Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Butterfly Nebula, located about 3,400 light-years away in the constellation Scorpius.&nbsp;



It’s what astronomers call a planetary nebula - the brief phase when a dying star sheds its outer layers into space.



Despite the name, planetary nebulae have nothing to do with planets. Early astronomers thought these glowing shells looked round, like distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">worlds</a> seen through primitive telescopes.&nbsp;



The name stuck, even though many nebulae are anything but round. The Butterfly Nebula, with its outstretched “wings” of gas and dust, is a perfect example.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-a-hidden-heart">Butterfly with a hidden heart</h2>



At the center of this spectacular cloud lies the remnant of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-like-stars-release-massive-superflares-every-100-years/">Sun-like star</a>. It has burned through its fuel and shed most of its mass, leaving behind a blazing hot core.&nbsp;



The star energizes the nebula, making it glow across the spectrum. Yet until recently, the star itself remained hidden.



A dark band of dust and gas cuts through the nebula like the “body” of the butterfly. This band is actually a torus, a doughnut-shaped structure that blocks visible light.&nbsp;



The torus shapes the nebula by forcing gas outward in two opposite directions, creating the iconic bipolar wings. It also conceals the central star from optical view.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-telescope-brings-clarity">Webb telescope brings clarity</h2>



The <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> has now pierced the dust with its Mid-Infrared Instrument, offering the sharpest view yet of the nebula’s core. 



By working in “integral field unit mode,” Webb captured <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Webb/Webb_investigates_complex_heart_of_a_cosmic_butterfly" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> and spectra at multiple wavelengths simultaneously. The result is a detailed portrait of how the nebula looks in different slices of light.



The team also added data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array in Chile, which revealed colder gas and dust.&nbsp;



Together, these instruments exposed a structure of extraordinary complexity, with nearly 200 spectral lines tracing atoms and molecules woven into layered shells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-central-star-revealed">The central star revealed</h2>



The Webb observations finally pinned down the location of the nebula’s hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-stars-shape-planetary-systems-like-ours-with-ultraviolet-radiation/">star</a>. Its surrounding dust cloud glows brightly in mid-infrared light, betraying its position for the first time.&nbsp;



With a scorching temperature of 220,000 Kelvin - around 400,000 degrees Fahrenheit - this is one of the hottest known central stars in a planetary nebula.



That heat drives the nebula’s glow, but its power doesn’t escape evenly. The dense torus channels the outflow, creating the striking wings that stretch across space.&nbsp;



Webb data show that the torus contains crystalline silicates such as quartz, along with irregular grains about a millionth of a meter across. For cosmic dust, that’s relatively large, suggesting the particles have been accumulating for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jets-layers-and-chemical-signatures">Jets, layers, and chemical signatures</h2>



Outside the torus, the nebula displays a multilayered design. Atoms that need the most energy to ionize cluster near the center. Those requiring less energy appear farther out.&nbsp;



Among the highlights are iron and nickel, which mark out two jets blasting away from the star in opposite directions. These fast-moving streams help sculpt the overall shape of the nebula.



The team also found evidence of carbon-based molecules known as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs.&nbsp;



On Earth, PAHs are common in soot from fires, exhaust fumes, and even burnt toast. In the Butterfly Nebula, they appear to form when bursts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-solar-wind-directly-to-its-source-for-the-first-time/">stellar wind</a> collide with the surrounding gas.&nbsp;



This could be the first time PAHs have been spotted forming in an oxygen-rich planetary nebula, offering a rare window into the chemistry of dying stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fleeting-beauty-of-the-butterfly-nebula">Fleeting beauty of the Butterfly Nebula</h2>



The entire spectacle will not last long by cosmic standards. The planetary nebula stage endures only about 20,000 years - a brief flicker compared to a star’s lifetime of billions of years.&nbsp;



The Butterfly Nebula is a reminder of how short-lived and yet astonishingly beautiful the final chapters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/">stellar evolution</a> can be.



The results of this study are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/542/2/1287/8241385" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published</a> in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 



The research shows that even well-studied objects like the Butterfly Nebula can surprise us when viewed with fresh eyes.&nbsp;



Webb’s infrared vision has revealed not only the hidden star at the heart of the butterfly, but also the intricate chemistry that surrounds it - from crystalline dust to unexpected organic molecules.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, J. Kastner, M. Zamani (ESA/Webb)



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Secrets of the Butterfly Nebula uncovered by Webb

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Butterfly Nebula, located about 3,400 light-years away in the constellation Scorpius.&nbsp; It’s what astronomers call a planetary nebula - the brief phase when a dying star sheds its outer layers into space. Despite the name, planetary nebulae have nothing to do with planets. Early astronomers thought these glowing shells looked round, like distant worlds seen through primitive telescopes.&nbsp; The name stuck, even though many nebulae are anything but round. The Butterfly...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a stunning reflection nebula known as GN 04.32.8 in the constellation Taurus.



