Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the Andes mountains in South America. The aerial photograph was taken by an External High-Definition Camera (EHDC) on the International Space Station.&nbsp;



The Andes Mountains are the longest mountain range in the world, stretching over 4,300 miles along the western edge of South America. They span seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.



Many of the peaks rise above 20,000 feet, with the highest peak being Mount Aconcagua in Argentina, which reaches an altitude of 22,837 feet.



The Andes have a significant influence on the climate of the region. The mountains act as a barrier, preventing moist air from the Amazon Basin from moving westward, which results in the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on Earth, located on the western side of the Andes in northern Chile.



"The Andes mountain chain causes a rain shadow effect that results in minimal precipitation in the Atacama region of Chile. This area - known as the Atacama Desert - is widely recognized as one of the driest places on Earth," said NASA. "Some areas of the Atacama are touched by rain only four times a century. Other areas have never received rainfall for as long as records have been kept."



"Precipitation is more abundant toward the east, where moisture is carried by winds from the interior of South America toward the eastern slopes of the Andes. Notice the shift from the moist Amazon basin rainforest (dark green) at the top of the image to dry desert conditions (brown) approaching the coast."



The Andes host a wide variety of ecosystems, from tropical rainforests in the north to icy glaciers in the south. The high altitude range allows for diverse habitats like cloud forests, puna grasslands, and páramo.



The mountains have been home to various civilizations, most notably the Inca Empire. Machu Picchu in Peru is one of the most famous archaeological sites from the Incan era.



The Andean region is one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. It is home to thousands of unique plant and animal species, some of which are found nowhere else on Earth.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Contrasting climates of the Andes Mountains

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a> features Hurricane Otis as it was approaching Mexico’s southern Pacific coast on October 24, 2023. The image was captured by Copernicus Sentinel-3’s Ocean and Land Colour Instrument. 



"Originally classified as a tropical storm, Otis was upgraded in just 12 hours to a category five hurricane – the most dangerous rating for a hurricane – shocking forecasters and local authorities alike," said ESA.



Hurricane Otis surpassed Hurricane Patricia as the strongest landfalling Pacific hurricane on record. The hurricane's rapid growth was influenced by a combination of factors, including light to moderate southeasterly wind shear, high sea surface temperatures (86–88 °F or 30–31 °C), which were above average due to a record-warm September in Mexico, an ongoing El Niño, and the influence of global warming.&nbsp;



These conditions provided a favorable environment for Otis to intensify dramatically. A jet streak in the jet stream further accelerated the hurricane's development by dispersing latent heat and fostering convective development.



The hurricane's core made landfall just west of Acapulco around 1:25 a.m. CDT at peak intensity. The storm caused immense damage.



"Acapulco, which is home to almost one million people, is covered by storm clouds in the image. It was one of the worst places hit," said ESA.



"Mexico City, the country’s huge, densely populated capital, can be seen as a brown area in the cloud-free part of the image north of the hurricane. The Popocatépetl active volcano can also be spotted about 70 km southeast of Mexico City."



The rapid intensification of Otis was one of the most poorly forecast events in recent years. Forecast models struggled to predict the storm's strength and speed, and there were very few instruments available for evaluating hurricane strength in the East Pacific.&nbsp;



Otis' small size, extending hurricane-force winds only about 30 miles from its center, made it more prone to rapid changes in intensity.&nbsp;



Image Credit: ESA



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Otis was the strongest landfalling Pacific hurricane on record

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features the reddish-brown waters of the Betsiboka River Delta in Madagascar. It is one of the most visually striking river deltas in the world, especially when viewed from space.



The Betsiboka River is the largest river in Madagascar by discharge, and its delta is equally significant. The river flows into Bombetoka Bay, which further leads to the Mozambique Channel.



One of the most notable characteristics of the Betsiboka River Delta is its bright color when viewed from space.



"In this case, the color is caused by the transport of iron-rich sediment. The sediment can clog waterways in the delta’s estuarine environment, but it can also form new islands that become colonized by mangroves. Many other water bodies, such as the reservoir fed by the Jacui River in southern Brazil, are colored by reddish sediment," said NASA.



"Despite their rusty color, these arteries of water are important for biodiversity. Algae and other microorganisms serve as a vital food source for vulnerable bird species, such as the Andean flamingo in the Laguna Colorada. Within the Betisboka River Delta, the estuary provides food, such as seagrasses, to the endangered green turtle and vulnerable dugong, or sea cow."



The photo was captured by an astronaut on the space station on September 30, 2023.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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The Betsiboka River Delta in Madagascar

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features an astronaut view of the northeast coast of Somalia. This region, which borders the Indian Ocean, has a mix of sandy beaches and rugged cliffs



"The detailed image reveals a desert landscape etched by wind and water," said NASA. "Over time, streams have cut canyons into the earth. But streams in this region are ephemeral, making groundwater the main source of fresh water."&nbsp;



"The water table is shallow (wells are typically drilled less than 20 meters deep) and meets the surface toward the coast, creating springs."



"Bidirectional winds sculpted the tan, brown, and reddish sand into transverse sand dunes visible near the stream’s deltas. The orientation of the sand dunes indicates that they were likely formed by summer winds blowing up the coast from the southwest."



