Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a striking phytoplankton bloom off the coast of southeast Greenland. 



While satellite imagery suggested that the bloom emerged in May, persistent cloud cover had obstructed optical sensors from capturing a clear view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-break-in-the-clouds">A break in the clouds</h2>



The situation changed in mid-June when a brief gap in the clouds over the North Atlantic Ocean revealed the bloom's vibrant swirls.



The captivating phenomenon was captured on June 16, 2024, by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Aqua satellite.&nbsp;



The image depicts an 800-kilometer-wide expanse of the North Atlantic Ocean, positioned east of Greenland and south of Iceland, with the bloom extending far beyond the image’s boundaries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-phytoplankton-nbsp">Ecological role of phytoplankton&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a> blooms are large concentrations of microscopic, plant-like organisms that usually float near the surface of the ocean. 



These tiny organisms play a fundamental role in marine ecosystems by serving as the primary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source</a> for a wide range of marine life, from other small plankton to larger fish and mammals.&nbsp;



Phytoplankton are also essential for the global carbon cycle and oxygen production, as they absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and release oxygen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unknown-source-of-the-phytoplankton-bloom">Unknown source of the phytoplankton bloom</h2>



The exact type of phytoplankton in this bloom cannot be determined from this natural-color image alone. It might include coccolithophores, which are characterized by their white calcium carbonate plates that can lend the ocean a milky appearance.&nbsp;



Alternatively, the bloom could consist of diatoms, a form of microscopic algae with silica shells and abundant chlorophyll, giving them a green hue.



Regardless of the species, the timing of this bloom is notable. Phytoplankton blooms typically emerge at lower latitudes first, subsequently appearing in the high latitudes of the North Atlantic by spring and mid-summer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-phytoplankton-blooms">More about phytoplankton blooms</h2>



Phytoplankton blooms occur when conditions such as sunlight, temperature, and nutrient availability are optimal for rapid phytoplankton growth. 



These conditions are often found in nutrient-rich waters, particularly where upwelling currents bring nutrients from the ocean depths to the surface. 



When the ideal conditions align, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-may-flip-plankton-into-carbon-emitters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> reproduce rapidly, leading to visible blooms that can cover large areas of the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-phytoplankton-blooms-affect-marine-life">How do phytoplankton blooms affect marine life?</h2>



Phytoplankton blooms have a profound impact on marine life. As primary producers, phytoplankton form the base of the oceanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-restructures-marine-food-webs-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food web</a>, supporting a wide array of marine organisms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-availability-nbsp">Food availability&nbsp;</h3>



When a bloom occurs, the abundance of phytoplankton provides a substantial food source for zooplankton, which in turn feed fish, crustaceans, and other larger marine animals.&nbsp;



This increase in food availability can lead to a temporary surge in populations of these species, promoting the overall health and diversity of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystem</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harmful-blooms">Harmful blooms</h3>



However, not all effects of phytoplankton blooms are beneficial. When blooms become excessively large, they can lead to harmful algal blooms (HABs).&nbsp;



These blooms can produce toxins that are harmful to marine life, causing mass die-offs of fish, shellfish, and other marine animals.&nbsp;



Moreover, as the bloom decays, the decomposition process consumes large amounts of oxygen from the water, leading to hypoxic conditions or "dead zones" where oxygen levels are too low to support most marine life. This can result in significant disruptions to marine ecosystems and loss of biodiversity.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Vibrant phytoplankton bloom in the North Atlantic

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Clear Lake in northern California, which is one of the oldest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater lakes</a> in the United States. 



In mid-May 2024, the waters of Clear Lake were transformed into a vivid tapestry of bright green swirls, as seen in this image captured on May 15, 2024 by the Operational Land Imager-2 (OLI-2) on the Landsat 9 satellite.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-lake-algal-bloom-is-visible-from-space-nbsp">Clear Lake algal bloom is visible from space&nbsp;</h2>



The algal bloom, potentially comprised of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and other phytoplankton, was documented from space. Direct sampling is needed to precisely identify the algal organisms present in the lake.



Cyanobacteria, single-celled photosynthetic organisms, are notorious for some species' ability to produce microcystin, a toxin harmful to the skin, liver, and kidneys.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-algal-blooms-in-clear-lake-nbsp">Large algal blooms in Clear Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Clear Lake, about 60 miles north of San Francisco Bay, is a naturally nutrient-rich body of water that has historically supported large algal populations dating back to the end of the last ice age, around 10,000 years ago, based on sediment core studies.



Recent human activities have exacerbated nutrient levels in the lake, leading to a rise in harmful algal blooms.&nbsp;



Out of over 130 algal species that have been identified in the lake, three types of blue-green algae pose health risks under certain conditions. These blooms typically appear in the spring and late summer, as reported by Lake County officials.



Nutrient influx from agriculture, vineyards, inadequate septic systems, gravel mining, and an abandoned mercury mine, along with natural factors such as lakebed sediment disturbances caused by waves and fish, have contributed to the lake's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-at-risk-climate-change-is-diminishing-global-water-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water quality</a> decline.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chlorophyll-a-and-cyanobacteria-nbsp">Chlorophyll-a and cyanobacteria&nbsp;</h2>



This year, data from a satellite-based ocean color instrument on Sentinel-3, processed further by the NOAA National Ocean Service, showed increased concentrations of chlorophyll-a and cyanobacteria leading up to May 15.



As of May 25, local monitors have not reported microcystin levels for the current bloom. Nonetheless, the high algal density poses risks to aquatic ecosystems, as decomposing phytoplankton deplete oxygen, potentially leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hypoxia-is-a-serious-problem-in-rivers-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hypoxic conditions</a> and aquatic dead zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-clear-lake-nbsp">More about Clear Lake&nbsp;</h2>



Clear Lake is the largest natural freshwater lake wholly within the state of California. Geological estimates suggest that it formed about 2.5 million years ago.&nbsp;



The lake is a popular destination for fishing, particularly for largemouth bass, and its scenic beauty attracts many visitors for boating, bird watching, and other recreational activities.&nbsp;



Clear Lake's ecosystem supports a diverse range of wildlife, but it also faces environmental challenges such as water quality issues, partly due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-quality-threatened-by-nutrient-pollution-in-40-u-s-states/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural runoff</a> and other human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freshwater-lakes-and-climate-change-nbsp">Freshwater lakes and climate change&nbsp;</h2>



Freshwater lakes are significantly impacted by climate change, which manifests in various ways, affecting both their ecological balance and their roles in local environments.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-lake-water">Warming lake water</h3>



As global temperatures rise, lakes experience changes in water temperature and ice cover. Warmer water tends to hold less oxygen, which can harm fish and other aquatic life; it can also encourage the growth of harmful algal blooms that further deplete oxygen and release toxins into the water.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-cover">Ice cover</h3>



Reduced ice cover during winter changes the seasonal rhythms of lakes, affecting species that rely on ice cover for part of their life cycle, like some cold-water fish and plants.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-level-fluctuations-nbsp">Water level fluctuations&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation due to higher temperatures can alter water levels. These fluctuations not only impact the aquatic habitats but also affect water availability for human use, agriculture, and hydroelectric power generation.&nbsp;



The increasing frequency of extreme weather events, like storms and droughts, leads to more pronounced cycles of flooding and low water levels, creating challenges for managing water resources and preserving lake ecosystems.&nbsp;



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-some-lakes-resist-the-heat-of-atmospheric-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> are integral to their local climates, biodiversity, and economies, these changes can have widespread implications for the communities and ecosystems that depend on them.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Clear Lake turns green with algal growth

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Aral Sea, captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station while orbiting over Kazakhstan.&nbsp;



Although it is referred to as a sea, the Aral Sea is technically an endorheic lake that straddles the border between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, receiving water from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-severe-desertification-nbsp-of-the-aral-sea">Severe desertification&nbsp;of the Aral Sea</h2>



Over the last six decades, extensive diversion of these rivers for agricultural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-can-now-show-us-how-much-water-we-use-for-irrigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">irrigation</a> has dramatically reduced the lake's surface area, which once might have covered most of this image.