Reflection nebulae are cosmic clouds of fine dust that become visible not by producing their own light, but by reflecting the light of nearby stars.&nbsp;



Unlike emission <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">nebulae</a>, which glow due to ionized gases radiating light, reflection nebulae shine more subtly.&nbsp;



The light from nearby stars strikes the dust particles within the cloud and scatters in many directions - especially shorter, bluer wavelengths. This scattering effect, similar to the way Earth’s sky appears blue, often gives reflection nebulae their characteristic bluish hue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-taurus-molecular-cloud">The Taurus Molecular Cloud</h2>



“GN 04.32.8 is a small part of the stellar nursery known as the Taurus Molecular Cloud. At only roughly 480 light-years from Earth in the constellation Taurus, it's one of the best locations for studying newly forming stars,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>.



The Taurus Molecular Cloud is one of the closest and most extensively studied regions for low-mass star formation.&nbsp;



Unlike larger star-forming regions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/">Orion</a> that produce many high-mass stars, the Taurus Molecular Cloud is dominated by the formation of Sun-like and smaller stars, making it a prime analog for understanding the conditions that led to the birth of our own solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energetic-stars-in-the-constellation-taurus-nbsp">Energetic stars in the constellation Taurus&nbsp;</h2>



“This reflection nebula is illuminated by the system of three bright stars in the center of this image, mainly the variable star V1025 Tauri in the very center," ESA noted. 



“One of those stars overlaps with part of the nebula: this is another variable star that is named HP Tauri, but is classified as a T Tauri star, for its similarity to yet another variable star elsewhere in the Taurus Molecular Complex.”&nbsp;



T Tauri stars are young, energetic stars in the earliest stages of stellar evolution, just beginning their journey toward becoming stable main sequence stars like our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-sun-like-stars-with-secret-companions/">Sun</a>.&nbsp;



These stars are highly variable, often exhibiting strong stellar winds and flares as they settle into equilibrium. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dynamic-star-system">A dynamic star system</h2>



In this case, the trio of T Tauri stars - named HP Tau, HP Tau G2, and HP Tau G3 - are believed to be gravitationally bound, forming a dynamic triple star system.



“Eagle-eyed viewers might notice the small, squashed, orange spot, just left of center below the clouds of the nebula, that’s crossed by a dark line. This is a newly-formed protostar, hidden in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/">protoplanetary disc</a> that obstructs some of its light,” explained ESA.



“Because the disc is edge-on to us, it’s an ideal candidate for study. Astronomers are using Hubble here to examine it closely, seeking to learn about the kinds of exoplanets that might be formed in discs like it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-light-of-hot-young-stars">The light of hot, young stars</h2>



Reflection nebulae are usually found in regions where new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-billion-white-dwarf-stars-in-milky-way-galaxy-might-have-habitable-planets/">stars</a> are forming, often near or within dense molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Some reflection nebulae can span light-years across and serve as markers of stellar nurseries - places where future generations of stars are taking shape.



Reflection nebulae offer astronomers a valuable glimpse into the structure and composition of the interstellar medium and help trace the life cycles of stars from birth to maturity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-reflection-nebulae-nbsp">Examples of reflection nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



One well-known example is the reflection nebula surrounding the Pleiades star cluster, also called the Seven Sisters.&nbsp;



The Iris Nebula, located in the constellation Cepheus about 1,300 light-years from Earth, is a striking reflection nebula illuminated by the young star SAO 19158.



This nebula is a popular target for astrophotographers due to its vivid colors and intricate structure.



Found about 1,600 light-years away, M78 is the brightest reflection nebula in the Orion constellation and one of the easiest to observe with amateur telescopes. It’s illuminated by two young stars, HD 38563A and HD 38563B.&nbsp;



M78 is part of a larger complex of gas and dust that includes many other star-forming regions within the Orion Molecular Cloud.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Radiant young stars illuminate the constellation Taurus 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

As you enter, the room on the left contains a couple of desks, a fireplace, and a grandfather clock in the corner. “This room was like a living room for the Dyckman family,” the guidebook explains. “They would use this room for spending time together, reading, writing, and even telling stories.” Photo Credit: Facebook/Dyckman Farmhouse Museum

Old family living room

As you enter, the room on the left contains a...

We can certainly picture that. After all, this is a very cozy space. But before you start to imagine yourselves relaxing in the parlor, let’s take a closer look at the desk next to the fireplace. This spot is covered with old newspapers and notes, with even more stored along the cubby-holes further back. There’s even a quill and ink pot in the corner, too! Photo Credit: YouTube/RC-3P0

Cozy little parlor

We can certainly picture that. After all, this is a...

