Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy I Zwicky 18, which was captured in remarkable detail by the James Webb Space Telescope.



I Zwicky 18 is a blue compact dwarf <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> located approximately 59 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-i-zwicky-18">Star formation in I Zwicky 18</h2>



The galaxy is notable for its relatively young appearance and the fact that it contains very few heavy elements. These characteristics indicate that it has experienced little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> compared to other galaxies of similar age.



“The galaxy was first identified by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1930’s and resides roughly 59 million light-years from Earth,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. “This galaxy has gone through several sudden bursts of star formation.”&nbsp;



According to ESA, I Zwicky 18 is typical of the kinds of galaxies that inhabited the early universe and is much smaller than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/runaway-star-j1249-36-spotted-trying-to-escape-our-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-image-of-the-galaxy">Webb telescope image of the galaxy</h2>



“Two major starburst regions are embedded in the heart of the galaxy. The wispy brown filaments surrounding the central starburst region are bubbles of gas that have been heated by stellar winds and intense ultraviolet radiation unleashed by hot, young stars,” said ESA.



“A companion galaxy resides nearby to the dwarf galaxy, which can be seen at the bottom of the wider-field image. The companion may be interacting with the dwarf galaxy and may have triggered that galaxy's recent star formation.”&nbsp;



ESA explained that the “orange blobs” surrounding the galaxy are the dim glow from ancient fully formed galaxies at much larger distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-characteristics-of-i-zwicky-18">Key characteristics of I Zwicky 18</h2>



As previously mentioned, the galaxy has a very low abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium, suggesting that it has not undergone significant stellar processing.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-stellar-population-nbsp">Young stellar population&nbsp;</h3>



Despite its old age, I Zwicky 18 contains many young, hot stars. This suggests that it might have experienced a burst of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-detects-awe-inspiring-newborn-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> relatively recently in its history.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-medium-nbsp">Interstellar medium&nbsp;</h3>



The galaxy has a high density of gas, which is a prime ingredient for star formation. This gas is mostly in the form of hydrogen.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-characteristics">Unusual characteristics</h3>



Its characteristics are more typical of primordial galaxies found in the early universe, making it a valuable object of study for understanding galaxy formation and evolution.



Ultimately, I Zwicky 18 provides insights into the conditions and processes that might have been prevalent in the early universe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-cycles-of-stars-and-dust">Life cycles of stars and dust</h3>



The image was captured as part of a Webb program to study the life cycle of dust in I Zw 18.&nbsp;



“Scientists are now building off of previous research with Hubble obtained at optical wavelengths, studying individual dusty stars in detail with Webb’s equivalent spatial resolution and sensitivity at infrared wavelengths.”&nbsp;



ESA noted that this galaxy is of particular interest as its content of elements heavier than helium is one of the lowest of all known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> in the local universe.&nbsp;



“Such conditions are thought to be similar to those in some of the first star-forming galaxies at high redshift, so the Webb study of I Zw 18 should shed light on the life-cycle of stars and dust in the early universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-ursa-major">The constellation Ursa Major </h2>



Ursa Major, also known as the Great Bear, is one of the most prominent and easily recognizable constellations in the northern sky. 



Its name, "Ursa Major," means "Great Bear" in Latin, and it has been a significant part of various mythologies and star lore across cultures for thousands of years. 



One of the most famous asterisms within Ursa Major is the Big Dipper, a group of seven bright stars that form a shape resembling a ladle or dipper. The Big Dipper is often used as a navigation tool because it points to Polaris, the North Star, located in the nearby constellation Ursa Minor.



Ursa Major is best viewed in the northern hemisphere and is circumpolar, meaning it is visible year-round for much of the Northern Hemisphere. Its position changes with the seasons, rotating around Polaris, the North Star.



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope



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Dwarf galaxy provides a window into the early universe

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name of the galaxy pair comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions - offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy NGC 2090, located approximately 40 million light-years away in the constellation Columba.



NGC 2090 is a stunning spiral galaxy that is notable for its well-defined structure, featuring a bright central core surrounded by tightly wound spiral arms.&nbsp;



These arms are filled with young, hot stars and interstellar gas, indicating active star formation.&nbsp;



Captured by the Webb Telescope’s MIRI and NIRCam instruments, the image reveals the galaxy's winding spiral arms and the swirling gas and dust of its disc in magnificent and unique detail, noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-ngc-2090">Observations of NGC 2090</h2>



The galaxy’s spiral pattern is relatively symmetrical, making it a fascinating object of study for astronomers interested in galactic evolution and dynamics.&nbsp;



Observations of NGC 2090, including those conducted by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-helps-solve-the-mystery-of-a-young-eruptive-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope, have provided valuable insights into the properties of its stellar populations, gas content, and the nature of its spiral structure.



“NGC 2090 was one of many galaxies studied by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to refine the measurement of the Universe’s expansion rate, or ‘Hubble constant,’” said ESA.&nbsp;



“This can be done by observing a special type of variable stars named ‘Cepheids’ in relatively nearby galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-ngc-2090">New insights into NGC 2090</h2>



A Cepheid-based measurement from 1998 indicated that NGC 2090 is 37 million light-years away from Earth. However, the latest measurements suggest that the galaxy is 40 million light-years away.



“Already before that Hubble project in 1998, NGC 2090 had been well studied as a very prominent nearby example of star formation,” noted ESA.&nbsp;



“Described as a ‘flocculent’ spiral, this galaxy has a patchy, dusty disc and arms that are flaky or not visible at all. We can see those patterns well in Hubble's visible-light images. However, Webb’s NIRCam near-infrared data reveal the spiral arms with remarkable clarity.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-spiral-galaxies">What are spiral galaxies?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are among the most common and visually striking types of galaxies in the universe.&nbsp;



They are characterized by their flat, disk-like shape with a bright central bulge surrounded by sweeping spiral arms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-arms-and-central-bulge-nbsp">Spiral arms and central bulge&nbsp;</h3>



The arms of a spiral galaxy are regions where stars, gas, and dust are concentrated, often glowing brightly with the light of young, hot stars that form within them.&nbsp;



The central bulge typically contains older stars and can host a supermassive black hole at its core.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Types of spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on how tightly their arms are wound and the size of their central bulge, ranging from tightly wound "Sa" galaxies to loosely wound "Sc" types.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-nbsp">Star formation&nbsp;</h3>



The structure of spiral galaxies is maintained by the interplay of gravity and angular momentum, with a rotating disk of stars and gas giving rise to their iconic shape.&nbsp;



They are active sites of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> due to the abundance of gas in their arms.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies often have a halo of older stars and globular clusters surrounding their disks, which provides clues about their formation and evolution.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, the galaxy that contains our Solar System, is a prime example of a barred spiral galaxy, a subtype where a bar-shaped structure of stars extends from the central bulge.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-columba-nbsp">The constellation Columba&nbsp;</h2>



Columba is a small and relatively faint constellation in the southern sky, whose name means "dove" in Latin. It was introduced in the late 16th century by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius and first appeared in a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in 1603.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation</a> is said to represent the dove sent out by Noah during the biblical flood, tying it to themes of hope and peace.



