuitry between the biomechanics and the neurobiology. Very few times in evolution has an animal had one very successful form of locomotion - walking - and simply added another one - flying. This means that the brains of insects must have all the circuitry to regulate to completely different means of moving," said Dickinson.



Understanding the incredible engineering that underpins insect flight is about more than just satisfying our curiosity. This research might ultimately lead to better flying robots – such as tiny drones with the adaptability of a housefly. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07293-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Insect flight is powered by an extraordinary structure

Ever watched a fly zoom past or a bee hover...

Saguaros,In,Sonoran,Desert,After,Snow,Storm.

Global warming is undeniable, yet recent winters have witnessed record-breaking, extreme cold temperatures in unexpected areas. This paradoxical situation has scientists investigating the Warm Arctic-Cold Continent (WACC) phenomenon and its far-reaching impacts.



A study by the <a href="https://www.gist.ac.kr/en/main.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology</a> underscores a significant change in WACC patterns from the 2030s onward, with implications for weather forecasting, climate modeling, and community preparedness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-arctic-cold-continent-wacc-phenomenon">Warm Arctic-cold continent (WACC) phenomenon</h2>



The WACC phenomenon centers on how rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-could-speed-up-global-2c-temperature-rise-by-eight-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic warming</a> and diminishing sea ice disrupt large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns, specifically the jet stream. 



The jet stream functions as a boundary separating cold Arctic air from warmer air to the south. A warming Arctic shrinks the temperature difference between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes, weakening the jet stream. 



This leads to a wavier jet stream that becomes prone to forming large, meandering loops. These loops allow frigid Arctic air to escape and plunge far southward into regions like North America, Europe, and Asia. 



Consequently, these areas experience intense cold snaps, demonstrating how a warming Arctic has far-reaching impacts on weather patterns well beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-may-be-ice-free-sooner-than-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> region itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wacc-pattern-and-extreme-cold-events">WACC pattern and extreme cold events</h2>



The team behind this research at the Gwangju Institute dove into the science behind WACC.



"The WACC pattern has significantly influenced winter climates, but what we see currently is merely the start of a drastic shift," explained Professor Jin-Ho Yoon, lead researcher of the study. 



The WACC pattern is likely at its strongest in the 2020s.



"These events will sharply decline post-2030s. Yet, this decline does not mean reduced extreme weather events in the future. Instead, winters will get warmer as global warming intensifies. Although cold snaps will occur less frequently, they may have more severe consequences when they do happen," Professor Yoon warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-altered-arctic-warming-and-wacc-pendulum">Altered Arctic warming and WACC pendulum</h2>



Imagine a pendulum swinging between a super-warm Arctic and freezing cold continents. This pendulum represents the WACC pattern. 



Right now, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-new-clues-about-rapid-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> is warming rapidly, causing a large temperature difference between it and mid-latitude continents. 



This pushes the pendulum to swing wildly, resulting in the extreme cold snaps we see recently. Over the next few decades, the pendulum will start to slow down as the Arctic continues to warm and the temperature difference decreases. 



Eventually, the swings may become so small that we might not notice the WACC pattern as strongly. Even though the pendulum will slow down, it doesn't mean the end of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-dramatically-increases-the-threat-of-desert-locusts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>. 



Global warming means that overall, winters will become warmer. However, those occasional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">icy blasts</a> can still happen. Because they'll be less frequent than they are now, they'll be unexpected and out of the ordinary for places they hit. This makes them potentially even more severe in their impact when they do occur.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-studying-extreme-cold-events">Significance of studying extreme cold events</h2>



Scientists use complex computer models to predict the weather and how the climate might change. This research shows those models need updating to reflect the upcoming changes in WACC, otherwise, our predictions might be way off.



"Understanding the impact of the drastic shift in WACC events and devising adaptation and mitigation strategies determines the future of our winter climate," noted Ph.D. student Yungi Hong. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerable-communities">Vulnerable communities</h2>



Communities accustomed to experiencing frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-linked-to-extreme-winter-weather-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cold blasts</a> due to the WACC phenomenon are facing a new challenge. As global warming progresses, these cold events are predicted to occur less often. 



However, when they do happen, they are expected to be more intense and severe. This change means that the usual preparedness plans might no longer be sufficient. 



These communities will need to develop new strategies that are specifically designed to handle the increased severity of the cold events, even though they will happen less frequently. 



