Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy I Zwicky 18, which was captured in remarkable detail by the James Webb Space Telescope.



I Zwicky 18 is a blue compact dwarf <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> located approximately 59 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-i-zwicky-18">Star formation in I Zwicky 18</h2>



The galaxy is notable for its relatively young appearance and the fact that it contains very few heavy elements. These characteristics indicate that it has experienced little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> compared to other galaxies of similar age.



“The galaxy was first identified by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930’s and resides roughly 59 million light-years from Earth,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. “This galaxy has gone through several sudden bursts of star formation.”&nbsp;



According to ESA, I Zwicky 18 is typical of the kinds of galaxies that inhabited the early universe and is much smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-j1249-36-spotted-trying-to-escape-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-image-of-the-galaxy">Webb telescope image of the galaxy</h2>



“Two major starburst regions are embedded in the heart of the galaxy. The wispy brown filaments surrounding the central starburst region are bubbles of gas that have been heated by stellar winds and intense ultraviolet radiation unleashed by hot, young stars,” said ESA.



“A companion galaxy resides nearby to the dwarf galaxy, which can be seen at the bottom of the wider-field image. The companion may be interacting with the dwarf galaxy and may have triggered that galaxy's recent star formation.”&nbsp;



ESA explained that the “orange blobs” surrounding the galaxy are the dim glow from ancient fully formed galaxies at much larger distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics-of-i-zwicky-18">Key characteristics of I Zwicky 18</h2>



As previously mentioned, the galaxy has a very low abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, suggesting that it has not undergone significant stellar processing.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stellar-population-nbsp">Young stellar population&nbsp;</h3>



Despite its old age, I Zwicky 18 contains many young, hot stars. This suggests that it might have experienced a burst of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-detects-awe-inspiring-newborn-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> relatively recently in its history.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-medium-nbsp">Interstellar medium&nbsp;</h3>



The galaxy has a high density of gas, which is a prime ingredient for star formation. This gas is mostly in the form of hydrogen.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-characteristics">Unusual characteristics</h3>



Its characteristics are more typical of primordial galaxies found in the early universe, making it a valuable object of study for understanding galaxy formation and evolution.



Ultimately, I Zwicky 18 provides insights into the conditions and processes that might have been prevalent in the early universe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-cycles-of-stars-and-dust">Life cycles of stars and dust</h3>



The image was captured as part of a Webb program to study the life cycle of dust in I Zw 18.&nbsp;



“Scientists are now building off of previous research with Hubble obtained at optical wavelengths, studying individual dusty stars in detail with Webb’s equivalent spatial resolution and sensitivity at infrared wavelengths.”&nbsp;



ESA noted that this galaxy is of particular interest as its content of elements heavier than helium is one of the lowest of all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in the local universe.&nbsp;



“Such conditions are thought to be similar to those in some of the first star-forming galaxies at high redshift, so the Webb study of I Zw 18 should shed light on the life-cycle of stars and dust in the early universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-ursa-major">The constellation Ursa Major </h2>



Ursa Major, also known as the Great Bear, is one of the most prominent and easily recognizable constellations in the northern sky. 



Its name, "Ursa Major," means "Great Bear" in Latin, and it has been a significant part of various mythologies and star lore across cultures for thousands of years. 



One of the most famous asterisms within Ursa Major is the Big Dipper, a group of seven bright stars that form a shape resembling a ladle or dipper. The Big Dipper is often used as a navigation tool because it points to Polaris, the North Star, located in the nearby constellation Ursa Minor.



Ursa Major is best viewed in the northern hemisphere and is circumpolar, meaning it is visible year-round for much of the Northern Hemisphere. Its position changes with the seasons, rotating around Polaris, the North Star.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Dwarf galaxy provides a window into the early universe

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name of the galaxy pair comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions - offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy NGC 2090, located approximately 40 million light-years away in the constellation Columba.



NGC 2090 is a stunning spiral galaxy that is notable for its well-defined structure, featuring a bright central core surrounded by tightly wound spiral arms.&nbsp;



These arms are filled with young, hot stars and interstellar gas, indicating active star formation.&nbsp;



Captured by the Webb Telescope’s MIRI and NIRCam instruments, the image reveals the galaxy's winding spiral arms and the swirling gas and dust of its disc in magnificent and unique detail, noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-ngc-2090">Observations of NGC 2090</h2>



The galaxy’s spiral pattern is relatively symmetrical, making it a fascinating object of study for astronomers interested in galactic evolution and dynamics.&nbsp;



Observations of NGC 2090, including those conducted by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-helps-solve-the-mystery-of-a-young-eruptive-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope, have provided valuable insights into the properties of its stellar populations, gas content, and the nature of its spiral structure.



“NGC 2090 was one of many galaxies studied by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to refine the measurement of the Universe’s expansion rate, or ‘Hubble constant,’” said ESA.&nbsp;



“This can be done by observing a special type of variable stars named ‘Cepheids’ in relatively nearby galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-ngc-2090">New insights into NGC 2090</h2>



A Cepheid-based measurement from 1998 indicated that NGC 2090 is 37 million light-years away from Earth. However, the latest measurements suggest that the galaxy is 40 million light-years away.



“Already before that Hubble project in 1998, NGC 2090 had been well studied as a very prominent nearby example of star formation,” noted ESA.&nbsp;



“Described as a ‘flocculent’ spiral, this galaxy has a patchy, dusty disc and arms that are flaky or not visible at all. We can see those patterns well in Hubble's visible-light images. However, Webb’s NIRCam near-infrared data reveal the spiral arms with remarkable clarity.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-spiral-galaxies">What are spiral galaxies?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are among the most common and visually striking types of galaxies in the universe.&nbsp;



They are characterized by their flat, disk-like shape with a bright central bulge surrounded by sweeping spiral arms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-arms-and-central-bulge-nbsp">Spiral arms and central bulge&nbsp;</h3>



The arms of a spiral galaxy are regions where stars, gas, and dust are concentrated, often glowing brightly with the light of young, hot stars that form within them.&nbsp;



The central bulge typically contains older stars and can host a supermassive black hole at its core.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Types of spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on how tightly their arms are wound and the size of their central bulge, ranging from tightly wound "Sa" galaxies to loosely wound "Sc" types.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-nbsp">Star formation&nbsp;</h3>



The structure of spiral galaxies is maintained by the interplay of gravity and angular momentum, with a rotating disk of stars and gas giving rise to their iconic shape.&nbsp;



They are active sites of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> due to the abundance of gas in their arms.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies often have a halo of older stars and globular clusters surrounding their disks, which provides clues about their formation and evolution.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, the galaxy that contains our Solar System, is a prime example of a barred spiral galaxy, a subtype where a bar-shaped structure of stars extends from the central bulge.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-columba-nbsp">The constellation Columba&nbsp;</h2>



Columba is a small and relatively faint constellation in the southern sky, whose name means "dove" in Latin. It was introduced in the late 16th century by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius and first appeared in a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in 1603.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation</a> is said to represent the dove sent out by Noah during the biblical flood, tying it to themes of hope and peace.