Columba lies near the larger constellation Canis Major and is bordered by others such as Lepus and Puppis.&nbsp;



Although it lacks particularly bright stars, its most notable star, Alpha Columbae (also called Phact), shines at a magnitude of approximately 2.6 and is a hot blue-white star. Beta Columbae, another prominent star in the constellation, is a slightly cooler, yellow-white star.



The constellation is best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere during the summer months, though it can also be seen from lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope&nbsp;



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Webb unveils a spiral galaxy in magnificent detail

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. 



Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. 



Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies">Types of spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



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Young stars illuminate a spiral galaxy in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Columbia Glacier, a tidewater glacier located in Prince William Sound on the south coast of Alaska.



The Columba Glacier is one of the most rapidly changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> in the world and has been closely studied for the insights it provides into glacial mechanics and climate change impacts. 



"Since the early 1980s, the Columbia Glacier has retreated more than 20 km and lost about half of its total volume. This one glacier accounts for nearly half of the ice lost in the Chugach Mountains," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"The changing climate is thought to have caused its retreat. Until 1980, when its rapid and constant retreat began, the glacier’s terminus was observed at the northern edge of Heather Island, which lies near the end of Columbia Bay, the inlet into which the glacier currently flows before draining into Prince William Sound."



ESA noted that this satellite image, captured in September of 2023, reveals a mostly ice-free Columbia Bay dotted with numerous icebergs and fragmented sea-ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-calving-events">Dramatic calving events</h2>



The Columbia Glacier is known for its dramatic calving events, where large chunks of ice break off from the glacier's terminus and fall into the sea, becoming icebergs.



This process has been particularly active as the glacier has retreated, contributing to hazards for shipping in Prince William Sound.



The glacier has been the focus of extensive scientific research, serving as a case study for understanding the dynamics of tidewater glaciers and their responses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Studies have used satellite imagery, field observations, and modeling to track its changes over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impacts-on-the-columbia-glacier">Climate impacts on the Columbia Glacier</h2>



"Columbia is just one of the many glaciers suffering from the effects of climate change. Most of the glaciers around the world are losing mass," said ESA.



"However, before the advent of satellites, measuring their retreat and studying their vulnerability to climate change was difficult considering their size, remoteness and rugged terrain they occupy."



Now, noted ESA, different satellite instruments are available to gather information systematically and over large areas, providing an effective means to monitor change, keep track of all calving stages, and quantify the melting rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-columbia-s-retreat-nbsp">Climate change and Columbia's retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Columbia Glacier flows from the Chugach Mountains into Columbia Bay. It was once one of the largest contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a> due to its significant ice loss.&nbsp;



The glacier's dynamics are influenced by its interaction with water, where the terminus meets the ocean. As the glacier flows into the sea, large chunks of ice calve off the front, leading to dramatic scenes of ice crashing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shelf-sediment-ocean-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. 



This process has been intensifying due to warmer temperatures and changes in water circulation, which undermine the ice from below.



Columbia Glacier's retreat has significant implications for marine navigation and local ecosystems. The increase in icebergs calving into the bay poses hazards to ships, while the fresh meltwater impacts local water temperatures and salinity, affecting the habitat of fish and other marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-in-a-warming-climate">Melting glaciers in a warming climate </h2>



Glaciers, which are large masses of accumulated snow and ice, store about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. As the climate warms, these glaciers increasingly melt and release freshwater into nearby seas and the ocean at large.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influx-of-freshwater">Influx of freshwater</h3>



The influx of freshwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting glaciers</a> alters the salinity (salt concentration) of the ocean water. Since freshwater is less dense than saltwater, its addition can lead to stratification in which lighter, less salty water layers on top of denser, saltier water.&nbsp;



Stratification can disrupt ocean currents, which are driven in part by differences in water density and temperature. These currents are crucial for regulating global climate by distributing heat and nutrients around the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-salinity-nbsp">Changes in salinity&nbsp;</h3>



Furthermore, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> can affect marine life, which often has narrow salinity tolerance ranges. For example, shifts in salinity can impact breeding cycles, migration patterns, and the availability of nutrients.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-carbon-cycle">Global carbon cycle</h3>



As the ocean's composition changes, its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere could also be altered, affecting the global carbon cycle and, by extension, climate change feedback mechanisms.



The melting of glaciers contributes to more pronounced changes in ocean conditions, impacting everything from global climate systems to local ecosystems in marine environments.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Columbia Glacier on the south coast of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.



“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.



“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.



“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”



This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;



The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. 



“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.



“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;



The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. 



Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.



The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;



The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;



These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;



Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;



This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. 



Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;



This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. 



The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.



The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.



The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Antarctic 2013 Flight Lines. Map of the flight lines flown by IceBridge during the 2013 Antarctic campaign.The Antarctic Flight Line Maps or Flight Indexes are a collection of 1:250,000 scale topographic maps over Antarctica from the U.S. Antarctic Resource Center (USARC). The Antarctic topographic maps have original hand-drawn flight lines for aerial photographic missions.

The collection includes over 300 maps and charts that encompass approximately 6,000 flight lines that have been flown over Antarctica by the U.S. Navy since 1946. Flight line maps in digital format allow users to identify flight and frame numbers over their area of interest to facilitate the search for single frame images.
The Antarctic maps and charts were produced by the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/united-states-global-waste/">United States</a> and member nations of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). The majority of the maps are USGS Antarctica 1:250,000 Reconnaissance Series topographic maps compiled from U.S. Navy aerial photographs. These maps were prepared, edited, and published by the USGS in cooperation with the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>. The collection of maps covers 93 regions across Antarctica with multiple versions for areas that have extensive aerial coverage. Therefore the coverage is shown by aerial imaging and Antarctic 2013 Flight Lines.