This involves enhancing infrastructure, improving emergency responses, and updating safety protocols to protect against the heightened risks of these less frequent, but more intense, cold blasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-extreme-cold-events-caused-by-wacc">Effects of extreme cold events caused by WACC</h2>



The WACC phenomenon is a complex climate pattern that describes how warming in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-arctic-climate-change-is-much-more-difficult-since-russia-invaded-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> can lead to colder winters in parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. Here are the broader implications of WACC:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-effects-of-extreme-cold-events">Economic effects of extreme cold events</h3>



<ul>
<li>Agricultural disruption: Unpredictable weather patterns can threaten agricultural production, affecting crop yields and the timing of planting and harvesting. This can lead to economic losses for farmers and increased food prices.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Infrastructure stress: Infrastructure not designed to handle extreme cold may face operational challenges, requiring significant investments in upgrades or new technologies to ensure resilience.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Energy demand fluctuations: Extreme cold events can lead to spikes in energy demand as communities need more heating. This can strain energy supplies and increase costs.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-impacts-of-extreme-cold-events">Social impacts of extreme cold events</h3>



<ul>
<li>Increased energy poverty: Higher energy demands can exacerbate energy poverty, where households are unable to afford adequate heating. This can lead to increased rates of illness and a lower quality of life.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Emergency services strain: More frequent and severe weather can overwhelm emergency services, from road maintenance to medical response during extreme weather events.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-climate-interactions">Broader climate interactions</h3>



<ul>
<li>Interactions with other phenomena: The effects of WACC can interact with other climatic phenomena like El Niño or La Niña, complicating predictions and impacts across different regions.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Feedback loops: Changes in sea ice and snow cover not only result from WACC but can also exacerbate warming and atmospheric changes, creating feedback loops that further destabilize climate patterns.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-climate-predictions">Long-term climate predictions</h3>



<ul>
<li>Modeling challenges: Accurately modeling WACC impacts requires understanding these complex interactions and feedback mechanisms, which are currently challenging for climate models.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Future research needs: Continued research is essential to refine models and predictions, helping policymakers and communities better prepare for future conditions.</li>
</ul>



The WACC phenomenon is a stark reminder that climate change isn't simple. It brings a whole cascade of unpredictable effects. This research is a call to action: we need to work on reducing our impact on the planet and get ready for the unexpected ways in which our world will keep changing.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-024-00611-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a>.



-----



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How extreme cold events fit into the global warming model

Global warming is undeniable, yet recent winters have witnessed record-breaking,...

A,Man,Standing,In,A,Cave,At,Sunset,Natural,Rock

The deserts of Saudi Arabia are home to a unique kind of treasure: caves and lava tubes. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/7-surprising-facts-you-didnt-know-about-lava-tubes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural formations</a> were created by the intense heat from volcanic eruptions long ago. Today, these lava tubes offer insights into the lives of the early humans who managed to survive and thrive in this harsh landscape.



Conducted by <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>'s Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution (<a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/australian-research-centre-human-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARCHE</a>), this remarkable research focuses on one such site, the Umm Jirsan cave. 



The study highlights new evidence of ancient human activities. It provides a deeper understanding of how people once lived in Saudi Arabia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-umm-jirsan-lava-tubes">Umm Jirsan lava tubes</h2>



Deep within the expansive Harrat Khaybar <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Umm-Jirsan-Cave-system_credit-green-arabia-project_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lava field of Saudi Arabia</a> lies the archaeological treasure of lava tubes called Umm Jirsan. 



This sprawling underground lava tube serves as a natural shelter and a time capsule preserving millennia of Arabian prehistory. 



Led by Dr. Mathew Stewart, a team of archaeologists has discovered a wealth of artifacts at this site. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inside-caves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cave</a> has yielded numerous insights into the daily lives, cultural practices, and environmental adaptations of its ancient inhabitants.



"Our findings at Umm Jirsan provide a rare glimpse into the lives of ancient peoples in Arabia, revealing repeated phases of human occupation and shedding light on the pastoralist activities that once thrived in this landscape," said Dr. Stewart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-art-in-saudi-arabia-s-lava-tube">Rock art in Saudi Arabia's lava tube</h2>



Archaeologists have managed to reconstruct a detailed account of how ancient travelers and inhabitants used this underground sanctuary. Among the fascinating discoveries within these ancient walls is an array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-artists-carved-incredibly-detailed-animal-tracks-onto-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rock art</a>. 



