Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a pair of interacting spiral galaxies known as the Antennae Galaxies. They are located approximately 45 million light-years away in the constellation Corvus.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antennae-galaxies-in-a-deadly-embrace">Antennae Galaxies in a deadly embrace </h2>



“The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has snapped the best ever image of the Antennae Galaxies. Hubble has released images of these stunning galaxies twice before, once using observations from its Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) in 1997, and again in 2006 from the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS),” noted <a href="https://esahubble.org/images/potw1345a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



“The galaxies - also known as NGC 4038 and NGC 4039 - are locked in a deadly embrace. Once normal, sedate spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, the pair have spent the past few hundred million years sparring with one another.”



According to ESA, the clash of the Antennae Galaxies is so violent that stars have been ripped from their host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> to form a streaming arc between the two.&nbsp;



The name of the galaxy pair comes from this long stream of stars and gas, which resembles insect antennae.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-bursts-of-star-formation-nbsp">Intense bursts of star formation&nbsp;</h2>



The collision has triggered intense bursts of star formation, making the Antennae Galaxies one of the nearest and most dramatic examples of a starburst galaxy.&nbsp;



Many of the newly formed stars are concentrated in massive star clusters, some of which are expected to evolve into globular clusters over millions of years.



“This new image of the Antennae Galaxies shows obvious signs of chaos. Clouds of gas are seen in bright pink and red, surrounding the bright flashes of blue star-forming regions - some of which are partially obscured by dark patches of dust,” explained ESA.



“The rate of star formation is so high that the Antennae Galaxies are said to be in a state of starburst, a period in which all of the gas within the galaxies is being used to form stars.”&nbsp;



“This cannot last forever and neither can the separate galaxies; eventually the nuclei will coalesce, and the galaxies will begin their retirement together as one large elliptical galaxy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-antennae-galaxies">Significance of the Antennae Galaxies</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies are one of the most well-studied examples of galaxy collisions - offering insight into the processes that shape galaxies over time.



Astronomers study the Antennae Galaxies using a range of telescopes across different wavelengths, including visible light, infrared, and X-rays.&nbsp;



Observations in X-rays have revealed evidence of supernovae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>, while infrared studies highlight regions of dust and star formation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-collision-course-nbsp">The Milky Way's collision course&nbsp;</h2>



The Antennae Galaxies provide a glimpse into the future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, which is expected to eventually merge with the Andromeda Galaxy - our closest spiral galaxy neighbor.



The cosmic collision course of the Milky Way and Andromeda will reshape both galaxies over billions of years.&nbsp;



This event is expected to occur in about 4.5 billion years. Both galaxies are part of the Local Group, a cluster of galaxies bound together by gravity. Their mutual gravitational pull is drawing them closer at a speed of approximately 110 kilometers per second.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-an-elliptical-galaxy-nbsp">The birth of an elliptical galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



When the two galaxies collide, their individual stars will largely avoid direct collisions due to the vast distances between them. However, the gravitational forces involved will create dramatic effects.&nbsp;



These forces will distort the galaxies' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shapes</a>, triggering intense bursts of star formation as gas clouds collide and compress. Over time, the galaxies will settle into a new, larger elliptical galaxy often referred to as "Milkomeda" or "Milkdromeda" by astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-merger-and-the-solar-system">Galaxy merger and the solar system</h2>



Despite the seemingly destructive nature of the collision, the solar system is unlikely to face direct harm. Our Sun may find itself flung into a new orbit within the merged galaxy or even cast into intergalactic space.&nbsp;



The merger will also significantly alter the night sky, with the Andromeda Galaxy becoming increasingly prominent before blending into the unified structure.



This event is part of the natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of galaxies</a> and serves as a fascinating reminder of the dynamic and ever-changing nature of the universe. 



While the collision is still billions of years away, studying it helps astronomers understand galactic interactions and the long-term future of our cosmic neighborhood.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA



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Violent clash of the Antennae Galaxies  

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the galaxy NGC 2090, located approximately 40 million light-years away in the constellation Columba.



NGC 2090 is a stunning spiral galaxy that is notable for its well-defined structure, featuring a bright central core surrounded by tightly wound spiral arms.&nbsp;



These arms are filled with young, hot stars and interstellar gas, indicating active star formation.&nbsp;



Captured by the Webb Telescope’s MIRI and NIRCam instruments, the image reveals the galaxy's winding spiral arms and the swirling gas and dust of its disc in magnificent and unique detail, noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-ngc-2090">Observations of NGC 2090</h2>



The galaxy’s spiral pattern is relatively symmetrical, making it a fascinating object of study for astronomers interested in galactic evolution and dynamics.&nbsp;



Observations of NGC 2090, including those conducted by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-helps-solve-the-mystery-of-a-young-eruptive-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> Space Telescope, have provided valuable insights into the properties of its stellar populations, gas content, and the nature of its spiral structure.



“NGC 2090 was one of many galaxies studied by the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope to refine the measurement of the Universe’s expansion rate, or ‘Hubble constant,’” said ESA.&nbsp;



“This can be done by observing a special type of variable stars named ‘Cepheids’ in relatively nearby galaxies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-ngc-2090">New insights into NGC 2090</h2>



A Cepheid-based measurement from 1998 indicated that NGC 2090 is 37 million light-years away from Earth. However, the latest measurements suggest that the galaxy is 40 million light-years away.



“Already before that Hubble project in 1998, NGC 2090 had been well studied as a very prominent nearby example of star formation,” noted ESA.&nbsp;



“Described as a ‘flocculent’ spiral, this galaxy has a patchy, dusty disc and arms that are flaky or not visible at all. We can see those patterns well in Hubble's visible-light images. However, Webb’s NIRCam near-infrared data reveal the spiral arms with remarkable clarity.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-spiral-galaxies">What are spiral galaxies?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are among the most common and visually striking types of galaxies in the universe.&nbsp;



They are characterized by their flat, disk-like shape with a bright central bulge surrounded by sweeping spiral arms.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-arms-and-central-bulge-nbsp">Spiral arms and central bulge&nbsp;</h3>



The arms of a spiral galaxy are regions where stars, gas, and dust are concentrated, often glowing brightly with the light of young, hot stars that form within them.&nbsp;



The central bulge typically contains older stars and can host a supermassive black hole at its core.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies-nbsp">Types of spiral galaxies&nbsp;</h3>



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on how tightly their arms are wound and the size of their central bulge, ranging from tightly wound "Sa" galaxies to loosely wound "Sc" types.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-nbsp">Star formation&nbsp;</h3>



The structure of spiral galaxies is maintained by the interplay of gravity and angular momentum, with a rotating disk of stars and gas giving rise to their iconic shape.&nbsp;



They are active sites of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> due to the abundance of gas in their arms.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies often have a halo of older stars and globular clusters surrounding their disks, which provides clues about their formation and evolution.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxy">Barred spiral galaxy</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, the galaxy that contains our Solar System, is a prime example of a barred spiral galaxy, a subtype where a bar-shaped structure of stars extends from the central bulge.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-columba-nbsp">The constellation Columba&nbsp;</h2>



Columba is a small and relatively faint constellation in the southern sky, whose name means "dove" in Latin. It was introduced in the late 16th century by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius and first appeared in a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in 1603.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-jupiter-discovered-in-the-great-bear-constellation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation</a> is said to represent the dove sent out by Noah during the biblical flood, tying it to themes of hope and peace.



Columba lies near the larger constellation Canis Major and is bordered by others such as Lepus and Puppis.&nbsp;



Although it lacks particularly bright stars, its most notable star, Alpha Columbae (also called Phact), shines at a magnitude of approximately 2.6 and is a hot blue-white star. Beta Columbae, another prominent star in the constellation, is a slightly cooler, yellow-white star.