Credit: <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/antarctic-2013-flight-lines#.XEq1z9IzbIU">NASA</a> / Michael Studinger

Antarctic 2013 Flight Lines

In the age of climate extremes, Earth is sending signals we can now decode. Across South Africa, scientists have noticed an unusual phenomenon: the land is rising. 



This isn’t a minor wobble or a passing shift. Measurements show consistent uplift of up to two millimeters per year in many regions. It’s slow, silent, and until recently, misunderstood.



For decades, researchers believed that mantle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-wins-in-2025-came-from-unexpected-places/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>, such as the presence of a deep-seated plume, explained this movement. The idea fit well with established geophysical models.



But recent findings from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bonn</a> paint a very different picture - one that traces these land movements not to the deep Earth, but to its parched and drying surface.



This study, led by geodesists and climate scientists, offers not only an explanation but also a new way to measure drought. Using GPS networks and satellite data, the team discovered that declining water reserves - not mantle forces - are driving South Africa’s gradual rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gps-reveals-subtle-land-movement">GPS reveals subtle land movement</h2>



South Africa has a unique advantage: a dense network of <a href="https://www.euspa.europa.eu/eu-space-programme/galileo/what-gnss#:~:text=Global%20Navigation%20Satellite%20System%20(%20GNSS,Galileo%20(EU)" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GNSS</a> (Global Navigation Satellite System) stations known as TrigNet. 



Originally built for land surveys and atmospheric studies, these stations have become unexpected tools in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-impacting-earths-rotation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> research. From 2000 to 2021, data from 88 of these stations revealed a subtle yet consistent vertical rise.



Dr. Makan Karegar of the University of Bonn, along with Christian Mielke, Helena Gerdener, and Professor Jürgen Kusche, carefully filtered this data. 



The goal was to separate meaningful signals from noise. To do this, the team applied singular spectrum analysis - a technique that decomposes the time series into seasonal, annual, and long-term trends. This made it possible to see past fluctuations and identify genuine patterns of uplift.



Most of the stations recorded a positive trend starting around 2012. “This data showed an average rise of six millimeters between 2012 and 2020,” explained Dr. Karegar. That shift coincided with drought years. But how does dry weather make land rise?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-loss-and-rising-land-in-africa">Water loss and rising land in Africa </h2>



To understand the process, imagine pressing down on a sponge. When you release it, it springs back. Earth’s crust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behaves</a> in a similar way. When water saturates the land, it weighs it down. When that water disappears - whether from rivers, soil, or aquifers - the crust rebounds.



“During droughts, water loss from the ground can cause the Earth's surface to rise slightly and can therefore be used to estimate water mass loss, assuming the elastic response of the Earth,” said Mielke.



The researchers cross-validated their findings with data from NASA’s <a href="https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRACE</a> satellites, which detect changes in Earth’s gravity to infer shifts in mass. Although GRACE has limited resolution, it showed the same trend: in areas where water disappeared, land lifted. 



Further confirmation came from hydrological models like GLDAS-Noah and GLWS, which simulate the water cycle. Together, these tools formed a consistent story of surface dehydration and upward movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-s-driest-land-is-rising-the-most">Africa's driest land is rising the most</h2>



The most severe uplift in South Africa occurred in provinces that suffered major droughts. Western Cape, Gauteng, and Limpopo displayed especially strong signals. 



From 2012 to 2020, some regions showed water mass loss equivalent to 0.10 meters of water. This, in turn, triggered an average rise of 6 millimeters across the country.



The impact of Cape Town’s “Day Zero” drought between 2015 and 2017 was particularly striking. The GNSS station near the city captured a strong uplift signal. Gauteng also showed marked increases in elevation. The likely reason: the depletion of numerous reservoirs near Pretoria and Johannesburg.



“The GNSS network in South Africa has the potential to estimate the impact of drought on water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a>,” the researchers emphasized in their paper.



These patterns of uplift can thus serve as indirect indicators of how much groundwater has been used or lost - a vital insight in a water-stressed country.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-uplift-follows-el-nino-cycles">Land uplift follows El Niño cycles</h2>



Climate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthier-nations-set-bold-climate-targets-but-citizens-give-less/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> provided further support. South Africa’s rainy seasons are closely tied to El Niño and La Niña events. These oceanic shifts alternate between warm, dry years and cool, wet ones. 



The researchers found that land uplift followed dry El Niño phases and slowed or reversed during wetter La Niña periods.



Time-series data revealed that water loss correlated strongly with El Niño events in 2002, 2015, and 2019. Conversely, La Niña years such as 2010 and 2021 showed increases in water mass. These trends confirmed that the uplift wasn’t random - it followed the rhythm of precipitation.



In the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, GNSS stations displayed high correlation with hydrological models. Correlation coefficients reached 90% with GLWS and 94% with GLDAS-Noah in some locations. These alignments confirmed that the uplift reflected hydrological rather than geodynamic changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-drives-south-africa-s-rising-land">Drought drives South Africa’s rising land </h2>



For decades, scientists suspected that mantle plumes - especially the Quathlamba hotspot - were pushing South Africa upward. While these features still exist, their influence on current land motion appears limited.



“We believe that it also possible that a loss of groundwater and surface water is responsible for the land uplift,” said Karegar.



The team did not dismiss mantle flow entirely. Some uplift could still result from deep Earth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>. But their data showed that hydrological changes accounted for most of the recent vertical movement. A region’s elevation rose or fell in step with drought severity.



The analysis ruled out tectonic activity as the main cause. Earthquakes in South Africa are rare, and the crustal strain rate is minimal. Instead, the findings support a view where surface processes - not deep mantle forces - dominate short-term land deformation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gps-tracks-hidden-water-loss">GPS tracks hidden water loss </h2>



With water scarcity expected to worsen under climate change, the ability to track groundwater loss is vital. 



Current drought monitoring systems rely on rainfall, vegetation, or surface water. But these can miss the hidden reservoir: groundwater. That’s where GPS-based monitoring becomes revolutionary.



GNSS offers a cheap, passive way to detect unseen changes beneath our feet. It doesn’t require drilling wells or installing new satellites. The infrastructure already exists. With improved processing and station density, GNSS could transform how countries like South Africa prepare for water shortages.