The lava tube's surfaces are adorned with artistic depictions of cattle, sheep, goats, and even dogs. These images provide a window into the types of animals that were raised by these early peoples. They offer insights into the nascent days of animal domestication.



The rock art found within the Umm Jirsan lava tube serve as historical records, narrating the story of early domestication practices. Each scene offers insights into the animals that were raised and revered by these early communities.



Archaeologists have meticulously analyzed these drawings to construct a vibrant and detailed portrayal of life in and around Umm Jirsan. These illustrations reveal the daily survival strategies of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-the-americas-10000-years-earlier-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient humans</a>. 



Moreover, it also signified the cultural and social activities that flourished in this unique environment. Umm Jirsan was a key site for both practical survival and the development of early societal norms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bones-offer-human-life-clues-in-saudi-arabia-s-lava-tubes">Bones offer human life clues in Saudi Arabia's lava tubes</h2>



The story doesn't end with the artwork. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal bones</a>, left behind after feasts of the past, give us even greater detail. Scientists analyzed these remains and made a fascinating discovery.



"Isotopic analysis of animal remains indicates that livestock primarily grazed on wild grasses and shrubs, while humans maintained a diet rich in protein,” explained Dr. Stewart. This tells us they were skilled herders, moving with the seasons to find grazing for their animals.



The detailed analysis of the rock art and other archaeological findings within the Umm Jirsan lava tube also reveals a significant shift in the human diet over time. It points to a major developmental milestone in the region: the rise of oasis agriculture. 



The rise in consumption of C3 plants, including various grasses and trees, hints at a shift toward a settled agricultural lifestyle. 



This dietary change suggests that ancient inhabitants started to cultivate and depend more on local plant sources. They strategically moved away from a lifestyle solely based on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunting and gathering</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-demonstrated-environmental-adaptation">Early humans demonstrated environmental adaptation</h2>



This move towards agriculture is a critical indicator of the evolving human adaptation to the environment. It implies that the historically arid landscape of Arabia may have undergone periods of climatic change. The change made it more hospitable for settled life and enabling the growth of oasis agriculture. 



The emergence of this type of farming likely transformed the social structures of the time. These findings challenge the traditional view of ancient Arabia as an unchanging desert landscape. They highlight the dynamic nature of human adaptation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-climate-change-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lava-tubes-and-early-humans-beyond-saudi-arabia">Lava tubes and early humans beyond Saudi Arabia</h2>



This isn't just about a single lava tube or the people who sheltered there. "This site likely served as a crucial waypoint along pastoral routes, linking key oases and facilitating cultural exchange and trade,” Dr. Stewart emphasized. 



Imagine Umm Jirsan as a prehistoric highway rest stop, a place where ideas, goods, and people from all over Arabia mingled.



"While underground localities are globally significant in archaeology and Quaternary science, our research represents the first comprehensive study of its kind in Saudi Arabia," said Professor Michael Petraglia, Director of ARCHE.&nbsp;



What happens in the lava tubes of Arabia helps us better understand the grand story of human resilience and adaptation all across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-saudi-arabia-s-lava-tubes">Cultural significance of Saudi Arabia's lava tubes</h2>



As discussed, the artifacts and rock art found in Saudi Arabia's lava tube serve as vibrant cultural expressions. These historical treasures shed light on the beliefs, values, and social structures of the people who created them.



The symbolism in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-cave-bears-neanderthals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cave</a>'s rock art is especially revealing. It shows a society that was deeply connected to its surrounding environment and the animals that inhabited it.



The scenes painted and carved onto the walls of Umm Jirsan include depictions of cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs, which were crucial to the livelihood and survival of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-families-crawled-caves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient communities</a>. 



These images suggest that pastoralism was not merely an economic activity but also held significant cultural importance. 



The prominence of these animals in the art could indicate their role in religious or ritual activities, suggesting a reverence for the life-sustaining resources these animals represented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-community-organization">Community organization</h2>



The variety of species depicted can tell us about the social stratification and community organization of the time. For instance, the ownership and breeding of larger herds might have been a sign of wealth and status. It could influence social hierarchies within the group. 