Columba lies near the larger constellation Canis Major and is bordered by others such as Lepus and Puppis.&nbsp;



Although it lacks particularly bright stars, its most notable star, Alpha Columbae (also called Phact), shines at a magnitude of approximately 2.6 and is a hot blue-white star. Beta Columbae, another prominent star in the constellation, is a slightly cooler, yellow-white star.



The constellation is best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere during the summer months, though it can also be seen from lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope&nbsp;



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Webb unveils a spiral galaxy in magnificent detail

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. 



Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. 



Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies">Types of spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



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Young stars illuminate a spiral galaxy in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Columbia Glacier, a tidewater glacier located in Prince William Sound on the south coast of Alaska.



The Columba Glacier is one of the most rapidly changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> in the world and has been closely studied for the insights it provides into glacial mechanics and climate change impacts. 



"Since the early 1980s, the Columbia Glacier has retreated more than 20 km and lost about half of its total volume. This one glacier accounts for nearly half of the ice lost in the Chugach Mountains," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"The changing climate is thought to have caused its retreat. Until 1980, when its rapid and constant retreat began, the glacier’s terminus was observed at the northern edge of Heather Island, which lies near the end of Columbia Bay, the inlet into which the glacier currently flows before draining into Prince William Sound."



ESA noted that this satellite image, captured in September of 2023, reveals a mostly ice-free Columbia Bay dotted with numerous icebergs and fragmented sea-ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-calving-events">Dramatic calving events</h2>



The Columbia Glacier is known for its dramatic calving events, where large chunks of ice break off from the glacier's terminus and fall into the sea, becoming icebergs.



This process has been particularly active as the glacier has retreated, contributing to hazards for shipping in Prince William Sound.



The glacier has been the focus of extensive scientific research, serving as a case study for understanding the dynamics of tidewater glaciers and their responses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Studies have used satellite imagery, field observations, and modeling to track its changes over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impacts-on-the-columbia-glacier">Climate impacts on the Columbia Glacier</h2>



"Columbia is just one of the many glaciers suffering from the effects of climate change. Most of the glaciers around the world are losing mass," said ESA.



"However, before the advent of satellites, measuring their retreat and studying their vulnerability to climate change was difficult considering their size, remoteness and rugged terrain they occupy."



Now, noted ESA, different satellite instruments are available to gather information systematically and over large areas, providing an effective means to monitor change, keep track of all calving stages, and quantify the melting rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-columbia-s-retreat-nbsp">Climate change and Columbia's retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Columbia Glacier flows from the Chugach Mountains into Columbia Bay. It was once one of the largest contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a> due to its significant ice loss.&nbsp;



The glacier's dynamics are influenced by its interaction with water, where the terminus meets the ocean. As the glacier flows into the sea, large chunks of ice calve off the front, leading to dramatic scenes of ice crashing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shelf-sediment-ocean-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. 



This process has been intensifying due to warmer temperatures and changes in water circulation, which undermine the ice from below.



Columbia Glacier's retreat has significant implications for marine navigation and local ecosystems. The increase in icebergs calving into the bay poses hazards to ships, while the fresh meltwater impacts local water temperatures and salinity, affecting the habitat of fish and other marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-in-a-warming-climate">Melting glaciers in a warming climate </h2>



Glaciers, which are large masses of accumulated snow and ice, store about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. As the climate warms, these glaciers increasingly melt and release freshwater into nearby seas and the ocean at large.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influx-of-freshwater">Influx of freshwater</h3>



The influx of freshwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting glaciers</a> alters the salinity (salt concentration) of the ocean water. Since freshwater is less dense than saltwater, its addition can lead to stratification in which lighter, less salty water layers on top of denser, saltier water.&nbsp;



Stratification can disrupt ocean currents, which are driven in part by differences in water density and temperature. These currents are crucial for regulating global climate by distributing heat and nutrients around the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-salinity-nbsp">Changes in salinity&nbsp;</h3>



Furthermore, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> can affect marine life, which often has narrow salinity tolerance ranges. For example, shifts in salinity can impact breeding cycles, migration patterns, and the availability of nutrients.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-carbon-cycle">Global carbon cycle</h3>



As the ocean's composition changes, its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere could also be altered, affecting the global carbon cycle and, by extension, climate change feedback mechanisms.



The melting of glaciers contributes to more pronounced changes in ocean conditions, impacting everything from global climate systems to local ecosystems in marine environments.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Columbia Glacier on the south coast of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.



“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.



“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.



“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”



This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;



The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. 



“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.



“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;



The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. 



Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.



The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;



The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;



These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;



Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;



This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. 



Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;



This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. 



The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.



The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.



The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Big Bend National Park&nbsp;is an American&nbsp;national park&nbsp;located in&nbsp;West Texas, bordering Mexico. The park has national significance as the largest protected area of&nbsp;Chihuahuan Desert&nbsp;topography&nbsp;and&nbsp;ecology&nbsp;in the United States, and was named after a&nbsp;large bend&nbsp;in the&nbsp;Rio Grande/Río Bravo. &nbsp;The park protects more than 1,200 species of plants, more than 450 species of birds, 56 species of reptiles, and 75 species of mammals. Additional park activities include scenic drives, programs led by Big Bend park rangers, and stargazing.



There are&nbsp;four&nbsp;campgrounds in Big Bend National Park. The National Park Service (NPS) operates three developed frontcountry campgrounds that provide drinking water and restroom facilities. In addition, a full hookup RV camping area is operated by the park concessioner, Forever Resorts. Reservations are required for Big Bend National Park Campgrounds. Reservations can be made by visiting&nbsp;recreation.gov. For visitors with rugged vehicles, or the willingness to leave the road behind and backpack into the wild, Big Bend provides options for&nbsp;backcountry camping. A backcountry permit is required for all backcountry camping and river trips.