The constellation is best viewed from the Southern Hemisphere during the summer months, though it can also be seen from lower latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



Image Credit: NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope&nbsp;



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Webb unveils a spiral galaxy in magnificent detail

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features NGC 6744 - a large, barred spiral galaxy located approximately 30 million light-years away in the constellation Pavo.&nbsp;



The galaxy is often considered a close analog to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uma3-u1-faintest-star-system-found-orbiting-milky-way-galaxy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> due to its similar structure and size, spanning about 175,000 light-years across.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-euclid-space-mission-nbsp">Euclid space mission&nbsp;</h2>



The image was captured by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Euclid</a> space telescope. NGC 6744 stands out as a prime example of the galaxies currently forming the majority of stars in the nearby universe, making it an ideal subject for study with the Euclid mission.&nbsp;



Euclid’s extensive field-of-view allows it to capture the entire galaxy, showcasing not only its large-scale spiral structure but also revealing intricate details on smaller scales across various wavelengths. These details include feather-like dust lanes, known as “spurs,” emerging from the spiral arms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-6744">Star formation in NGC 6744</h2>



Euclid's observations enable scientists to count individual stars within NGC 6744, trace the distribution of stars and dust throughout the galaxy, and map the dust associated with the gas that fuels the development of new stars.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-stars-release-sneezes-of-gas-and-dust-as-they-develop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Star formation</a> is a key process in the growth of galaxies, making these studies crucial for understanding galaxy evolution.



Researchers are utilizing Euclid’s data to explore the relationship between dust, gas, and star formation; to map the distribution of different stellar populations and identify regions of active star formation; and to investigate the underlying physics of spiral galaxy structures.&nbsp;



Spiral arms play a significant role in star formation by compressing gas, yet the precise mechanisms behind this process are still unclear. The presence of “spurs” along NGC 6744’s spiral arms offers valuable insights into the dynamics of star formation within these structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-new-dwarf-galaxies-nbsp">Discovering new dwarf galaxies&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, Euclid's dataset will help scientists identify clusters of old stars (globular clusters) and discover new dwarf galaxies around NGC 6744. 



Remarkably, Euclid has already identified a new dwarf satellite galaxy of NGC 6744 - a surprising discovery given that the galaxy has been studied extensively.



With Euclid’s detailed observations, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of the processes shaping galaxies, providing essential clues to the evolution and appearance of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universes-expansion-rate-hubble-tension-puzzles-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-ngc-6744">More about NGC 6744</h2>



NGC 6744's disk is rich in star-forming regions and contains numerous young, bright blue stars. The galaxy's nucleus is slightly elongated and has a bar structure, which influences the motion of the stars and gas within it.&nbsp;



The spiral arms of NGC 6744 are well-defined and extend outward, wrapping around the central bar. 



Additionally, NGC 6744 has a smaller companion galaxy, NGC 6744A, which is interacting with it, adding to the complexity and interest of this distant system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-types-of-spiral-galaxies">Types of spiral galaxies</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mesmerizing-beauty-of-spiral-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spiral galaxies</a> are one of the most common types of galaxies in the universe, characterized by their distinct, spiral-shaped structure.&nbsp;



The galaxies typically consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas, and dust, along with a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. This bulge is often surrounded by a halo of older stars.&nbsp;



The spiral arms, which extend from the central bulge, are regions of active star formation and are rich in young, hot stars, giving them a bright, bluish appearance.&nbsp;



These arms are also sites where interstellar gas and dust are concentrated, leading to the formation of new stars.&nbsp;



Spiral galaxies are classified into different types based on the tightness of their spirals and the size of their central bulge, with classifications ranging from tightly wound arms in Sa galaxies to more loosely wound arms in Sc galaxies. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-amount-of-dark-matter-may-be-missing-from-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our home galaxy, is a prime example of a spiral galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-pavo">The constellation Pavo</h2>



Pavo, which means "peacock" in Latin, is a constellation in the southern sky. It was named by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius in the late 16th century, based on observations made during the Dutch explorations of the southern hemisphere. 



Pavo is one of the 12 constellations created by Plancius from the records of explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. 



The constellation is known for its distinctive shape, resembling a peacock with a long, curved tail. Pavo is not visible from most of the northern hemisphere, but it can be seen from the southern hemisphere, particularly during the winter months.



The constellation contains several interesting celestial objects, including the star Peacock, also known as Alpha Pavonis, which is the brightest star in the constellation. This star is a blue-white subgiant located about 179 light-years from Earth.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>/Euclid/Euclid Consortium/NASA&nbsp;



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Young stars illuminate a spiral galaxy in the constellation Pavo

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Columbia Glacier, a tidewater glacier located in Prince William Sound on the south coast of Alaska.



The Columba Glacier is one of the most rapidly changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glaciers</a> in the world and has been closely studied for the insights it provides into glacial mechanics and climate change impacts. 



"Since the early 1980s, the Columbia Glacier has retreated more than 20 km and lost about half of its total volume. This one glacier accounts for nearly half of the ice lost in the Chugach Mountains," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"The changing climate is thought to have caused its retreat. Until 1980, when its rapid and constant retreat began, the glacier’s terminus was observed at the northern edge of Heather Island, which lies near the end of Columbia Bay, the inlet into which the glacier currently flows before draining into Prince William Sound."



ESA noted that this satellite image, captured in September of 2023, reveals a mostly ice-free Columbia Bay dotted with numerous icebergs and fragmented sea-ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-calving-events">Dramatic calving events</h2>



The Columbia Glacier is known for its dramatic calving events, where large chunks of ice break off from the glacier's terminus and fall into the sea, becoming icebergs.



This process has been particularly active as the glacier has retreated, contributing to hazards for shipping in Prince William Sound.



The glacier has been the focus of extensive scientific research, serving as a case study for understanding the dynamics of tidewater glaciers and their responses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-ocean-acidification-a-silent-killer-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Studies have used satellite imagery, field observations, and modeling to track its changes over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-impacts-on-the-columbia-glacier">Climate impacts on the Columbia Glacier</h2>



"Columbia is just one of the many glaciers suffering from the effects of climate change. Most of the glaciers around the world are losing mass," said ESA.



"However, before the advent of satellites, measuring their retreat and studying their vulnerability to climate change was difficult considering their size, remoteness and rugged terrain they occupy."



Now, noted ESA, different satellite instruments are available to gather information systematically and over large areas, providing an effective means to monitor change, keep track of all calving stages, and quantify the melting rate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-columbia-s-retreat-nbsp">Climate change and Columbia's retreat&nbsp;</h2>



Columbia Glacier flows from the Chugach Mountains into Columbia Bay. It was once one of the largest contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cost-coastal-cities-over-1-trillion-in-damages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a> due to its significant ice loss.&nbsp;



The glacier's dynamics are influenced by its interaction with water, where the terminus meets the ocean. As the glacier flows into the sea, large chunks of ice calve off the front, leading to dramatic scenes of ice crashing into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shelf-sediment-ocean-composition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>. 



This process has been intensifying due to warmer temperatures and changes in water circulation, which undermine the ice from below.