Formerly the fourth largest lake in the world by surface area, the Aral Sea has shrunk to about 10% of its original size since the 1960s.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-aralkum-desert">The Aralkum Desert</h2>



The southeast region of the lake has undergone severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desertification</a>, giving rise to the Aralkum Desert - one of the world's newest deserts, covering 62,000 square kilometers (24,000 square miles).&nbsp;



The image shows sand dunes in the bottom-center, formed by winds sweeping across the barren landscape. The shrinking of the Aral Sea has also led to frequent sand and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sand-and-dust-storms-have-become-unpredictable-and-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storms</a>, worsening local air quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-barsa-kelmes-nature-reserve">The Barsa-Kelmes Nature Reserve</h2>



In the local Turkic language, "aral" means "island," reflecting the lake's history of containing over 1,100 islands. One such island hosts the Barsa-Kelmes Nature Reserve, located between what remains of the North and South Aral Seas.&nbsp;



The reserve is home to hundreds of plant and animal species. Efforts to revive the local ecosystem and curb further aridification are underway, including a project supported by the U.S. Agency for International Development which involves planting black saxaul shrubs (Haloxylon aphyllum).&nbsp;



These shrubs help stabilize the soil and reduce dust storm impacts, aiding in the recovery of native flora and fauna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-destruction-of-the-aral-sea">Destruction of the Aral Sea</h2>



The Aral Sea was once known for its vibrant fishing industry, which was a cornerstone of the local economy - particularly in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan - for centuries.&nbsp;



In the 1950s, the sea supported a thriving fishery, with annual catches of around 40,000 to 50,000 tons of fish. Several species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> thrived in its waters, including carp, roach, bream, and the Aral barbel.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collapse-of-the-fishing-industry-nbsp">Collapse of the fishing industry&nbsp;</h3>



However, the industry began to collapse in the 1960s when the Soviet government initiated massive irrigation projects that diverted the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers away from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-study-most-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-quickly-losing-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> to irrigate cotton fields.&nbsp;



As water levels dropped, salinity increased, making the environment uninhabitable for most fish species. 



By the 1980s, commercial fishing became untenable; the industry virtually disappeared, resulting in economic and social hardship for the communities that depended on it.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-disaster">Ecological disaster</h3>



The shrinkage of the Aral Sea is one of the most severe anthropogenic ecological disasters of the 20th century. The loss of the fishing industry was just one of many devastating consequences.



The region experienced a sharp decline in biodiversity, with many native fish species becoming extinct, severely affecting the local fishing industry. The exposed sea bed also created health problems for local populations as winds spread toxic dust and salt from the dry seabed.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-efforts-to-restore-the-aral-sea">Ongoing efforts to restore the Aral Sea</h3>



Today, the area struggles with these legacies, even as there are ongoing efforts to revive some parts of the sea and mitigate the environmental damage.



Efforts have been made to partially restore the Northern Aral Sea, which has seen some improvement in water levels and fish populations due to the construction of a dam.&nbsp;



However, the larger Southern Aral Sea remains largely desiccated and the overall environmental restoration of the area is a complex and ongoing challenge.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The shrinking Aral Sea: An environmental disaster

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a large fire burning in the Abyysky District, located in the Sakha region of northeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-in-siberia-are-a-growing-global-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Siberia</a>. The image was captured on July 10, 2024 by the OLI (Operational Land Imager) on Landsat 8.



“The fire burned along the Khatyngnakh River in a remote area south of National Park Kytalyk, a UNESCO world heritage site,” said NASA.



“Burned areas appear brown. Darker green areas are forested and likely include dwarf larch and birch. Tundra grasses, mosses, and lichen are dominant in the lighter green areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dozens-of-fires-in-siberia-nbsp">Dozens of fires in Siberia&nbsp;</h2>



In a separate satellite image captured on July 15, several large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-massive-amounts-of-methane-gas-spews-from-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fires</a> were visible burning in the same region.



By July 18, there were 69 fires burning across 276,983 hectares in Sakha, according to Russia’s Federal Forestry Agency.&nbsp;



“More than 2,000 people were in the region, including hundreds of paratroopers providing firefighting assistance. Sakha is one of nine areas in Russia that have declared a state of emergency due to fires,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fires-cut-off-communities-in-sakha">Fires cut off communities in Sakha</h2>



The region is mostly populated by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-the-mental-health-impacts-of-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a> of Eveny, Evenki, and Sakha, Indigenous peoples who have lived in the region for hundreds of years, noted NASA.&nbsp;



Stanislav Saas Ksenofontov is a postdoctoral scholar at the University of Northern Iowa who studies how climate change is affecting Indigenous communities in the Siberian Arctic.&nbsp;



Ksenofontov described the Sakha communities as small, dispersed, sometimes semi-nomadic groups with traditional activities such as fishing, hunting, foraging, and reindeer herding.



“Devasting fires like this can cut off communities, damage hunting grounds and berry-picking areas, and disrupt reindeer migration routes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-fire-activity-in-siberia">Increasing fire activity in Siberia</h2>



The Arctic lowlands of the Russian Far East are typically a frigid landscape of permafrost and peat, said NASA, but it's also increasingly becoming a region that is prone to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-an-underestimated-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a>.&nbsp;



Kevin Smith is a U.S. Forest Service plant physiologist who co-authored a 2022 analysis of wildland fire activity in the Siberian Arctic.&nbsp;



Smith pointed out that most fires in this region are ignited by dry lightning. “Fires are a natural part of boreal and high Arctic landscapes in Sakha and the broader Siberian Arctic.”



“However, the frequency, severity, and area encompassed by current wildfire conditions are truly striking.”



Smith and his colleagues focused a study on two decades of fire detections captured by MODIS sensors.



The team found a three-fold increase in the number of fires and more than a doubling in the total area burned between 2000-2010 and 2010-2020. The biggest changes had occurred in the western and central regions of Siberia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-emissions-from-arctic-fires">Carbon emissions from Arctic fires</h2>



Mark Parrington is an atmospheric scientist with the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF). According to his data,&nbsp; carbon emissions from fires within the Arctic Circle have been much higher so far in June and July 2024 than during this period over the past few decades.



While Arctic fires result in an immediate release of carbon into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, determining the long-term effects of Arctic fires on the carbon cycle can be challenging due to the complexities of the ecosystem’s response. 



Smith noted that tundra fires can disturb soils in ways that make it easier for trees to colonize areas that had previously been dominated by grasses and mosses - a process that draws boreal forests northward and can result in increased carbon storage.



“On the other hand, climate and associated vegetation shifts can result in whole new regimes that reduce the natural storage of carbon by peat bogs and lead to increases in the release of methane, a strong greenhouse gas,” said Smith.&nbsp;



“To truly understand the ecological consequences of Arctic fires like these, it’s essential that we track fire activity and ecosystem responses with satellites but also that we follow up with on-the-ground research to better understand the implications.”



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Dozens of fires are raging in Siberia

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Culebra Island, located about 17 miles east of Puerto Rico.&nbsp;



The unique marine ecosystems of Culebra include extensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-discover-huge-expanse-of-earths-coral-reefs-that-were-previously-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a> safeguarded by the Culebra National Wildlife Refuge and the Luis Peña Channel Natural Reserve.&nbsp;



Known as the "rainforests of the sea," coral reefs host a diverse array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. They are formed from the calcium carbonate excreted by tiny organisms called polyps. 



Although coral reefs occupy less than 1% of the ocean floor, they are crucial habitats for nearly 25% of ocean species at some stage of their lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landsat-image-of-culebra-nbsp">Landsat image of Culebra&nbsp;</h2>



This Landsat 8 image - captured on February 10, 2024 - illustrates Culebra’s varied landscapes, ranging from the dry forests covering its hills to the stunning sandy beaches along its northern shore. 