Despite sparse coverage in regions like the Northern Cape, the results still delivered valuable insights.



Compared to similar studies in the United States, South Africa has fewer GNSS sites. This results in lower‐quality estimates of total water storage. Yet the study also showed that even limited networks can yield high-value information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-signs-from-a-drying-earth">Warning signs from a drying Earth</h2>



The success of this study suggests a path forward. Expanding the GNSS network into under-monitored areas could improve national drought forecasting. It could also help verify water policies, especially those aimed at managing aquifer extraction.



Services like the United Nations African Flood and Drought Monitor and ESA’s ANIN project aim to improve drought tracking. 



But GNSS-based hydrogeodesy brings something unique: the ability to measure total water storage, including the deep underground reserves that satellites can’t see.



“This effect can be used to record the extent of a drought more precisely than ever before – using a method that is comparatively inexpensive and requires less effort,” Mielke explained.



In a world where water grows scarcer each year, these ground motions are more than geological curiosities. They’re warning signs - gentle but persistent - that tell of the urgency of a drying Earth.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JB030350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth</a>. 



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South Africa is literally rising out of the ocean, scientists think they know why

In the age of climate extremes, Earth is sending signals...

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras. From iconic selfies to being spotted from space, its activities have been well-documented over the years.



But something new happened on February 28, the 4,466th Martian day - or sol - of its mission. Curiosity was caught mid-drive, possibly for the first time, by one of NASA’s Mars orbiters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-glimpse-of-curiosity">A rare glimpse of Curiosity </h2>



<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The image was taken by the HiRISE</a> (High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment) camera, which is aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> operate this camera, which offers a sharp view of the Martian surface. In the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photo</a>, Curiosity appears as a small, dark speck at the front of a long trail of tracks stretched across the Red Planet.



The tracks cover about 1,050 feet (320 meters) and reflect roughly 11 drives that started on February 2, 2025. 



During these moves, Curiosity crawled along at a top speed of just 0.1 mph (0.16 kph), making its way from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a> channel toward its next science destination: a region that may hold boxwork formations created by ancient groundwater billions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-reconnaissance-orbiter-the-basics">Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter - the basics</h2>



The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-reconnaissance-orbiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MRO</a>) has been circling Mars since 2006, acting like a cosmic detective. NASA designed it to sniff out signs of water, study the planet’s weather, and scout landing spots for future missions. 



Its powerful HiRISE camera snaps incredibly detailed images - so sharp you can spot boulders and dust trails on the Martian surface. 



Over the years, MRO has quietly built one of the richest archives of Mars data we have, helping scientists piece together the story of a planet that once had rivers and lakes.



Beyond snapping photos, the orbiter pulls double duty as a communications relay. It beams information between Earth and rovers like Perseverance and Curiosity, acting like a cosmic Wi-Fi hotspot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-curiosity-is-still-roaming-mars">Why Curiosity is still roaming Mars</h2>



Curiosity wasn’t just sent to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> to take pretty pictures. Its mission, which began with a dramatic landing in 2012, is all about asking a big question: Was Mars ever able to support small forms of life? 



To answer that, the rover has been exploring the ancient environments of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gale-crater-reveals-secrets-of-water-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a>, drilling into rocks, analyzing soil, and studying the planet’s climate and geology. 



Every discovery Curiosity makes helps build a clearer picture of what Mars was like, billions of years ago. Some of its biggest finds so far include evidence of ancient rivers, lakes, and the chemical ingredients necessary for life.



Even after more than a decade, Curiosity is still hard at work, pushing uphill to study higher and older layers of Martian history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-curiosity-s-journey">A closer look at Curiosity’s journey</h2>



Curiosity’s arrival at its next stop isn’t on a set timeline. Several factors can affect its progress, including how its navigation software handles the landscape and how steep the terrain becomes. 



Engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California work hand-in-hand with scientists to plan each day’s drive carefully.



“By comparing the time HiRISE took the image to the rover’s commands for the day, we can see it was nearly done with a 69-foot (21-meter) drive,” said Doug Ellison, Curiosity’s planning team chief at JPL.



HiRISE is built for incredible detail. Most of its images are in black and white, with a strip of color down the center to boost spatial resolution. 



Although HiRISE has captured Curiosity in color in the past, this time the rover happened to fall inside the black-and-white section of the image.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracks-that-tell-a-story">Tracks that tell a story</h2>



In the latest image, Curiosity’s tracks stretch across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-beneath-mars-surface-reveal-possible-habitats-for-ancient-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> and lead up to the base of a steep slope. 



Since the image was taken, the rover has successfully climbed that slope. If everything goes smoothly, Curiosity is expected to reach its new science site within the next month or so.



The trail it left behind could remain visible for months, unless Martian winds sweep the marks away. 



Every track, every footprint on Mars tells part of the story of a journey that's been unfolding for more than a decade - and is still going strong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-for-mars-exploration">What comes next for Mars exploration</h2>



Curiosity’s journey is just one piece of the bigger picture, a stepping stone in our long-term efforts to explore another world. 



NASA and other space agencies are already planning the next steps to explore Mars even further, using the lessons learned from past and current missions.



Missions like Perseverance are already collecting rock samples that could someday be brought back to Earth for detailed study.



Future plans include launching more helicopters, building complex sample return missions, and even sending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronauts</a> to the Red Planet in the 2030s - a goal that once seemed like pure science fiction.



Each discovery Curiosity makes helps shape and inspire these future missions. It reminds us that even the slow, careful drive of a lone rover can lay the groundwork for humanity’s bigger dreams beyond Earth.



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<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to view the image of the Mars Curiosity Rover.</a>



Information for this article came from a <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/">press release</a> by NASA's JPL.



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Curiosity rover captured in action from above for the first time

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras....

Nature can sometimes pull off the most amazing returns. A prime example is the Omiltemi cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus insonus), which recently reappeared in Mexico after staying out of official sight for over 120 years.



Scientists once believed this humble creature had vanished for good, especially since it was last formally <a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/94450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> in 1904 and not observed again. Many people even doubted it was distinct from other rabbits until fresh evidence turned that skepticism around.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rabbits-that-are-difficult-to-track">Rabbits that are difficult to track</h2>



This comeback story is credited to ecologist José Alberto Almazán-Catalán, president of Instituto para el Manejo y Conservación de la Biodiversidad (<a href="https://www.inmacob.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INMACOB</a>). He led a five-year expedition that captured irrefutable images in the rugged forests of southwestern Mexico.