Big Bend National Park, Texas

Despite the urgent need for action to slow human-caused climate change, the gradual rise in global temperatures often fails to alarm people, especially those not directly affected by frequent climate change impacts and disasters.



A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) and <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> has found a more effective way to communicate the real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> of climate change and cut through public indifference.



The research suggests that presenting climate data in a binary form - such as whether a lake freezes each winter - makes the consequences of warming much more vivid than simply showing graphs of rising temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-issue-of-climate-apathy">Growing issue of climate apathy</h2>



Rachit Dubey, an incoming UCLA communications professor and cognitive psychologist, explained that when participants viewed continuous temperature data for a town, it left them with only a vague sense of gradual change. 



In contrast, seeing whether or not a lake froze each winter made the environmental shift much more tangible.



“People are adjusting to worsening environmental conditions, like multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-fire-risk-has-grown-exponentially-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire</a> seasons per year, disturbingly fast,” said Dubey, the senior author of the study. 



“When we used the same temperature data for a location but presented it in a starker way, it broke through people's climate apathy. Unfortunately, compared to those who looked at a clearer presentation of the same information, those who only looked at gradual data perceived a 12% smaller climate impact and cared less.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communicating-about-climate-change">Communicating about climate change </h2>



Dubey focuses his research on how people process and reason about climate change, how it is communicated, and how to improve those communications. 



He pointed out that risk perception is deeply shaped by political views and personal experiences, and noted how quickly people shift their understanding of what is “normal” as conditions worsen.



Dubey's interest was sparked by a 2020 Vox article that highlighted growing climate apathy, even as scientific evidence mounts linking human greenhouse gas emissions to rising disasters like wildfires, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a>.



“For years, we assumed that if the climate worsened enough, people would act, but instead, we're seeing the 'boiling frog' effect, where humans continuously reset their perception of 'normal' every few years,” Dubey said.



“People are adjusting to worsening environmental conditions, like multiple fire seasons per year, disturbingly fast. My research examines how people are mentally adapting to the negative changes in our environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-binary-data">The power of binary data</h2>



The findings were based on experiments involving both fictional and real locations. In one version of the study, participants were introduced to the fictional town of “Townsville.” 



In another, they learned about five actual lakeside towns, such as Lake George in New York and Grand Traverse Bay in Michigan. In each case, participants were split into two groups. 



One group saw a graph charting temperature increases between 1940 and 2020, while the other group viewed a graph showing whether the local lake froze each winter over the same period. Although the underlying data was the same, participants who saw the binary freeze/no-freeze information perceived a greater impact from climate change.



As the decades progressed and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> climbed, the lakes froze less frequently. For the real-world towns, participants were also told about how traditional winter activities like ice skating and fishing had declined alongside the freeze.



When asked to rate the extent of climate change’s impact on the town from 1 to 10, those shown temperature graphs gave an average rating of 6.6. In contrast, those shown the freeze data rated it 7.5 - a 12% higher perception of impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-connections-drive-concern"><a></a>Emotional connections drive concern</h2>



Lead author Grace Liu, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Mellon University</a>, emphasized that connecting the loss of beloved local traditions to climate change can be a powerful motivator.



“Our study drives home the importance of discussing climate change not just in gradual temperature terms, but in concrete, either-or terms, showing how life has changed,” Liu said.



“It's not just warmer winters; it's also a loss of ice hockey and white Christmases. It's not just hotter summers; it's the disappearance of a swimming hole due to drought or soccer practice (being) canceled because it's dangerously hot.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-data-to-fight-climate-apathy">Using data to fight climate apathy </h2>



The researchers hope their findings will inform the work of climate communicators, policymakers, journalists, and anyone designing graphics about climate change.



“People working in these fields have a sense that binary data is more effective, and our study adds theoretical rigor, using careful cognitive experiments,” Dubey said. “Our study also helps explain why the 'Show Your Stripes' visualization is so compelling because it takes continuous data and presents it in a more binary format."



By emphasizing the increasing frequency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> or the vanishing of cherished seasonal activities, the researchers believe that temperature data, once a source of public apathy, could become a far more powerful tool for sparking urgent action on the climate crisis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02183-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



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Climate apathy: People are adjusting to global warming too quickly

Despite the urgent need for action to slow human-caused climate...

The world’s largest companies have collectively caused an estimated $28 trillion in climate-related damage, according to a groundbreaking study designed to help governments and communities more easily seek financial redress, similar to the lawsuits once brought against the tobacco industry.



The new analysis highlights the role of major carbon-emitting firms in driving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> and offers a clearer scientific framework for attributing economic harm directly to specific polluters.



A research team from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> calculated the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/companies-gain-trust-and-lower-costs-through-climate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental toll</a> caused by 111 major companies, finding that more than half of the total damages stemmed from just ten fossil fuel producers: Saudi Aramco, Gazprom, Chevron, ExxonMobil, BP, Shell, National Iranian Oil Co., Pemex, Coal India, and the British Coal Corporation.



For perspective, $28 trillion nearly equals the total output of the United States economy in 2023. At the top of the liability list, Saudi Aramco and Gazprom were each responsible for more than $2 trillion in damages from heat-related impacts alone, the researchers reported.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-emissions-and-damage">Climate change: Emissions and damage</h2>



Lead author Christopher Callahan, who conducted the work at Dartmouth before moving to <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, said the goal was to determine “the causal linkages that underlie many of these theories of accountability.”



His team estimated that each 1% share of greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere since 1990 has generated about $502 billion in damages from heat-related effects, without even counting the additional costs from climate-fueled disasters like hurricanes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a>, or droughts.



“Everybody's asking the same question: What can we actually claim about who has caused this?” said co-author Justin Mankin, a climate scientist at Dartmouth. “And that really comes down to a thermodynamic question of can we trace climate hazards and/or their damages back to particular emitters?”



The researchers say their findings leave little room for doubt. The answer is yes, Callahan and Mankin confirmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calculating-corporate-climate-damage">Calculating corporate climate damage</h2>



The researchers began by compiling the historical emissions tied to each company's production, such as the burning of gasoline or coal-derived electricity. They traced these records as far back as 137 years ago, acknowledging that carbon dioxide emissions linger in the atmosphere for centuries. 