By itself, this room is a fascinating snapshot of the past. And this theme continues as you get deeper inside the farmhouse. There’s a space known as the “Relic Room” which contains some of the Dyckman family’s old possessions, safely stored in glass cabinets. Plus, the ground floor has its own bedroom, which is where Jacobus Dyckman was supposed to have slept. Photo Credit: Facebook/Dyckman Farmhouse Museum

The "Relic Room"

By itself, this room is a fascinating snapshot of the...

Head up the stairs and you’ll reach a landing with four surrounding doorways. Hundreds of years ago, this area is thought to have been a single room. But some major works took place to change that. Photo Credit: YouTube/RC-3P0

A look upstairs

Head up the stairs and you’ll reach a landing with...

Yes, the Dyckman Farmhouse Museum Alliance website claims that bedrooms were finally installed on that floor during the 1820s. It’s suggested that this is where Jacobus’ kids and grandson may have stayed. One of the rooms is fairly small, with a long, green couch resting against the wall. Photo Credit: YouTube/NYLandmarks

Tiny bedrooms

Yes, the Dyckman Farmhouse Museum Alliance website claims that bedrooms...

But they’re not all this cramped. One bedroom has its own fireplace next to the windows, with an armchair and table on the right-hand side. There’s a chest of drawers to the left, while a large bed sits along the adjoining wall. The cozy feel continues! Photo Credit: YouTube/NYLandmarks

Spacious master

But they’re not all this cramped. One bedroom has its...

Pretty nice, right? Some of our modern bedrooms pale in comparison! Now, we know what you must be thinking: where’s the kitchen? People in the olden days still had to eat. Well, it’s actually nestled away in the property’s basement. And there’s a clever reason for this location. Photo Credit: YouTube/NYLandmarks

Basement kitchen

Pretty nice, right? Some of our modern bedrooms pale in...

Horsford noted, “The farmhouse was built on original Manhattan bedrock. You can see that inside their winter kitchen, which is located in what we call the basement today.” The huge hearth below wouldn’t only cook the family’s food, but it’d provide warmth to the floorboards on the first floor, too. Photo Credit: Facebook/Dyckman Farmhouse Museum

Dual-purpose fireplace

Horsford noted, “The farmhouse was built on original Manhattan bedrock....

The Mojave Desert’s Joshua trees look timeless, but their future isn’t guaranteed. Despite being built for heat and drought, these long-lived yuccas are already showing signs of stress as temperatures rise and dry spells lengthen. Fewer young trees are making it past their first years, and the species’ range appears to be shrinking.&nbsp;



A new study led by a multi-institution team that includes <a href="https://uconn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Connecticut</a> ecologist Karolina Heyduk asks a simple, crucial question: how much wiggle room do Joshua trees have to adapt? The answer points to a surprising ally - how they breathe at night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-joshua-trees-in-a-warming-climate">Joshua trees in a warming climate </h2>



Most plants throw open microscopic pores on their leaves during the day to take in carbon dioxide for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/">photosynthesis</a>, but that comes with a cost: precious water escapes while the sun is blazing.&nbsp;



Some desert specialists dodge that trade-off by using a different playbook, called crassulacean acid metabolism, or CAM. CAM plants take in CO₂ at night when it’s cooler and stash it away until daylight returns to power sugar production.



“We sort of stumbled upon this idea that Joshua trees might use CAM photosynthesis,” Heyduk said. “Finding evidence of CAM in Joshua trees is great news - it may help the plants tolerate the warming climate across their range.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-gardens-uncommon-insights">Common gardens, uncommon insights</h2>



To see whether all Joshua trees play by the same rules - or whether some populations are naturally better tuned to today’s harsher conditions - the team established common garden test plots. 



The researchers grew seedlings from populations across the species’ ranges, including both recognized species, Yucca brevifolia and Yucca jaegeriana, side by side under the same conditions. That setup strips away local weather and soil differences, letting genetic and physiological differences rise to the surface.



As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforests-replanted-seedlings-after-logging-do-not-recover-well/">seedlings</a> grew, the researchers tracked growth, water use, leaf gas exchange, and the chemical signatures that reveal when and how carbon is taken up.&nbsp;



The patterns were clear: many seedlings showed nighttime CO₂ uptake consistent with CAM, and the intensity of that CAM-like behavior varied among populations.&nbsp;



In other words, Joshua trees appear to have some built-in flexibility in how they photosynthesize, and some lineages lean into the night-shift strategy more than others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-back-up-the-physiology">Genes back up the physiology</h2>



The team didn’t stop at leaf measurements. They looked under the hood - profiling gene activity and the metabolites plants stockpile when they run CAM.&nbsp;