These large rabbits belong to the order lagomorpha, a group that includes hares and pikas. Their habitat in the <a href="https://lacgeo.com/sierra-madre-del-sur-mexico" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sierra Madre del Sur</a> mountains, a range in southwestern Mexico, has made them difficult to track.



"Just knowing that it had been 100 years, and no other scientist had seen a live [Omiltemi] rabbit is incredible,” said Almazán-Catalán. He noted that he initially struggled to confirm whether the rabbit was truly out there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-local-knowledge">Unraveling local knowledge</h2>



Local residents had whispered about a darker-tailed rabbit for decades, yet outside experts wrote off these reports as confusion with common cottontails. 



Community members eventually presented fresh carcasses from recent hunts, prompting scientists to reassess their assumptions.



"It's totally different from the regular cottontail, and I was completely amazed and very happy to have had that opportunity to see one,” said Almazán-Catalán. Researchers used these local leads to decide where to place their cameras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-rabbit-disappeared-for-so-long">Why the rabbit disappeared for so long</h2>



The Omiltemi cottontail’s long absence wasn’t entirely due to its rarity. It has a very small distributional range, restricted to the cloud forests on this particular range of mountains. 



These conifer forests are tough to access and haven’t been a high priority for past scientific surveys. Political instability, limited funding, and rugged terrain made the region one of the least studied biodiversity zones in Mexico.



Adding to the confusion, the subtle physical differences between the Omiltemi rabbit and other common species led to years of misidentification. Many scientists assumed that sightings involved the more widespread cottontail types. Without clear photos or fresh specimens, no one could confirm its survival - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-a-lost-rabbit">The search for a lost rabbit</h2>



Scientists placed camera traps, motion-activated devices that record images when animals pass by, in select conifer forests. These tactics verified that Omiltemi cottontails still live among the pines and firs at high elevations.



It turns out that the Omiltemi cottontail rabbit lacks the fluffy white tail that many associate with bunnies. Its short, black tail and compact frame clearly set it apart from other species in the region.



"This search was full of unexpected turns and employed everything from interviews to drones to find this little rabbit,” said Christina Biggs, lost species officer for Re:wild. She applauded the meticulous approach that kept the team on track despite many hurdles.



"Eighty percent of the objectives of this project have been achieved,” said Almazán. Additional surveys will be needed to uncover the breeding patterns and overall population dynamics of this elusive animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-conservation">Implications for future conservation</h2>



Local community members are amenable to adjusting hunting practices if research shows a threat to rabbit populations. Their willingness to collaborate might become the key to safeguarding a species that many had already dismissed.



Protecting this rabbit goes beyond preserving a single species. It also helps maintain the ecological web in these highland forests by keeping predator-prey relationships and soil quality in balance.



"They are important for seed dispersal. They are the base of the food chain for predators such as snakes, owls, tigrillos, ocelots, pumas, and coyotes," said Almazán.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-significant-efforts">Recognizing significant efforts</h2>



"We applaud these tenacious and comprehensive efforts as they provide crucial updates for our partner IUCN Red List assessors to better make recommendations for species survival," said Biggs. Her perspective emphasizes the value of accurate data in shaping future wildlife policies.



Experts believe that community awareness will play a crucial role in preventing any repeat disappearance. Clear guidance and ongoing research will help ensure that these rare rabbits remain firmly on the map.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-project-to-find-missing-animals">Global project to find missing animals</h2>



The rediscovery of the Omiltemi rabbit wasn’t just a local win - it was part of a broader mission. 



The effort was guided by <a href="https://www.rewild.org/press/hallado-saltando-por-una-sierra-en-mexico-cientificos-redescubren-especie-de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Re:wild’s Search for Lost Species</a>, a global project that is focused on finding animals that haven't been officially documented in over a decade. The Omiltemi cottontail is now the 13th species brought back into scientific awareness through this initiative.



Support from international conservationists, database tools, and remote monitoring technology made the search possible. By combining satellite data, community interviews, and drone flights, researchers were able to map out promising habitats in ways that weren't feasible even a few decades ago.



Information for this article comes from a Re:wild <a href="https://www.rewild.org/press/found-small-enigmatic-rabbit-with-black-tail-lost-to-science-for-more-than">press release</a>.



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Omiltemi rabbit comes back to life after 120 years without a trace

Nature can sometimes pull off the most amazing returns. A...

Beautiful,Young,Woman,Near,Beige,Glass,Molecules.,Over,Blue,Background.

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few years to whales that sail through life for more than a century, raising questions about how aging shapes such differences and what forces keep some animals healthy for so long.



Experts have long suspected that variations in the microscopic machinery inside cells might be at play. An emerging study now suggests that certain tiny adjustments in our proteins could hold the secret to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living better</a>, not just longer.



Recent work from <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a> points to specific post-translational modifications in proteins that could be linked to a healthier lifespan. 



Led by Professor Haim Cohen of the Sagol Healthy Human Longevity Center at Bar-Ilan University’s Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, the team used a new computational tool to examine how these protein tweaks show up in species with impressive lifespans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-aging-and-longevity">Clues to aging and longevity </h2>



Nature has been running a grand experiment for millions of years, offering clues about what helps certain species thrive. 



Researchers noticed that whales, elephants, and even some human populations seem to manage serious threats like cancer better than expected.



By comparing these animals to their shorter-lived counterparts, scientists discovered key patterns in the proteins responsible for cell maintenance. Each finding hints that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular changes</a> support a more resilient physiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-patterns-linked-to-healthy-aging">Protein patterns linked to healthy aging</h2>



To uncover these patterns, the team developed a tool called PHARAOH, short for Positive posttranslational Modifications Regulator of Healthspan. It analyzed protein sequences in 107 different mammal species and looked for changes tied to lifespan.



By using evolutionary data, PHARAOH was able to pinpoint which protein tweaks stuck around in long-lived animals. This let scientists identify specific <a href="https://www.cellsignal.com/pathways/chromatin-acetylation-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOooAw_ZHb32yoec5mQmODkYrVWiqcwg8d-bk5wjwW8T4ndTyT8W8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acetylation sites</a> that might support healthier aging across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-protein-changes-matter">How do protein changes matter?</h2>



Proteins are the molecules that build tissues, run chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, and keep our bodies functional during aging. they undergo acetylation, a process that adds or removes small chemical tags, which is one example of a posttranslational modification.