Using 1,000 different computer simulations, they compared the real-world warming effects of these emissions to hypothetical scenarios where a company's products had never been used. Through this process, they determined that Chevron's pollution alone raised Earth’s average surface temperature by approximately 0.045 degrees Fahrenheit (0.025 degrees Celsius).



To connect emissions to economic harm, the researchers also analyzed the companies' impact on the five hottest days of the year using another 80 simulations. By applying models that relate heat intensity to drops in economic productivity, they could directly link emissions to real-world financial losses.



This technique follows methodologies already widely accepted in the scientific community, such as the attribution models used to connect specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a>, like the devastating 2021 Pacific Northwest heat wave, to human-caused climate change.



Mankin emphasized how their work advances accountability. “Who's to say that it's my molecule of CO2 that's contributed to these damages versus any other one?” he said. “We can actually trace harms back to major emitters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-legal-landscape">Changing the legal landscape </h2>



Some of the major companies implicated - Shell, Aramco, Gazprom, Chevron, ExxonMobil, and BP - either declined to comment or did not respond to media inquiries.



Outside experts have praised the study’s methodology. “All methods they use are quite robust,” said Friederike Otto, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> who leads the <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Weather Attribution</a> initiative. She emphasized the importance of replicating this approach. 



“It would be good in my view if this approach would be taken up more by different groups. As with event attribution, the more groups do it, the better the science gets and the better we know what makes a difference and what does not.”



At this point, no major lawsuit against a fossil fuel company for climate damages has succeeded. However, Otto believes the mounting weight of scientific evidence could shift outcomes: showing how overwhelmingly strong the scientific evidence is may change the legal landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-numbers-an-underestimated-crisis"><a></a>Beyond the numbers: An underestimated crisis</h2>



Callahan acknowledged that earlier efforts to tie specific damages to individual companies were hampered by data limitations. 



Previously, damage caused by individual companies was lost in the noise of data, and it could not be calculated. Today, however, the crisis is so severe that even a single company's emissions cause tangible, massive economic harm. 



“We have now reached a point in the climate crisis where the total damages are so immense that the contributions of a single company's product can amount to tens of billions of dollars a year,” said Chris Field, a Stanford University climate scientist unaffiliated with the study.



Still, some researchers caution that even this striking $28 trillion figure may be a significant underestimate. Michael Mann, a climate scientist at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>, argued that the true costs are likely even higher, given the complex and interconnected impacts of global warming not fully captured by the models used.



The Dartmouth team’s findings sharpen the scientific basis for demanding financial accountability from corporate polluters - and suggest that future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-has-become-a-hotspot-for-climate-lawsuits-as-the-crisis-escalates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lawsuits</a> could be fought with increasingly precise evidence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08751-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World’s top polluters linked to $28 trillion in climate damages

The world’s largest companies have collectively caused an estimated $28...

List,Of,Prime,Numbers,Below,100,,Text,Written,On,Paper

Numbers rarely make headlines, yet a fresh claim about prime numbers is stirring excitement well beyond math circles. Primes are those stubborn figures that resist division by anything but 1 and themselves. 



For thousands of years, their locations have seemed as unpredictable as meteor showers.



Now comes a bold assertion: primes are not as random as we thought. If that statement holds, it rewrites a story mathematicians have told since the ancient Greeks. It also challenges the security systems that shield our bank transactions and private messages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-prime-numbers">Understanding prime numbers</h2>



Every whole number on your calculator can be built from primes. Need 15? Multiply 3 and 5. Need 323? Break it into 17 × 19. Yet no one has found a simple shortcut that lists every prime in order without missing one or adding impostors. 



The hunt for such a shortcut has produced famous puzzles - from the Riemann hypothesis to the search for ever-larger primes - but no final map. 



That apparent chaos is so reliable that modern encryption counts on it. If hackers cannot predict the next prime, your credit-card details stay safe.



Still, primes have a habit of surprising us. They crop up in patterns inside musical scales, help explain the spacing of sunflower seeds, and even assist physicists in modeling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atomic nuclei</a>. Each appearance whispers that a deeper order may exist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-prime-number-code">Cracking the prime number code</h2>



That whisper grew louder when a team working between Hong Kong and North Carolina shared a preview of its findings. 



“This is a genuinely revolutionary development in prime number theory,” enthused Way Kuo, a Senior Fellow at the Hong Kong Institute for Advanced Study (<a href="https://www.hkias.cityu.edu.hk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CityU</a>), who is working on the project alongside researchers in the U.S. 



The group’s lead investigator, Han-Lin Li, brings expertise in computer science; co-author Shu-Cherng Fang is an authority in industrial and systems engineering. Together they tackle problems where mathematics meets real-world complexity.



Their claim is blunt. “Our team has devised a way to accurately and swiftly predict when prime numbers will appear,” adds Kuo. 



The statement, tucked inside a working paper on the SSRN Electronic Journal, immediately caught the eye of number theorists - and skeptics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-periodic-table-of-primes">Periodic table of primes</h2>



At the heart of the paper sits a chart dubbed the Periodic Table of Primes, or PTP. Much like the familiar chemical table, the PTP plots each prime inside repeating blocks. 



Slide along one block, and you land on the next prime; hop down a column, and you encounter twin primes - pairs that differ by just two, such as 11 and 13. 



The authors say the grid not only pinpoints where the next prime hides but also estimates the largest gap between primes in any stretch of numbers.



Such forecasts, if verified, would turn several open questions into routine calculations. Counting the total primes below, say, one quintillion could shrink from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-framework-dimon-turning-any-laptop-into-a-supercomputer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercomputer</a> months to desktop minutes. 



Factorizing large integers - vital for digital signatures - could speed up just as dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/code-breaking-encryption-quantum-computers-takes-big-step-closer-to-becoming-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cryptography</a> relies on the difficulty of teasing apart two large primes once they are multiplied. The RSA algorithm, for instance, underpins secure websites by turning that difficulty into a digital padlock. 



If the PTP really guides users straight to primes, today’s padlocks may look flimsy tomorrow. 



Researchers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cybersecurity-threats-hit-intel-processors-impacting-billions-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cybersecurity</a> are already sketching new protocols that would stay a step ahead, either by switching to quantum-resistant schemes or by choosing keys built from mathematical structures other than primes.



Not all consequences are ominous. Better prime prediction could reinforce security, too. Designers could pick keys with built-in tests - fail the test, and you know the key was forged. 



