Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Columbia Glacier, a tidewater glacier located in Prince William Sound on the south coast of Alaska.



The Columba Glacier is one of the most rapidly changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> in the world and has been closely studied for the insights it provides into glacial mechanics and climate change impacts. 



"Since the early 1980s, the Columbia Glacier has retreated more than 20 km and lost about half of its total volume. This one glacier accounts for nearly half of the ice lost in the Chugach Mountains," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"The changing climate is thought to have caused its retreat. Until 1980, when its rapid and constant retreat began, the glacier’s terminus was observed at the northern edge of Heather Island, which lies near the end of Columbia Bay, the inlet into which the glacier currently flows before draining into Prince William Sound."



ESA noted that this satellite image, captured in September of 2023, reveals a mostly ice-free Columbia Bay dotted with numerous icebergs and fragmented sea-ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-calving-events">Dramatic calving events</h2>



The Columbia Glacier is known for its dramatic calving events, where large chunks of ice break off from the glacier's terminus and fall into the sea, becoming icebergs.



This process has been particularly active as the glacier has retreated, contributing to hazards for shipping in Prince William Sound.



The glacier has been the focus of extensive scientific research, serving as a case study for understanding the dynamics of tidewater glaciers and their responses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Studies have used satellite imagery, field observations, and modeling to track its changes over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impacts-on-the-columbia-glacier">Climate impacts on the Columbia Glacier</h2>



"Columbia is just one of the many glaciers suffering from the effects of climate change. Most of the glaciers around the world are losing mass," said ESA.



"However, before the advent of satellites, measuring their retreat and studying their vulnerability to climate change was difficult considering their size, remoteness and rugged terrain they occupy."



Now, noted ESA, different satellite instruments are available to gather information systematically and over large areas, providing an effective means to monitor change, keep track of all calving stages, and quantify the melting rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-columbia-s-retreat-nbsp">Climate change and Columbia's retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Columbia Glacier flows from the Chugach Mountains into Columbia Bay. It was once one of the largest contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a> due to its significant ice loss.&nbsp;



The glacier's dynamics are influenced by its interaction with water, where the terminus meets the ocean. As the glacier flows into the sea, large chunks of ice calve off the front, leading to dramatic scenes of ice crashing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shelf-sediment-ocean-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. 



This process has been intensifying due to warmer temperatures and changes in water circulation, which undermine the ice from below.



Columbia Glacier's retreat has significant implications for marine navigation and local ecosystems. The increase in icebergs calving into the bay poses hazards to ships, while the fresh meltwater impacts local water temperatures and salinity, affecting the habitat of fish and other marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-in-a-warming-climate">Melting glaciers in a warming climate </h2>



Glaciers, which are large masses of accumulated snow and ice, store about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. As the climate warms, these glaciers increasingly melt and release freshwater into nearby seas and the ocean at large.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influx-of-freshwater">Influx of freshwater</h3>



The influx of freshwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting glaciers</a> alters the salinity (salt concentration) of the ocean water. Since freshwater is less dense than saltwater, its addition can lead to stratification in which lighter, less salty water layers on top of denser, saltier water.&nbsp;



Stratification can disrupt ocean currents, which are driven in part by differences in water density and temperature. These currents are crucial for regulating global climate by distributing heat and nutrients around the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-salinity-nbsp">Changes in salinity&nbsp;</h3>



Furthermore, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> can affect marine life, which often has narrow salinity tolerance ranges. For example, shifts in salinity can impact breeding cycles, migration patterns, and the availability of nutrients.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-carbon-cycle">Global carbon cycle</h3>



As the ocean's composition changes, its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere could also be altered, affecting the global carbon cycle and, by extension, climate change feedback mechanisms.



The melting of glaciers contributes to more pronounced changes in ocean conditions, impacting everything from global climate systems to local ecosystems in marine environments.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Columbia Glacier on the south coast of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.



“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.



“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.



“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”



This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;



The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. 



“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.



“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;



The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. 



Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.



The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;



The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;



These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;



Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;



This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. 



Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;



This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. 



The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.



The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.



The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a blanket of dust over the Tarim Basin - a vast, arid region in northwestern China. 



Mountain peaks are visible through a break in the dust. These peaks are part of Tekilik Shan, a subrange of the Kunlun Mountains.



Though not as widely known as some other mountain ranges in the area, Tekilik Shan plays a significant role in shaping local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> patterns and geography.



Its snow-covered peaks can rise above 13,000 feet, contributing to the dramatic elevation differences that define the basin’s borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-storms-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Dust storms in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Spring marks the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> activity in the Tarim Basin, particularly in its southern region.&nbsp;



“It’s a time of year when regional wind patterns shift in ways that cause winds and storm systems to sweep in from the northwest,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154126/a-curtain-of-dust-over-the-tarim-basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“In early spring, when landscapes in this region are especially dry and have minimal vegetation, land surfaces warm rapidly under the Sun’s heat every morning, fueling convection that can help loft dust upward by the afternoon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerlike-dust-formations-nbsp">Fingerlike dust formations&nbsp;</h2>



Satellite images revealed dust formations with fingerlike shapes that mirrored the landscape below. These projections aligned with valleys, which channeled and directed the airborne dust.&nbsp;



Ralph Kahn is an atmospheric scientist at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and scientist emeritus at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.



According to Kahn, the dust may have been “self-lofting.” In this process, sunlight heats recently stirred-up surface dust, creating pockets of convection that lift it even higher into the air.



This interpretation is supported by hourly observations from Japan’s Himawari-9 geostationary satellite, which showed dust gradually rising into the Tekilik Shan throughout the day. By late afternoon, the storm had grown dense enough to obscure the mountains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-atmospheric-dust">Decline in atmospheric dust</h2>



Long-term satellite data from MODIS suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric dust</a> levels in this region have declined by about 1.5 percent each year since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



NASA researcher Hongbin Yu attributes this trend mainly to springtime changes - such as altered wind speeds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil moisture</a>, or vegetation cover - rather than shifts in other seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Rainfall in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Takla Makan Desert</a> is one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. Flanked by mountain ranges on three sides and parched by the resulting <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Rain_shadow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain shadow</a>, parts of the Tarim Basin receive no more than 10 millimeters (0.4 inches) of rain per year,” noted NASA.



“Dust storms can lead to public health problems in populated areas downwind by transporting small particles, bacteria, and viruses that infiltrate human respiratory systems.”&nbsp;



NASA added that dust storms can also affect Earth’s climate by scattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation and changing the properties of clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Landscape of the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



The Tarim Basin is one of the largest endorheic basins in the world, meaning that its rivers do not drain into the sea but instead flow into interior lakes or evaporate.&nbsp;



The basin is encircled by three mountain ranges: the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the Pamirs to the west. These ranges create a powerful rain shadow effect, making the region exceptionally dry.



At the heart of the Tarim Basin lies the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most extreme deserts on Earth. The desert is known for its high dunes, intense temperature swings, and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-and-geology">History and geology</h2>



Despite its harsh environment, the basin has been historically significant. It was a key section of the ancient Silk Road, with several oases such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Loulan serving as vital trading and cultural centers for centuries.