These tags shape how proteins fold, interact, and support different parts of our metabolism. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9038119/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showed that adjusting the function of proteins tied to DNA repair and energy production can extend life in model organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-reveal-secrets-to-long-life-nbsp">Whales reveal secrets to long life&nbsp;</h2>



Whales offer a fascinating case study in healthy longevity. Despite having trillions more cells than humans and living for over 100 years, they rarely develop cancer. This phenomenon, known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto’s Paradox</a>, has <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422861122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puzzled</a> researchers for decades.



The new study sheds light on this mystery. It found that whales and other long-lived mammals share unique patterns in protein modifications that likely help suppress tumor growth. 



These consistent tweaks in their molecular biology may act as built-in defenses against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related</a> disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-tweaks-may-prevent-diseases">Protein tweaks may prevent diseases</h2>



This new research suggests that tweaking proteins might explain why large mammals rarely suffer from runaway cancer despite having far more cells. 



A lower incidence of some cancers could emerge from strategic molecular shifts in the proteins that keep cell division under control.



“Our findings offer a promising path toward understanding how protein modifications can protect against age-related diseases and promote longer, healthier lives,” said Professor Cohen. 



We could see more methods for shielding humans from age-related conditions if these changes prove adaptable through future therapies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-aging-through-protein-changes">Fighting aging through protein changes</h2>



Scientists hope that tapping into these protein modifications will eventually curb conditions like diabetes and neurodegeneration. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7165364/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> found that boosting the action of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/51548" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIRT6</a> helps mice live longer, pointing to a potential strategy for improving health in older age.



As more labs piece together how these modifications appear across species, new ideas for medicines may follow. Clarity on these processes might open ways to slow some effects of aging and give people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">better years</a> later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-could-mean-for-medicine">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



If researchers can figure out how to mimic these protective protein changes in humans, it could change how we approach aging-related treatments. 



Instead of targeting single diseases like cancer or Alzheimer’s, doctors might one day adjust the body’s protein regulation to guard against multiple conditions at once.



Drugs that fine-tune acetylation - the specific type of protein modification linked to longevity in this study - are already being explored. But this research provides clearer targets and stronger biological backing, which could speed up progress in designing future therapies.



Experts believe that continued work in this field could lead to ways of delaying aging and several chronic conditions at once. looking deeper into these molecular changes may hold a key to not just extending life, but ensuring more vitality along the way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58762-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Protein changes discovered that protect humans and mammals from aging and disease

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few...

Despite the urgent need for action to slow human-caused climate change, the gradual rise in global temperatures often fails to alarm people, especially those not directly affected by frequent climate change impacts and disasters.



A new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA) and <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> has found a more effective way to communicate the real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a> of climate change and cut through public indifference.



The research suggests that presenting climate data in a binary form - such as whether a lake freezes each winter - makes the consequences of warming much more vivid than simply showing graphs of rising temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-issue-of-climate-apathy">Growing issue of climate apathy</h2>



Rachit Dubey, an incoming UCLA communications professor and cognitive psychologist, explained that when participants viewed continuous temperature data for a town, it left them with only a vague sense of gradual change. 



In contrast, seeing whether or not a lake froze each winter made the environmental shift much more tangible.



“People are adjusting to worsening environmental conditions, like multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-fire-risk-has-grown-exponentially-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fire</a> seasons per year, disturbingly fast,” said Dubey, the senior author of the study. 



“When we used the same temperature data for a location but presented it in a starker way, it broke through people's climate apathy. Unfortunately, compared to those who looked at a clearer presentation of the same information, those who only looked at gradual data perceived a 12% smaller climate impact and cared less.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communicating-about-climate-change">Communicating about climate change </h2>



Dubey focuses his research on how people process and reason about climate change, how it is communicated, and how to improve those communications. 



He pointed out that risk perception is deeply shaped by political views and personal experiences, and noted how quickly people shift their understanding of what is “normal” as conditions worsen.



Dubey's interest was sparked by a 2020 Vox article that highlighted growing climate apathy, even as scientific evidence mounts linking human greenhouse gas emissions to rising disasters like wildfires, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a>.



“For years, we assumed that if the climate worsened enough, people would act, but instead, we're seeing the 'boiling frog' effect, where humans continuously reset their perception of 'normal' every few years,” Dubey said.



“People are adjusting to worsening environmental conditions, like multiple fire seasons per year, disturbingly fast. My research examines how people are mentally adapting to the negative changes in our environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-binary-data">The power of binary data</h2>



The findings were based on experiments involving both fictional and real locations. In one version of the study, participants were introduced to the fictional town of “Townsville.” 



In another, they learned about five actual lakeside towns, such as Lake George in New York and Grand Traverse Bay in Michigan. In each case, participants were split into two groups. 



One group saw a graph charting temperature increases between 1940 and 2020, while the other group viewed a graph showing whether the local lake froze each winter over the same period. Although the underlying data was the same, participants who saw the binary freeze/no-freeze information perceived a greater impact from climate change.



As the decades progressed and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-will-cut-world-gdp-by-a-staggering-40-percent-if-nothing-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> climbed, the lakes froze less frequently. For the real-world towns, participants were also told about how traditional winter activities like ice skating and fishing had declined alongside the freeze.



When asked to rate the extent of climate change’s impact on the town from 1 to 10, those shown temperature graphs gave an average rating of 6.6. In contrast, those shown the freeze data rated it 7.5 - a 12% higher perception of impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-connections-drive-concern"><a></a>Emotional connections drive concern</h2>



Lead author Grace Liu, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Mellon University</a>, emphasized that connecting the loss of beloved local traditions to climate change can be a powerful motivator.



“Our study drives home the importance of discussing climate change not just in gradual temperature terms, but in concrete, either-or terms, showing how life has changed,” Liu said.



“It's not just warmer winters; it's also a loss of ice hockey and white Christmases. It's not just hotter summers; it's the disappearance of a swimming hole due to drought or soccer practice (being) canceled because it's dangerously hot.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-data-to-fight-climate-apathy">Using data to fight climate apathy </h2>



The researchers hope their findings will inform the work of climate communicators, policymakers, journalists, and anyone designing graphics about climate change.