“We’re bridging a lot of fields in biology,” Heyduk said. “We measured a lot of physiological traits, but we also looked at the gene expression of these plants in the gardens, and the accumulation of metabolites.”&nbsp;



The timing of gene activity matched expectations for CAM, bolstering the case that Joshua trees can switch - or at least blend - between daytime and nighttime <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/">carbon uptake</a>.&nbsp;



The two species also differed in how they process carbon and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/">nitrogen</a>, hinting at deeper physiological distinctions that may help explain why both persist as separate lineages despite overlapping ranges and occasional hybrids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-conservation">Why this matters for conservation</h2>



If CAM capacity is real and variable, it could be a lifeline. Nighttime carbon uptake reduces water loss, a critical edge as the Mojave gets hotter and, importantly, as nights warm too.&nbsp;



But flexibility is only half the story - longevity complicates the rest. A mature Joshua tree can live for centuries; some living trees have experienced the entire arc of industrial-era climate change. The seedlings trying to establish today face a very different climate than the one their elders grew up in.



“We’re not focusing on desert species quite as much as other ecosystems,” Heyduk said. “I think partially that’s because we think they’re already adapted to the super-hot environment and they’ll be fine." 



"However, the deserts are getting hotter, and in particular the nighttime temperatures are getting hotter.” If nights stop offering relief, even CAM users may struggle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-and-joshua-tree-survival">Heat and Joshua tree survival</h2>



One red flag is the lack of young trees. Fewer seedlings are making it to sapling stage, suggesting a new bottleneck right where populations renew themselves.&nbsp;



To test how temperature - especially warmer nights - affects survival, the team is now growing seedlings under tightly controlled conditions, dialing nighttime temperatures up and down to see how water use, growth, and CAM behavior respond. 



The goal is to pinpoint whether hotter nights are tipping the balance, and which populations cope best.



“What today’s seedlings are experiencing is going to be very different from what they might experience in 100 years when they’re mature plants,” Heyduk said. “We need to understand how they will respond to that change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-blueprint-for-action">A collaborative blueprint for action</h2>



This project is as much about method as it is about the Mojave. University researchers, federal scientists, and teams from primarily undergraduate institutions pooled fieldwork, greenhouse trials, physiology, genomics, and metabolomics. 



That breadth matters because it lets scientists connect genotype to phenotype - tying genetic differences to real-world traits that influence survival.



The immediate conservation takeaway is practical: not all Joshua tree populations are the same. Some may harbor greater CAM capacity or other physiological tweaks that make them better bets in a warming desert. Identifying and prioritizing those lineages - while protecting the habitats they occupy - could buy the species time.



Joshua trees won’t outpace <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-defy-climate-change-through-acclimation/">climate change</a> by migrating quickly; they don’t disperse far, and they don’t grow fast. But if they can lean on a night-shift photosynthesis strategy - and if we focus protection on the populations best at it - they may have a fighting chance to hold their ground as the Mojave’s thermostat keeps climbing.



The research is published in the journal the <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.70437" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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Joshua trees have a hidden trick to survive climate change

The Mojave Desert’s Joshua trees look timeless, but their future...

Phi Phi islands sparkle in travel photos. Blue seas, soft beaches, postcard views. Yet for Sarah Sajedi, that beauty came with a shock.



"I was standing there looking out at this gorgeous view of the Andaman Sea, and then I looked down and beneath my feet were all these pieces of plastic, most of them water bottles," she said.



"I've always had a passion for waste reduction, but I realized that this was a problem with consumption."



That moment pushed her back to <a href="https://www.concordia.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Concordia University</a> for a Ph.D. She set her sights on plastic waste and left business behind.



Years of experience at <a href="https://www.era-environmental.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ERA Environmental Management Solutions</a> gave Sajedi the tools. Now her research spotlights the risks of bottled water, a subject most people barely think about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-in-plastic-bottles">Microplastics in plastic bottles</h2>



Sajedi's review of more than 140 studies shows a staggering trend. People swallow between 39,000 and 52,000 microplastic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">particles</a> every year. Bottled water drinkers add roughly 90,000 more.



These particles are tiny. A microplastic can measure just a thousandth of a millimeter. Nanoplastics are even smaller. 



Bottles shed fragments every time they’re made, stored, or heated. Leave one in a hot car, and the process speeds up.



Unlike plastics that creep into food through the chain of fish or meat, bottled water delivers fragments straight into the body. That direct route makes the exposure constant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-size-matters">Why size matters</h2>



Once inside, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-that-looks-clean-may-be-full-of-invisible-and-deadly-bacteria/">particles</a> don’t always pass through. The smallest ones cross biological boundaries. Some slip into the bloodstream, others settle in organs. 



Research links this to chronic inflammation, hormonal disruption, oxidative stress, neurological problems, even cancer, showing how far-reaching the impacts can be.