Geologically, the basin is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, and has become a focal point for China's energy exploration and development.&nbsp;



The region’s challenging climate and remote location, however, make infrastructure development and human habitation difficult.&nbsp;



The image was captured on March 27, 2025 by the Operational Land Imager instrument on Landsat 8.



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Blanket of dust covers China’s Tarim Basin

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a Copernicus Sentinel-2 photograph of Lake Maracaibo, located in the northwestern part of Venezuela. The lake is a significant geographical and ecological feature of South America. 



Lake Maracaibo is often considered more of a tidal bay due to its direct connection to the Caribbean Sea through the Tablazo Strait. It is one of the oldest lakes on Earth, formed approximately 36 million years ago.



"With an area of over 13,000 sq km, Lake Maracaibo is generally considered the largest lake in South America, although by some estimates it should be considered an inlet of the Caribbean Sea since much of its water is brought in by its direct connection to the ocean," explained <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"As a result, the water in the northern part of the lake is rather brackish, while the southern waters are fresh, owing to the many rivers that flow into the lake. The biggest, the Catatumbo River, can be seen entering the lake from southwest, where a large amount of sediment carried by the river appears as a yellowish plume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-catatumbo-lightning">The Catatumbo lightning</h2>



The lake is renowned for a unique weather phenomenon - the Catatumbo lightning. This natural spectacle occurs primarily where the Catatumbo River meets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a>.



Known as the most persistent lightning storm in the world, it produces frequent and dramatic flashes of lightning, illuminating the night sky for an average of 260 nights per year.



These storms generate thousands of lightning strikes in a single night, making the region one of the most electrified places on the planet. 



The phenomenon is so intense that it has been recognized by the Guinness World Records as the place with the highest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-on-earth-can-influence-the-weather-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightning</a> activity.



Scientists believe the lightning is influenced by the area's geography and climate, including the warm air rising from the lake and its surrounding mountains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economical-significance-of-lake-maracaibo">Economical significance of Lake Maracaibo </h2>



Home to one of the world's largest oil and gas reserves, Lake Maracaibo plays an important role in Venezuela’s economy.



The discovery of petroleum in the early 20th century transformed the region into a major oil-producing area, leading to the establishment of numerous oil rigs and platforms. 



However, this economic activity has come at a cost. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/half-of-the-worlds-largest-lakes-are-losing-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pollution</a> from oil spills, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff has significantly degraded the lake's ecosystem.



The appearance of a green, slimy algae known as Lemna has further exacerbated environmental concerns, threatening marine life and the livelihoods of local communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-ties-to-lake-maracaibo">Cultural ties to Lake Maracaibo </h2>



The cultural significance of Lake Maracaibo is deeply rooted in the traditions and lifestyle of the Indigenous Añu people, who have inhabited its shores for centuries. The Añu, also known as Paraujano, are known for their distinctive stilt houses, called palafitos.



These wooden structures are built directly over the water, connected by walkways or small boats, allowing the Añu to live harmoniously with their aquatic environment. The architectural style of these stilt houses inspired the early Spanish explorers to nickname the region "The Venice of the Americas."



The Añu's way of life is closely tied to the lake. They rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-fishing-must-be-redefined-to-halt-ocean-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> as a primary source of food and income, using traditional methods passed down through generations.



For the Añu, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lake</a> is more than a resource - it is the spiritual and cultural foundation of their identity and daily lives. However, modernization and environmental challenges have disrupted this traditional lifestyle. 



The oil industry’s expansion around Lake Maracaibo has led to significant environmental degradation, which threaten the lake's biodiversity and the Añu’s primary sources of sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lake-maracaibo-and-venezuelan-history">Lake Maracaibo and Venezuelan history</h2>



Lake Maracaibo also played a pivotal role in Venezuelan history, particularly during the Battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. 



This naval battle was a decisive conflict in Venezuela’s war for independence from Spain and marked one of the final military engagements of the South American liberation movements led by figures like Simón Bolívar.



Today, the lake represents a remarkable blend of natural beauty, industrial significance, and cultural heritage. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-conservation-efforts">Ongoing conservation efforts </h2>



The need to protect the extraordinary environment of Lake Maracaibo is widely acknowledged. Ongoing efforts aim to harmonize ecological conservation with economic development.



Efforts to preserve the Añu culture and the lake's ecosystem have been initiated by local and international organizations. These initiatives focus on promoting sustainable development, preserving Indigenous languages and traditions, and mitigating the environmental damage caused by industrial activities. 



Despite these challenges, the Añu have shown remarkable resilience, maintaining their cultural identity and advocating for their rights and the health of their ancestral lands.



Image Credit: ESA



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Lake Maracaibo: The lightning capital of the world

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a satellite view of retreating glaciers in Alaska, where meltwater is rapidly expanding glacial lakes. 



“In parts of Alaska, water is replacing ice. As glaciers thin and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-hidden-retreat-of-arctic-glaciers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retreat</a>, meltwater collects at their fronts, forming proglacial lakes. According to an analysis by Mauri Pelto, a glaciologist at Nichols College, three such lakes in the southeastern part of the state have grown rapidly in recent decades,” said <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retreating-glaciers-in-alaska">Retreating glaciers in Alaska</h2>



“A trio of glaciers - Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau - descend from inland mountains and flow onto the coastal plain southeast of Yakutat borough, ending at Harlequin Lake, Alsek Lake, and Grand Plateau Lake,” noted NASA.&nbsp;



The retreat of the glaciers, as well as the growth of the lakes, are visible in the image. When compared to an <a href="https://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/153000/153638/fastestlake_tm5_19840705_lrg.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> captured by Landsat 5 in the summer of 1984, the changes are even more evident.



NASA elaborated on the extent of the glacier retreat from 1984 to 2024. “During this period, Yakutat Glacier’s main arm retreated 4.3 miles, while Alsek Glacier’s northern and southern arms retreated 3.3 miles and 3.4 miles, respectively. Grand Plateau Glacier’s northern arm lost the most, retreating 4.8 miles.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes-doubled-in-size-nbsp">Glacial lakes doubled in size&nbsp;</h2>



“Collectively, the three lakes more than doubled in size over 40 years. In 1984, they covered about 50 square miles. By 2024, they spanned 90 square miles. That’s an area larger than Seneca Lake (67 square miles) - one of the Finger Lakes in New York, which also have a glacial origin,” said NASA.



Pelto noted that the lakes forming in this region are immense - starting at the mountains and spreading toward the coast - making this a new lake district that is unique in our nation.