Columbia Glacier's retreat has significant implications for marine navigation and local ecosystems. The increase in icebergs calving into the bay poses hazards to ships, while the fresh meltwater impacts local water temperatures and salinity, affecting the habitat of fish and other marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-in-a-warming-climate">Melting glaciers in a warming climate </h2>



Glaciers, which are large masses of accumulated snow and ice, store about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. As the climate warms, these glaciers increasingly melt and release freshwater into nearby seas and the ocean at large.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influx-of-freshwater">Influx of freshwater</h3>



The influx of freshwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting glaciers</a> alters the salinity (salt concentration) of the ocean water. Since freshwater is less dense than saltwater, its addition can lead to stratification in which lighter, less salty water layers on top of denser, saltier water.&nbsp;



Stratification can disrupt ocean currents, which are driven in part by differences in water density and temperature. These currents are crucial for regulating global climate by distributing heat and nutrients around the planet.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-salinity-nbsp">Changes in salinity&nbsp;</h3>



Furthermore, changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-induced-changes-in-ocean-salinity-threaten-biodiversity-and-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salinity</a> can affect marine life, which often has narrow salinity tolerance ranges. For example, shifts in salinity can impact breeding cycles, migration patterns, and the availability of nutrients.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-carbon-cycle">Global carbon cycle</h3>



As the ocean's composition changes, its capacity to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere could also be altered, affecting the global carbon cycle and, by extension, climate change feedback mechanisms.



The melting of glaciers contributes to more pronounced changes in ocean conditions, impacting everything from global climate systems to local ecosystems in marine environments.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Columbia Glacier on the south coast of Alaska

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features Ksudach, a remarkable volcanic complex located on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula.



“The peninsula is one of the world’s most active volcanic arcs due to tectonic plate movement, with the Pacific Plate subducting under the Eurasian Plate,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153779/ksudachs-nested-calderas-and-craters" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-eruptions-of-ksudach">Explosive eruptions of Ksudach</h2>



Ksudach is classified as a shield <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-helps-scientists-forecast-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> due to the gentle slopes formed by its extensive lava flows. The combination of its shield-like structure and the prominent caldera system makes Ksudach a unique volcanic feature on the Kamchatka Peninsula.



“Several overlapping calderas and craters comprise the volcano. Calderas are large, bowl-shaped depressions created by the collapse of overlying material into an emptied subsurface magma chamber,” explained NASA.



“Craters are circular depressions created by volcanic activity, surface impacts, or explosions.”



This volcanic system has a fascinating geological history shaped by multiple explosive eruptions.&nbsp;



The most significant of these occurred around 240 AD, leaving behind a prominent caldera that now hosts scenic crater lakes, such as Lake Ksudach. 



“Lakes within the volcanic region are primarily recharged by rain and snowmelt from the winter season. This photo shows the water’s contrasting blue hues surrounded by green vegetation,” noted NASA.



“Traces of snow fill valleys within and outside the volcano’s caldera complex. These snow-covered areas highlight the drainage patterns from higher to lower elevations. Water that flows through these erosional pathways and into the caldera supports its vegetation and lakes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-landscape-of-ksudach-nbsp">Unique landscape of Ksudach&nbsp;</h2>



Ksudach's landscape also features pyroclastic deposits, lava flows, and hydrothermal features like fumaroles.&nbsp;



The surrounding environment - which is part of the UNESCO-listed Kamchatka Volcanoes - supports a diverse ecosystem with unique wildlife. 



Despite its remote location, Ksudach has drawn the attention of geologists, offering insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underwater-volcanic-eruptions-are-more-harmful-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic processes</a> and the dynamics of caldera formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-nature-of-earth-s-geology-nbsp">Dynamic nature of Earth's geology&nbsp;</h2>



The most well-documented eruption of Ksudach occurred in March 1907. This eruption ranks as one of the largest in Kamchatka in the 20th century, with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 5.



The eruption produced a colossal ash column that soared into the stratosphere, dispersing fine particles over vast distances and contributing to global atmospheric changes.&nbsp;



The sheer force of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/icelands-volcanic-eruptions-may-continue-for-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eruption</a> unleashed pyroclastic flows - fast-moving avalanches of hot gas, ash, and volcanic debris - that raced down the volcano's slopes, obliterating everything in their path.&nbsp;



These flows, capable of reaching temperatures over 1,000°C, decimated vegetation and altered the topography of the surrounding region.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, tephra deposits blanketed the landscape in layers of thick volcanic material, smothering ecosystems and creating a barren wasteland.&nbsp;



Today, Ksudach is considered an active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano</a> but remains dormant. The region is closely monitored due to its potential for renewed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-ring-of-fire-nbsp">Pacific Ring of Fire&nbsp;</h2>



The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean where tectonic activity is highly concentrated.&nbsp;



This geologically dynamic area features numerous volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, and frequent seismic activity - making it a hotspot for both natural beauty and scientific study. 



Kamchatka is home to over 160 volcanoes, with about 30 considered active, including Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest and one of the most active in the region.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



As the Pacific Plate dives into the Earth's mantle, it melts and generates magma that feeds Kamchatka’s volcanic systems.&nbsp;



This ongoing tectonic interaction also contributes to the broader activity of the Pacific Ring of Fire, which accounts for approximately 75% of the world's active and dormant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-shows-signs-of-waking-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanoes</a> and about 90% of its earthquakes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-significance-nbsp">Broader significance&nbsp;</h3>



Beyond its geological significance, the Kamchatka Peninsula boasts a diverse ecosystem that is home to animals such as snow sheep, brown bears, red foxes, and unique plants that are adapted to its harsh environment. 



The coastal waters surrounding the peninsula support various fish species, including abundant salmon, as well as sea lions and killer whales.



The interplay of volcanic landscapes and pristine wilderness makes it a natural laboratory for understanding Earth's dynamic processes.



The image was captured by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Ksudach: A volcano shaped by explosive forces

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a blanket of dust over the Tarim Basin - a vast, arid region in northwestern China. 



Mountain peaks are visible through a break in the dust. These peaks are part of Tekilik Shan, a subrange of the Kunlun Mountains.



Though not as widely known as some other mountain ranges in the area, Tekilik Shan plays a significant role in shaping local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> patterns and geography.



Its snow-covered peaks can rise above 13,000 feet, contributing to the dramatic elevation differences that define the basin’s borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-storms-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Dust storms in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



Spring marks the height of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sahara-desert-dust-storms-carry-harmful-bacteria-and-fungi-around-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dust storm</a> activity in the Tarim Basin, particularly in its southern region.&nbsp;



“It’s a time of year when regional wind patterns shift in ways that cause winds and storm systems to sweep in from the northwest,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154126/a-curtain-of-dust-over-the-tarim-basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



“In early spring, when landscapes in this region are especially dry and have minimal vegetation, land surfaces warm rapidly under the Sun’s heat every morning, fueling convection that can help loft dust upward by the afternoon.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fingerlike-dust-formations-nbsp">Fingerlike dust formations&nbsp;</h2>



Satellite images revealed dust formations with fingerlike shapes that mirrored the landscape below. These projections aligned with valleys, which channeled and directed the airborne dust.&nbsp;



Ralph Kahn is an atmospheric scientist at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and scientist emeritus at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.



According to Kahn, the dust may have been “self-lofting.” In this process, sunlight heats recently stirred-up surface dust, creating pockets of convection that lift it even higher into the air.



This interpretation is supported by hourly observations from Japan’s Himawari-9 geostationary satellite, which showed dust gradually rising into the Tekilik Shan throughout the day. By late afternoon, the storm had grown dense enough to obscure the mountains.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-atmospheric-dust">Decline in atmospheric dust</h2>



Long-term satellite data from MODIS suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-in-the-gulf-of-alaska-help-shape-the-global-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric dust</a> levels in this region have declined by about 1.5 percent each year since the early 2000s.&nbsp;



NASA researcher Hongbin Yu attributes this trend mainly to springtime changes - such as altered wind speeds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil moisture</a>, or vegetation cover - rather than shifts in other seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-in-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Rainfall in the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



“The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Takla-Makan-Desert" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Takla Makan Desert</a> is one of the driest, most barren expanses on Earth. Flanked by mountain ranges on three sides and parched by the resulting <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Rain_shadow" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rain shadow</a>, parts of the Tarim Basin receive no more than 10 millimeters (0.4 inches) of rain per year,” noted NASA.