Additionally, the communal nature of pastoral life, as suggested by the art, implies a collaborative social structure where group cooperation was necessary for managing herds and sustaining the community.



The art also provides clues about the spiritual and existential views of the people. Animal figures could have been totemic symbols or part of mythological narratives, serving as protectors, symbols of fertility, or emblems of clan identities.



Such depictions allow archaeologists to infer not only the economic priorities of these ancient peoples but also their cosmological and spiritual landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-ancient-knowledge">Redefining ancient knowledge</h2>



The discovery of such art in the secluded and enduring space of a lava tube highlights the importance of these locations not just as shelters but as cultural repositories.



Saudi Arabia is changing our understanding of the ancient world. It isn't all about Egypt or Mesopotamia – the desert has its own epic to tell. Umm Jirsan is just the beginning. 



"These findings underscore the immense potential for interdisciplinary investigations in caves and lava tubes, offering a unique window into Arabia's ancient past," Professor Petraglia explained.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0299292" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



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Early humans lived in lava tubes in the scorching Arabian deserts

The deserts of Saudi Arabia are home to a unique...

A remarkable study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> proposes a dramatic shift in our understanding of human evolution. The research suggests that interspecies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-change-their-schedules-to-adapt-to-city-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">competition</a>, rather than climate alone, significantly shaped the evolutionary trajectory of early humans.



Interspecies competition is a form of interaction where individuals of different species compete for the same resources in an ecosystem, such as food, space, or light. This type of competition can occur when resources are limited, leading to a struggle for survival among the competing species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-vs-interspecies-competition">Climate vs. interspecies competition</h2>



Traditionally, researchers have viewed climate change as the primary driver of the emergence and extinction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-hominins-migrating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominin</a> species. This view is consistent with the patterns observed in most vertebrates. 



However, this new research indicates a crucial detail: for hominins - a group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a> and our extinct relatives - competition between species was a crucial factor. This competition significantly influenced our evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimal-interspecies-competition">Minimal interspecies competition</h2>



The study reveals that over five million years, competition was fundamental to "speciation," the emergence of new species in hominins.



"We have been ignoring the way competition between species has shaped our own evolutionary tree. The effect of climate on hominin species is only part of the story," explained Dr. Laura van Holstein, a biological anthropologist at <a href="https://www.clare.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clare College</a>.



Using Bayesian modeling and phylogenetic analyses, van Holstein and her team demonstrated a key finding. Like in other vertebrates, most hominin species emerged when interspecies competition for resources was minimal. 



This pattern, where speciation rates increase and then plateau before extinction rates rise, is consistent across many mammalian groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-evolutionary-trends">Unique evolutionary trends</h2>



However, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-rewriting-the-evolutionary-history-of-the-largest-animals-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary pattern</a> of our own genus, Homo, is strikingly different. "The more species of Homo there were, the higher the rate of speciation," noted Dr. van Holstein. 



"This suggests that competition between species actually resulted in the appearance of even more new species - a complete reversal of the trend seen in almost all other vertebrates."



This unique pattern of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-may-be-the-biggest-roadblock-to-solving-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> in Homo is paralleled only by certain beetle species that inhabit islands. In these isolated ecosystems, unusual evolutionary trends can emerge.



"The patterns of evolution we see across species of Homo that led directly to modern humans is closer to those of island-dwelling beetles than other primates, or even any other mammal," said Dr. van Holstein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-records-and-beyond">Fossil records and beyond</h2>



Dr. van Holstein created a new database which tracked each time an example of a species was found and dated in the hominin fossil record - including around 385 occurences.



This comprehensive data allowed the researchers to reconsider the start and end dates for most known hominin species, totaling 17. 



Such an approach helps counteract the inherent limitations of fossil records. These records may not always capture the earliest or latest members of a species, due to geological and climatic factors affecting fossilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interspecies-competition-coexistence-and-adaptation">Interspecies competition, coexistence, and adaptation</h2>



Dr. van Holstein's findings suggest a new perspective. Some species previously thought to have evolved through "anagenesis" may have actually "budded." This indicates a branching off from an existing species rather than a linear evolution. 



This realization implies a greater level of coexistence among hominin species. It also indicates heightened interspecies competition - more than previously acknowledged. Additionally, the study underscores the role of technology in the evolution of the genus Homo.