The smaller the particle, the bigger the risk. Nanoplastics enter cells and interact with DNA and proteins. That opens the door to genetic damage and long-term health effects.



Scientists warn this isn’t a one-time problem. It’s steady, daily exposure from drinking habits that seem harmless but quietly build serious health risks over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-substances-linked-to-cancer">Substances linked to cancer</h2>



Water bottles aren’t just plastic. They carry additives. Chemicals like bisphenols and phthalates can leach into the liquid, especially when bottles face heat or repeated use. 



Those substances disrupt hormones and may weaken immune systems. Some are already linked to cancer, while others remain poorly studied, raising new questions about long-term safety.



Combine that with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-threaten-marine-life-in-the-gulf-of-mexico/">microplastic</a> exposure, and the risk grows. Studies suggest the two act together, amplifying harm in ways scientists are only beginning to map. 



It’s not simply plastic particles or chemicals alone. It’s the mix that makes bottled water a serious concern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exposure-is-underestimated">Exposure is underestimated </h2>



Studying the problem isn’t easy. Scientists use different tools, and none are perfect. Some detect small fragments but can’t say what they’re made of. 



Other tools show chemical composition but miss the tiniest plastics. The best machines do both, but they cost a fortune.



Because of these limits, research often underestimates exposure. Nanoplastics, the most dangerous, slip past detection. That makes bottled water appear safer than it is. 



Without consistent methods, it’s hard to compare results or create global safety standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-in-policy">Gaps in policy</h2>



Governments have taken steps against single-use plastics. Bags, straws, and packaging often face bans. Bottled water, however, escapes attention. Sajedi calls that a blind spot.



"Education is the most important action we can take," she said. "Drinking water from plastic bottles is fine in an emergency but it is not something that should be used in daily life. People need to understand that the issue is not acute toxicity - it is chronic toxicity."



Awareness matters. A single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bottle</a> won’t harm anyone. A lifetime of bottles might. Most people never consider that difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-plastic-bottle-use">Reducing plastic bottle use</h2>



Solutions already exist. Reusable containers reduce both waste and exposure. Public fountains and refill stations make alternatives accessible. 



Researchers are also testing new biodegradable plastics, although some of these options raise fresh safety concerns.



Shifting habits remains the hardest part. Bottled water still feels convenient, safe, and clean. Marketing only reinforces that belief. Sajedi argues that until people see the risks of daily use, change will stay slow.



Her work, conducted in collaboration with colleagues Chunjiang An and Zhi Chen, urges society to move faster. 



Paradise beaches covered in bottles tell one story. The hidden plastic inside our bodies tells another. Both deserve attention before the damage grows.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389425018643?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Hazardous Materials</a>.



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Plastic bottles shed dangerous fragments into drinking water

Phi Phi islands sparkle in travel photos. Blue seas, soft...

Portrait,Of,A,Wild,Octopus,Under,Water.

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. 



Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. 



Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions.



Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food or medicine to someone trapped below. 



This vision has motivated scientists to study octopus arms in detail - both in the laboratory and in their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">environment</a>.



Until recently, most studies were limited to tanks, where behaviors may not reflect the complexity of life in the wild. That gap is now being addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-octopus-intelligence">Understanding octopus intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">Octopuses</a> are some of the most intelligent invertebrates on Earth. Unlike most animals without backbones, they can solve puzzles, open jars, and even escape from aquariums by remembering routes back to the ocean. 



Their brains are incredibly complex, with about 500 million neurons - similar to a dog. What makes them even more fascinating is that two-thirds of those neurons are in their arms. 



This means each arm can sense, move, and even make decisions on its own while still communicating with the central brain. It’s like having eight mini-brains working together with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-are-tricked-by-the-rubber-hand-illusion-like-humans-suggesting-self-awareness/">one big brain</a>.



Their intelligence also shows up in how they hunt and survive. Octopuses use tools, like carrying coconut shells to hide inside when threatened, and they can change color and texture in an instant to camouflage perfectly against rocks or coral. 



They’ve been observed watching other animals and learning from them, which is rare in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-octopus-arms-inspire-robotics">Flexible octopus arms inspire robotics</h2>



A new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole and Florida Atlantic University has provided the most comprehensive analysis of octopus arm movements in natural habitats. 



Researchers recorded 25 wild octopuses in six locations, ranging from the Caribbean to Spain. The footage captured thousands of arm movements across a variety of behaviors, including foraging, locomotion, and even defense.



“I’ve been trying for a long time to work out the natural behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-octopus-footage-could-revolutionize-flexible-robot-design-eyeris/">cephalopods</a> in their natural habitat,” said MBL Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon, who led the project. 