“Deeper (dark blue) waters surround the island and nearby cays, while shallower (light blue) waters line the shores and lagoons. The green areas in shallow water are likely coral reefs, though seagrass meadows and seaweed patches can look similar,” noted NASA.



“You can absolutely see patch reefs east of Culebra in this image. But know that many of its reefs are located near the shore and are not easy to distinguish in Landsat imagery, depending on the depth of the water and the type of coral,” said Juan Torres-Pérez, a research scientist at NASA’s Ames Research Center.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fringing-and-patch-reefs-nbsp">Fringing and patch reefs&nbsp;</h2>



NOAA's detailed benthic habitat maps reveal that fringing and patch reefs are prevalent around Culebra, particularly to the north and east, with seagrass and seaweed meadows more common in the southern shallows.&nbsp;



Fringing reefs are the most common type of coral reef. They are directly attached to a shore or border a landmass with little to no lagoon between the shore and the main reef body. Fringing reefs grow seaward directly from the coastline.



Patch reefs are small, isolated platforms of coral that can occur independently or within a larger system of reefs, such as a barrier reef. They often appear as "patches" dispersed throughout a lagoon, separated by areas of sand or sea grass.&nbsp;



The reefs of Culebra feature key species such as branching staghorn and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/favorable-conditions-offer-hope-for-endangered-elkhorn-coral/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elkhorn corals</a>, as well as mound-shaped and brain corals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-threats">Environmental threats</h2>



Environmental threats such as coastal development, overfishing, and warming, acidic waters challenge reefs worldwide, including those around Culebra.&nbsp;



Local issues, like increased runoff from development, also threaten these delicate ecosystems by introducing harmful pollutants.&nbsp;



Furthermore, record-high global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-ocean-heating-signals-alarm-for-a-3c-warmer-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean temperatures</a> in 2023 have led to a significant coral bleaching event, affecting reefs across 62 countries and territories.



The ongoing marine heat wave poses an added risk, especially with higher starting sea surface temperatures this summer compared to last.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oceanos-program-nbsp">OCEANOS program&nbsp;</h2>



NASA’s OCEANOS program is actively involved in studying and conserving these reefs. This program, designed for Hispanic/Latino high school graduates and first-generation college students in Puerto Rico, offers training in remote sensing, coral reef ecology, and other marine sciences.



In partnership with Sociedad Ambiente Marino, NASA’s efforts include planting over 160,000 coral pieces around Culebra to strengthen the reefs.&nbsp;



This summer, OCEANOS students will also learn about coral farming, beach profiling, reef ecology, 3D printing of coral colonies, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-is-of-fundamental-importance-to-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seagrass conservation</a>, further contributing to the health and resilience of Culebra's marine environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culebra-island-nbsp">Culebra Island&nbsp;</h2>



Culebra Island is renowned for its stunning natural beauty and laid-back atmosphere. This small island is part of the Spanish Virgin Islands and is less commercialized than its neighbor, Vieques, or the main island of Puerto Rico.&nbsp;



It's especially famous for Flamenco Beach, often ranked among the most beautiful beaches in the world with its white sands and clear, turquoise waters.



Culebra has a protected wildlife refuge that covers approximately one-third of the island, providing shelter to a variety of wildlife, including sea turtles and seabirds. 



The surrounding coral reefs are vibrant and full of marine life, making it a popular spot for snorkeling and diving. Despite its small size, the island has a rich history, having been used as a naval gunnery and bombing practice site until 1975.



Today, Culebra is a favorite destination for those seeking a peaceful retreat in nature. The island's emphasis on conservation and its community's commitment to preserving its natural environment make it a unique place for eco-tourism.&nbsp;



Visitors can also enjoy hiking, kayaking, and fishing alongside the local population, which is known for its warmth and hospitality.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Protecting the coral reefs of Culebra

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> features a false-color radar depiction of central Ethiopia.



According to ESA, the photograph is a blend of multiple Sentinel-1 images from spring, summer and autumn 2023, which have been overlaid to create this single image.



“Radar images capture surface texture rather than reflected light so they are naturally black and white but here images from each season have been assigned a different color: red, green and blue respectively,” explained ESA. 



“When the images are combined, the different colors reveal variations that occurred in the different seasons.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rugged-terrain-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Rugged terrain of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



ESA noted that Ethiopia’s terrain is one of the most rugged in Africa. The landscape is primarily characterized by highlands and plateaus.&nbsp;



The Ethiopian Highlands, also known as the Roof of Africa, dominate this region and include some of the highest peaks in Africa, such as Ras Dashen. The terrain features steep escarpments, deep valleys, and numerous rivers.&nbsp;



The central part of the country is also home to the Great Rift Valley, which runs through Ethiopia and includes a series of lakes and volcanic mountains. This region's varied topography contributes to its rich biodiversity and distinct climate zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Lakes of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



According to ESA, water bodies appear dark in this image because flat water surfaces reflect the radar signal away from the satellite. “The various colors visible in some lakes are due either to the changing surface currents and sediments from rivers or to variations in water level.”



Lake Ziway is one of the largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-flamingos-at-risk-due-to-rising-lake-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lakes</a> in the region. It is located about 160 kilometers south of Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia.&nbsp;



The lake is known for its rich birdlife, including large populations of pelicans, cormorants, and herons. Lake Ziway also supports fishing communities.



Lake Shala is the deepest lake in the Ethiopian Rift Valley and is known for its volcanic origins. It has a maximum depth of 266 meters and is surrounded by hot springs and steep, rocky cliffs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Climate of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



Central Ethiopia features a diverse climate, primarily influenced by its elevation and geographical location within the tropics.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-highland-climate">Highland climate</h3>



Much of central Ethiopia consists of highlands, with elevations ranging from 1,500 to over 3,000 meters above sea level. These highlands experience a temperate climate, with cooler <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-in-africa-are-rising-above-levels-that-rhinoceros-can-tolerate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> compared to the lowlands.&nbsp;



The average temperatures range from 50 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit. The higher elevations, such as those found in the Ethiopian Highlands, can experience temperatures that are close to freezing at night.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainy-seasons">Rainy seasons</h3>



Central Ethiopia has two main rainy seasons. The primary rainy season, known as the "Kiremt," occurs from June to September and brings the majority of the annual rainfall. 



The "Belg," or short rainy season, occurs from March to May. The rainfall during these periods supports agriculture, which is a key part of the region's economy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-season">Dry season</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/africas-wet-forests-have-seen-an-alarming-rise-in-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dry season</a>, known as the "Bega," spans from October to February.&nbsp;During this time, the region experiences significantly less rainfall, and the weather tends to be sunny and dry. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-of-central-ethiopia-nbsp">Culture of central Ethiopia&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-not-the-only-animals-that-create-their-own-culture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culture</a> of central Ethiopia is a dynamic blend of ancient traditions and modern influences. This culture is characterized by a strong sense of community and a profound connection to the region's historical and spiritual roots.



The Amhara people have played a significant role in the cultural and political life of central Ethiopia. The Amhara are known for their rich heritage, which includes the Amharic language, a Semitic tongue that serves as one of the country's official languages.



Orthodox Christianity is a key aspect of central Ethiopian culture, particularly among the Amhara and other highland communities.&nbsp;



This part of East Africa is also known for its traditional music and dance, which reflect the region's historical depth and cultural diversity. 



The cuisine of central Ethiopia is another significant cultural aspect, with injera (a spongy flatbread made from teff) being a staple food.&nbsp;Injera is typically served with a variety of stews (wats) and salads.