Faster prime generation might also improve blockchain platforms, trimming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-environmental-cost-of-ai-what-are-we-willing-to-give-up-for-computing-power/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy costs</a> that now rival small power plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prime-numbers-and-the-cosmos">Prime numbers and the cosmos</h2>



Curiously, the breakthrough did not spark inside a pure-math department. The team was refining a color-coding method for image compression, where numbers stand in for shades of red, green, and blue. 



Prime factors help squeeze those shades into smaller files without visible loss. While charting factor patterns, Li and colleagues noticed sequences that lined up with prime appearances. Follow the breadcrumb trail, and the PTP emerged.



Should the table withstand peer review, its ripple could reach astrophysics and quantum computing. Primes guide error-correcting codes that let <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> beam crisp photos across billions of miles. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum bits</a>, or qubits, likewise need robust codes to stay coherent. A clearer map of primes could sharpen both missions - snapping cleaner pictures of distant galaxies and keeping qubits in line long enough to tackle chemical simulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Mathematicians will now poke every corner of the PTP, searching for hidden flaws. If none appear, one of the oldest riddles in arithmetic loses its aura of chance. 



Either way, the chase proves something primes have taught for millennia: a humble question - what divides evenly into what - can reshape how we encrypt secrets, compress selfies, and explore space.



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The brilliant team behind this revolutionary discovery comprises Han-Lin Li, a Visiting Professor in the Department of Computer Science at City University of Hong Kong (<a href="https://www.cs.cityu.edu.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CityUHK</a>), Shu-Cherng Fang, the Walter Clark Chair Professor of Industrial and Systems Engineering at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>, and Way Kuo, a Senior Fellow at the Hong Kong Institute for Advanced Study, <a href="https://www.hkias.cityu.edu.hk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CityU</a>.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=4742238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SSRN Electronic Journal</a>.



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'Prime numbers' discovery upends thousands of years of accepted beliefs and could disrupt encryption methods

Numbers rarely make headlines, yet a fresh claim about prime...

The planet is edging far closer to irreversible change than most policy debates acknowledge, according to the most comprehensive probability analysis yet of climate “tipping points.”



The research was a collaboration between the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/institutes/gsi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter’s Global Systems Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hamburg</a>. 



The experts have calculated that, if governments follow their present course, there is roughly a two-in-three likelihood that at least one major Earth-system component will tip into a radically different and largely irreversible state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tipping-points-measured-in-the-study">Tipping points measured in the study</h2>



Tipping points are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-still-prevent-critical-climate-tipping-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thresholds</a> where small incremental warming forces a system - such as an ice sheet, an ocean circulation pattern, or a vast forest - into a self-propagating transition. To gauge just how close humanity is to those thresholds, lead author Jakob Deutloff and colleagues looked at sixteen well-studied tipping elements. 



Their list included collapse of the West Antarctic and Greenland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-past-present-and-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice sheets</a>, disruption of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, wholesale die-off of the Amazon rainforest, abrupt thaw of Arctic permafrost, and several others ranging from coral reefs to boreal forests.



Using the Finite-amplitude Impulse Response (FaIR) climate model coupled to a simplified representation of Amazon dieback and permafrost thaw, the team ran tens of thousands of Monte-Carlo simulations.



These runs sampled three layers of uncertainty: the planet’s sensitivity to greenhouse gases, the temperature thresholds at which each element could tip, and the time each system would take to complete its transition. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-the-tipping-points-avoidable">Are the tipping points avoidable?</h2>



The researchers then drove the model with five standard emissions pathways, known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378015000060?via=ihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a> (SSPs). The scenario that best matches today’s national policies - SSP2-4.5, which delivers about 2.8 °C of warming by 2100 - proved alarmingly unsafe.



Averaged across all sixteen tipping elements, the probability of at least one being triggered reached 62 percent. Nine of the elements exceeded 50 percent likelihood individually, including the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, the Greenland Ice Sheet and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a>.



Under higher-emission futures such as SSP3-7.0 or SSP5-8.5, tipping virtually becomes unavoidable for most elements. 



Conversely, more aggressive mitigation plans that align with the Paris Agreement - SSP1-2.6 (about 1.8 °C peak warming) and SSP1-1.9 (1.5 °C) - cut the average probability to roughly 37 percent and 14 percent, respectively, though they do not eliminate risk entirely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extra-push-from-carbon-cycle-feedbacks">Extra push from carbon-cycle feedbacks</h2>



The study also tackled a longstanding concern that emissions released by one tipping element - specifically Amazon dieback or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-thaw-is-a-rising-threat-to-arctic-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost thaw</a> - could generate sufficient extra warming to push others over the edge.



By embedding a conceptual carbon-feedback module inside FaIR, the researchers found that even under current-policy warming, additional carbon from those two sources would raise global temperature by a median of only 0.22 °C by 2300. 



That figure is an order of magnitude smaller than the warming driven directly by human activity and increases the average tipping probability by just three percentage points. In high-emission futures the absolute carbon release is larger, but the boost to global temperature is proportionally smaller because anthropogenic emissions dominate. 



The conclusion: feedbacks from these two carbon-rich systems are not, on their own, likely to set off a domino cascade. Nonetheless, the authors caution that other physical interactions - such as changes in ocean circulation or cloud cover - could still amplify risks in ways not captured by the present model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-warming-a-question-of-timing">Global warming: A question of timing</h2>



One of the biggest unknowns remains how fast each tipping element responds once its threshold temperature is crossed. The team calculated two extremes.



In an “instantaneous” view, an element flips as soon as the global mean temperature passes its threshold. In an “equilibrium” view, tipping occurs only if temperature remains above that threshold after the climate stabilizes.



For high-emission scenarios, where warming climbs continuously, the distinction hardly matters. In mitigation pathways that involve a mid-century overshoot followed by cooling, however, the assumed reaction speed makes a dramatic difference: instantaneous triggering can more than double the probability relative to the equilibrium calculation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-the-climate-tipping-points">Preventing the climate tipping points</h2>



“The good news from our study is that the power to prevent climate tipping points is still in our hands,” Deutloff said. 



“By moving towards a more sustainable future with lower emissions, the risk of triggering these tipping points is significantly reduced. And it appears that breaching tipping points within the Amazon and the permafrost region should not necessarily trigger others.”



Study co-author Tim Lenton warmer that climate tipping points could have devastating consequences for humanity,. "It is clear that we are currently on a dangerous trajectory - with tipping points likely to be triggered unless we change course rapidly." 