For example, early hominins like Paranthropus evolved physiologically to adapt, developing features like robust teeth. In contrast, Homo species adopted tools, fire, and intensive hunting techniques.



These advancements enabled the latter species to rapidly exploit new ecological niches, bypassing the need for significant physiological changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-of-interspecies-competition">A legacy of interspecies competition</h2>



Ultimately, these findings underscore the complexity of interspecies competition, human evolution and the unique evolutionary path taken by our ancestors. 



"These results show that, although it has been conventionally ignored, competition played an important role in human evolution overall," said Dr. van Holstein. "Perhaps most interestingly, in our own genus it played a role unlike that across any other vertebrate lineage known so far."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02390-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Human evolution was shaped by interspecies competition

A remarkable study led by researchers at the University of...

A new study reveals that children subjected to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-can-cause-muscle-decline-adult-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maltreatment</a> are three times more likely to be hospitalized for substance abuse disorders by the time they turn 40. This highlights the devastating long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-child-maltreatment-types">Child maltreatment types</h2>



Child maltreatment refers to any behavior or action that harms or threatens to harm a child's physical, psychological, or emotional health and development. It generally includes four main types:



<ol>
<li>Physical abuse: Causing physical harm through hitting, shaking, burning, or other means.</li>



<li>Emotional abuse: Causing emotional or psychological harm through behaviors like verbal abuse, intimidation, or neglect.</li>



<li>Sexual abuse: Involving a child in sexual acts or exposing them to inappropriate sexual material.</li>



<li>Neglect: Failing to provide for a child's basic needs, including food, shelter, clothing, medical care, and education.</li>
</ol>



These forms of maltreatment can have long-lasting effects on a child's well-being and development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-child-maltreatment-linked-to-substance-abuse">Child maltreatment linked to substance abuse</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from over 6,000 individuals born between 1981 and 1983. Of these, 609 experienced at least one reported or substantiated incident of child maltreatment. 



This group was significantly more likely to suffer from alcohol or substance use disorders requiring hospitalization. The study categorized maltreatment into physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect. 



"Most of the previous research into childhood adversity and alcohol and substance use disorders has focused on physical and sexual abuse. We particularly wanted to know whether emotional abuse and neglect are as strongly associated with subsequent alcohol and substance use disorders," explained study lead author Dr. Claudia Bull, of the <a href="https://qcmhr.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research</a>.



"As we suspected, the odds of hospital admission for alcohol and substance use disorders are comparable across all subtypes of abuse and neglect in childhood.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-child-maltreatment-severe-outcomes">Child maltreatment severe outcomes</h2>



Emotional abuse and neglect, often overlooked compared to physical and sexual abuse, pose equivalent long-term risks for developing substance abuse disorders. These non-physical forms of maltreatment can deeply impact emotional health, leading to similar outcomes in terms of substance abuse in later life.



Research shows a clear pattern: the frequency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-psychotic-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maltreatment</a> reports correlates directly with the increased probability of hospital admissions for substance abuse as adults. 



This suggests that repeated exposure to maltreatment intensifies the risk of severe outcomes, highlighting the cumulative effect of continuous abuse or neglect on an individual's life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-of-resulting-disorders">Nature of resulting disorders</h2>



Sexual abuse emerged as the most significant risk factor for developing an alcohol use disorder. Individuals with histories of sexual abuse are notably more likely to struggle with alcohol dependency, indicating a specific traumatic impact that may drive survivors toward alcohol as a coping mechanism.



Emotional abuse, on the other hand, was identified as the primary risk factor for substance use disorders. This suggests that the psychological scars left by emotional abuse might make individuals more susceptible to using drugs as a form of self-medication, attempting to manage their unresolved emotional pain.



Specifically, those who were neglected as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-abuse-trends-much-higher-in-people-who-experienced-childhood-trauma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children</a> were about 2.88 times more likely to be hospitalized for alcohol-related issues. The risk was nearly the same for those who suffered emotional abuse and slightly less for those who experienced physical abuse.



For substance use disorders, the risk increased even more for those with a history of neglect, making them 3.10 times more likely to require hospitalization. Those who faced physical abuse had a 2.85 times higher risk, while sexual abuse led to a 2.52 times higher risk. 