The communal eating experience, where meals are shared from a single large plate, emphasizes the importance of community and togetherness.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Visualizing the seasons of central Ethiopia

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the northern edge of Tassili n’Ajjer National Park in Algeria. In the photo, which was captured by an external camera mounted on the International Space Station, orange sand dunes contrast with dark sandstone.



"The park’s name translates to “plateau of chasms,” and these signature ravines wind through the rock in the right of the image. On the left, wisps of cloud overlie a dune field that has swept over the low-lying regions north of the Fadnoun Plateau," reports NASA.



"Rising to elevations of over 1,500 meters (4,900 feet) on average, the current plateau has been shaped by thousands of years of water and wind erosion. Though the area is now hyper-arid, ancient rivers once cut narrow canyons almost 240 meters deep into the sandstone as they flowed north toward lakes that filled what are now large dune fields called ergs (“sand seas”). Issaouane Erg, shown above, contains some of the tallest star dunes on Earth."



There are also large pillars of resistant sandstone that have persisted as strong winds eroded the surrounding rock. These large pillars are referred to as the "Forest of rock."&nbsp;



Humans have inhabited the town of Illizi, which stands at the northern edge of the plateau, since 10,000 BCE. This long history is recorded in rock engravings.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Orange dunes stand out against dark sandstone in Algeria

Buried beneath the icy surface of the Arctic tundra lie secrets that hold the key to understanding global climate patterns and their changes over time. 



These hidden treasures include permafrost, ancient ice cores, fossilized flora and fauna, and other geological records that provide invaluable insights.



With the collaborative efforts of a dedicated team of international researchers, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-influences-us-weather-patterns-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">utilizing advanced technology</a> and innovative methods, the Arctic is beginning to reveal some of its mysteries. 



As they delve deeper into this frozen landscape, they are uncovering data that could help predict future climate scenarios and enhance our understanding of the Earth's environmental processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-arctic-drives-global-climate">Melting Arctic drives global climate</h2>



Leading the charge to unveil these secrets is Ted Schuur, Regents' Professor of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.



Far from being a mere 'frozen wasteland', the Arctic plays a mighty role in the carbon cycle of our planet. 



Comprising the tundra and boreal forests, the northern circumpolar permafrost region, although occupying just 15% of the Earth's soil area, stows away nearly a third of the world's soil organic carbon. 



This storage is essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-new-clues-about-rapid-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulating the climate</a> of the planet, acting as a dual role of a carbon sink and a potential source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-permafrost-is-a-silent-assassin">Warming permafrost is a silent assassin</h2>



As the planet continues to warm, the permafrost regions are experiencing temperature increases at a pace three to four times higher than the global average. 



This accelerated thawing process is not just a minor concern; it triggers a significant increase in carbon cycling, predominantly driven by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-impacts-dust-levels-on-a-global-scale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem respiration</a>. 



Schuur and his colleagues warn that this could escalate future climate change by an alarming 10%–20%. 



To put this into perspective, imagine the emissions equivalent to those produced by a fully operational industrial nation being released into the atmosphere by the end of the century. That's what's happening right now.



This scenario underscores the urgency of addressing climate change and highlights the critical role that permafrost plays in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global ecosystem</a>. 



The potential impacts on weather patterns, sea levels, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> could be devastating, making it imperative for us to take immediate action to mitigate these effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-for-the-paris-agreement">Challenge for the Paris Agreement</h2>



The ambitious climate goals established by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-unprepared-paris-agreement/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Agreement</a> in 2016 face a significant challenge due to the potential emissions released from the thawing Arctic permafrost. 



This phenomenon was largely unknown at the time the agreement was codified, and is only now becoming an increasingly serious concern as global temperatures rise. 



Permafrost, which has been frozen for thousands of years, harbors vast amounts of greenhouse gases, particularly methane and carbon dioxide, that could be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-traveling-pathogens-exposing-the-dangers-of-melting-permafrost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">released as it thaws</a>. 



The Paris Agreement, embraced by 196 countries, aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. 



However, the vast emissions from permafrost melt are only now becoming apparent, and it does not seem to be fully prepared to adapt to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/abrupt-permafrost-thaw-releases-more-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">implications of this thawing</a>. 



To effectively compensate for these unforeseen emissions and the complications they bring, the participating countries may have to implement even more robust carbon-cutting commitments. 



This will require innovative strategies and collaboration on a global scale to ensure that climate targets remain achievable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexities-of-carbon-cycling">Complexities of carbon cycling</h2>



To understand the nuances of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-plankton-play-a-big-role-in-the-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon cycling</a> in the Arctic, Schuur and his team ventured into detailed studies. They analyzed decades of data from 70 sites, including both permafrost and non-permafrost ecosystems. 



The findings showed an alarming trend -- while non-permafrost systems could store additional carbon due to increased plant growth in summer, permafrost systems faced significant carbon losses in the fall and winter.



Senior scientist at <a href="https://www.woodwellclimate.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woodwell Climate Research Center</a>, Sue Natali, a co-author of the study, stressed the importance of these findings. 



"This analysis of long-term field measurements helps us to develop a more complete picture of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/including-animals-carbon-cycle-models-boosts-ecosystem-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon cycling</a> in the North and how it's changing as temperatures rise," Natali explained. 



"We're seeing permafrost areas release more carbon in the fall and early winter than they used to, a consequence of rising temperatures and deeper thaw during the summer."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-arctic-warming-s-climate-impact">Simulating Arctic warming's climate impact</h2>



In a different study, researchers probed into how potential warming might change the Arctic. They simulated warming at 28 tundra sites using miniature greenhouses. 



They found that a mere 1.4°C increase in air temperature and a 0.4°C increase in soil temperature could cause a 30% increase in ecosystem respiration. This emphasizes the potential for increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/income-inequality-and-carbon-emissions-have-a-complicated-relationship/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon emissions</a> with rising global temperatures.



The research also pointed to the influence of local environmental factors, such as water and nutrient availability, on carbon uptake and respiration. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-conditions-and-missing-data">Local conditions and missing data</h2>



These factors can cause significant variations across different sites. Predicting future changes, therefore, must factor in these local conditions.



"Experiments such as these expose natural ecosystems to environmental conditions that we expect to occur in the Arctic in the future," Schuur expounded.



"These data, collected from experiments across the entire region, give us an insight of how the Arctic region will act to accelerate future climate change as stored permafrost carbon is released to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-previously-unknown-sources-of-methane-production/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane greenhouse gases</a>."



The global nature of Arctic research adds layers of complexity to the whole process. Recent geopolitical issues, such as the invasion of Ukraine, have resulted in losing access to data from Russian permafrost sites, creating a serious data gap. 



Building new sites in North America could partially compensate for this loss, but it would not fully replace the unique data from Russian ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-permafrost-and-global-climate-disaster">Arctic permafrost and global climate disaster</h2>



In summary, the research conducted by Schuur and his team helps us comprehend the crucial role the Arctic plays in global carbon cycling and climate change. 



The need for international collaboration in Arctic research is more urgent than ever. Understanding how the Arctic works is the key to confronting the challenges of future climate changes.



The bottom line? The Arctic is not just a remote, icy wilderness. It's an active, dynamic, and vital part of our planet's climate system. Its changes affect us all, in every corner of the Earth. 



Simply saying that preserving the Arctic is "crucial" for the future of the planet is a gross understatement. It's an absolute necessity.



So, next time you think of the Arctic, think beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-conservation-leaps-forward-with-new-tracking-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a> and the ice. It's time to support and expand research in this crucial region. After all, it contains secrets to our climate that holds the potential to shape our future.



The full studies were published in the journals <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02057-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02001-6">Nature</a>.



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Arctic warming plays a devastating role in accelerating global climate change

Buried beneath the icy surface of the Arctic tundra lie...

Beneath the skin of Mercury, the smallest planet in our solar system, expect the unexpected. Reaching out across the cosmos with this fascinating revelation is a new study that points to a 9-mile-thick layer of diamonds concealed beneath the planet's surface.