“Studying and recording octopus behavior from wild octopuses in the field gave us the opportunity to analyze a larger behavioral repertoire and further understand how they use their arms to achieve such complex behaviors,” added Chelsea Bennice, research fellow at <a href="https://www.fau.eu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-touch-not-sight">Guided by touch, not sight</h2>



Octopuses rely heavily on touch, guided by sensory organs in their arm suckers. “The octopus is a very tactile animal - it’s more tactile than visual,” said Hanlon. 



Each of their nearly 100 suckers per arm contains chemosensory-tactile receptors, combining functions similar to the human nose, lips, and tongue.



Finding octopuses to observe was not simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> skills make them almost invisible in coral reefs or sandy seabeds. Divers often relied on clues like discarded shells and food debris near their dens.



Once located, octopuses emerged briefly from hiding, offering precious opportunities to record their natural actions.



These moments revealed unique hunting strategies, arm movements, and subtle interactions with their environment otherwise impossible to witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-arm-mechanics-of-octopuses">Complex arm mechanics of octopuses</h2>



The researchers identified 12 distinct arm actions across 15 behaviors, built from four fundamental deformations: shortening, elongating, bending, and torsion. They discovered a pattern of specialization within each arm. 



For instance, elongation and shortening were most common near the base, while bending occurred more at the tips. 



This functional partitioning allows octopuses to combine motions across arms for tasks like crawling, probing reef crevices, or launching sudden prey attacks.



“These are the actions that make up the whole complex of octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">behaviors</a>,” said study co-author Kendra Buresch. 



In the wild, researchers observed octopuses using different combinations of arm actions - sometimes relying on a single arm for tasks like grabbing food, and other times coordinating multiple arms for behaviors such as crawling or launching a parachute attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-that-guides-technology">Behavior that guides technology</h2>



The findings go beyond understanding animal behavior. With nearly 7,000 observed arm deformations, the study highlights an extraordinary degree of control and flexibility. 



This knowledge may inform robotics research, where engineers seek to design soft, adaptable arms capable of both precise and exploratory tasks.



“Understanding these natural behaviors not only deepens our knowledge of octopus biology but also opens exciting new avenues in fields like neuroscience, animal behavior, and even soft robotics inspired by these remarkable creatures,” Bennice said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-flexibility-and-change">Lessons in flexibility and change</h2>



From the ocean floor to robotics labs, octopuses continue to inspire, offering lessons in both biology and technology. 



Their flexible arms not only influence the design of machines that could navigate disaster zones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/">deep-sea environments</a>, but also remind us how problem-solving in nature often leads to solutions with real-world applications.



Beyond robotics, their adaptability symbolizes the broader principle that survival depends on innovation and change, a message equally relevant to ecosystems, human health, and future technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-10674-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Octopus arms are probably the most complex and flexible structures in nature

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists...

Ice Age landscapes were not quiet. Forests shook when mastodons moved through them. These elephantlike animals dominated swamps and woodlands across North America for thousands of years. 



Their remains have fascinated scientists for centuries, but their evolutionary story always seemed unfinished. Were there one or several species? How far did they travel?



A new study now answers some of those questions. By extracting DNA from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-in-america-coexisted-with-giant-sloths-and-mastodons/">fossilized tusks</a>, teeth, and bones, researchers have shown that mastodons were far more diverse than expected. 



They also reveal that these animals migrated long distances whenever climates shifted. The story that emerges is not of a static giant but of a restless survivor, adapting again and again to a changing world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-shows-mastodon-diversity">DNA shows mastodon diversity</h2>



The findings, published in Science Advances, come from an international team led by <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMaster University</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard</a>.



They examined fossils dating back hundreds of thousands of years. Many held DNA so damaged and fragmented that past generations of scientists would have dismissed it as useless.



Today’s technology makes even the smallest genetic traces readable. From these tiny fragments, researchers built mitochondrial genomes. 



They studied five specimens from Nova Scotia, including one that may be half a million years old, a rare Pacific mastodon from Oregon, and a partial genome from northern Ontario. Each sample added a new piece to the puzzle of mastodon history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-confirms-pacific-mastodon-species">DNA confirms Pacific mastodon species</h2>



For decades, scientists grouped mastodons under one species, Mammut americanum. Later, some argued that the Pacific mastodon deserved its own category. The debate never settled because evidence was too thin.



This new analysis tips the balance. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mastodon-extinction-is-still-causing-problems-with-south-american-ecosystems-forest-seeds/">Pacific mastodon</a> forms its own genetic branch - one that is both ancient and deeply established. 



Its range stretched much farther than anyone thought, from the Pacific Northwest possibly down to Mexico, and north into Alberta. That broad territory suggests a story of expansion rather than isolation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alberta-shaped-mastodon-migrations">Alberta shaped mastodon migrations</h2>



Alberta turns out to be more than just another fossil site. It was a meeting ground. The evidence shows that Pacific and American mastodon species overlapped there. They may have even mixed.