“Millions of other lakes, named and unnamed, dot the state. But this system has grown fast, so much so that Pelto thinks it might represent the fastest lake growth in the United States this century,” said NASA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-glacier-retreat-nbsp">Understanding glacier retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Glacier retreat is a significant phenomenon driven primarily by global warming the results from rising greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



As temperatures rise, glaciers lose more ice during the summer melt than they can regain in winter snowfall, causing them to shrink over time. This process has profound implications for ecosystems, water resources, and global sea levels.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacial-lakes">Glacial lakes</h3>



When glaciers retreat, they often leave behind depressions in the landscape that can fill with meltwater, forming glacial lakes. These lakes are typically bounded by natural dams made of rock, ice, or moraine - accumulations of debris left behind by the glacier's movement.&nbsp;



Over the past century, the number and size of glacial lakes worldwide have increased significantly due to the accelerating pace of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-glaciers-offer-a-glimpse-of-our-harsh-climate-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> retreat. This trend is especially evident in high-altitude regions like the Himalayas, the Andes, and the Alps, as well as in polar areas such as Alaska and Greenland.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-and-negative-impacts-nbsp">Positive and negative impacts&nbsp;</h3>



Glacial lakes can have both positive and negative impacts. They provide critical water sources for downstream communities, support biodiversity, and sometimes offer opportunities for hydropower development or tourism.&nbsp;



However, they also pose serious risks. The dams holding back these lakes can fail suddenly, causing glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These catastrophic events can devastate downstream areas, destroying infrastructure, agricultural lands, and habitats while endangering human lives.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-changes">Monitoring changes</h3>



Understanding glacier retreat and glacial lake formation requires a multidisciplinary approach, combining climate science, hydrology, and geology.&nbsp;



Monitoring these changes is essential to mitigate associated risks and adapt to the evolving landscape shaped by a <a href="https://search.app?link=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earth.com%2Fnews%2Fperu-has-lost-over-half-of-its-glaciers-in-six-decades%2F&amp;utm_campaign=aga&amp;utm_source=agsadl2%2Csh%2Fx%2Fgs%2Fm2%2F4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming planet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-retreat-worldwide">Glacier retreat worldwide</h2>



Studies and satellite observations show that most glaciers in almost all regions of the world are shrinking.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers contribute significantly to global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>, which threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.



The retreat of glaciers is considered one of the clearest indicators of climate change.&nbsp;Some glaciers are retreating at unprecedented rates, indicating accelerating climate impacts.



The image was captured on August 4, 2024 by the Landsat 8 satellite.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory



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Retreating glaciers and expanding meltwater lakes in Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features dust streaming off the coast of Iran in January 2025.



“Some of the desert dust was carried across the Gulf of Oman to the Arabian Peninsula, degrading air quality for those in its path,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153859/desert-dust-streams-from-iran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“The airborne material appears to primarily originate in the dried bed of the intermittent lake known as Hamun-e Jazmurian (Hamun-e Jaz Murian), while some may be blown from coastal areas." 



"Along with arid regions such as the Garagum and Lut deserts and the Sistan Basin, the lakebed is a major source of dust in southwest Asia.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precipitation-in-the-jazmurian-basin">Precipitation in the Jazmurian Basin</h2>



According to NASA, some areas of the Jazmurian Basin receive less than four inches of rain annually, on average, and evaporation rates are high. During wet times, however, parts of the basin may be covered by an intermittent lake, marshland, or other vegetation.&nbsp;



“Terra’s MODIS sensor has previously captured images of the area when water is present in Hamun-e Jazmurian and when green vegetation fringes the lakebed,” said NASA.



“In early 2025, the land was dry enough for winds to blow dust plumes south-southwest over the Gulf of Oman. Dust traveled across the water to the coast of the United Arab Emirates, where the haze reduced visibility in places, according to news reports.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-particles-in-dust-storms">Particles in dust storms</h2>



In addition to disrupting transportation and other daily activities, the suspended particles in dust storms can pose significant health risks. 



Recent research has revealed that dust from the Jazmurian Basin often contains heavy metals and other potentially harmful substances, such as silica and organic pollutants, which can negatively impact both human and ecosystem health.&nbsp;



Prolonged exposure to these particles has been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular issues, as well as the exacerbation of pre-existing health conditions like asthma and bronchitis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-impact-of-dust-storms">Environmental impact of dust storms</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-is-an-understudied-contributor-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental impact</a> of dust storms extends beyond human health. The fine particles can settle on vegetation, reducing photosynthesis and agricultural productivity.&nbsp;



Dust deposition can also alter soil composition by introducing heavy metals and changing nutrient balances, which may affect crop growth and soil microbial communities. 



Such changes can lead to long-term degradation of arable land and disrupt local food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-in-the-jazmurian-basin-nbsp">Dust in the Jazmurian Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Communities near the Jazmurian Basin are particularly vulnerable to the effects of dust storms due to limited access to healthcare and mitigation resources.



Seasonal changes and climate conditions, including prolonged droughts and desertification, further intensify the frequency and severity of dust storms in the region.&nbsp;



This creates a cycle of environmental and health challenges, making it imperative to develop strategies for prevention and adaptation.



Potential measures include reforestation and soil stabilization projects to reduce dust emissions, stricter regulations to limit activities that contribute to desertification, and public health initiatives to educate communities on protective measures during dust events.&nbsp;



Investing in early warning systems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-driven-wildfires-worsen-u-s-air-quality-and-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> monitoring can also help minimize exposure and protect both human populations and the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-jazmurian-basin">Significance of the Jazmurian Basin</h2>



The Jazmurian Basin is a prominent endorheic basin located in southeastern Iran, spanning parts of the provinces of Sistan and Baluchestan as well as Kerman. It lies at the heart of an arid region characterized by sparse vegetation, high temperatures, and limited rainfall.&nbsp;



The basin is primarily fed by the Halil and Bampur rivers, which provide seasonal water flow to the basin's low-lying areas. At its center lies the Jazmurian Depression, which forms a seasonal playa or shallow lake, though it often dries up during extended dry periods.&nbsp;



The area holds geological and archaeological significance, offering insights into ancient human settlements and environmental changes over time.&nbsp;



Despite its harsh climate, the basin supports small-scale agriculture and serves as a critical habitat for certain desert-adapted wildlife. 



The image was captured on January 22 by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on NASA’s Terra satellite.&nbsp;



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Dust rises from the Jazmurian Basin in Iran

This mix was originally thought to be an optimal replacement for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-features-of-cattle-with-high-methane-emissions/">cattle</a> because they were stronger and more resistant to the kinds of diseases that would wipe out entire herds. However, the only remaining zubrons exist in a small herd in Poland's Bialowieski National Park. Photo Credit: Romanowa / Wiki Commons

Zubron

A burst of lightning near the geographic North Pole is stirring anxious questions about our changing climate. It showed up on August of, 2019, when atmospheric conditions lined up in a way few that had ever imagined.



Researchers discovered 342 lightning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-meltdown-is-accelerating-global-warming-already-changing-earth-in-unimaginable-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a>, with 122 being in a single thunderstorm that traveled over the ice and came within about 27 miles (43 kilometers) of the North Pole.



Jianqiu Zheng and colleagues from the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology of China</a> analyzed the event and found it was tied to an unusual surge of warm air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-heat-now-fuels-rare-storms">Arctic heat now fuels rare storms</h2>



Temperatures in the far north have been <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climbing</a> faster than the global average. This shift opens the door for moisture to move into places where it once rarely ventured.