"We need urgent global action - including the triggering of ‘positive tipping points’ in our societies and economies - to reach a safe and sustainable future," said Lenton. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-transitions-are-urgently-needed">Rapid transitions are urgently needed</h2>



Positive tipping points refer to self-reinforcing social and technological shifts - such as rapid adoption of renewable energy, electric vehicles or new food systems - that can drive emissions downward at exponential rates. 



The authors argue that deliberately engineering such rapid transitions is now humanity’s best chance of keeping global warming below levels where probabilities of catastrophic change climb toward certainty.



The numbers in the study translate an abstract worry into a concrete risk metric: a 62 percent chance of rolling the dice on irreversible change under today’s national pledges. 



Whether that gamble is acceptable, they say, will be decided by the policy choices of this decade, choices that will echo for centuries through the stability of ice sheets, forests, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weakening-ocean-currents-could-cost-trillions-of-dollars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean currents</a> - and the societies that depend on them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/16/565/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth Systems Dynamics</a>.



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Climate tipping points: How close are we to irreversible change?

The planet is edging far closer to irreversible change than...

A team of scientists has developed a real-life method that changes how we see color. The experts are not just enhancing what’s already there - they’re showing people a color that doesn’t naturally exist in the world around us. 



A deeply vivid blue-green shade that viewers say is unlike anything they’ve ever seen.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> have introduced a novel method known as “Oz.” 



The technique uses precise beams of laser light to activate individual photoreceptor cells in the retina, allowing them to craft a completely new visual experience. 



The resulting color, which they call “olo,” has never before been seen by human eyes.



“It was like a profoundly saturated teal… the most saturated natural color was just pale by comparison,” said Austin Roorda, a professor of optometry and vision science at UC Berkeley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laser-light-and-human-color-vision">Laser light and human color vision</h2>



The Oz system can target and stimulate up to 1,000 individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-monkeys-probably-see-color-differently/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cone cells</a> in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-eye-tissue-through-3d-bioprinting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eye</a> at once. This allows the user to see the color olo, along with shapes, lines, motion, and even recognizable images, like babies or fish, all of which are conjured up within a tiny portion of the visual field.



“We chose Oz to be the name because it was like we were going on a journey to the land of Oz to see this brilliant color that we'd never seen before,” said James Carl Fong, a doctoral student in electrical engineering and computer sciences (EECS) at UC Berkeley.



“We’ve created a system that can track, target and stimulate photoreceptor cells with such high precision that we can now answer very basic, but also very thought-provoking questions about the nature of human color vision."



The system relies on an incredibly refined method of directing microscopic pulses of green laser light onto the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hormone-see-color/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retina</a>. 



These are controlled in a way that either excites or avoids specific types of photoreceptors - S, M, or L cones. It’s like painting with light, but at the scale of individual cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-color-vision-puzzle">The color vision puzzle</h2>



Humans see color through three types of cone cells. S cones detect short (blue) wavelengths of light, M cones detect medium (green) ones, and L cones detect longer (red) wavelengths. 



But M and L cones respond to very similar light, with their activation range overlapping by about 85 percent. That overlap makes it impossible to stimulate M cones in isolation using natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-color-of-light-impacts-our-internal-clocks-and-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light</a>.



“There's no wavelength in the world that can stimulate only the M cone,” said Ren Ng, a professor at UC Berkeley. “I began wondering what it would look like if you could just stimulate all the M cone cells. Would it be like the greenest green you've ever seen?”



To explore this, Ng partnered with Roorda, who had already developed a technique for stimulating individual photoreceptors. Together, they expanded it to target thousands of cells, hoping it would unlock new visual experiences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tiny-technicolor-display">A tiny, technicolor display</h2>



The Oz project began in 2018, with Fong building the software that would translate digital images into micro-laser signals. 



But before those signals could be sent, the team needed a map of a person’s retinal cone arrangement. Collaborators at the University of Washington provided just that - an optical system to image and identify each cone in the eye.



Once mapped, Oz would fire pulses only when the laser beam aligned with the intended cones. Although the laser itself is just green, activating specific combinations of S, M, and L cones allows the system to generate a full range of colors. Or, by focusing mostly on M cones, it can create olo.



“If you look at your index fingernail at arm's length, that's about the size of the display,” Roorda said. “But if we could, we would have filled the entire visual space like an IMAX.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-striking-new-color-from-a-laser-beam">Striking new color from a laser beam</h2>



To test Oz, five participants - including Roorda and Ng - viewed the new color and compared it to other colors. They all described olo as an intense blue-green, much more saturated than anything they’d ever encountered.



“The most saturated colors you can experience in nature are the monochromatic ones. Light from a green laser pointer is one example,” Roorda said. “When I pinned olo up against other monochromatic light, I really had that ‘wow’ experience.”



Doctoral student Hannah Doyle led the experiments. She also tested what happened to the color when the laser beam was slightly “jittered,” hitting random cones instead of only M cones. Just like that, olo vanished.



“I wasn't a subject for this paper, but I've seen olo since, and it's very striking. You know you're looking at something very blue-green,” Doyle said. “When the laser gets jittered, the normal color of the laser almost looks like yellow because the difference is so stark.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-ways-to-study-sight">New ways to study sight</h2>



The Oz system isn’t just a visual trick - it may offer powerful new tools for studying vision loss and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">color perception</a>. Diseases that damage cone cells could be simulated with pinpoint accuracy by deactivating targeted cells in healthy participants.



“Many diseases that cause visual impairment involve lost cone cells,” Doyle said. “One application that I'm exploring now is to use this cone by cone activation to simulate cone loss in healthy subjects.”



There’s also potential for helping those with color blindness to see a broader spectrum, or even giving people tetrachromatic vision - the ability to see four primary color dimensions instead of three.



“We found that we can recreate a normal visual experience just by manipulating the cells - not by casting an image, but just by stimulating the photoreceptors. And we found that we can also expand that visual experience, which we did with olo,” Roorda said.



“It’s still a mystery whether, if you expand the signals or generate new sensory inputs, will the brain be able to make sense of them and appreciate them? And, you know, I like to believe that it can. I think that the human brain is this really remarkable organ that does a great job of making sense of inputs, existing or even new,” he concluded.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu1052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Scientists just created a never-before-seen color using laser light

A team of scientists has developed a real-life method that...