While instance of such valuable encrustation might sound tantalizing, turning these precious stones into fashionable jewelry remains an impossibility due to their inaccessible location deep within the planet. 



However, these gems could hold the key to unraveling some of the big unanswered questions circling around Mercury' composition and its rather <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">curious magnetic field</a>.



The scientist leading the charge is Yanhao Lin, a staff scientist based out of the <a href="http://www.hpstar.ac.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for High Pressure Science and Technology Advanced Research</a> in Beijing. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-s-hidden-diamond">Mercury’s hidden diamond</h2>



Oddly enough, for a planet its size, Mercury has a magnetic field. It is weaker than its Earth counterpart, but is still intriguing considering the planet's overall inactivity in geological terms. 



What truly sparked Lin's interest, however, were the unusually dark patches on the surface of Mercury that were identified as graphite by NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/messenger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Messenger mission</a>. 



This revelation triggered exploration into the possibility of something unique brewing within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-worlds-do-not-fit-the-definition-of-a-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>'s interior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-of-mercury-s-diamond-layer">Birth of Mercury's diamond layer</h2>



Utilizing a team comprised of Chinese and Belgian researchers, Lin sought to explore the possibility of diamond formation deep in Mercury’s core. 



The team began by creating chemical mixtures that replicated Mercury's magma ocean. The concoction included iron, silica, and carbon, elements similar to certain kinds of meteorites, and was subjected to crushing pressures and extreme temperatures.



The team's rigorous experiments and computer simulations confirmed that Mercury's mantle would indeed be conducive to forming diamonds, especially under the revised conditions that the team established. 



If these diamonds do exist, they could form a 9-mile average thick layer at the core-mantle boundary of Mercury, which is approximately 300 miles below the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-s-magnetism">Mercury's magnetism</h2>



The hypothesized existence of this layer of diamonds is more than just an intriguing fact. It could potentially explain the origin of Mercury’s magnetic field. 



These diamonds may facilitate heat transfer between the core and mantle, thereby creating temperature differences and causing liquid iron to circulate – a process that would kickstart the creation of a magnetic field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



The discovery of a potential diamond layer within Mercury opens new avenues for planetary research and composition studies not only of Mercury but also of other celestial bodies. 



Understanding the unique geological characteristics of Mercury could provide deeper insight into the formation and evolution of the solar system. 



Future missions to Mercury may focus on directly exploring its interior structure through advanced geophysical measurements and remote sensing techniques to verify the existence of this diamond layer and its impact on the planet's magnetic field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planetary-formation-and-mercury-s-diamonds">Planetary formation and Mercury's diamonds</h2>



This revelation also prompts a reconsideration of the processes involved in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary formation</a>. 



Diamonds are typically associated with high-pressure environments, suggesting that similar conditions may exist in other distant rocky <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a> and moons within our solar system. 



Lin and his team's findings underline the importance of studying extreme planetary conditions, which can reveal not only the composition of these bodies but also the historical processes that formed them, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of geology across the cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-exoplanets">Evolution of exoplanets</h2>



The potential discovery casts a new light on the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon-rich exoplanets</a>. According to Lin, the process that led to the formation of a diamond layer on Mercury could also be at play on other planets, possibly leaving similar traces.



The arrival of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/bepicolombo/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BepiColombo</a> spacecraft, a joint mission of the European Space Agency and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, in 2025 will provide better opportunities to delve deeper into this intriguing discovery.



Mercury, it seems, continues to dazzle us with new surprises, keeping the scientific community and general public on their toes. 



Who'd have thought that this small, seemingly quiet planet could hold such vast volumes of precious stones deep within its confines?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49305-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Planet Mercury is covered with a layer of diamonds that is 9 miles thick

Beneath the skin of Mercury, the smallest planet in our...

Traditionally, we have always believed that&nbsp;photosynthesis&nbsp;by plants and algae fuel our planet's oxygen supply, even in the deep ocean, providing the essential gas for life on Earth.&nbsp;However, an international team of scientists has made a startling discovery, finding "dark oxygen" in the deep ocean that challenges this long-held premise.



Their critical finding proves that the Earth's oxygen could also be generated by metallic minerals on the deep-ocean floor, some 13,000 feet below the surface, where no sunlight penetrates.&nbsp;



This revelation opens up exciting new possibilities. We can now better understand the origins of oxygen on our planet. It also sheds light on its distribution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-with-photosynthesis-the-norm">Oxygen with photosynthesis -- the norm</h2>



Have you ever wondered why we call plants the "lungs" of the Earth? It's simple: they breathe out what we breathe in. This happens through a fantastic process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-finally-decoded-the-process-of-photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>.



Imagine a world without trees, plants, or algae. It's not just a barren, lifeless landscape. It’s a world without oxygen. 



Thanks to photosynthesis, plants, algae, and some bacteria are like busy little factories, turning sunlight into the very air we breathe. They're the unsung heroes of life on Earth.



Here's an interesting twist. The waste product of our respiration, carbon dioxide, is like gold for plants. They transform it back into oxygen and nutrients in what's known as the Calvin cycle.



The oxygen we enjoy today didn't always exist. Thanks to a unique group of photosynthesizing bacteria, our planet's atmosphere underwent a dramatic makeover 2.4 billion years ago, known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>. This poured oxygen into our atmosphere, paving the path for more complex forms of life to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-without-photosynthesis-not-normal">Oxygen withOUT photosynthesis -- not normal</h2>



Discovering that oxygen is produced at the bottom of the deepest parts of Earth's ocean, without sunlight or photosynthesis, is stunning as it singles out an unlikely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-may-have-come-from-ancient-rocks-of-early-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">source of oxygen</a> -- the seafloor, an area completely devoid of light. 



Previously, it was unthinkable that oxygen-breathing (aerobic) marine life could exist in such darkness. Yet, this discovery is astonishing. It could reshape our understanding of aerobic life's origin on Earth.



Researcher Andrew Sweetman, who spearheads the Seafloor Ecology and Biogeochemistry research team at the Scottish Association for Marine Science (<a href="https://www.sams.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SAMS</a>), was instrumental in this discovery.&nbsp;



"For aerobic life to begin on the planet, there had to be oxygen, and our understanding has been that&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s oxygen</a>&nbsp;supply began with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic</a> organisms," Sweetman explains.



"But we now know that there is oxygen produced in the deep sea, where there is no light. I think we, therefore, need to revisit questions like: Where could aerobic life have begun?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polymetallic-nodules-in-ocean">Polymetallic nodules in ocean</h2>



Polymetallic nodules - natural mineral accumulations on the ocean floor, possessing a mix of various minerals, are central to this discovery.&nbsp;



These nodules, varying in size, contain critical metals like cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and manganese -- elements used in batteries.



“The polymetallic nodules that produce this oxygen contain metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and manganese -- which are all critical elements used in batteries," asserts Franz Geiger, professor of Chemistry at the <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> and lead experimenter in the electrochemistry tests. 



"Several large-scale mining companies now aim to extract these precious elements from the seafloor at depths of 10,000 to 20,000 feet below the surface. We need to rethink how to mine these materials, so that we do not deplete the oxygen source for deep-sea life.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-oxygen-in-deep-ocean">Unearthing oxygen in deep ocean</h2>



Sweetman recounts the tale of his initial incredulity upon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/summer-storms-stir-oxygen-into-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detecting oxygen</a> during his seabed sampling in the Pacific Ocean's Clarion-Clipperton Zone.&nbsp;



He initially suspected faulty equipment, given that conventional wisdom dictates oxygen consumption rather than production in deep-sea environments.



“When we first got this data, we thought the sensors were faulty because every study ever done in the deep sea has only seen oxygen being consumed rather than produced,” Sweetman said. 



“We would come home and recalibrate the sensors, but, over the course of 10 years, these strange oxygen readings kept showing up."