Warm air masses from lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drastic-warming-will-transform-the-arctic-beyond-recognition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">latitudes</a> can now slip into polar regions and create the unstable backdrop for storms. Ice sheets still dominate much of the area, but the air above them is no longer as consistently frigid.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightning-formed-high-above-north-pole">Lightning formed high above North Pole </h2>



Scientists noted a thundercloud that formed about 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) above the surface of the ice. That formation defied the usual pattern, where storms typically begin closer to ground level.



“This thunderstorm was unlike anything we typically see in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-may-fuel-the-spread-of-diseases-by-unleashing-frozen-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a>,” said Zheng. It developed when a patch of warm, moist air was forced upward by a cooler layer that hugged the ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-and-cold-air-collided">Warm and cold air collided</h2>



The team attributed this odd weather to a <a href="https://www.weather.gov/lmk/basic-fronts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frontal system</a> that lifted balmy, humid air over a wedge of cold air at the surface. That collision helped launch storm clouds into a zone where lightning is more likely to spark.



The experts relied on ERA5 reanalysis <a href="https://www.ecmwf.int/en/forecasts/dataset/ecmwf-reanalysis-v5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> (archived meteorological observations) to piece together how air parcels moved and converged at the time. 



This data offered clues on how two conflicting air masses produced an elevated thundercloud in a zone known for extreme cold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-lightning-near-the-north-pole">Tracking lightning near the North Pole</h2>



The storm’s path was logged by the World Wide Lightning Location Network (<a href="https://wwlln.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WWLLN</a>), a global sensor system that monitors lightning strikes using radio waves. 



This network recorded the closest-known lightning strike to the North Pole, just 27 miles (43 kilometers) away, which helps confirm just how far these unusual storms can reach.



Without systems like WWLLN, events like this could go unnoticed in remote parts of the planet. The ability to track such rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-industrialization-how-will-it-impact-delicate-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phenomena</a> offers scientists a clearer picture of atmospheric behavior in a rapidly warming Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-future-forecasts">Potential impact on future forecasts</h2>



“As temperatures rise, we may see more thunderstorms in areas where they were once extremely rare,” said Baohua Ren, a corresponding author of the study who hinted at the ripple effects of higher temperatures..



Shifts in polar climate may force meteorologists to adjust forecasting models. Storm frequency, lightning counts, and general weather patterns could all see new variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-what-s-ahead">Predicting what's ahead</h2>



Changes in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-may-be-ice-free-sooner-than-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> often extend beyond regional boundaries. Variations in sea ice coverage, wind patterns, and ocean currents can trickle down to mid-latitudes and transform familiar seasonal weather.



Some experts wonder whether more frequent lightning in high latitudes might disturb wildlife or disrupt shipping routes.



Elevated storm occurrence might also affect how the upper atmosphere behaves, though more research is needed before making firm predictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-lightning-near-the-north-pole">Implications of lightning near the North Pole </h2>



Lightning isn’t just a flash in the sky, it’s a sign of powerful atmospheric instability. For lightning to occur, there must be strong updrafts and separation of electrical charges within clouds, conditions that are rare in cold, dry regions like the Arctic.



When lightning appears near the North Pole, it signals a major shift in local energy balance. It means the atmosphere had enough moisture, warmth, and motion to support the buildup of charge, which is a clear sign that traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-arctic-warming-map-shows-alarming-changes-in-climate-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic</a> norms are changing.



A single thunderstorm doesn’t rewrite climate science, but it emphasizes the importance of global temperature trends. <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/24/4451/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar warming events</a> and unexpected weather can align to produce conditions once thought impossible in icy places. 



Scientists see this development as an indication of how quickly the environment can shift. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-polar-events">Extreme polar events</h2>



Researchers note that more observational campaigns will help explain how moist air triggers lightning near the North Pole. These efforts could improve our ability to understand and track extreme polar weather events.



Polar scientists also emphasize the potential influence on local communities. People who depend on stable ice for hunting or travel might face new hazards when warmer air creates thunderstorms and slushier terrain.



The study was published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4141-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



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Lightning near the North Pole signals major climate shifts

A burst of lightning near the geographic North Pole is...

Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia conditions do not simply rob individuals of memory; they also exact an extraordinary cost on families and on the nation as a whole.



A newly released estimate from researchers at the <a href="https://usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a> (USC) concludes that the total monetary burden of dementia in the United States will reach roughly&nbsp;$781 billion in 2024.



That figure surpasses the annual revenues of many Fortune 500 companies and amounts to more than three percent of the nation’s gross domestic product.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-pays-and-how-much">Who pays, and how much?</h2>



Although various organizations have attempted to calculate dementia costs in past years, the USC‐led project aims to be the most comprehensive to date. 



The effort, supported by a multi‐year cooperative agreement with the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/">National Institute on Aging</a>, combines detailed medical claims with large, nationally representative surveys and then applies a sophisticated simulation technique known as dynamic microsimulation.



The result is not only a single headline statistic but also a granular picture of who shoulders which costs, how those burdens change as patients age, and how new treatments or policies might shift the outlook over time.



Julie Zissimopoulos co-directs the <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/programs/center-for-health-policy-and-economics/aging-and-cognition/">Aging and Cognition program</a> at the USC Schaeffer Center for Health Policy &amp; Economics and serves as principal investigator of the U.S. Cost of Dementia project. She noted that the goal is to give decision makers the kind of data they need to design smarter interventions.



“Having a better understanding of who bears these costs and how they change over time can inform evidence-based policies that may ultimately reduce the financial impact of dementia,” explained Zissimopoulos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-dementia-model">Building the dementia model</h2>



The research rests on several interlocking data sets. One is the <a href="https://hrs.isr.umich.edu/about">Health and Retirement Study</a>, a biennial survey of more than 20,000 Americans over age fifty that collects information on income, wealth, health status, and family structure.



Another is de-identified administrative data from the <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">Centers for Medicare &amp; Medicaid Services</a>, which capture hospitalizations, physician visits, prescription drug use, and long-term‐care claims.



By merging these resources and running them through dynamic microsimulation, the team can project how a representative cohort of older Americans will move through different health states, how their care needs will evolve, and how each phase translates into dollars.



The headline number of $781 billion covers several major domains of expense. Direct medical and long-term‐care cost for dementia patients - hospital stays, outpatient visits, skilled nursing facilities, home health aides, and other services - adds up to approximately $232 billion in 2024.



Out-of-pocket payments by patients and their families account for 22% of that sum, or about $52 billion. 



Medicare remains the single largest payer at $106 billion, while Medicaid, which picks up many nursing-home charges for low-income or exhausted‐asset households, spends about $58 billion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-cost-beyond-medical-bills">Dementia cost beyond medical bills</h2>



Yet medical bills, staggering as they are, represent only the visible part of the iceberg. The USC model attaches a monetary value to <a href="https://www.cms.gov/">quality-of-life</a> losses for both patients and caregivers. 



Economists do this by using survey data on health-related quality of life and applying standard “willingness‐to‐pay” techniques to convert utility losses into dollar terms.