Emotional abuse resulted in a 2.47 times greater likelihood of hospitalization for substance use issues. These findings highlight how various forms of child <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-trauma-could-triple-the-risk-of-headache-disorders-later-in-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maltreatment</a> can lead to serious health problems in adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



This study paints a stark picture of how trauma in childhood creates severe vulnerabilities that can manifest decades later in the form of substance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-abuse-cellular-imprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">abuse</a>. This emphasizes the critical need for:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-intervention">Early intervention</h3>



It is crucial to identify and address child maltreatment early to diminish the future risk of substance abuse. Intervening as soon as maltreatment is detected can significantly alter a child's developmental trajectory, potentially reducing the likelihood of later substance use disorders.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trauma-informed-treatment">Trauma-informed treatment</h3>



Treatment plans for addiction must incorporate an understanding of the link between childhood trauma and subsequent substance abuse. By adopting trauma-informed care approaches, healthcare providers can offer more effective support that directly addresses the root causes of addiction.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-awareness">Increased awareness</h3>



Elevating awareness among parents, healthcare workers, and the broader public about the deep and enduring effects of child maltreatment is essential. Understanding maltreatment risks is vital for community health and preventative strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-additional-impacts-of-child-maltreatment">Additional impacts of child maltreatment</h2>



Child maltreatment can lead to a wide range of long-term effects in adults beyond the risk of substance abuse disorders. These effects span psychological, physical, and social domains:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-impact">Psychological impact</h3>



<ul>
<li>Mental health disorders: Adults who experienced child maltreatment often have a higher prevalence of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and bipolar disorder.</li>



<li>Emotional difficulties: Issues like low self-esteem, difficulty trusting others, and emotional dysregulation are common.</li>



<li>Cognitive effects: There may be impairments in attention, decision-making abilities, and executive functioning.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-health-issues">Physical health issues</h3>



<ul>
<li>Chronic conditions: Increased risk of developing chronic conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and autoimmune diseases.</li>



<li>Neurological problems: The stress of early abuse can affect brain development, potentially leading to neurological issues later in life.</li>



<li>Somatization: Experiencing physical symptoms that stem from psychological distress is more frequent among those who were maltreated as children.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-and-behavioral-consequences">Social and behavioral consequences</h3>



<ul>
<li>Relationship problems: Difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy relationships, including increased rates of divorce and family conflict.</li>



<li>Educational and occupational impact: Higher likelihood of academic struggles and lower educational attainment, which can affect career opportunities and stability.</li>



<li>Increased risk of victimization: Adults with a history of child maltreatment are more likely to experience further victimization, including domestic violence and sexual assault.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parenting-challenges">Parenting challenges</h3>



<ul>
<li>Intergenerational transmission of abuse: Those maltreated as children are at a greater risk of adopting similar behaviors, perpetuating the cycle of abuse.</li>



<li>Attachment issues: Difficulties in forming secure attachments with their own children, which can impact the child’s emotional and psychological development.</li>
</ul>



These findings underscore the urgent need to prevent child maltreatment and provide effective support to those who have experienced it. By understanding the devastating consequences of childhood trauma, we can take focused action to help individuals heal.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.16479" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Addiction</a>.



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Child maltreatment triples the risk of substance use

A new study reveals that children subjected to maltreatment are...

We often think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-unnoticed-and-underappreciated-world-of-ecosystem-services/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> in terms of what we can see – the plants, the animals, the landscape. But there's a hidden dimension to our natural world: sound. From the calls of birds to the whisper of wind through the trees, soundscapes are a vital part of healthy ecosystems. New research reveals a surprising truth: invasive plants are altering the soundscapes, and the consequences could be far-reaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment-soundscapes">Environment soundscapes</h2>



The soundtrack of an environment is referred to as its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soundscape</a>. Imagine it as the collective voice of a specific area, comprising all the sounds you can hear: the calls of animals, the rustle of leaves, the pattering of rain, and even the distant, almost imperceptible hum of human activity. 



A soundscape does more than fill the background; it forms a dynamic communication network that threads through the ecosystem. Each component of the soundscape plays a crucial role. 



Animal calls, for instance, are not just mere sounds but are vital for the survival and reproductive success of species. They can signal territory boundaries, warn of predators, or even lead mates to each other. 



Plant sounds can indicate the presence of animal activity or changes in wind patterns. They offer cues about weather conditions or environmental disturbances.