The scientists decided to take a back-up method that worked differently to the optode sensors they were originally using. When both methods came back with the same result, they realized they were onto something big.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geobatteries-from-deep-ocean-oxygen">Geobatteries from deep ocean oxygen</h2>



To better comprehend the oxygen production, the researchers explored a hypothesis that relates to the concept of Geobatteries.&nbsp;



Through a chemical process known as seawater electrolysis, they wondered if the deep-ocean’s polymetallic nodules generated enough electricity to produce oxygen.&nbsp;



The results were conclusive. “It appears that we discovered a natural ‘geobattery.’ These geobatteries are the basis for a possible explanation of the ocean’s dark oxygen production,” stated Geiger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-ocean-oxygen-and-mining-implications">Deep ocean oxygen and mining implications</h2>



This revelation could have significant implications for the mining industry.&nbsp;



The researchers emphasize the importance of considering the potential impact on the ocean's dark oxygen production before planning&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-has-deadly-consequences-for-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea mining</a>&nbsp;activities.&nbsp;



“In 2016 and 2017, marine biologists visited sites that were mined in the 1980s and found not even bacteria had recovered in mined areas. In unmined regions, however, marine life flourished. Why such ‘dead zones’ persist for decades is still unknown," Geiger concludes.



"However, this puts a major asterisk onto strategies for sea-floor mining as ocean-floor faunal diversity in nodule-rich areas is higher than in the most diverse tropical rainforests."



In summary, discovering dark oxygen production in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-deep-ocean-microbes-survive-without-sunlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-ocean</a>&nbsp;sets a new direction for our understanding of Earth's oxygen supply. The implications of this discovery, for both science and industry, are profound.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01480-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Discovery: "Dark oxygen" is produced on the ocean floor without sunlight

Traditionally, we have always believed that&nbsp;photosynthesis&nbsp;by plants and algae fuel...

Grassland ecosystems, contributing to over a quarter of the world's land surface and containing a third of terrestrial carbon, are a lifeline for food production, wildlife habitat, and overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-ecosystem-stability-is-driven-by-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in the face of climate change.&nbsp;



These vast landscapes provide essential ecosystem services, such as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-can-be-managed-to-benefit-biodiversity-and-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a>&nbsp;stabilization, water filtration, and carbon sequestration.&nbsp;



The future of these vital ecosystems is uncertain. Two major environmental shifts are contributing to this crisis. First, land use is intensifying. And the second, the impacts of climate change are escalating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grassland-use-and-climate-change">Grassland use and climate change</h2>



Grasslands, particularly in Europe, are experiencing intensified use, including higher levels of fertilization, more frequent mowing, and concentrated grazing.&nbsp;



This intensified agricultural activity is driven by the demand for increased productivity and efficiency in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-production-more-difficult-climate-change-plant-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food production</a>.&nbsp;



Furthermore, farmers often limit their sowing to a few grass varieties that promise high yields. This shift in agricultural practices dramatically alters the species composition and functionality of meadows and pastures, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-ecosystem-stability-is-driven-by-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing biodiversity</a> and impacting ecosystem health.



Climate change adds another considerable layer of threat, with precipitation patterns changing and climatic extremities, like heavy rainfall and droughts, predicted to escalate.&nbsp;



These changes in climate not only affect the growth and survival of plant species but also disrupt the delicate balance of grassland ecosystems.&nbsp;



When these two changes intersect, they can intensify each other. This creates a synergistic effect that worsens the challenges faced by grassland ecosystems. As a result, the future of these vital landscapes becomes uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-and-climate-change-interaction">Land-use and climate change interaction</h2>



A unique large-scale, long-term experiment conducted at the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UFZ</a> in Bad Lauchstädt near Halle, known as the Global Change Experimental Facility (<a href="https://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=42385" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GCEF</a>), has assisted in understanding the combined effects of these changes. 



The experiment manipulated varying degrees of land use intensity, temperatures, and precipitation levels on 50 plots, each sized 16 x 24 m.&nbsp;



Specific plots were given 10% more rainfall during spring and autumn and 20% lesser in summer, mirroring the climatic conditions expected for Central Germany.



This experiment yielded an eight-year data collection, used to conduct an in-depth study between 2015 and 2022, included in the research publication.&nbsp;



The period constituted three of the driest years in recorded regional history. The droughts seemingly had greater impact on the plants than the simulated climate change during the study period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-grassland-for-intense-climates">Diverse grassland for intense climates</h2>



The study revealed that species-rich grassland, which is less frequently mown or sparsely grazed, coped better with heat and drought than the high-yielding meadows under heavy use.&nbsp;



The difference lies in biodiversity, which varied greatly depending on the land use of the grasslands.



The less intensively used meadows and pastures had a diverse mix of over 50 native grasses and herbs, while the high-intensity grassland had only five types of grass recommended for drier sites.&nbsp;



These high-yield varieties are bred for maximum productivity. They are heavily fertilized and perform exceptionally well under favorable climatic conditions. However, they struggle during drought.



In such situations, the high-intensity meadows saw a marked decrease in these grasses and an increase in short-lived species that survive as seeds.&nbsp;



These new species are usually of lower fodder quality, reducing the productivity of the land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-in-high-performance-grassland">Migration in high-performance grassland</h2>



Farmers are familiar with this degradation of high-performance grasslands due to migrating species and regularly plough up and re-seed their land.



However, climate change might accelerate this process, adding extra costs and unpredictable conditions. Farmers relying solely on intensive grassland stand to bear higher economic risks.



On the contrary, low-intensity meadows and pastures not only help preserve biodiversity but also stabilise grassland productivity during&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-the-impact-of-climate-change-at-the-national-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



Understanding these findings is crucial. Implementing solutions accordingly is essential. This helps preserve our invaluable grassland ecosystems. Responsible management is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-native-species-and-genetic-diversity">Native species and genetic diversity</h2>



Planting a variety of native species that are well-adapted to local conditions can improve the resilience of grasslands.&nbsp;



These species are more likely to withstand climatic variations and pest outbreaks, reducing the need for chemical interventions.&nbsp;



Maintaining genetic diversity in livestock herds is crucial. It helps animals cope with environmental stressors. This support leads to a more robust agricultural system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-and-community-engagement">Policy and community engagement</h2>



Effective grassland management requires supportive policies and community involvement.&nbsp;



Governments and organizations need to offer incentives for sustainable practices. They should also educate farmers about the benefits of biodiversity. Additionally, understanding ecosystem services is crucial for long-term success.



Community engagement programs can foster a sense of stewardship and collective action towards preserving these vital landscapes.



By incorporating these sustainable practices, we can ensure that grassland&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-crucial-role-global-agriculture-environment-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>&nbsp;remain productive, resilient, and rich in biodiversity, securing their role in food production and environmental health for future generations.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17418" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Some grassland ecosystems handle climate change better than others

Grassland ecosystems, contributing to over a quarter of the world's...

For centuries, the seemingly stable world of zooplankton, specifically the water flea, Daphnia pulex, has captivated biologists interested in natural selection. 



These minute yet fascinating crustaceans, often invisible to the naked eye, play a critical and multifaceted role in aquatic ecosystems. 



They are a primary food source for many fish species. They also help regulate the populations of algae and other microorganisms. This regulation maintains the delicate balance of their habitats.



A recent study has reaffirmed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological significance</a> of our environment. It offers a unique perspective on the mystery of evolution.



This research provides new insights into the intricate mechanisms behind genetic adaptation and also sheds light on the importance of biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daphnia-s-genetic-secrets">Daphnia's genetic secrets</h2>



This groundbreaking research, conducted over a decade, involved scientists from&nbsp;<a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>&nbsp;(ASU),&nbsp;<a href="https://english.ccnu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Central China Normal University</a>, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Notre Dame</a>.&nbsp;



The team analyzed DNA samples from nearly 1,000 Daphnia, aiming to understand the dynamics of natural selection in this species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluctuating-force-of-natural-selection">Fluctuating force of natural selection</h2>



The researchers made a very significant discovery. The strength of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coexisting-lizards-challenge-what-we-know-about-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural</a> selection on individual genes fluctuates drastically from year to year, even in seemingly constant environments. 