“People working in these fields have a sense that binary data is more effective, and our study adds theoretical rigor, using careful cognitive experiments,” Dubey said. “Our study also helps explain why the 'Show Your Stripes' visualization is so compelling because it takes continuous data and presents it in a more binary format."



By emphasizing the increasing frequency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> or the vanishing of cherished seasonal activities, the researchers believe that temperature data, once a source of public apathy, could become a far more powerful tool for sparking urgent action on the climate crisis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02183-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



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Climate apathy: People are adjusting to global warming too quickly

Despite the urgent need for action to slow human-caused climate...

The world’s largest companies have collectively caused an estimated $28 trillion in climate-related damage, according to a groundbreaking study designed to help governments and communities more easily seek financial redress, similar to the lawsuits once brought against the tobacco industry.



The new analysis highlights the role of major carbon-emitting firms in driving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> and offers a clearer scientific framework for attributing economic harm directly to specific polluters.



A research team from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> calculated the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/companies-gain-trust-and-lower-costs-through-climate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental toll</a> caused by 111 major companies, finding that more than half of the total damages stemmed from just ten fossil fuel producers: Saudi Aramco, Gazprom, Chevron, ExxonMobil, BP, Shell, National Iranian Oil Co., Pemex, Coal India, and the British Coal Corporation.



For perspective, $28 trillion nearly equals the total output of the United States economy in 2023. At the top of the liability list, Saudi Aramco and Gazprom were each responsible for more than $2 trillion in damages from heat-related impacts alone, the researchers reported.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-emissions-and-damage">Climate change: Emissions and damage</h2>



Lead author Christopher Callahan, who conducted the work at Dartmouth before moving to <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, said the goal was to determine “the causal linkages that underlie many of these theories of accountability.”



His team estimated that each 1% share of greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere since 1990 has generated about $502 billion in damages from heat-related effects, without even counting the additional costs from climate-fueled disasters like hurricanes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a>, or droughts.



“Everybody's asking the same question: What can we actually claim about who has caused this?” said co-author Justin Mankin, a climate scientist at Dartmouth. “And that really comes down to a thermodynamic question of can we trace climate hazards and/or their damages back to particular emitters?”



The researchers say their findings leave little room for doubt. The answer is yes, Callahan and Mankin confirmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calculating-corporate-climate-damage">Calculating corporate climate damage</h2>



The researchers began by compiling the historical emissions tied to each company's production, such as the burning of gasoline or coal-derived electricity. They traced these records as far back as 137 years ago, acknowledging that carbon dioxide emissions linger in the atmosphere for centuries. 



Using 1,000 different computer simulations, they compared the real-world warming effects of these emissions to hypothetical scenarios where a company's products had never been used. Through this process, they determined that Chevron's pollution alone raised Earth’s average surface temperature by approximately 0.045 degrees Fahrenheit (0.025 degrees Celsius).



To connect emissions to economic harm, the researchers also analyzed the companies' impact on the five hottest days of the year using another 80 simulations. By applying models that relate heat intensity to drops in economic productivity, they could directly link emissions to real-world financial losses.



This technique follows methodologies already widely accepted in the scientific community, such as the attribution models used to connect specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a>, like the devastating 2021 Pacific Northwest heat wave, to human-caused climate change.



Mankin emphasized how their work advances accountability. “Who's to say that it's my molecule of CO2 that's contributed to these damages versus any other one?” he said. “We can actually trace harms back to major emitters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-legal-landscape">Changing the legal landscape </h2>



Some of the major companies implicated - Shell, Aramco, Gazprom, Chevron, ExxonMobil, and BP - either declined to comment or did not respond to media inquiries.



Outside experts have praised the study’s methodology. “All methods they use are quite robust,” said Friederike Otto, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> who leads the <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Weather Attribution</a> initiative. She emphasized the importance of replicating this approach. 



“It would be good in my view if this approach would be taken up more by different groups. As with event attribution, the more groups do it, the better the science gets and the better we know what makes a difference and what does not.”



At this point, no major lawsuit against a fossil fuel company for climate damages has succeeded. However, Otto believes the mounting weight of scientific evidence could shift outcomes: showing how overwhelmingly strong the scientific evidence is may change the legal landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-numbers-an-underestimated-crisis"><a></a>Beyond the numbers: An underestimated crisis</h2>



Callahan acknowledged that earlier efforts to tie specific damages to individual companies were hampered by data limitations. 



Previously, damage caused by individual companies was lost in the noise of data, and it could not be calculated. Today, however, the crisis is so severe that even a single company's emissions cause tangible, massive economic harm. 



“We have now reached a point in the climate crisis where the total damages are so immense that the contributions of a single company's product can amount to tens of billions of dollars a year,” said Chris Field, a Stanford University climate scientist unaffiliated with the study.



Still, some researchers caution that even this striking $28 trillion figure may be a significant underestimate. Michael Mann, a climate scientist at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>, argued that the true costs are likely even higher, given the complex and interconnected impacts of global warming not fully captured by the models used.



The Dartmouth team’s findings sharpen the scientific basis for demanding financial accountability from corporate polluters - and suggest that future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-has-become-a-hotspot-for-climate-lawsuits-as-the-crisis-escalates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lawsuits</a> could be fought with increasingly precise evidence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08751-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World’s top polluters linked to $28 trillion in climate damages

The world’s largest companies have collectively caused an estimated $28...

List,Of,Prime,Numbers,Below,100,,Text,Written,On,Paper

Numbers rarely make headlines, yet a fresh claim about prime numbers is stirring excitement well beyond math circles. Primes are those stubborn figures that resist division by anything but 1 and themselves. 



For thousands of years, their locations have seemed as unpredictable as meteor showers.



Now comes a bold assertion: primes are not as random as we thought. If that statement holds, it rewrites a story mathematicians have told since the ancient Greeks. It also challenges the security systems that shield our bank transactions and private messages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-prime-numbers">Understanding prime numbers</h2>



Every whole number on your calculator can be built from primes. Need 15? Multiply 3 and 5. Need 323? Break it into 17 × 19. Yet no one has found a simple shortcut that lists every prime in order without missing one or adding impostors. 



The hunt for such a shortcut has produced famous puzzles - from the Riemann hypothesis to the search for ever-larger primes - but no final map. 