For the first time, scientists have shown that global warming has overtaken every other human-caused pressure on wildlife protected by the Endangered Species Act. 



Drawing on a new analysis of 2,766 at-risk plants and animals across the United States and its territories, researchers report that 91 percent of federally listed species are now harmed by symptoms of climate change including rising temperatures, shifting rainfall, and other climate-linked disruptions.



“With the addition of comprehensive climate sensitivity data, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is just as prevalent a stressor to ESA-listed species as land and sea use change; this trend likely applies more broadly as well,” the authors wrote.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-endangered-species">Climate threats to endangered species</h2>



The study, led by <a href="https://defenders.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Defenders of Wildlife</a> scientist Talia E. Niederman, set out to determine how the five dominant drivers of biodiversity loss - climate change, land and sea use change, pollution, invasive species and overexploitation - interact across taxonomic groups.



Previous national syntheses relied heavily on the threats listed in original ESA documents or in the global <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>, both of which can lag behind current knowledge. To correct that shortfall, the team merged those data with a suite of recent climate-sensitivity assessments that evaluate species’ exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to warming.



Incorporating this third layer revealed thousands of cases in which climate stress had gone unreported, vaulting global warming to the top of the threat ledger. 



The researchers caution that historical listing decisions and many IUCN accounts vastly underrepresent the number of species affected by climate change and urge agencies to explicitly include climate sensitivity in ESA listing decisions and management plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-risks-for-endangered-species">Cascading risks for endangered species</h2>



Although climate change now dominates, it is rarely acting alone. Over 86 percent of the species in the data set face two or more of the five drivers at once, creating dangerous feedbacks that can accelerate decline.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/without-tackling-climate-change-coral-restoration-efforts-are-insufficient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Corals</a> and other cnidarians are hit by an average of almost five threats each, while bivalves and amphibians typically contend with more than three. Habitat conversion remains the number-one menace to freshwater organisms, whereas marine species suffer most from overexploitation.



Overall, land and sea use change still endangers 82 percent of U.S. imperiled species, and invasive species trouble more than half. Pollution and direct exploitation each jeopardize roughly a third, but their true influence may be larger because both pressures are chronically under-documented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-numbers-stack-up"><a></a>How the numbers stack up</h2>



Among terrestrial vertebrates, 75 percent of birds, 92 percent of mammals and 83 percent of reptiles are already affected by a warmer, less predictable climate. Freshwater groups are equally vulnerable: 88 percent of assessed fish and 75 percent of amphibians show high sensitivity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> or hydrological shifts.



Even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> taxa, sometimes assumed to be more buffered, reveal striking exposure, with nearly 78 percent of flowering plants and over 90 percent of conifers triggered under at least one climate-sensitivity metric.



By contrast, initial ESA listings cited climate threats for fewer than half of these groups, and the IUCN captured only about a quarter, largely because many U.S. species have never been reassessed under the Red List’s newer climate criteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-updated-assessments"><a></a>Urgent need for updated assessments</h2>



The authors highlight glaring information gaps: echinoderms, corals, and mollusks suffer from outdated or missing IUCN evaluations, while federal five-year reviews - required under the ESA - often arrive late or omit emerging climate data.



Without current assessments, managers can underestimate extinction risk and fail to deploy adaptive conservation tools such as assisted migration, habitat corridors or proactive fire management. 



Expanding rapid, standardized climate-vulnerability screenings, they argue, would give agencies a clearer map of where limited resources can do the most good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-pathways-to-prevention"><a></a>Policy pathways to prevention</h2>



Even under today’s daunting statistics, the team stresses that decisive action can still prevent losses. They recommend targeting the full suite of human pressures at once - curbing greenhouse-gas emissions while also restoring degraded habitats, controlling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a>, reducing pollution and enforcing sustainable harvests.



Doing so, they contend, will yield co-benefits for people, from safeguarding fisheries and water supplies to buffering communities from extreme weather. 



"We need no further research to know that biodiversity is facing multiple persistent threats. Addressing the five drivers of biodiversity loss promptly across all affected taxa will be critical to preventing further extinction," the researchers concluded. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-affects-endangered-species">How climate affects endangered species</h2>



The findings arrive as the United States prepares its first National Nature Assessment, a report intended to guide conservation investment through the mid-century. 



By demonstrating that climate change has already become the most pervasive danger for endangered species, the new study provides a sobering benchmark - and a potent call to integrate climate adaptation into every level of species recovery planning. 



Whether policymakers heed that call may determine how many of today’s imperiled species can still be saved for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf019/8115311?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Dynamics</a>.



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Climate change is the largest threat to U.S. endangered species

For the first time, scientists have shown that global warming...

Plastic waste has woven itself into the fabric of our oceans, threatening marine life, disrupting ecosystems, and impacting global economies. For decades, attempts to solve this crisis struggled with the sheer size of the problem and the complexity of working in constantly changing environments. 



Now, a powerful new force is emerging to confront the challenge head-on: artificial intelligence (AI). A transformative new study presents a pathbreaking way to supercharge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> cleanup.



The research shows how AI algorithms can increase the efficiency of plastic removal by more than 60 percent - a significant leap that brings the dream of plastic-free oceans closer to reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-could-revolutionize-ocean-cleanup">AI could revolutionize ocean cleanup</h2>



Until now, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprise-study-some-scientists-call-for-halting-ocean-plastic-cleanup-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> cleanup efforts operated on relatively simple and manual routing strategies. Ships trawling for floating plastic followed straightforward paths, often without adapting to shifting plastic densities or unpredictable weather.



This new research, conducted between 2022 and 2024, radically reimagines the process. The team developed a nonlinear, dynamic optimization model that finds the most effective plastic collection routes within seconds, even when managing vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coca-cola-may-dump-1-3b-pounds-plastic-into-oceans-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> areas. 



The method accounts for changes in plastic density, weather patterns, and the system's own impact on the environment, delivering significantly improved outcomes without raising operational costs.



"With analytics, we can dramatically improve plastic removal efforts in the ocean," said Dick den Hertog of the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a>. "By optimizing routes in real time, we ensure every sweep collects as much plastic as possible, making cleanup operations significantly more effective."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-models-find-paths-to-remove-plastic">AI models find paths to remove plastic</h2>



At the core of this innovation is a sophisticated mathematical model. The researchers framed the routing problem as a "longest path" problem in a graph representing the ocean, where nodes are locations and edges represent possible movements between them.