This surprising and dynamic oscillation could be key for better adaptation to changing environments. It allows populations to stay flexible and responsive. Over time, this helps them cope with varying selective pressures.



Such insights deepen our understanding of evolutionary processes. They highlight the complex interplay between genetics and environmental factors.



"Even in seemingly constant environments, we detected profound fluctuations in the frequency of gene variants at specific chromosomal regions over time," explains Michael Lynch, the lead author of the study and director of the Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution at ASU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-natural-selection">Rethinking natural selection</h2>



These findings challenge the conventional belief. Analyzing genetic diversity and divergence does not easily reveal how natural selection operates. The evidence suggests a more complex relationship than previously understood.



Instead, natural selection appears to function with a higher level of subtlety and complexity than previously acknowledged.



The study revealed that most genetic sites experience varying selection, with an average effect close to zero, indicating little consistent selection pressure over different times.&nbsp;



This fluctuation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-ice-decline-changes-the-behavior-of-zooplankton/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic variation</a> allows populations to remain highly adaptable to environmental changes. 



Gene variants, also known as alleles, are different versions of the same gene that can result in different traits.



Furthermore, the research showed that genes located near each other on chromosomes tend to evolve in a coordinated manner.&nbsp;



This linkage allows for beneficial combinations of gene variants to be inherited together, potentially accelerating the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-songbirds-are-masters-of-memory-and-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation</a>&nbsp;process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-water-fleas-to-ecosystem-resilience">From water fleas to ecosystem resilience</h2>



Understanding how Daphnia evolve through natural selection offers valuable insights. It reveals the resilience of entire ecosystems. 



This knowledge could help us predict the impacts of environmental changes. It can also aid in mitigating effects on biodiversity and food webs.



By examining the genetic variations and adaptations of these&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-crustaceans-have-what-it-takes-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny crustaceans</a>, scientists can better grasp the underlying mechanisms that enable ecosystems to endure and thrive amidst shifting environmental conditions.&nbsp;



"This study has, for the first time, given us a glimpse into the kinds of temporal changes in gene frequencies that occur even in seemingly constant environments, a sort of ongoing churn of genetic variation distributed across the genome," Lynch states.



This research is crucial for predicting how species might adapt to changing environments, including those caused by climate change.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-daphnia-insights-for-modern-environmental-challenges">Harnessing Daphnia insights for modern environmental challenges</h2>



This groundbreaking research on Daphnia pulex not only enhances our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> but also has far-reaching potential applications in various fields, ranging from conservation biology to climate change adaptation strategies. 



We are facing unprecedented environmental challenges. Habitat loss, pollution, and global warming are major issues. Understanding nature's remarkable ability to adapt and be resilient is more important than ever.



This study reveals important insights about genetic variability and natural selection. These findings provide a strong foundation for new methods in biodiversity conservation. They also pave the way for improved ecosystem management.



By deepening our understanding of evolutionary dynamics, we can anticipate environmental stressors more effectively. 



This knowledge helps us mitigate their impacts. Ultimately, it contributes to the health and stability of our planet's ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2307107121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Life's rules of natural selection change significantly and very often

For centuries, the seemingly stable world of zooplankton, specifically the water...

Thought Mars was just a barren, rusty desert? Well, it may be time to rewrite the science textbooks. NASA's Perseverance rover has thrown us a curveball, a potentially discovering remnants of microbial life in a rock on Mars that may revolutionize our understanding of life beyond Earth.



Enter the 'Cheyava Falls' -- an oddly intriguing rock discovered on Mars, bearing tantalizing hints pointing towards the possibility of ancient microbial life.



“We have designed the route for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-perseverance-rover-now-uses-ai-search-minerals-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> to ensure that it goes to areas with the potential for interesting scientific samples,” explained Nicola Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Headquarters</a> in Washington.



“This trip through the Neretva Vallis riverbed paid off as we found something we’ve never seen before, which will give our scientists so much to study.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-on-mars-in-cheyava-falls-rock">Life on Mars in Cheyava Falls rock?</h2>



Located on the northern edge of the Neretva Vallis, an ancient Martian river valley, the Cheyava Falls rock is unique. Its characteristics have tickled the curiosity of scientists and have led to the detection of organic compounds within it.



The rover's scientific instruments, including <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/the-detective-aboard-nasas-perseverance-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SHERLOC</a> (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman &amp; Luminescence for Organics &amp; Chemicals), have detected organic compounds within the rock.



These compounds, considered the building blocks of life, raise the <a href="https://youtu.be/I7v_xuCDwnM?list=PLTiv_XWHnOZqCrMU2ppcLjRn1zlDkNx3q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tantalizing possibility that Mars may have once harbored life</a>.



“This is the kind of key observation that SHERLOC was built for -- to seek organic matter as it is an essential component of a search for past life,” enthused SHERLOC’s principal investigator Kevin Hand of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>) in Southern California, which manages the mission.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extraordinary-rock-in-jezero-crater">Extraordinary rock in Jezero Crater</h2>



Cheyava Falls is no ordinary rock, as described by Ken Farley, the Perseverance project scientist from Caltech, "the most puzzling, complex, and potentially important rock yet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigated by Perseverance</a>."



This unusual rock sports several intriguing features including colorful spots that hint at chemical reactions, evidence of past water flow, and the presence of organic material.



These elements, in combination, suggest that Cheyava Falls may be a link to Mars' ancient past and its mysteries.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_Cheyava-Falls_Jezero-Crater_leopard-spots_ancient-life_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="&quot;Leopard spots&quot; hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named &quot;Cheyava Falls&quot; in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939965"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">"Leopard spots" hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named "Cheyava Falls" in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



“On the one hand, we have our first compelling detection of organic material, distinctive colorful spots indicative of chemical reactions that microbial life could use as an energy source, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clear evidence that water</a> -- necessary for life -- once passed through the rock," Farley expounded.



"On the other hand, we have been unable to determine exactly how the rock formed and to what extent nearby rocks may have heated Cheyava Falls and contributed to these features.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-blocks-of-life-in-mars-cheyava-falls-rock">Building blocks of life in Mars' Cheyava Falls rock</h2>



The rock features large white veins of calcium sulfate running along its length. Between these veins are reddish bands, indicating the presence of hematite, a mineral that contributes to Mars' characteristic rusty color.



Upon closer inspection, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-makes-surprising-find-under-martian-rock-sulfur-crystals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance discovered</a> numerous irregularly shaped, millimeter-sized off-white splotches surrounded by black material, resembling leopard spots. 



Using the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/heres-how-ai-is-changing-nasas-mars-rover-science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIXL</a> (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) instrument, Perseverance found that these black halos contain iron and phosphate.



What adds another layer of complexity to the mystery is the presence of iron, phosphate, and possibly hematite -- minerals often linked to biological processes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_Cheyava-Falls_Jezero-Crater_leopard-spots_ancient-life_annotated_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="&quot;Leopard spots&quot; hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named &quot;Cheyava Falls&quot; in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939963"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">"Leopard spots" hint at microbial life on Mars in reddish rock named "Cheyava Falls" in Jezero Crater on Mars. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



David Flannery, an astrobiologist from the <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland University of Technology</a>, chimes in, "On Earth, these types of features in rocks are often associated with the fossilized record of microbes living in the subsurface."



This discovery has sparked a flurry of questions and hypotheses.



Was Cheyava Falls the result of mud with organic compounds hardening into rock, with subsequent fluid flows depositing the calcium sulfate veins?