By that yardstick, patients with dementia together lose an estimated $302 billion worth of well-being this year, while family caregivers forfeit an additional $6 billion.



Caregivers also surrender work hours. The model finds that friends and relatives will provide roughly 6.8 billion hours of unpaid care in 2024 - time that could otherwise be spent in the labor force or on personal pursuits. Using average wages to monetize that devotion yields an additional $233 billion. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enormous-economic-toll">Enormous economic toll </h2>



On top of those unpaid hours are lost wages from people who reduce their schedules or quit altogether to look after loved ones; those forfeited earnings amount to $8.2 billion.



Dana Goldman, founding director of the <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/">USC Schaeffer Institute for Public Policy &amp; Government Service</a> and co-principal investigator on the study, emphasized the stakes. 



“This research demonstrates the enormous toll dementia places on patients, their families, and care partners," she said. "But it also points to the potential value of developing ways to prevent and treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/">Alzheimer’s</a> and related diseases that cause dementia.” 



Goldman noted that even modest delays in disease progression could yield huge economic dividends, not to mention immeasurable relief for families.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-dementia-dashboard">Dynamic dementia dashboard</h2>



The study arrives at a moment of rapid change in dementia care. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/">The Food and Drug Administration</a> has recently approved anti-amyloid drugs that, for the first time, appear to slow cognitive decline in certain patients with early-stage Alzheimer’s. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">Blood-based biomarkers</a> promise cheaper and earlier detection, potentially moving diagnosis up by years.



Policymakers, insurers, and pharmaceutical companies are grappling with how to pay for these innovations and how to ensure equitable access. By updating the cost model annually, the experts hope to provide a real-time dashboard that will let stakeholders see how emerging therapies or policy reforms shift both costs and benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planning-for-dementia-costs">Planning for dementia costs </h2>



Future reports will incorporate additional cost categories - legal fees, home modifications, transportation expenses, and mental-health impacts - aiming for the most exhaustive ledger yet of dementia’s drain on society. 



For now, the $781 billion estimate stands as a stark reminder that the disease is not just a clinical challenge but an economic tsunami, already cresting and bound to grow as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/">aging</a> population swells. 



Evidence-based planning, the researchers argue, is the only way to blunt the tide.



More information about the costs of dementia in the U.S. can be found <a href="https://schaeffer.usc.edu/research/the-cost-of-dementia-in-2025/">here</a>.



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Dementia is a growing global health crisis with a staggering cost

Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia conditions do not simply rob...

The Sun’s newest portrait is not the fiery disc we remember from textbooks. Instead, it sprawls across a mosaic so detailed that you could stack a dozen Earths end to end inside a single pixel and still have room to spare. 



The yellow filaments and bright arcs in this view are bubbles of million-degree plasma caught in magnetic loops that stretch thousands of miles above the surface.



That view comes from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Solar_Orbiter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Orbiter</a> spacecraft, now five years into a planned seven-year tour of duty. 



On March 9, 2025, it aimed its Extreme Ultraviolet Imager at the Sun from about 48 million miles away, gathering 200 separate frames over four and a half hours. 



Technicians stitched those frames into the widest high-resolution ultraviolet image of our star to date - 12,544 pixels on a side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-orbiter-captures-the-sun">Solar Orbiter captures the Sun</h2>



Solar Orbiter left Earth on February 10, 2020, riding an Atlas V rocket. Built by the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>) with key help from NASA, the craft carries ten instruments designed to work as a team, pairing full-disk pictures with on-the-spot particle counts and magnetic-field readings. 



In late 2021, it began routine science operations and has since looped ever closer to the Sun, stealing bits of speed from Venus to tip its orbit for future polar flybys.



The <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/01/Solar_Orbiter_s_instruments" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extreme Ultraviolet Imager</a> does its job while the spacecraft bakes in sunlight almost 15 times stronger than what we feel on Earth. 



For the March 9 shoot, mission controllers pointed Solar Orbiter 25 different ways in a 5-by-5 grid. 



At each stop, the camera captured six tight shots and two wider ones at a wavelength of 17.4 nanometers, light invisible to our eyes but perfect for tracing plasma at 1.8 million °F.



The craft sat 11.4 degrees below the solar equator, far enough off-center to reveal the corona’s towering loops yet close enough that every pixel represented roughly 185 miles. 



The finished file measures 12,544 × 12,544 pixels - about 7,505 pixels across the Sun’s 870,000-mile diameter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zooming-in-on-the-sun-s-surface">Zooming in on the Sun's surface</h2>



During each close approach, Solar Orbiter swoops to within 0.28 astronomical units, roughly 26 million miles from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/team-creates-video-showing-the-sun-in-gamma-rays-over-a-14-year-period/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun’s surface</a>. 



From that vantage point, the probe can watch bright magnetic knots bubble up, twist, and snap, then match those events to bursts of charged particles that its own detectors sample minutes later. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2025/04/solar_orbiter_s_widest_high-res_view_of_the_sun/26672644-4-eng-GB/Solar_Orbiter_s_widest_high-res_view_of_the_Sun.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Sun_Solar-Orbiter_widest-view-yet_ESA_1s.webp" alt="The image you see here combines a whopping 200 individual images into the widest high-resolution view of the Sun yet. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1967019"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The image you see here combines a whopping 200 individual images into the widest high-resolution view of the Sun yet. Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



These coordinated observations help explain how solar storms gain the punch that sometimes knocks out satellites or triggers blackouts on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-orbiter-and-the-poles">Solar Orbiter and the poles</h2>



Each gravity assist at Venus tilts the craft’s path a little higher above the ecliptic. By the end of the decade, the orbit should stand 33 degrees above the solar equator, offering humanity’s first sustained look at the poles.



Early images have already shown magnetic arches plunging back under the surface like the roots of a huge tree - clues to how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-has-officially-reached-its-solar-maximum-period-in-this-solar-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">11-year sunspot cycle</a> resets itself and why the corona flares so intensely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Solar weather is no abstract threat. When a blast of energetic particles sweeps past our planet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronauts retreat to shielded modules</a>, airlines reroute polar flights, and grid operators brace for geomagnetically induced currents.



By tracing a jet from the Sun’s face to the space around the craft, scientists can now link surface disturbances to the gusts that slam our magnetosphere about two days later. 



Those links sharpen the lead time on solar-storm warnings, buying engineers precious hours to protect hardware.



The March 9 mosaic also hints at smaller, faster events. In March 2023, the mission spotted brief plasma jets - each no wider than Texas - shooting out of tiny sunspots. 



Mapping those jets back to magnetic tangles in the photosphere suggests that even modest disturbances can pump significant heat into the corona, a step toward solving the long-standing mystery of why the outer atmosphere blazes far hotter than the visible surface below.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-orbiter-and-the-road-ahead">Solar Orbiter and the road ahead</h2>



Solar Orbiter and NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parker Solar Probe</a> already leapfrog one another, one providing panoramic snapshots, the other flying through the very plasma on display. 