“Dust storms can lead to public health problems in populated areas downwind by transporting small particles, bacteria, and viruses that infiltrate human respiratory systems.”&nbsp;



NASA added that dust storms can also affect Earth’s climate by scattering and absorbing incoming solar radiation and changing the properties of clouds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landscape-of-the-tarim-basin-nbsp">Landscape of the Tarim Basin&nbsp;</h2>



The Tarim Basin is one of the largest endorheic basins in the world, meaning that its rivers do not drain into the sea but instead flow into interior lakes or evaporate.&nbsp;



The basin is encircled by three mountain ranges: the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the Pamirs to the west. These ranges create a powerful rain shadow effect, making the region exceptionally dry.



At the heart of the Tarim Basin lies the Taklamakan Desert, one of the most extreme deserts on Earth. The desert is known for its high dunes, intense temperature swings, and minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-will-wreak-havoc-on-mountain-ranges-as-warming-climate-turns-snow-to-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-and-geology">History and geology</h2>



Despite its harsh environment, the basin has been historically significant. It was a key section of the ancient Silk Road, with several oases such as Kashgar, Khotan, and Loulan serving as vital trading and cultural centers for centuries.



Geologically, the basin is rich in natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, and has become a focal point for China's energy exploration and development.&nbsp;



The region’s challenging climate and remote location, however, make infrastructure development and human habitation difficult.&nbsp;



The image was captured on March 27, 2025 by the Operational Land Imager instrument on Landsat 8.



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Blanket of dust covers China’s Tarim Basin

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras. From iconic selfies to being spotted from space, its activities have been well-documented over the years.



But something new happened on February 28, the 4,466th Martian day - or sol - of its mission. Curiosity was caught mid-drive, possibly for the first time, by one of NASA’s Mars orbiters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-glimpse-of-curiosity">A rare glimpse of Curiosity </h2>



The <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">image</a> was taken by the HiRISE (High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment) camera, which is aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> operate this camera, which offers a sharp view of the Martian surface. In the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photo</a>, Curiosity appears as a small, dark speck at the front of a long trail of tracks stretched across the Red Planet.



The tracks cover about 1,050 feet (320 meters) and reflect roughly 11 drives that started on February 2, 2025. 



During these moves, Curiosity crawled along at a top speed of just 0.1 mph (0.16 kph), making its way from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gediz Vallis</a> channel toward its next science destination: a region that may hold boxwork formations created by ancient groundwater billions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-curiosity-is-still-roaming-mars">Why Curiosity is still roaming Mars</h2>



Curiosity wasn’t just sent to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> to take pretty pictures. Its mission, which began with a dramatic landing in 2012, is all about asking a big question: Was Mars ever able to support small forms of life? 



To answer that, the rover has been exploring the ancient environments of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gale-crater-reveals-secrets-of-water-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gale Crater</a>, drilling into rocks, analyzing soil, and studying the planet’s climate and geology. 



Every discovery Curiosity makes helps build a clearer picture of what Mars was like, billions of years ago. Some of its biggest finds so far include evidence of ancient rivers, lakes, and the chemical ingredients necessary for life.



Even after more than a decade, Curiosity is still hard at work, pushing uphill to study higher and older layers of Martian history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-curiosity-s-journey">A closer look at Curiosity’s journey</h2>



Curiosity’s arrival at its next stop isn’t on a set timeline. Several factors can affect its progress, including how its navigation software handles the landscape and how steep the terrain becomes. 



Engineers at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California work hand-in-hand with scientists to plan each day’s drive carefully.



“By comparing the time HiRISE took the image to the rover’s commands for the day, we can see it was nearly done with a 69-foot (21-meter) drive,” said Doug Ellison, Curiosity’s planning team chief at JPL.



HiRISE is built for incredible detail. Most of its images are in black and white, with a strip of color down the center to boost spatial resolution. 



Although HiRISE has captured Curiosity in color in the past, this time the rover happened to fall inside the black-and-white section of the image.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracks-that-tell-a-story">Tracks that tell a story</h2>



In the latest image, Curiosity’s tracks stretch across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-beneath-mars-surface-reveal-possible-habitats-for-ancient-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a> and lead up to the base of a steep slope. 



Since the image was taken, the rover has successfully climbed that slope. If everything goes smoothly, Curiosity is expected to reach its new science site within the next month or so.



The trail it left behind could remain visible for months, unless Martian winds sweep the marks away. 



Every track, every footprint on Mars tells part of the story of a journey that's been unfolding for more than a decade - and is still going strong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-for-mars-exploration">What comes next for Mars exploration</h2>



Curiosity’s journey is just one piece of the bigger picture, a stepping stone in our long-term efforts to explore another world. 



NASA and other space agencies are already planning the next steps to explore Mars even further, using the lessons learned from past and current missions.



Missions like Perseverance are already collecting rock samples that could someday be brought back to Earth for detailed study.



Future plans include launching more helicopters, building complex sample return missions, and even sending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-can-survive-mars-space-journey-but-their-kidneys-will-be-permanently-damaged/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronauts</a> to the Red Planet in the 2030s - a goal that once seemed like pure science fiction.



Each discovery Curiosity makes helps shape and inspire these future missions. It reminds us that even the slow, careful drive of a lone rover can lay the groundwork for humanity’s bigger dreams beyond Earth.



Information for this article came from a <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-orbiter-spots-curiosity-rover-making-tracks-to-next-science-stop/">press release</a> by NASA's JPL.



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Curiosity rover captured in action for the first time

NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover has never been shy around cameras....

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the dramatically thick lips of several African cichlid species. These unique fish, found in lakes Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika, have puzzled researchers who seek to understand how and why such large lips evolved.



This fascination has led to fresh investigations by scientists comparing lip structures, tissue composition, and gene expression in these fish. 



The research effort is led by Dr. Nagatoshi Machii from the <a href="https://www.isct.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Institute of Technology</a>, whose group has examined microscopic details and molecular data to pinpoint what drives lip enlargement in certain cichlids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlid-lips-and-parallel-evolution">Cichlid lips and parallel evolution</h2>



Researchers have documented that cichlids across different lakes display similar traits, even though they are not closely related. Such repeated emergence of shared features is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/parallel-evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel evolution</a>, a process often fueled by environmental pressures.



“Parallel evolution is evidence of natural selection that drives adaptive solutions to the environment,” wrote Jonathan Losos, an evolutionary biologist based at Harvard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-as-natural-laboratories">Lakes as natural laboratories</h2>



The isolated ecosystems of Lake Victoria, Malawi, and Tanganyika act like nature’s own research stations. Each lake evolved its own line of cichlid species, yet many developed the same traits independently - a perfect setup to study parallel evolution.



By comparing species across these lakes, scientists can spot patterns that might be missed in a single location. It’s a rare opportunity to test how evolution repeats itself under similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-stress-harms-the-brains-of-low-status-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a> but with different starting points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-lip-building-proteins">Unmasking the lip-building proteins</h2>



Detailed analyses indicate that thick cichlid lips contain a proteoglycan-rich layer (a structural element found in various tissues, including bone, cartilage, tendons, and skin, that play crucial roles in tissue organization, hydration, and mechanical properties) not seen in normal-lipped fish. 



Proteoglycans are large molecules with attached sugar chains, sometimes linked to extra water retention.