Or could the olivine crystals in the veins actually be magma remnants, suggesting a wholly different formation process?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-returning-rocks-a-giant-leap-in-space-exploration">Returning Rocks: A Giant Leap in Space Exploration</h2>



To crack this Martian mystery, the scientific community needs more than just remote data.



“We have zapped that rock with lasers and X-rays and imaged it literally day and night from just about every angle imaginable,” Farley concluded.



“Scientifically, Perseverance has nothing more to give. To fully understand what really happened in that Martian river valley at Jezero Crater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">billions of years ago</a>, we’d want to bring the Cheyava Falls sample back to Earth, so it can be studied with the powerful instruments available in laboratories.”



The return of Martian samples marks a significant milestone in planetary science. With these samples on Earth, researchers can use advanced technologies to examine the rock's composition, structure, and potential biological signatures more closely.



This could finally answer questions about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/searching-for-life-on-mars-quest-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">presence of ancient life on Mars</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncharted-territory-where-do-we-go-from-here">Uncharted territory: Where do we go from here?</h2>



As the Perseverance mission ventures further into the Martian landscape, we wait with bated breath for the next reveal. Its methodical, inch-by-inch exploration adds to our knowledge about Mars' past and its potential to support life.



The Cheyava Falls discovery has brought with it an exhilarating mixture of challenges that scientists are chomping at the bit to solve.



Whether or not life ever existed on Mars, the contributions of the Perseverance and future missions will continue to enrich our understanding of Mars and the wider cosmos.



As we delve deeper into the Martian mysteries and set our sights on other celestial bodies, we can expect to uncover more secrets about our solar system's history and the potential for life beyond Earth.



So, the next time you're stargazing, remember: The universe is full of mysteries, and we've only just started the journey. Imagine what we’ll find next!



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NASA: Perseverance rover finds best evidence yet for life on Mars

Thought Mars was just a barren, rusty desert? Well, it...

Neutron stars, the remnants of massive stellar bodies that shoot massive jets as they undergo gravitational collapse, are among the most fascinating enigmas in the night sky.



These incredibly dense objects, formed from the cores of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernova explosions</a>, pack a mass greater than that of our Sun into a sphere just a few miles across, often emitting powerful jets.



Recently, astronomers at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> captured an extraordinary spectacle for the first time—an S-shaped jet bursting forth from a neutron star, resembling a humble garden sprinkler. 



This intriguing discovery occurred in the Circinus X-1 binary system, nearly 30,000 light-years from Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circinus-x-1-neutron-star-reveals-s-shaped-jet">Circinus X-1: Neutron star reveals S-shaped jet</h2>



The Circinus X-1 system itself is a marvel, hosting a neutron star that is estimated to be one of the youngest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/truth-behind-ultraluminous-x-ray-source-of-cygnus-x3-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray binaries</a>, at about 4,600 years old.



The discovery of the S-shaped jet is a first for neutron stars. This phenomenon provides astronomers a unique study opportunity. 



They can now explore the extreme physics behind these jets. It also allows them to examine the intense gravitational and magnetic fields at play.



This breakthrough not only enhances our understanding of neutron stars but also opens new avenues for <a href="https://youtu.be/cN-DQe4MGJ0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exploring the dynamic processes of our universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-ballet-of-dual-star-systems">Cosmic ballet of dual star systems</h2>



For those unfamiliar with astronomical jargon, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-binary-black-holes-secrets-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">binary systems</a> are essentially a duet of stars that gravitate towards each other. 



In the case of Circinus X-1, one player in this cosmic band is a neutron star. 



Both neutron stars and black holes are born when the universe's most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-brightest-gamma-ray-burst-of-all-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gargantuan</a> stars meet their end and crumple under their own weight. 



However, black holes are considerably more massive and elusive, only detectable via their gravitational effects. On the other hand, neutron stars, despite their density, can be directly observed.



Using the MeerKAT radio telescope in South Africa, the researchers captured the highest resolution pictures of Circinus X-1 to date.



These photographs, unveiled at a recent National Astronomy Meeting, capture an S-shaped jet emanating from a confirmed neutron star for the first time, a significant step towards deciphering the mind-bending physics behind these cosmic occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neutron-stars-and-extreme-physics">Neutron stars and extreme physics</h2>



According to the lead researcher, Fraser Cowie, this isn't the first instance of S-shaped jets discovery. An object known as SS433 also boasted similar jets, but recent findings suggest it's likely a black hole. 



"This image is the first time we have seen strong evidence for a precessing jet from a confirmed neutron star," Cowie affirmed. 



The piece de resistance of their findings is the high-speed, wide shockwave, indicative of a shift in direction for these jets, which throws light on the complex physics behind their launch.



An intense gravitational force, due to the star's immense density, siphons gas from its partner star, forming a swirling hot disc around it. 



This phenomenon, termed as 'accretion,' generates more energy per second than a million Suns. A portion of this energy results in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-discovery-twin-stars-with-parallel-disks-and-jets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jets</a>, beams of outflowing matter from the binary system, hurtling close to the speed of light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-s-shaped-jet-in-circinus-x-1">S-shaped jet in Circinus X-1</h2>



Installing latest upgrades to the <a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za/gallery/meerkat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MeerKAT telescope</a> brought about well-defined images, and clear evidence of an S-shaped jet, akin to water spiraling out from a garden sprinkler, was seen in Circinus X-1's jet.



Moreover, the researchers also discovered moving termination shocks for the first time in an X-ray binary. These shocks appear when the jet collides with its surroundings at a high velocity, creating a shockwave.



According to Cowie's team's measurements, these shock waves are moving at around 10% of the speed of light, solidifying their belief of the shockwaves being a consequence of the high-speed jet. 



The wide span of these shockwaves concurs with their model, providing further proof of the neutron star jet's precession.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-golden-era-for-astronomical-exploration">A golden era for astronomical exploration</h2>



Circinus X-1, despite being one of the brightest objects in the X-ray sky and having been studied for over half a century, remains a mystery. 



"Several aspects of its behavior are not well explained, so it's very rewarding to help shed new light on this system, building on 50 years of work from others," said Cowie.



The journey does not end here, though. The next steps involve monitoring jets over time, leading to a precise measurement of their distinct properties and unveiling more of their enigmatic nature. 



This groundbreaking exploration is part of the X-KAT and ThunderKAT projects on the MeerKAT telescope operated by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (<a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SARAO</a>), with observations executed using the recently installed S-band receivers from the Max-Planck Institute (<a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPG</a>).



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Extraordinary garden-sprinkler-shaped jet found in distant neutron star

Neutron stars, the remnants of massive stellar bodies that shoot...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

Today&#8217;s Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features long, parallel bands of cumulus clouds in the spy over the Labrador Sea. According to NASA, these cloud streets usually appear a few times every spring.



&#8220;The magnificent organization of these clouds, known as cloud streets, was on full display when this image was acquired on April 19, 2022,&#8221; reports NASA.



&#8220;Captured with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite, the image shows cloud streets sweeping over the open water between Labrador, Canada, and southwest Greenland.&#8221;



&#8220;The appearance of cloud streets indicates that strong, cold winds were blowing toward the southeast over comparatively warmer water. In springtime, sea ice has already entered the melting season, but there is still plenty of ice over land and sea to produce very cold, dry air. There is also enough open water from which that air can draw moisture and form clouds.&#8221;



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cloud streets over the Labrador Sea

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Noirmoutier, a small tidal island on the western coast of France. The photograph, which was taken by an astronaut onboard the International Space Station (ISS), captures the northwestern portion of the island.&nbsp;



According to NASA, the photo was taken at approximately 1:00 p.m. local time, when the low tide exposes mudflats, salt marshes, and sand dunes.



Noirmoutier is famous for its salt and oysters. In the summer months, the locals collect salt from a series of channels, while oyster farming is widespread in the bay.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.