Similarly, the sound of water — from raindrops hitting the ground to streams flowing over rocks — adds another layer of information. It reflects the health and dynamics of the hydrological aspects of the ecosystem. Even the subtle sounds generated by human activities can influence animal behaviors and ecological processes.



Together, these sounds create a rich, ever-changing symphony that reveals the ecological narrative of an area. By listening to and analyzing these soundscapes, researchers can gain insights into the unseen interactions and health of ecosystems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-for-ecosystem-clues">Listening for ecosystem clues</h2>



A team of researchers at Virginia Tech, led by Grace O'Malley and Gabrielle Ripa, is listening closely to these sonic signatures to better understand hidden changes within our environments. 



Their innovative approach is part of a growing field called soundscape ecology, where scientists study the relationships between <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/top-5-strangest-animal-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sounds</a> and the overall health of an ecosystem.



"It's kind of a new way of thinking, in terms of thinking about the ecosystem as a whole instead of about this frog species or this bird species," said O’Malley. "Think about it across all taxonomic levels."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-plants-alter-ecosystem-sounds">Invasive plants alter ecosystem sounds</h2>



Invasive plants don't simply change what we see; they can dramatically alter the acoustic environment of an ecosystem. To understand this impact, the researchers ventured into areas heavily affected by invasive plants. They strategically placed recording devices and then compared the soundscapes to locations where native habitats were being restored.



The results were striking. "I was surprised that we were able to observe differences between the two habitats in such a short amount of time," said O'Malley. "The invasive plants may actually be changing the soundscape."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-invasive-plants-change-the-soundtrack">How invasive plants change the soundtrack</h2>



The research team is currently exploring precisely how invasive species disrupt the acoustic world. Here are a few key mechanisms they're investigating:



<ul>
<li>Altering sound travel:&nbsp;Dense thickets formed by invasive plants can physically change the way sound waves move through an environment. This could interfere with essential communications between animals.</li>



<li>Muffling native voices:&nbsp;Invasive plants often outcompete and displace native species. This means the calls, chirps, and other sounds of these native animals disappear from the soundscape, reducing its complexity and potential information flow.</li>



<li>Introducing new noises:&nbsp;Some invasive plants produce their own distinct sounds, whether through the way their leaves rustle in the wind or other unique auditory signatures. These add unfamiliar and potentially disruptive sounds to the acoustic mix.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research">Ongoing research </h2>



This fascinating research is still in its early stages. "It’s a call to other scientists that this is something that we think could be going on," said Ripa. "We offer suggestions as to what we think could be reasons why invasive plants might be impacting soundscapes and some potential mechanisms that maybe we should be looking into.”



While a lot remains to be explored, the researchers believe that soundscapes could become a kind of early warning system for spotting ecological change – all we need to do is listen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-to-invasive-plants-and-soundscape">Contributing to invasive plants and soundscape</h2>



<ol>
<li>Notice the soundscapes around you: The next time you go for a walk, close your eyes for a moment and tune in to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-plants-emit-sounds-when-they-are-stressed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sounds</a> you hear. This can be as simple as noticing the different birdsong patterns in your own neighborhood.</li>



<li>Join a citizen science project: Apps and websites like eBird (for bird calls) allow you to record and share data, helping scientists track changes over time and geography.</li>



<li>Support invasive plant control: Look for volunteer opportunities in your local parks, or make sure your own garden is full of native species.</li>
</ol>



"This project has been exciting, inspiring, and above all else, fun," said study co-author Professor Meryl Mims. "Sound is an integral part of how we and other organisms experience and understand our surroundings."



By deciphering the sonic code of nature, we may have a powerful new tool for protecting biodiversity and keeping our wild places healthy. The next time you hear rustling leaves or a bird's song, remember that you are tapping into a vast symphony of life – one that's constantly changing and worth listening to.



The study is published in <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2729" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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Invasive plants alter the soundscape of ecosystems

We often think of ecosystems in terms of what we...

The North Pacific Ocean serves as a vast, natural laboratory for understanding the complex ecology of salmon, a crucial species both ecologically and economically. Recent research from the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> has greatly enhanced our understanding of salmon migration behavior at sea.



This study integrates decades of international research on salmon, offering new insights into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-migrating-towards-poles-escape-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> patterns and temperature preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermap-for-salmon-migration">Supermap for salmon migration</h2>



Since the 1950s, various countries and agencies have conducted high seas salmon surveys. However, never before have these individual studies been amalgamated into a single, comprehensive database.