The challenge was not just to navigate from one point to another but to maximize plastic collection over time. Every decision about where the ships moved influenced future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/remote-sensing-can-help-prevent-plastic-from-reaching-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> distributions, creating a highly complex, nonlinear optimization problem.



To tackle this, the team designed a search-and-bound method supported by dynamic programming. Their system could find high-quality solutions within 6% of the theoretical optimum in practice. 



On a one-year dataset of ocean conditions and plastic densities, the AI-powered routing increased plastic collection efficiency by more than 60% compared to traditional methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-plastic-pollution-needs-new-solutions">Ocean plastic pollution needs new solutions</h2>



Plastic pollution in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> has reached catastrophic levels. Recent estimates indicate over 170 trillion plastic particles floating at sea. Despite global conversations about climate change, ocean plastic pollution remains an urgent but often overlooked crisis.



"Our work demonstrates that AI and operations research aren't just for finance or tech - they can actively solve environmental challenges," said Jean Pauphilet of <a href="https://www.london.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">London Business School</a>.



"With smarter analytics, we can make ocean cleanup efforts far more effective and get closer to a plastic-free future."



The timing could not be more critical. Legacy plastic emissions persist in ocean gyres like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, where plastic densities are twenty times higher than the surrounding seas. 



Without aggressive intervention, plastic accumulation will continue rising by four percent each year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-cleanup-missions-are-already-using-ai">Ocean cleanup missions are already using AI</h2>



Unlike many academic innovations that remain trapped in theory, this AI model has moved swiftly into real-world application. 



The <a href="https://theoceancleanup.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Cleanup</a> has already integrated the routing algorithm into its operational software. Active deployments in the Pacific Ocean show tangible improvements, helping crews extract larger amounts of waste while minimizing downtime.



The system uses two ships dragging a large U-shaped screen that captures plastic without trapping marine life. 



Careful scheduling is critical, as the retention zone has limited capacity and must be regularly emptied under strict weather constraints. The AI-driven model optimizes not only the collection routes but also extraction schedules, ensuring seamless operations even during rough sea conditions.



The initiative directly supports the <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Sustainable Development</a> Goal 14 (Life Below Water) by enhancing the efficiency of cleanup operations without the need for extensive new infrastructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-helps-overcome-weather-challenges">AI helps overcome weather challenges</h2>



One fascinating discovery from the study is how seasonal changes impact cleanup effectiveness. During winter, when high waves frequently disrupt operations, the AI model delivered even greater improvements over traditional methods.



The model's ability to predict and adapt to difficult weather conditions proved essential. Without optimization, idle time during bad weather could cripple collection efforts. By contrast, the AI-driven approach doubled plastic collection efficiency in the harshest months compared to older strategies.



This finding highlights that maximizing cleanup efficiency is not only about having more ships or larger nets. Smart planning that anticipates environmental obstacles can make the most significant difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-systems-for-faster-plastic-removal">Improving systems for faster plastic removal</h2>



Beyond boosting current cleanup operations, the researchers also explored how their optimization model could inform future technology development.



The study evaluated two major design options: increasing the span of the plastic collection system and reducing the time needed to perform extractions. While enlarging the collection area yielded some gains, it quickly faced diminishing returns, especially during stormy seasons when extraction opportunities become rare.



By contrast, improving extraction efficiency - such as by shortening the time needed to empty collected plastic - had a much larger impact. Reducing extraction time by just a few hours could double weekly collection rates in summer and boost winter collection rates by more than 60%.



"Our research proves that AI-driven optimization can be a game-changer for environmental efforts," said Bruno Sainte-Rose of The Ocean Cleanup. "This is a tangible step toward solving one of the planet's most pressing ecological crises."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-can-boost-cleanups-beyond-oceans">AI can boost cleanups beyond oceans</h2>



The lessons from this work extend far beyond ocean cleanup. The research shows that AI optimization techniques can radically amplify the impact of existing environmental initiatives.



The study challenges the idea that solving global environmental problems always demands massive investments. Instead, smarter coordination, better data use, and real-time adaptive decision-making can deliver significant results with available resources.



By creating open-access tools and frameworks, the research team also ensures their innovations can be adapted for other missions. Whether cleaning river systems, responding to oil spills, or managing disaster recovery logistics, the principles behind this AI model hold broad promise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-a-plastic-free-future">Toward a plastic-free future</h2>



The oceans represent Earth's life support system, regulating climate, providing food, and sustaining countless ecosystems. Yet they are under unprecedented threat from plastic pollution.



This pioneering work shows that artificial intelligence can shift the balance. By integrating real-time optimization with environmental action, the dream of plastic-free oceans moves from idealism to practical reality.



Science, technology, and visionary problem-solving are now working hand-in-hand to heal the blue heart of our planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/epdf/10.1287/opre.2023.0515" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Operations Research</a>.



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AI algorithms can increase ocean plastic cleanup efficiency 

Plastic waste has woven itself into the fabric of our...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Badlands National Park&nbsp;(Lakota:&nbsp;Makȟóšiča) is an American&nbsp;national park&nbsp;located in southwestern&nbsp;South Dakota. The park protects 242,756 acres (379.3&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi; 982.4&nbsp;km2)&nbsp;of sharply&nbsp;eroded&nbsp;buttes&nbsp;and&nbsp;pinnacles, along with the largest undisturbed&nbsp;mixed grass prairie&nbsp;in the United States. The&nbsp;National Park Service&nbsp;manages the park, with the South Unit being co-managed with the&nbsp;Oglala Lakota&nbsp;tribe. The White River Badlands have developed an international reputation as a fossil-rich area. They contain the richest deposits of&nbsp;Oligocene&nbsp;mammals known, providing a glimpse of life in the area 33 million years ago.



For those interested in front-country camping, the park offers two official campgrounds. The&nbsp;Cedar Pass Campground&nbsp;is a paid campground with 96 sites total, some designated for RV camping with electric hookups. Sage Creek Campground&nbsp;is a free, first-come first-serve campground with 22 sites.&nbsp;Motor homes, pull behind trailers, and other recreational vehicles greater than 18 feet in length are prohibited.&nbsp; For those seeking a more rugged camping experience, back-country camping is also available in the park. Back-country camping is permitted anywhere in the park as long as it is 0.5 miles from a road or trail and is not visible from a trail or roadway.

Big Bend National Park, Texas

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