One study on cichlids with enlarged lips showed that certain proteins, including chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, were in high abundance. This composition may give these hefty lips their signature plumpness by increasing connective tissue volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lip-growth-starts-young">Lip growth starts young</h2>



The team found that differences in gene expression begin earlier than expected. Even in juvenile cichlids, before their lips fully thicken, the genes responsible for building extracellular matrix components are already more active in species that develop larger lips.



This suggests the groundwork for lip hypertrophy is laid early in life and then reinforced as the fish matures. The continuous expression of these genes throughout development points to a tightly regulated system that ensures these lip traits persist across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behind-oversized-cichlid-lips">Genes behind oversized cichlid lips</h2>



Scientists also noted changes in genes involved in the Wnt signaling network (a complex network of proteins that plays a critical role in how cells grow, divide, move, and develop. 



It’s especially important during embryonic development, but it also helps maintain and repair tissues in adults). This pathway influences a wide array of growth and developmental processes in many animals.



Some cichlids with oversized lips showed heightened expression of Wnt-related genes at both juvenile and adult stages. This suggests the pathway may stay active over time, nudging tissues to expand and accumulate more extracellular material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tissue-connection-mirrors-human-biology">Tissue connection mirrors human biology</h2>



Recent findings have drawn an unexpected link between the oversized lips of cichlids and conditions seen in humans. The same proteoglycans found in fish lips are also involved in human skin disorders like <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/keloid-scar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">keloids</a>, where excess connective tissue causes raised, fibrous scars.



In both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> and humans, these molecules seem to attract and hold large amounts of water, helping tissues expand. Researchers believe that understanding how these proteins behave in cichlids may offer new insights into how connective tissues grow - or overgrow - in other animals, including us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-role-in-cichlid-feeding">Possible role in cichlid feeding</h2>



Biologists have long debated the ecological benefits of bulky lips. Past <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8025722/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests these lips might help fish probe rocky crevices or minimize tissue damage as they forage.&nbsp;



Another line of research hints that extra lip surface could boost contact with environmental cues. This might aid in locating prey, which would be especially useful in the maze-like habitats of the African Great Lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-not-all-cichlids-have-big-lips">Why not all cichlids have big lips</h2>



Despite the shared environments of the East African Great Lakes, not every cichlid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> ends up with hypertrophied lips. That’s because this trait appears to be polygenic, meaning it depends on many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-fix-faulty-genes-before-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> working together - each with a small influence.



Environmental pressures like foraging style or diet likely interact with genetic tendencies. In species where the benefit of thick lips isn’t strong enough, the genes driving lip growth may remain quiet or develop differently, even if the molecular tools are present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Genetic studies have pinpointed multiple points in the cichlid genome that may influence lip thickness. Each locus seemingly offers a small push toward fuller lips, forming a broad and complex mechanism for the trait.&nbsp;



Investigations into parallels between enlarged fish lips and certain human connective tissue conditions have also started. Some scientists hope comparisons might clarify how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collagen</a> and other structural molecules work in different organisms over many generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/99160" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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The molecular secret behind the giant lips of African cichlids

Over the years, aquarists and biologists have marveled at the...

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history, is officially 35 years old.



To mark the milestone, NASA has released a fresh gallery of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasa-celebrates-hubbles-35th-year-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> spanning our solar system and well beyond - from Mars’s ruddy surface to star-forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and a neighboring galaxy.



The new portraits serve not only as a birthday gift to the public, but also as a vivid reminder of how profoundly Hubble has transformed modern astronomy and popular culture alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-hubble-s-blurry-beginnings">Fixing Hubble’s blurry beginnings</h2>



On April 24, 1990, the space shuttle Discovery roared into the sky with Hubble folded inside its cargo bay. A <a href="http://NASA.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> commentator called the telescope "a new window on the universe," raising expectations sky-high.



Yet jubilation faded fast when engineers found a tiny mirror flaw that made early images frustratingly blurry.



The rescue came in December 1993, when astronauts performed the first of five intricate servicing missions. They installed corrective optics - an optical “contact lens” - and upgraded Hubble’s cameras and electronics. The successful fix restored the telescope’s vision and set the stage for three decades of breakthrough science.



“Hubble opened a new window to the universe when it launched 35 years ago,” said Shawn Domagal-Goldman, acting director of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysics Division</a> at NASA Headquarters. “Its stunning imagery inspired people across the globe, and the data behind those images revealed surprises about everything from early galaxies to planets in our own solar system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-observatory-that-keeps-giving">An observatory that keeps giving</h2>



Since that turning point, Hubble has recorded nearly 1.7 million observations of roughly 55,000 celestial targets. 



Those data have generated more than 22,000 peer-reviewed papers, amassing over 1.3 million citations - figures that make Hubble the most scientifically productive telescope ever built. All its raw images and spectra, totaling more than 400 terabytes, are publicly archived, fueling new discoveries every year.



The mission’s longevity lets astronomers revisit cosmic scenes and track their evolution in near-real time. 



Hubble has tracked the seasonal shifts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> and Saturn, watched supernova remnants balloon outward, chronicled bright knots in active galactic nuclei, and even captured the afterglow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/">asteroid collisions</a>. 



Each long-baseline study illuminates processes that once seemed too slow to witness within a single human career.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hubble-redefined-the-cosmos">How Hubble redefined the cosmos</h2>



Before Hubble, ground-based observatories peering through Earth’s turbulent atmosphere could see only halfway across the visible universe. 



Estimates of cosmic age oscillated wildly, and astronomers could only speculate about whether every galaxy harbored a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>. The existence of planets around other stars was still unconfirmed.



Hubble rewrote those narratives. Its legendary Deep Field images unveiled a staggering population of faint, ancient galaxies stretching back more than 13 billion years. 



By tracking Cepheid variable stars and Type Ia supernovae, the telescope pinned down the rate of cosmic expansion. It helped expose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, a discovery that later earned the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.



Hubble also furnished the first measurements of exoplanet atmospheres and demonstrated that supermassive black holes lurk in the cores of most large galaxies. The telescope’s wide-ranging achievements inspired a wave of next-generation observatories, including the infrared-optimized James Webb Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-made-hubble-unstoppable">Engineering made Hubble unstoppable</h2>



Part of Hubble’s success stems from its design as a serviceable spacecraft. 



Between 1993 and 2009, five shuttle crews rendezvoused with the 24,000-pound telescope to swap out gyroscopes, batteries, and scientific instruments. These cosmic pit stops transformed Hubble into a nimble, ever-improving workhorse.



“The fact that it is still operating today is a testament to the value of our flagship observatories, and provides critical lessons for the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, which we plan to be serviceable in the spirit of Hubble,” Domagal-Goldman noted.



While the final shuttle mission in 2009 left Hubble in excellent health, engineers have spent the past decade developing innovative software patches. They also created remote troubleshooting techniques to counter aging hardware.



As a result, the Hubble telescope remains fully operational. It partners with Webb to study exoplanet atmospheres and map the formation of distant galaxy clusters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cultural-icon">A cultural icon</h2>



Beyond its scientific cachet, Hubble has captured the public imagination. Its images - Pillars of Creation, the Eagle Nebula, the Horsehead, the Sombrero Galaxy - decorate classrooms, inspire artists, and headline documentaries.



Hubble’s visual output demystifies astrophysics, turning arcane data into vibrant landscapes that convey both beauty and scale. The telescope’s success has shown that deep-space exploration is not just for scientists, but for everyone who gazes upward in wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-telescope-built-on-hubble-s-lessons">New telescope built on Hubble’s lessons</h2>



Hubble’s torch will eventually pass to the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO), NASA’s proposed successor for the 2040s. 



With a mirror much larger than Hubble’s and capabilities in the ultraviolet and visible bands, HWO aims to be up to 100 times more sensitive to starlight.