This large-scale integration allows for an unprecedented overview of the marine stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-hatchery-salmon-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salmon life</a> cycles. 



"This is a portion of the salmon life cycle that arguably gets overlooked, at least in terms of the grand investment in salmon research," said Curry Cunningham, an assistant professor at UAF's College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences. 



Professor Cunningham also shared his personal connection to the subject. "As someone who always wondered where all these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-commercial-fish-industry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> went when they left Bristol Bay, seeing that pattern come to life was so satisfying."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-hotspots-and-migration">Salmon hotspots and migration</h2>



The compiled data includes over 44,000 gear hauls across the North Pacific, capturing more than 14 million salmon. This ocean-based data contrasts sharply with the more commonly studied river habitats, providing a broader perspective on salmon ecology.



Through detailed mapping, the researchers have pinpointed key areas where different salmon species congregate.



Notably, the maps reveal a gathering hotspot for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-chinook-salmon-almost-extinct-due-to-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinook salmon</a> in the Bering Sea. They also track the migration routes of maturing sockeye from the North Pacific and Gulf of Alaska towards the Alaska Peninsula, navigating through passes into the Bering Sea throughout the spring and summer months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-tolerance-and-migration">Temperature tolerance and migration</h2>



"It’s not as if all these salmon are going to some party in the middle of the Pacific. This gives us a broad look at where they go," explained Joe Langan, the study's lead author and a postdoctoral fellow at UAF during the project.



This comprehensive mapping of salmon not only clarifies migration paths but also sheds light on the varying temperature tolerances among species. 



For instance, sockeye and chum salmon thrive in temperatures just a few degrees above freezing, whereas coho and steelhead avoid the coldest waters. Chinook and pink salmon occupy the middle range of these temperature extremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-salmon-in-a-warming-world">Future of salmon in a warming world</h2>



These findings hold particular significance in the current context of climate change, highlighting the critical role of temperature tolerances in shaping how different salmon species might adapt to increasingly warming waters. 



As global temperatures rise, aquatic ecosystems experience significant shifts, which in turn affect the habitat ranges and migration patterns of marine species. Salmon, with their varied migration and temperature preferences, serve as a prime example of how climatic changes can drive evolutionary and migratory adaptations.



Understanding the specific temperature ranges that different salmon species can tolerate provides essential insights into predicting their responses to environmental changes. 



For instance, species thriving in cooler waters may face challenges as these areas warm, potentially pushing them to seek colder, deeper, or more northern waters, altering their traditional migration routes and times. 



Conversely, species with higher temperature tolerances might expand their range, encountering new competitors and predators, which could impact their survival and reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



The research involved meticulous examination of historical data, some of which dated back to the 1950s. This required the retrieval of long-forgotten reports from various sources. Additionally, it involved their standardization and integration into a coherent dataset.



Skip McKinnell, a retired expert from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada and a veteran of early high seas surveys, described the process as "more of a search and rescue mission rather than convincing anyone to provide their data."



The collective efforts of these researchers have transformed the once scattered and isolated studies into a robust resource that enhances our understanding of salmon migration and overall ecology on a global scale.



Moreover, this research documents the fascinating life cycle of these important fish. It equips scientists and policymakers with the knowledge necessary to better protect them in a rapidly changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12825" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish and Fisheries</a>.



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Salmon migration routes discovered using historical data

The North Pacific Ocean serves as a vast, natural laboratory...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee_hummingbird">bee hummingbird</a>, also known as the zunzuncito or Helena hummingbird, is known in the scientific community as Mellisuga helenae. It is native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-caribbean-islands-of-cuba/">Cuba</a>. The bee hummingbird is the smallest living bird. Females weigh 2.6 g (0.092 oz) and are 6.1 cm (2.4 in) long, and are slightly larger than males, which have an average weight of 1.95 g (0.069 oz) and length of 5.5 cm (2.2 in).

Bee hummingbird

The Slender Blind Snake, or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptotyphlopidae">Leptotyphlopidae</a>, rarely exceeds 30 cm (just under 12 inches) in length. They are found in southwestern North America, Central and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/south-american-monkeys-face-extinction/">South America</a>, Africa, Asia, in habitats that range from arid areas to rainforests.