“The data shifts our view of the region today known as Alberta and the North more generally," said senior author Hendrik Poinar of <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMaster University</a>. 



"From a marginal roaming ground to a repeatedly occupied migratory corridor and significant landscape for mastodons with possible interbreeding.”



Alberta, once thought of as a fringe territory, now looks like a hub of Ice Age movement and contact.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mastodon-tusk_new-species_nova-scotia-museum_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mastodon-tusk_new-species_nova-scotia-museum_1s.webp" alt="Windsor Sinkhole Mastodon tusk, dated to approximately 178,000 years ago, was found in a gypsum sinkhole in Nova Scotia. Credit: Nova Scotia Museum" class="wp-image-1985972"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Windsor Sinkhole Mastodon tusk, dated to approximately 178,000 years ago, was found in a gypsum sinkhole in Nova Scotia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nova Scotia Museum</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastodons-migrated-east-in-waves">Mastodons migrated east in waves</h2>



The specimens from Nova Scotia and northern Ontario revealed something equally striking. DNA showed two distinct genetic groups that lived in the same places but at different times. 



Mastodons did not just move east once; they came in several waves. These arrivals lined up with warming cycles. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glaciers-from-the-rockies-to-the-alps-are-melting-much-faster-than-expected/">glaciers</a> melted, mastodons spread northward. 



When the cold returned, they retreated or disappeared locally. The East Coast record shows a constant rhythm of expansion and collapse, repeating at least three times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mexican-fossil-hints-at-new-species">Mexican fossil hints at new species</h2>



Mexico produced another surprise. One specimen carried DNA that didn’t fit with either the American or the Pacific branch. 



It may represent a deeper branch of the Pacific mastodon. Or it could be something even more intriguing: a third species entirely.



This lineage shows how much remains hidden in mastodon history. The Ice Age was a time of mixing, migration, and unexpected diversity - and mastodons were no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammoths-grazed-mastodons-browsed">Mammoths grazed, mastodons browsed</h2>



Mastodons often get lumped with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-americans-relied-on-mammoths-for-food-and-survival/">mammoths</a>, but their lives were different. Mammoths grazed the grasslands and tundra. 



Mastodons lived in wetlands and forests. They ate shrubs and branches, not grasses.



Both were massive, both carried tusks, but their roles in the ecosystem did not overlap. That distinction helps explain how two giants could thrive at the same time, side by side, in overlapping regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-leaves-mysteries-unsolved">DNA leaves mysteries unsolved</h2>



“This study represents several firsts which includes our work on the Pacific mastodon. It also poses many new questions," said lead author Emil Karpinski, now at <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>.



"For example, how did these distant species of mastodon interact in Alberta? Did they compete for resources, or did they interbreed as our lab has previously shown for mammoths?” 



The answers to these questions will need more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-crocodile-in-the-caribbean-fossils-reveal-a-lost-apex-predator/">fossils</a> and more DNA. But the possibilities make clear that mastodons were not uniform. They were dynamic, sometimes competing, sometimes mixing, always adapting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mastodons-offer-climate-lessons">Mastodons offer climate lessons</h2>



This study builds on earlier work from 2020 by the same team. Together, the findings give us a richer picture of mastodon life. They also carry lessons for today. 



Mastodons expanded north when climates warmed and retreated south when the cold returned. Their movements mirror the kinds of changes modern species face in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-permafrost-melt-devastating-role-accelerating-global-climate-change/">warming Arctic</a>.



Understanding how mastodons responded to past climate change helps predict what may happen now. The giants may be gone, but their history still has something to teach us.



Mastodons were not passive victims of climate. They were travelers, survivors, and sometimes innovators in their own way. 



Their legacy is not just bones in the ground but a vivid reminder that even the largest creatures depend on adaptation for survival.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/epdf/10.1126/sciadv.adw2240" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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DNA analysis identifies new mastodon species that migrated with shifting climates

Ice Age landscapes were not quiet. Forests shook when mastodons...

Sometimes discoveries take centuries. In South Wales, a fossil jawbone collected in 1899 has finally revealed its secret. It sat quietly for more than a hundred years in the National Museum of Wales. Researchers wrote about it, but no one could say for sure what creature it came from.



Now, using modern technology, paleontologists at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> have identified it as a new dinosaur species. They have given it a new name too: Newtonsaurus, honoring the man who first described it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newtonsaurus-a-distinctive-name">Newtonsaurus: A distinctive name </h2>



The fossil itself contains no bone. What remains are natural molds pressed into stone. At first glance, this seems disappointing. 



But those impressions preserved details invisible to the naked eye. With 3D scanning, the team brought the jawbone back to life in digital form.