A key mission goal is finding Earth-size planets in habitable zones and detecting possible signs of life in their atmospheres. Engineers plan to make HWO serviceable, drawing directly on the lessons learned from three decades of keeping Hubble alive and thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-s-still-growing">A legacy that's still growing</h2>



For now, Hubble continues its pioneering journey, orbiting Earth every 97 minutes at an altitude of about 330 miles. Each day it scans the space, adding new data to its towering archive and offering humanity fresh vistas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star birth</a>, galaxy collisions, and planetary weather.



From its rocky start to its current stardom, Hubble’s 35-year run epitomizes ingenuity, perseverance, and curiosity - the very traits that fuel all great explorations. 



NASA’s newest image release is both a birthday card and a reminder: somewhere high above, an aging yet agile Hubble telescope still opens that “new window on the universe,” inviting us to peer through and dream.



Image Credit: NASA/ Hubble Heritage Team



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35 years of Hubble: The telescope that changed our view of the universe

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history,...

Some ancient periods in Earth's history challenge our assumptions about what our planet can endure. The earliest global glaciation event of the Neoproterozoic Era, known as the Sturtian glaciation, lasted 56 million years and turned the planet into a "snowball" all the way to the equator. 



A second snowball glaciation, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1342937X23003210" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marinoan glaciation</a> has been more difficult to pin down in terms of duration and extent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-global-glaciation">Evidence of global glaciation </h2>



In 2025, a research team led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=K1m-rEMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Adrian R. Tasistro-Hart</a> from the Department of Earth and Planetary Science, McCone Hall, at the University of California, presented findings that link the structure of certain rock layers to this second massive chill in the Neoproterozoic Era. 



The study provided direct dating evidence of this widespread freeze, and helped tackle a puzzle that has long intrigued geologists.



Clues from rock formations in Namibia, southwestern Africa, suggested that long-lasting sheets of ice reached these areas that were previously thought to have been spared. This enabled the researchers to date the onset and duration of the Marinoan glaciation event. 



The field data suggested an unexpected stability in the frozen surface that lasted around 4 million years. This raises questions about how life managed to persist during these extreme times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-about-a-frozen-earth">Clues about a frozen Earth</h2>



Scientists have spent decades studying ancient sediments to understand the causes behind major planetary cool-downs. Some layers reflect glacial activity in places as distant as southwestern Africa, with rugged terrain that extends for about 11 miles (18 kilometers) in certain study zones.



Evidence from drone imagery and core samples in this area hints at ice piles that never budged even when orbital changes caused the usual shifts in climate. This pattern suggests a stability in conditions that leaves researchers wondering why none of the typical fluctuations were recorded.



Such steadiness separates this period from shorter glacial intervals that were seen in more recent times. It also indicates that small differences in volcanic activity might lead to dramatic changes in how our planet traps or reflects heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-caused-the-global-glaciation-event">What caused the global glaciation event?</h2>



Earth radiates much of the Sun's energy back out into space under normal circumstances. Sometimes, volcanic activity can produce clouds of gas and dust that increase albedo (the proportion of solar radiation that is reflected) and block incoming solar radiation. 



This would have cooled the Earth and potentially triggered a run-away glaciation event. As more ice formed and began to cover not just polar regions, the incoming solar radiation was likely insufficient to counteract the reflective nature of this white covering, which led to the Earth's becoming locked in a long cycle of freezing temperatures. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tipping-point-in-the-atmosphere">A tipping point in the atmosphere</h2>



Volcanoes kept pumping CO2 into the atmosphere, but the thick ice would have hampered normal silicate weathering. This is a chemical reaction in which rainwater - slightly acidic from the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide - interacts with silicate minerals in rocks and helps remove CO2 from the atmosphere to be stored in the ocean. 



By slowing this process, the removal of CO2 was reduced and the levels of this greenhouse gas gradually increased. A buildup of CO2 in the air eventually led to global warming which caused surface temperatures to rise, though it took a huge concentration to break free from the extended freeze. 



<a href="https://www.scirp.org/reference/referencespapers?referenceid=1945298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> suspect that minor factors, like the dustiness of the ice sheets, could have accelerated the meltdown by decreasing reflectivity.&nbsp;



This shift challenges typical models that focus on gradual geological changes over shorter spans. The planet may have lingered in an icy standstill until the atmosphere reached a tipping point, which set off a dramatic thaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-found-in-rock-and-volcanic-ash">Patterns found in rock and volcanic ash </h2>



The researchers chose to study an area in Namibia where sediments provide a rare record of snowball onset during the Marinoan glaciation. Drone mapping revealed sedimentary layers stacked in ways that show minimal vertical shifts. 



The contact points between distinct rock beds appear consistent, implying that grounded ice stayed in place during the Marinoan glaciation for ages.



No large scouring marks or abrupt breaks were identified, and that silence in the record indicates subdued glacial motion. Researchers interpreted one zone of minimal erosion to mean the grounding line never bounced around, which is rare in studies of prolonged ice coverage.



Patterns in buried volcanic ash lend further clues. A single layer might become entombed, signifying calm accumulation rather than the usual push and pull of warmer spells. 



Isotopic dating of the ash layers in various locations indicated that the Marinoan glaciation onset began 639 million years ago and lasted around 4 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-life-survive-global-glaciation">How did life survive global glaciation?</h2>



A global freeze of that scale raises questions about how organisms survived beneath thick ice. Anaerobic communities could have lived off chemical nutrients, but others may have endured near cracks or in sheltered marine pockets.



Researchers debate whether oxygen levels dropped enough to challenge more complex life forms. The resilience of certain species appears remarkable, given the extreme conditions that blocked sunlight and isolated habitats.



An abrupt rebound in temperatures could have triggered bursts of evolution, setting the stage for <a href="https://science.org/doi/10.1126/science.281.5381.1342" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran ecosystems</a> to emerge. Scientists continue to explore how these expansions followed such a prolonged ice event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-refuge-beneath-the-ice">A refuge beneath the ice</h2>



Some scientists believe that pockets of liquid water beneath the ice provided refuge for early life. These subglacial ecosystems could have been sustained by geothermal heat, allowing microbial life to persist even in the absence of sunlight.



Chemical nutrients released by hydrothermal vents or rock-water interactions may have fed these organisms, setting the stage for survival during global freezes. Once the ice retreated, these life forms could have re-emerged and diversified rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-to-other-worlds">Looking to other worlds</h2>



Researchers mention that findings like these expand discussions about habitability on exoplanets that are locked in ice. If a planet undergoes a global glaciation, the accumulation of greenhouse gases might eventually spark an intense thaw.



That thaw could reshape its atmosphere and allow liquid water, paving the way for more complex chemistry. Another planet might remain stuck in an icy state if certain tipping points are never reached.



“The disparity in durations [between the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations] demonstrates different routes to deglaciation,” said Tasistro-Hart. 



The researchers noted that every icy scenario can have its own exit strategy. This study offers a fresh perspective on the dynamic relationship between geology and climate. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418281122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science</a>.



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Frozen Earth: Global glaciation event lasted 4 million years

Some ancient periods in Earth's history challenge our assumptions about...

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in reports of the alpha-gal food allergy, which is linked to bites by certain ticks. The number of confirmed cases jumped from just 24 in 2009 to more than 34,000 in 2019.



“Red meat allergy caused by tick bites might be increasing in association with fragmented habitats,” noted Dr. Brandon D. Hollingsworth, from <a href="https://www.unchealth.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Health</a>, who was lead lead author of a new study in the mid-Atlantic region. 