That apparent chaos is so reliable that modern encryption counts on it. If hackers cannot predict the next prime, your credit-card details stay safe.



Still, primes have a habit of surprising us. They crop up in patterns inside musical scales, help explain the spacing of sunflower seeds, and even assist physicists in modeling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atomic nuclei</a>. Each appearance whispers that a deeper order may exist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-prime-number-code">Cracking the prime number code</h2>



That whisper grew louder when a team working between Hong Kong and North Carolina shared a preview of its findings. 



“This is a genuinely revolutionary development in prime number theory,” enthused Way Kuo, a Senior Fellow at the Hong Kong Institute for Advanced Study (<a href="https://www.hkias.cityu.edu.hk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CityU</a>), who is working on the project alongside researchers in the U.S. 



The group’s lead investigator, Han-Lin Li, brings expertise in computer science; co-author Shu-Cherng Fang is an authority in industrial and systems engineering. Together they tackle problems where mathematics meets real-world complexity.



Their claim is blunt. “Our team has devised a way to accurately and swiftly predict when prime numbers will appear,” adds Kuo. 



The statement, tucked inside a working paper on the SSRN Electronic Journal, immediately caught the eye of number theorists - and skeptics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-periodic-table-of-primes">Periodic table of primes</h2>



At the heart of the paper sits a chart dubbed the Periodic Table of Primes, or PTP. Much like the familiar chemical table, the PTP plots each prime inside repeating blocks. 



Slide along one block, and you land on the next prime; hop down a column, and you encounter twin primes - pairs that differ by just two, such as 11 and 13. 



The authors say the grid not only pinpoints where the next prime hides but also estimates the largest gap between primes in any stretch of numbers.



Such forecasts, if verified, would turn several open questions into routine calculations. Counting the total primes below, say, one quintillion could shrink from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-framework-dimon-turning-any-laptop-into-a-supercomputer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supercomputer</a> months to desktop minutes. 



Factorizing large integers - vital for digital signatures - could speed up just as dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/code-breaking-encryption-quantum-computers-takes-big-step-closer-to-becoming-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cryptography</a> relies on the difficulty of teasing apart two large primes once they are multiplied. The RSA algorithm, for instance, underpins secure websites by turning that difficulty into a digital padlock. 



If the PTP really guides users straight to primes, today’s padlocks may look flimsy tomorrow. 



Researchers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cybersecurity-threats-hit-intel-processors-impacting-billions-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cybersecurity</a> are already sketching new protocols that would stay a step ahead, either by switching to quantum-resistant schemes or by choosing keys built from mathematical structures other than primes.



Not all consequences are ominous. Better prime prediction could reinforce security, too. Designers could pick keys with built-in tests - fail the test, and you know the key was forged. 



Faster prime generation might also improve blockchain platforms, trimming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-environmental-cost-of-ai-what-are-we-willing-to-give-up-for-computing-power/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy costs</a> that now rival small power plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prime-numbers-and-the-cosmos">Prime numbers and the cosmos</h2>



Curiously, the breakthrough did not spark inside a pure-math department. The team was refining a color-coding method for image compression, where numbers stand in for shades of red, green, and blue. 



Prime factors help squeeze those shades into smaller files without visible loss. While charting factor patterns, Li and colleagues noticed sequences that lined up with prime appearances. Follow the breadcrumb trail, and the PTP emerged.



Should the table withstand peer review, its ripple could reach astrophysics and quantum computing. Primes guide error-correcting codes that let <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> beam crisp photos across billions of miles. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum bits</a>, or qubits, likewise need robust codes to stay coherent. A clearer map of primes could sharpen both missions - snapping cleaner pictures of distant galaxies and keeping qubits in line long enough to tackle chemical simulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Mathematicians will now poke every corner of the PTP, searching for hidden flaws. If none appear, one of the oldest riddles in arithmetic loses its aura of chance. 



Either way, the chase proves something primes have taught for millennia: a humble question - what divides evenly into what - can reshape how we encrypt secrets, compress selfies, and explore space.



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The brilliant team behind this revolutionary discovery comprises Han-Lin Li, a Visiting Professor in the Department of Computer Science at City University of Hong Kong (<a href="https://www.cs.cityu.edu.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CityUHK</a>), Shu-Cherng Fang, the Walter Clark Chair Professor of Industrial and Systems Engineering at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>, and Way Kuo, a Senior Fellow at the Hong Kong Institute for Advanced Study, <a href="https://www.hkias.cityu.edu.hk/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CityU</a>.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=4742238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SSRN Electronic Journal</a>.



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'Prime numbers' discovery upends thousands of years of accepted beliefs and could disrupt encryption methods

Numbers rarely make headlines, yet a fresh claim about prime...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

The calving front of Greenland’s Jakobshavn Glacier seen during an IceBridge survey flight in 2012.
Credit:<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/calving-front-of-jakobshavn-glacier-in-greenland#.XEqJPNIzbIU"> NASA</a> / Jefferson Beck

Calving Front of Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland

Panoramic view of Thule Air Base, Greenland, on Mar. 10, 2014. Thule Air Base, or Thule Air Base/Pituffik Airport (IATA: THU, ICAO: BGTL), is the United States Air Force's northernmost base, located 1,207 km (750 mi) north of the Arctic Circle and 1,524 km (947 mi) from the North Pole on the northwest coast of the island of Greenland.
Thule Air Base is the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thule_Air_Base">US Armed</a> Forces' northernmost installation. Thule's arctic environment includes icebergs in North Star Bay, two islands (Saunders Island and Wolstenholme Island), a polar ice sheet, and Wolstenholme Fjord – the only place on Earth where four active glaciers join together.
Thule Air Base is home to the 21st Space Wing's global network of sensors providing missile warning, space surveillance and space control to North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and Air Force Space Command (AFSPC).
Thule Air Base is also home to the 821st Air Base Group and is responsible for air base support within the Thule Defense Area for the multinational population of "Team Thule". The base hosts the 12th Space Warning Squadron (12 SWS) which operates a Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) designed to detect and track ICBMs launched against<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/people-getting-tattoos-2000-years-ago/"> North America</a>. Thule is also host to Detachment 1 of the 23rd Space Operations Squadron, part

Credit:<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/panoramic-view-of-thule-air-base-greenland#.XEqGJdIzbIU"> NASA</a> / Christy Hansen

Calving Front of Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland

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