As Solar Orbiter climbs toward higher latitudes, those tandem passes will paint the most complete picture yet of our star’s weather engine. 



The next close flyby comes later this year, and every pass brings the craft a little closer - both in miles and in insight - to the forces that light our skies and occasionally rattle our technology.



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Widest high-resolution photo of the Sun ever captured

The Sun’s newest portrait is not the fiery disc we...

Over the past few years, more people across the United States have been experimenting with psilocybin, a hallucinogen found in “magic mushrooms.” 



This increase in psilocybin use has drawn attention from health experts, who note that many users face challenges such as mental illness or chronic pain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharp-rise-in-psilocybin-use">Sharp rise in psilocybin use </h2>



Some U.S. states have started softening their policies around the use of psilocybin, which appears to match the timing of its recent surge in popularity. This increase also coincides with a jump in poison center calls, suggesting that not everyone understands the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-are-the-most-popular-psychedelic-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">substance</a> or its risks.



“We found that, since 2019, the number of people using psilocybin has gone up sharply,” said Dr. Karilynn Rockhill, a researcher at the <a href="https://coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado School of Public Health</a>. 



Dr. Rockhill led a project that tracked psilocybin use patterns across several age groups and geographic areas.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-use-across-all-ages">Psilocybin use across all ages</h2>



Young adults show the largest expansion in psilocybin experimentation. Older adults are not too far behind. 



Looser restrictions and rising social acceptance might encourage some to view psilocybin as a quick fix for depression or anxiety. 



Experts note that certain individuals appear to be self-treating serious conditions. They worry that casual use without medical guidance can create <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complications</a>. 



These worries become more pressing when poison center data reveal an uptick in calls from across the age spectrum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-and-psilocybin-use">Mental health and psilocybin use</h2>



Psilocybin has drawn attention for potential <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909165/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a> in addressing PTSD, substance use disorders, and other challenges. Medical providers, however, warn that its use in these circumstances remains investigational.



People experiencing depression or anxiety sometimes turn to magic mushrooms if they lack immediate professional support.



“Public views on psilocybin are shifting. However, that means we also need to make sure people understand the risks, know how to use it safely if they choose to, and that health care systems are prepared,” said Dr. Joshua Black, a senior scientist at Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, which is a division of Denver Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-people-are-calling-poison-centers">More people are calling poison centers</h2>



The steep increase in poison center calls, signals that many users do not fully grasp the substance’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Some calls involve disorientation or panic, which can be risky in certain settings.



Others reflect confusion about dosage or harmful interactions with existing prescriptions. Researchers suggest that hospitals and emergency departments might be under-reporting these cases. 



A gap in hospital coding means psilocybin-related visits can slip by unnoticed. That hampers public health agencies that are trying to gauge what’s really happening.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poor-tracking-hides-health-impacts">Poor tracking hides health impacts</h2>



Officials have discovered that current systems for recording hallucinogen-related issues are not keeping up with the changing landscape. Inaccurate data collection may keep local clinics in the dark about how often patients arrive in crisis. 



Health systems need reliable metrics for policy decisions. Some <a href="https://psychedelicalpha.com/data/psychedelic-laws" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">states</a> have already drafted policies allowing controlled use of psilocybin for medical study.



Others weigh more permissive models. Researchers stress that consistent tracking and standard coding practices can help officials measure any shifts in harm or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-magic-mushrooms-evolve-to-contain-psilocybin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">misuse</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-for-better-outcomes">Education for better outcomes</h2>



Experts call for straightforward educational materials about psilocybin. Too many new users jump in without guidance, and that raises the risk of harmful experiences. 



Medical offices, online platforms, and community centers could play a role in distributing simple facts. A deeper conversation among doctors, public health leaders, and policymakers might also help. 



If people choose to explore psilocybin, they should know its possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. Broad awareness can reduce unintentional injuries and keep poison centers from bearing the brunt of emergencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-responsible-research">Importance of responsible research</h2>



Scientific studies on psilocybin are expanding, driven by interest in its potential therapeutic use. A handful of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27909164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clinical trials</a> suggest it can relieve specific mental health symptoms under controlled conditions.



Still, experts advise caution until results are replicated and reviewed. Researchers hope to see more large-scale trials in the near future.



Trials help to confirm safety profiles, determine effective doses, and better understand who could benefit most. Once there is enough valid evidence, health authorities can make informed decisions about approving psilocybin-related therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-hope-and-risks">Balancing hope and risks</h2>



Fans of magic mushrooms highlight experiences of spiritual or introspective growth. Others cite anecdotal relief from depression or chronic pain. 



Medical professionals respond that each user brings a unique history, including mental health factors, that might heighten risks. Some also worry that blanket decriminalization could send the wrong message.



Substance misuse can surface if people jump into using potent compounds without a plan or supervision. Encouraging responsible decisions goes hand in hand with exploring psilocybin’s possible upsides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-psilocybin-safety">The future of psilocybin safety</h2>



A lack of comprehensive tracking tools prevents health facilities from planning for potential surges in psilocybin-related visits. Researchers urge policy revisions that integrate consistent psilocybin coding. Clear codes would allow doctors to pinpoint frequent complications and stock resources accordingly.



Hospitals operating in regions where psilocybin use is on the rise might train staff to handle its distinct side effects. This includes mental health professionals equipped with therapy insights, and emergency teams ready for psychedelic crises.



Supporters of psilocybin believe momentum will continue as studies gain traction and more states debate legalization. Experts will watch these policy shifts in real time.



Community programs or peer education campaigns may help encourage careful exploration of psilocybin rather than spur-of-the-moment decisions.



The study was published in the <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/ANNALS-24-03145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Internal Medicine</a>.



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Increased use of psilocybin in U.S. raises health concerns

Over the past few years, more people across the United...

Picture Mars - not as the cold, dry and dusty world we see today - but as a temperate place with cloudy skies, rainfall, and rivers that carved valleys into the land. 



This may have been the case billions of years ago, according to a recent study by scientists at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>. The research suggests that Mars was once a planet shaped by weather cycles. 



"Our study addresses a longstanding mystery about the climate of ancient Mars. Observations of large valley networks suggest formation by flowing water. However, most climate models cannot sustain temperatures above freezing," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-rainfall-feed-rivers-on-mars">Did rainfall feed rivers on Mars?</h2>



The experts suggest that the familiar networks of valleys and channels etched across Mars were likely formed not just by melting ice, but by rainfall or snowfall that fed rivers over long periods.



The findings bring new credibility to the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hot-water-on-ancient-mars-may-have-been-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient Mars</a> may have been warm and wet, offering a possible explanation for the geological features we still observe from space.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“You could pull up Google Earth images of places like Utah, zoom out, and you’d see the similarities to Mars,” said Amanda Steckel, who led the study and now works at the California Institute of Technology.
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-water-on-mars">Mystery of water on Mars</h2>



Today, most researchers agree that water once existed on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-beneath-mars-surface-reveal-possible-habitats-for-ancient-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> - especially during the Noachian epoch, which spanned from about 4.1 to 3.7 billion years ago. But there's been disagreement about how that water got there.