“This specimen has been referred to many times in scientific papers but had yet to be successfully identified,” said study co-author Owain Evans. “It was named Zanclodon cambrensis by Edwin Tully Newton in 1899, but we knew the name Zanclodon had been abandoned because it referred to a broad variety of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">reptiles</a>.”



“Therefore, we name it after Newton, calling it Newtonsaurus. It is different from all other dinosaurs from that time and requires a distinctive name.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-rebuilt-through-3d-scans">Fossil rebuilt through 3D scans</h2>



Creating the digital model required patience. The team photographed every angle of the molds, then combined the images into a 3D shape. 



By flipping the data, they produced a negative of the impressions, which gave them a digital version of the original jawbone.



“The natural molds of the inner and outer faces of the jawbone show amazing detail - every groove, ridge, tooth, and even the serrations along the edges of the teeth,” said Michael Benton, professor of vertebrate paleontology at the University of Bristol.



“We decided to use digital photography to make a 3D model. We began by surface scanning the fossil using photogrammetry. Once we had our digital scan, we inverted it - essentially giving us a digital negative of the mold.”



By fusing the sides and analyzing its anatomy, the digital reconstruction revealed a clearer picture of the bone’s original structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-predatory-flesh-eating-dinosaur">A predatory, flesh-eating dinosaur</h2>



Once reconstructed, the fossil’s features stood out clearly. The placement of the teeth and the jaw shape confirmed it belonged to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/">theropod</a>. These were meat-eating dinosaurs, ancestors of later giants like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



The discovery proved that large predators prowled the Welsh coastline during the Triassic period.



“We can now confirm that this specimen very likely belonged to a large predatory theropod dinosaur that roamed the shores of South Wales during the latest Triassic,” said Evans.



“It has some definite unique dinosaur features in the emplacement of the teeth, and it is a theropod - a predatory, flesh-eating dinosaur. Otherwise, it sits near the origins of both major divisions of Theropoda, the Coelophysoidea and the Averostra.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newtonsaurus-was-unusually-large">Newtonsaurus was unusually large</h2>



The<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-bones-reveal-clues-about-the-evolution-of-eating/"> jawbone</a> alone measured 28 centimeters (11 inches). But this was only the front half. The full bone stretched around 60 centimeters (24 inches).



That means the dinosaur’s body reached five to seven meters (16 to 23 feet) in length. For the Triassic, this was huge. Most theropods of the time were much smaller.



The preserved 28 cm (11 in) jawbone, once 60 cm (24 in) in life, reveals a large Triassic theropod - unexpectedly large for its kind.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Newtonsaurus_new-dinosaur-species_jawbone-fossil_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Newtonsaurus_new-dinosaur-species_jawbone-fossil_1s.webp" alt="Using modern digital scanning techniques the researchers were able to shed new light on the fossil jawbone, which has been known since 1899 and been on display in the National Museum of Wales for many years. Credit: Owain Evans" class="wp-image-1985985"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using modern digital scanning techniques the researchers were able to shed new light on the fossil jawbone, which has been known since 1899 and been on display in the National Museum of Wales for many years. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Owain Evans</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-adds-to-welsh-prehistory">Discovery adds to Welsh prehistory</h2>



For paleontologists, the discovery proves that museum collections still hold secrets. For Wales, it adds another important piece to its prehistoric record. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/">Triassic</a> beds of the region are rare and globally significant.



“These historical specimens are vitally important in paleontology and often yield new and exciting results - even if they have been sitting in collections for years. The Victorians were fascinated by the fossil record and prospected all across the UK for fossils,” said Cindy Howells at the <a href="https://museum.wales/cardiff/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Wales</a>.



“On top of this, the re-description of Newtonsaurus cambrensis once again highlights the significance of Wales in paleontological research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wales-may-reveal-more-dinosaurs">Wales may reveal more dinosaurs</h2>



Triassic beds are rare worldwide, yet Wales holds several of them - each with the potential to reveal another hidden dinosaur.



Newtonsaurus is more than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-rising-mountains-give-birth-to-new-species/">new species</a>. It proves that even old fossils can still surprise us, and that modern tools can finally solve questions that lingered for generations.



The find also reminds us that the cliffs and quarries of Wales may still conceal more giants waiting to emerge.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016787825000513?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Geologists Association</a>.



Image Credit: Owain Evans



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Newtonsaurus: Forgotten dinosaur fossil reveals a giant Triassic predator

Sometimes discoveries take centuries. In South Wales, a fossil jawbone...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air">Invisible threat in urban air</h2>



City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge">Disturbing connections emerge</h2>



Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters">Timing matters</h2>



The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns">Genetic vulnerability patterns</h2>



Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications">Public health implications</h2>



These findings, published in <a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.



As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.



Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.



Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



Published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

Secrets of the Butterfly Nebula uncovered by Webb

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