Dr. Hollingsworth has explored how environmental features might be tied to these tick-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-allergy-season-worse-and-longer-lasting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-and-red-meat-allergies">Tick bites and red meat allergies</h2>



Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS) affects people who have developed a specific immune response triggered by substances present in tick saliva. After being bitten, they react negatively to certain sugars in mammalian meat, and develop symptoms that include hives, stomach distress, and sometimes serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-may-help-reduce-peanut-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.



Health specialists have noted that neurotoxins and other biological cues in tick saliva may help these creatures to latch onto humans, increasing exposure for people in areas where wildlife and urban zones overlap.



Those who live near forest edges, or in suburban spots with scattered trees, may be at higher risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broken-forests-and-suburban-lawns">Broken forests and suburban lawns</h2>



Fragmented lands often bring deer, raccoons, and other tick-carrying animals into contact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oak-trees-show-that-allergy-season-is-becoming-longer-and-more-intense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> communities. Large lawns that border wooded patches create a patchwork of grass and trees, which many ticks seem to favor.



Recent investigations found that open space development and low-intensity construction might be associated with more tick bites.



Arachnologist field surveys have shown that some of the densest populations of the tick <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8352541/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amblyomma americanum</a> occur where small forests and developed lots meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-coastlines-to-mountains">From coastlines to mountains</h2>



Scientists who mapped the distribution of alpha-gal syndrome in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia observed a general shift in case frequency from coastal plains to mountainous zones. 



Some analyses showed patchy spots in coastal lands, but the highest likelihood of cases was often in places with low-density sprawl.



Low-density suburban settings offer enough shade, leaf litter, and wild animal life to allow ticks to flourish. Even properties with scattered white-tailed deer traffic may give these ticks the chance to drop off and find new hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-awareness">Lack of awareness </h2>



Diagnosing <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/alpha-gal-syndrome/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpha-gal syndrome</a> isn't easy. Unlike most food allergies, symptoms don’t appear right after eating. They can take 3 to 6 hours to show up, which makes it hard for people to connect their symptoms to something they ate.



Even worse, most doctors still aren’t familiar with the condition. A 2023 CDC <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7230a1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> found that 77% of U.S. healthcare providers were either unaware of AGS or unsure how to diagnose it. 



Without proper testing and awareness, thousands of people may go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, often enduring months of unexplained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-peanut-consumption-could-prevent-100000-allergy-cases-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symptoms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-from-tick-borne-meat-allergies">Protection from tick-borne meat allergies</h2>



Reports of alpha-gal syndrome could keep rising if habitat changes continue and warmer temperatures <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0150180" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extend</a> the active season for ticks. Simple habits, such as using insect repellents, wearing light-colored clothing, and promptly checking for ticks after yard work can reduce exposure risks.



Healthcare professionals also suggest that individuals track any reactions linked to beef, pork, or other red meats. 



Test positivity rates in certain regions have approached 30% of screened patients, which means vigilance is important for anyone experiencing odd, food-related issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-can-spark-lifelong-allergies">Tick bites can spark lifelong allergies</h2>



“We found evidence that suggests repeated tick bites can set off the allergic response,” wrote Gary Crispell, who studied tick-induced IgE patterns in North American patients. Surprisingly, a single tick bite is sometimes enough to spark alpha-gal sensitivity in certain people.&nbsp;



Although this condition can affect day-to-day life for some, awareness among doctors and patients is still catching up. 



Early and correct diagnosis can help steer people away from foods that might trigger severe meat allergy events, leading to more confident meal choices and fewer unwelcome surprises after sitting at the dinner table.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-and-future-research-directions">Limitations and future research directions </h2>



One of the main limitations in current research is that tick exposure is estimated based on where a person lives, not on the location where they were actually bitten. Many people spend time in parks, on trails, or visiting family in different areas, so the models can't pinpoint exact exposure sites.



Researchers also noted that wealthier individuals in suburban areas might be more likely to seek medical help and testing, which could also skew case data. 



To improve accuracy, future studies may need to incorporate patient travel histories and broader seroprevalence surveys across different income and age groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-influential-factors">Recognizing the influential factors</h2>



Many counties across the mid-Atlantic are adding public health alerts to help folks recognize the signs of alpha-gal syndrome. 



Researchers have expressed hope that timely recognition of these habitat factors will lead to targeted education, so that fewer individuals end up with frustrating or even dangerous allergic reactions.



Some people worry that fewer forest corridors might mean fewer ticks, but partial deforestation and selective development sometimes backfire by providing more edges for tick proliferation. 



Land planners aiming to reduce tick-human contact may need to balance green space with better pest-management practices.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000528" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Tick bites can trigger lifelong red meat allergies

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in...

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to communicate. Thankfully, we can understand a person's intention from their gaze with just a look. Long before the first spoken word, our ancestors navigated danger, formed bonds, and shared meaning through glances and gestures. 



Among these silent exchanges, eye contact holds a unique power. A single look can connect minds, signal warning, or offer comfort. But how much can we really know from someone’s gaze?



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> brings science closer to answering this age-old question. The findings suggest that intentional eye movements - those chosen freely by a person - send out subtle signals that others can sense and interpret rapidly.



These tiny, often imperceptible differences <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-affection-shapes-a-childs-personality-into-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence</a> how quickly we respond to what someone else is looking at. In a world that often relies on words, this study reminds us that silence can still speak volumes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-read-intent-through-eyes">We read intent through eyes</h2>



In human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, silence could mean survival. Making a sound might have alerted predators, but eyes offered a way to share information without speaking. As groups grew more complex, humans became increasingly skilled at reading facial cues, especially those from the eyes.



“Humans have a long history of living in complex groups and social situations. It has been theorized that this has led our brains to develop a heightened ability to focus on social cues from faces, and especially from eyes,” said Jelena Ristic, a professor in McGill’s psychology department.



“It’s a system that has evolved to support very quick exchanges of complex social information.”



This insight ties into something we experience every day. Whether in conversation, walking down a street, or sitting in a room, our eyes constantly seek out the gaze of others to determine their intention. 



We look where they look. We try to see what they see. And even infants - just months old - follow the gaze of their caregivers.



“Gaze-following is thought to provide a foundation for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social development</a> and behavior. It helps us to understand what others are thinking, looking or wanting, as well as to connect with them mentally, so we follow where others are looking quickly and spontaneously. Even young human infants and primates do it,” said Ristic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-eye-movements">Different eye movements</h2>



To better understand how gaze reveals intention, researchers at McGill created a unique experimental setup. Participants viewed videos where people looked either to the left or right. 



In some clips, the on-screen individuals decided for themselves where to look. In others, they were directed by a computer. The twist? Observers didn’t know whether the gaze was chosen or instructed.



Videos paused just before the eye movement began. Participants were then asked to guess the direction the person would look next. 



What the researchers found was compelling: when the gaze was self-chosen, participants responded faster - even if their guesses weren’t always more accurate. This suggests that people subconsciously picked up on something in the eyes before the gaze shift occurred.



This phenomenon became the focus of three detailed experiments led by Florence Mayrand, Sarah D. McCrackin, and Jelena Ristic. The results confirm that we are quicker to respond when we sense the intention behind a glance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-react-faster-to-an-intentional-gaze">We react faster to an intentional gaze</h2>



The first experiment measured how fast participants could predict gaze direction. In the second and third experiments, the researchers explored whether the gaze also affected how quickly people responded to targets appearing in the gazed-at direction. 



The answer was yes - targets that matched the direction of an intentional gaze prompted faster responses. Importantly, this was not just about where the eyes moved. It was about how they moved. 



A detailed analysis using optical flow techniques revealed more subtle motion in the eye region when the gaze was intentional. These small changes, although nearly invisible to the naked eye, were enough to affect how people responded.