Some believe Mars was always a cold and dry planet, where sunlight barely melted the ice that covered its highlands. Others argue the planet experienced a warmer and wetter climate that allowed for ongoing rainfall or snowmelt.



To test these ideas, the team ran a series of computer simulations to see which conditions could best explain Mars’s ancient valley networks. The simulations were built using landscape modeling software originally designed for Earth studies, and adapted for Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulations-of-martian-rivers">Simulations of Martian rivers</h2>



The researchers created a digital Mars, mimicking the terrain near the equator where many valley systems are found. They modeled two scenarios: one where the landscape was fed by melting ice caps, and another where water came from falling precipitation.



Over simulated periods ranging from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, water flowed across the terrain. Each scenario left a distinct mark. 



"We found that the main difference between these scenarios was the location of the origin of the valleys that formed," noted the researchers.



In the melting ice simulation, valleys formed mostly around the edges of where ice would have sat at high elevations. In the precipitation scenario, valley heads emerged across a wide range of elevations - from low basins to areas over 11,000 feet (3,300 meters) high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-could-have-helped-valleys-form">Rainfall could have helped valleys form</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“It’s very hard to make any kind of conclusive statement,” said Steckel. “But we see these valleys beginning at a large range of elevations. It’s hard to explain that with just ice.”
</blockquote>



The results suggest that the precipitation-fed valleys more closely matched the real Martian surface as seen in satellite images captured by NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor and Odyssey missions.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Water</a> from these ice caps starts to form valleys only around a narrow band of elevations,” Steckel said. “Whereas if you have distributed precipitation, you can have valley heads forming everywhere.”
</blockquote>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-mars-like-a-history-book">Reading Mars like a history book</h2>



Mars still holds clues to its watery past. Around the equator, images show vast channel networks spreading out from highlands into basins that may once have held lakes - or even oceans.



NASA’s Perseverance rover, which landed in 2021, is now exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>, a site that scientists believe once contained a lake that was fed by a powerful river.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“You’d need meters deep of flowing water to deposit those kinds of boulders,” said Brian Hynek, senior author of the study and a scientist at CU Boulder’s Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics.
</blockquote>



To reconstruct this Martian past, Steckel and Hynek used their simulations to trace where these ancient rivers might have started. The results suggest widespread precipitation was more likely responsible for shaping the valleys than occasional ice melt alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-understanding-of-mars-is-evolving">Our understanding of Mars is evolving</h2>



While the study doesn’t fully explain how Mars stayed warm enough to support snow or rainfall, it does add a new piece to the puzzle. The research gives scientists a more detailed view of the planet’s early climate - and may even help us better understand Earth’s own geological past.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Once the erosion from flowing water stopped, Mars almost got frozen in time and probably still looks a lot like Earth did 3.5 billion years ago,” Hynek said.
</blockquote>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Planet</a> may be dry and desolate now, but its surface still tells stories of a time when water shaped its landscapes. And those stories might bring us closer to understanding both Mars and our own place in the solar system.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008637" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>.



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Mars’ hidden past: Rainfall may have shaped the ancient landscape

Picture Mars - not as the cold, dry and dusty...

Men and women can both be head-over-heels in love at different stages, yet a new investigation suggests that males might plunge into love’s emotional deep end just a little sooner than females do. Researchers say that while both sexes share the intense emotional highs of romance, each group has its own habits and quirks.



The study was led by Adam Bode, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a>. He and his colleagues gathered data on early-stage relationships to clarify how biological sex might influence the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-are-falling-in-love-with-ai-companions-and-it-could-be-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern</a> of falling in love.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-men-fall-in-love-faster">Men fall in love faster</h2>



Some scholars <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2006.1938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">argue</a> that humans have long relied on strong mutual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-love-live-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attachments</a> to strengthen relationships and raise families effectively. Love can spark vital changes in behavior, prompting people to prioritize a partner or invest resources in a shared future.



Men’s inclination to leap in quickly may come from a desire to signal commitment and availability. They sense that early displays of fondness can create trust and lower doubts about their intentions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-women-love-deeply-once-they-commit">Women love deeply once they commit</h2>



Females often report deeper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-our-relationships-with-dogs-matter-so-much/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional</a> facets when they commit to loving someone. They also seem to think about their beloved more frequently.



“It is the first convincing evidence that women and men differ in some aspects of romantic love,” said Bode. He credits evolutionary processes for shaping these differences, although social and cultural factors may play a role, too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-equality-may-reduce-emotional-intensity">Gender equality may reduce emotional intensity</h2>



“Our study suggests that people from more gender-equal countries experience a lower intensity of romantic love, obsessive thinking, and maybe even commitment,” said Bode. 



That might happen because both men and women in those places face fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> pressures that drive them to sink into love’s emotional whirlwind.



Worldwide variations in education, family structures, or relationship norms may mold how each sex behaves. Many <a href="https://repub.eur.nl/pub/16743/Langeslag%202007%20Biological%20Psychology.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialists</a> believe that the interplay between biology and environment offers the most complete picture of why love unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-s-timing-and-emotional-triggers">Love’s timing and emotional triggers</h2>



Relationship <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00287.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> point out that recognizing slight differences in men’s and women’s early love experiences doesn’t imply any one method of bonding is superior. Instead, these insights underscore the significance of understanding individual romantic triggers.



Scientists continue to explore how hormones, family upbringing, and cultural standards guide the way people fall in love. Researchers predict that future findings will address both interpersonal differences and how outside factors, such as gender equality, can reshape relationship outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expectations-of-men-and-women">Expectations of men and women</h2>



Friends, family, and therapists often encourage couples to be open and clear about their expectations. This approach might be especially relevant to those who feel like they are fast-tracking an emotional bond.



Some experts have noted that while men might act quickly, that swiftness doesn’t guarantee less intensity down the road. 



Others maintain that once women embrace strong affection, they can become even more focused, devoting time and mental space to cherish their partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empathy-makes-it-work">Empathy makes it work</h2>



Healthy relationships may result from understanding these small but fascinating differences. While romantic attachment is unique to each individual, common trends offer suggestions for better communication and empathy.



Love is still influenced by social factors, such as shifting marriage norms or changing personal goals. What remains consistent is the powerful urge to find meaningful closeness, regardless of whether it emerges in a burst of spontaneity or arrives after careful reflection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-speeds-help-love-grow">Different speeds help love grow</h2>



Men’s faster declarations of love might be an attempt to show seriousness and lower the possibility of rejection. Women’s strong fixation on their partner could reflect a deeper mental focus that arises once trust and reassurance appear.



Both tendencies hint at love’s core function: to help two people commit enough energy and emotion to build something lasting. This motivation, shaped by biology and steered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-drive-learning-in-monkeys-and-humans-alike/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social factors</a>, may let relationships thrive in different cultures and eras.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-doesn-t-follow-a-fixed-timeline">Love doesn't follow a fixed timeline </h2>



While simple stereotypes about men rushing forward and women hesitating might not capture everyone’s experience, these findings show that each sex can have distinct concerns and benefits. 