“The speed of the observers’ responses suggests that they implicitly recognize and respond more quickly to intentional eye movements. It also told us how sensitive we are to information about the mental state and intentions conveyed by the eyes,” Mayrand explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-seeing-intention-through-gaze">Science of seeing intention through gaze</h2>



This sensitivity doesn’t seem to stem from deliberate thought. Instead, it appears automatic - something wired into our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-type-can-accurately-predict-your-relationship-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>. Experiment 1 showed that people respond faster to intentional looks even before any visible shift occurs. 



This supports the theory that mental state information is conveyed through the eyes, and that others pick up on it before movement is complete. Subsequent experiments explored the timing of gaze-related cues.



In Experiment 3, the researchers varied the delay between the moment the eyes moved and when the target appeared. They found that the effect of intentional gaze was strongest when participants had time to process the cue - suggesting that even subtle signals need a short moment to influence behavior.



Interestingly, while directionality affected how quickly people noticed targets, it did not significantly interact with the perception of intent. This indicates that the brain may process where someone is looking and why they are looking there using different systems, possibly in parallel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-eye-motions-speak-volumes">Tiny eye motions speak volumes</h2>



In their analysis, the researchers measured the motion around the eyes in self-chosen versus instructed trials. They found that even before the actual gaze shift, intentional eye movements created slightly more motion in the eye region.



These micro-movements may be the signals that observers unknowingly detect and respond to. This motion pattern is so subtle that it’s not consciously visible, yet it still changes behavior. 



The study used Optical Flow Analysis to measure these movements, offering a new method for understanding how gaze communicates mental states. The results open up possibilities for future research using high-speed eye tracking or neuroimaging to examine this phenomenon more closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-shapes-how-we-connect">Gaze shapes how we connect</h2>



The findings have broader relevance. In real life, we often make quick judgments based on a look. These split-second decisions might be influenced by motion cues we don’t even realize we’re seeing. 



This also explains why some people appear more expressive than others - even when they don’t speak. The research team now hopes to explore how these cues function across different populations.



Can people with autism or ADHD pick up on the same signals? How do different gazer identities influence observer response? And does gender affect the perception of intention?



In future studies, researchers aim to test more diverse gazers and contexts. They may examine how intention detection works in natural settings, such as live conversations or social environments. They also plan to investigate how auditory cues or timing instructions affect our ability to recognize intentions behind a person's gaze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-as-messengers-of-the-mind">Eyes as messengers of the mind</h2>



This study confirms what poets, artists, and parents have known for centuries: our eyes carry meaning far beyond sight. The research shows that even the smallest eye movement can transmit intent, emotion, and attention. 



What’s new is the scientific understanding of how, when, and why that happens. At its core, this work redefines what it means to “see” someone. 



A look is never just a look - it’s a signal. And now, thanks to this research, we know that signal is not only visible but measurable. In a noisy world, the quiet power of a glance still speaks the loudest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44271-024-00137-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Psychology</a>.



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Gaze and intention: The unspoken language of survival

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to...

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These tiny helpers are often smaller than a grain of pollen, yet they promise many possibilities that could address specific medical needs or environmental challenges.



Janus particles are nano- or micro-sized materials that have distinctly different properties on the opposite sides of each particle. 



The particles can carry out more than one function at the same time. This special property, which is related to their asymmetry, makes them candidates for smart tasks, such as moving substances around in specific ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-janus-particles-caught-attention">Why Janus particles caught attention</h2>



A couple of decades ago, a Penn State team developed <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.4c05076" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phoretic Janus particles</a>, which are small structures covered by two different chemical surfaces. One side can push fluid away, while the other side does the opposite.



Scientists consider these particles interesting because they can power themselves using simple fuels. This feature allows them to swim along microscopic pathways, carry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>, and respond to signals like changes in acidity



“A major problem with designing anything that moves, both large and small, is how its motion is altered when placed in a confined environment,” said Stewart Mallory, assistant professor of chemistry and chemical engineering at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.



His team explored these concerns through theoretical and computational approaches, targeting ways to manage and harness particle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a> when space is restricted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-janus-particles-for-smart-tasks">Controlling Janus particles for smart tasks</h2>



Single-file movement appears in microscopic and daily life situations. When particles line up without the option to pass, researchers call it <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.024118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single-file dynamics</a>.



For microscale designs, predicting how far these particles will travel over time becomes vital. Mallory’s group recently published a study, revealing a new way to handle this problem in tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a>.



The researchers aim to fine-tune the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> of these particles for various uses. By adjusting the chemical nature of the two surfaces, it becomes possible to control the direction, speed, and timing of their movements.



These tiny swimmers could someday move inside the body, delivering medication to specific spots. Another application involves targeting pollutants, such as unwanted plastics in water, by programming the particles to bind to those pollutants and carry them away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-need-to-predict-motion-precisely">Why we need to predict motion precisely</h2>



Microscale environments are unpredictable. Fluids behave differently, surfaces become obstacles, and minor changes can throw off expected behavior. If we want reliable machines the size of a cell, we need to account for every bit of delay, drift, or redirection.



That’s why the Penn State team focused so much on <a href="https://docs.mdanalysis.org/2.0.0/documentation_pages/analysis/msd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mean square displacement</a> - a measure of how far a particle tends to move over time.



The new formula factors in restrictions like narrow pathways and traffic-like build-ups, which helps engineers design devices that can meet medical or environmental deadlines without getting stuck or stalled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-behavior-of-janus-particles">Group behavior of Janus particles</h2>



Microscopic workers sometimes act together. This leads to <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.013118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective behavior</a>, a phenomenon where large groups of self-propelled particles produce effects that extend beyond individual motions.



Once these particles interact in confined environments, the crowded setting can slow them or change their patterns. 



Learning how Janus particles cluster under different conditions paves the way for practical applications such as localized treatment or smart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robot-buddies-encourage-children-to-stay-physical-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a> assembly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prospects-for-targeted-treatments">Prospects for targeted treatments</h2>



Some nanoparticles, made from materials like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562303/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calcium carbonate</a>, can respond to unique markers from diseased cells, allowing them to gather in the affected area. These tiny machines might deliver medication straight to cancer cells or other unhealthy tissue.



Fine control is crucial. Engineers need to predict how quickly the particles will reach their destinations, whether they will remain stable in the bloodstream, and how to stop them from clustering when unnecessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-janus-particles-for-material-building">Janus particles for material building</h2>



Mallory’s team also investigated how smaller building blocks might form more extensive structures on their own. Natural processes inspire this work, showing that self-assembly can arrange molecules into organized clusters.



If the right pieces are placed in a fluid with active particles, researchers think they can coax those pieces into forming patterns. This approach might save costs and time by letting the system organize itself, thus cutting down on human interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-models-and-future-paths">Computational models and future paths</h2>



Mallory and his colleagues developed complex simulations that focus on both single particles and swarms. The goal is to blend these methods so that the microscopic actions of each particle add up to a predictable whole.



These simulations matter because every change in environment affects how the particles swim or assemble. By building reliable models, the team hopes to create functioning micro-robots that can handle tasks ranging from medicine to pollution control.



Interest in these tiny movers is steadily growing. Scientists want to ensure their designs are safe, efficient, and precise before they are put to the test.



Some experts think these developments may transform how diseases are treated or how we deal with ecological threats. Every step in understanding single-file motion or boosting the abilities of Janus particles moves the field closer to helpful outcomes.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jcp/article-abstract/162/16/164902/3344885/Single-file-diffusion-of-active-Brownian-particles?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Chemical Physics</a>.



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Tiny particles may help cure disease and clean up pollution

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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He named the little guy Tank, he said, because he was a US soldier, and &#8220;that&#8217;s what he drives.&#8221; Everything was starting to make sense, but Anthony still had one more terrible truth to learn. Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Facebook

Military past

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