Couples can support each other by acknowledging that love doesn’t always follow a fixed timeline.



Staying aware of fast emotional bonds can help partners decide if they’re ready for a milestone, like moving in together or meeting each other’s families. Those who prefer a gentler pace might want to voice that need to avoid feeling overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-relationship-has-its-own-pace">Every relationship has its own pace</h2>



Communities and health professionals often look for ways to help couples handle potential misalignments in how they experience early-stage romance. Suggesting open dialogue and shared decision-making can avoid misunderstandings about pace and depth.



People who feel they’ve fallen for someone almost overnight may benefit from self-reflection before acting on that emotion. That short gap can avoid conflicts and ensure a steadier foundation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-prevents-mismatched-love">Communication prevents mismatched love</h2>



Men’s rush to say “I love you” might be a spontaneous statement of genuine devotion. At the same time, women’s lingering approach could reflect a thorough emotional check-in.



Ultimately, this study’s results highlight the idea that no two hearts beat exactly alike. Practical advice involves respectful communication, realistic expectations, and empathy for differing emotional speeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-or-fast-love-needs-trust">Slow or fast, love needs trust</h2>



The quest to understand romance blends biology, anthropology, and psychology. Each discipline adds fresh ideas about how men and women bond and commit their attention.



Couples who celebrate each other’s natural pace or intensity may see improved trust. Small gestures like simple check-ins, thoughtful messages, or shared decisions can support stronger connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-love-comes-from-culture">Love comes from culture</h2>



This growing body of research has real-world implications for relationship counseling and personal growth. Keeping an open mind about alternate approaches to expressing passion can reduce friction and build more rewarding bonds.



The observations contribute to an ongoing effort by social scientists and mental health practitioners to identify healthy relationship practices.



Knowing that men and women may vary in how they spark or maintain romance can remove confusion and encourage consideration of each partner’s perspective.



The study is published in <a href="https://bsd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13293-025-00698-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology of Sex Differences</a>.



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Men might say 'I love you' first to show they care

Men and women can both be head-over-heels in love at...

A team of researchers has recently revealed new findings about Earth’s ancient crust. They studied 1.6-billion-year-old rocks in northeast Queensland and noticed that water had a far greater role in forming this early substratum than people once realized.



Geological teams examined the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0009254107003580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgetown Inlier</a> in Queensland. This location is one of the few places on Earth where ancient rocks from Earth’s deep crust remain in very good condition, showing all stages of continental crust formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-water-reshaped-earth-s-crust">How water reshaped Earth’s crust</h2>



Lead researcher Dr. Silvia Volante completed the work while at Curtin’s School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, and is now based at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>. She explained the surprising chemistry behind these ancient rocks.



“In the early days of our planet, volcanic rocks erupted on the ocean floor and were then altered by hot water as they cooled down and solidified. Over time, these water-rich rocks were buried deep within the Earth’s crust, where the introduction of additional water caused them to partially melt at temperatures ranging from 1,292°F to 1,382°F (700°C to 750°C),” said Dr. Volante.&nbsp;



By examining the oxygen levels in the rocks, the research team identified a distinct contrast between the original volcanic rocks and the granitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocks</a> they later became, which indicated the action of an extra source of water originating from deep within the Earth's mantle.



After analyzing tiny differences in oxygen levels, the scientists saw two surprising signs of water in the ancient crust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-in-old-minerals">Clues in old minerals</h2>



To track down where the water came from, researchers used <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/education/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts/zircon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zircon</a> and <a href="https://commonminerals.esci.umn.edu/minerals-g-m/garnet" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">garnet</a>, two minerals that hold onto oxygen signals even after millions of years. These minerals act like time capsules, keeping the chemical fingerprint of the fluids they interacted with when they first formed.



By comparing the oxygen ratios in different types of rock, the team saw clear evidence that something unusual was going on. The isotope values in the granitic rocks were much closer to what you’d expect from fluids rising out of the <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s mantle</a> - not just from seawater or local sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-triggered-melting-of-earth-s-crust">Water triggered melting of Earth’s crust</h2>



“The two sources of water which formed the continental crust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rocks</a> - one from the volcanic rocks themselves and, more surprisingly, also from deep within the Earth - fueled a chain reaction of melting which lasted millions of years and helped form the building blocks of the continents we live on today,” said Dr. Volante.



Water from both the upper sections of basaltic crust and deeper mantle zones sparked a long-lasting reaction.&nbsp;



These findings support the idea that water migrates in ways once overlooked. That movement had a bigger role in building up granitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layers</a> beneath us than previously assumed by geologists worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-earth-s-crust">A closer look at Earth's crust</h2>



Scientists have long <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825221002452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">argued</a> over what drives the slow transformation of basaltic rock into lighter, buoyant crust. Some claimed that friction and pressure alone produced enough heat to melt rock, but this new work adds water as a potential major factor.



Study co-author Professor Zheng Xiang Li elaborated on how these rare samples help reveal the process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crust</a> formation.



“We had an incredible opportunity to work in unique locations such as the Georgetown Inlier, which is one of the only places in the world where we can see all stages of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17051208/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">continental crust</a> formation locked in billion-year-old rock,” said Professor Li. 



"Our next step is to investigate whether similar water-based melting processes occurred in even older crust fragments."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-water-helped-move-land-and-sea">Mantle water helped move land and sea</h2>



Earth’s crust holds answers to how mountains form and why continents ended up where they are today. A better understanding of water’s influence helps geologists rethink the mineral composition of ancient landmasses.



Many experts suggest that pockets of hydrous minerals deep underground acted like chemical triggers. This hot, wet environment may have boosted partial melting and set the stage for shifts in Earth’s surface that shaped where oceans and continents stand today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-impact-and-future-studies">Practical impact and future studies</h2>



These new results open doors for more targeted projects in other parts of the world. Different ancient terrains might have hidden clues that echo or contrast the Georgetown Inlier’s story.



Teams will now look for similar isotopic signals to see if water from the mantle or other sources was involved. If more of these sites show the same signs, it would mean that water has guided the growth of Earth’s crust far more than scientists once assumed.



With more research, geologists could revise how early life sprang up on land. Water in the crust might have created chemical pathways that were needed by emerging ecosystems.



It also reminds us that what lies beneath the surface is not fixed or dry. Under certain conditions, water can slip through minerals, spark melting, and initiate reactions that help shape the landscape we see every day.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02250-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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How water reshaped Earth’s crust 1.6 billion years ago

A team of researchers has recently revealed new findings about...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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This adorable animal is the rare crossbreed between a sheep and a goat. Although sheep and goats are very similar, when they breed with each other, their offspring are more often than not stillborn. Photo Credit: jeremy_binns / IG

Geep

This hybrid is a cross between a female lion and a male tiger. Because they're sterile, they can only exist in captivity; however, in 1943, a female tigon actually mated with a male lion at the Munich Hellabrunn Zoo. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-lion-cubs-artificial-insemination/">cubs</a> were raised into adulthood. Photo Credit: quatzakotelwoingenau / Imgur

Geep

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