The economy of northeast Somalia is primarily based on fishing, livestock, and trade. The long coastline provides ample opportunities for fishing, which is a significant source of food and income.



The region is home to important port cities like Bosaso, which is a hub for trade and commerce. These ports are vital for both the local and national economy.



The area is rich in cultural heritage, with a history that dates back to ancient times. It is believed to be part of the ancient Land of Punt, known for its trade relations with ancient Egypt.



The climate is typically hot and dry, with irregular rainfall. This environment shapes the lifestyle and agricultural practices of northeast Somalia.



Despite the arid conditions, the region supports a variety of wildlife, including species adapted to desert and semi-desert habitats.



The photograph was captured on August 9, 2023 as the International Space Station orbited over the Horn of Africa.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Northeast Somalia: A landscape shaped by wind and water

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features Cyclone Michaung, which slammed into the southern Indian coast on December 5, 2023 with intense winds and torrential rainfall. Michaung made landfall between Nellore and Kavali in the state of Andhra Pradesh. 



"When it made landfall, the storm had sustained winds of 90 to 100 kilometers (56 to 62 miles) per hour, according to the India Meteorological Department," said NASA.



"The VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on the NOAA-20 satellite captured this image after landfall, as the weakening storm moved northward and winds had slowed to 65 to 75 kilometers per hour."



As the cyclone approached, tall waves crashed into southern coastal towns and entire villages were submerged, according to a report from Reuters. Trees were uprooted, roads were damaged, and cars were swept away.&nbsp;



By Wednesday, rescue operations were launched in Chennai, a city of over six million people. Rescuers used inflatable rafts and ropes to pull people from their flooded homes and air force helicopters dropped food to some of those who remained stranded.



Among the widespread destruction, there have been 13 confirmed deaths due to causes including falling structures and electrocution.



Cyclones are relatively common along the southern coast of India, particularly in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. This region is prone to cyclonic activity primarily due to its geographical location and certain meteorological factors.&nbsp;



Cyclones in this area tend to occur mainly in two seasons: the pre-monsoon season (April-June) and the post-monsoon season (October-December).



During these periods, warm ocean temperatures, high humidity, and favorable wind patterns contribute to the development and intensification of cyclones.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Cyclone Michaung caused widespread destruction in southern India

Today's Image of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Earth Observatory</a> features a volcanic plume drifting from Anak Krakatau, a small island in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in Indonesia. 



Anak Krakatau, which means "Child of Krakatoa," emerged from the sea in 1927, forming over the caldera of the infamous Krakatoa volcano, which erupted catastrophically in 1883.&nbsp;



This earlier eruption was one of the most violent volcanic events in recorded history, known for its immense power and the global climate impact it had due to the large amount of ash it sent into the upper atmosphere.



Anak Krakatau has been growing continuously since its emergence, with frequent eruptions that have reshaped its structure and size over time.&nbsp;



"Geologists have tallied 57 eruptive periods from this location since the beginning of the Holocene, roughly 11,700 years ago," said NASA. "The most recent eruptive period, which started in May 2021 and continued into December 2023, has featured frequent but generally mild Strombolian blasts of volcanic gases and ash particles."&nbsp;



"Materials ejected from the volcano’s vent are typically lofted a few hundred meters above the summit, and small lava flows occasionally drain down the island's flanks and into the sea."



"Beginning on November 26, 2023, geologists with the Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation began to report more intense explosions, with plumes of volcanic material rising up to 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) above the vent."&nbsp;



The public has been warned to stay at least 5 kilometers (3 miles) from the crater. Due to elevated risks of ash in the area, the Volcanic Ash Advisory Center in Darwin, Australia, has issued multiple warnings to the aviation community.



The image was captured on December 2, 2023 by the Operational Land Imager (OLI) on Landsat 8.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Volcanic activity has intensified on Anak Krakatau

In order to fool these intelligent apes, the camera was placed inside of an animatronic gorilla! Its infiltration abilities were put to the test soon after the team arrived in Uganda. Photo Credit: BBC / YouTube

The Test

Closeup,Orion,Constellation,On,Night,Starry,Sky,Above,Forest,Silhouette,

Next week, the night sky will witness an extraordinary astronomical event, as Betelgeuse, one of the most luminous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-six-planet-star-system-moves-in-strange-perfect-synchrony/">stars</a> in the constellation Orion, temporarily vanishes from view.&nbsp;



This unusual occurrence, set to happen on Monday night, December 11, is due to an asteroid, 319 Leona, passing directly in front of the star, causing it to disappear for approximately 12 seconds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-occlusion-nbsp">Rare occlusion&nbsp;</h2>



Astronomical phenomena like this are not uncommon, but the upcoming event involving Betelgeuse is unique due to the specific alignment that will create a striking ‘ring of fire’ effect.&nbsp;



Observers in Florida, parts of eastern Mexico, southern Europe, and northern Asia will be ideally positioned to witness this rare ‘occlusion.’ For those not in these regions, the <a href="https://www.virtualtelescope.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virtual Telescope Project</a> in Italy will be streaming the event live from 8 PM Eastern on Monday.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-once-in-a-lifetime-opportunity-nbsp">Once-in-a-lifetime opportunity&nbsp;</h2>



This brief occlusion is more than just a spectacular sight; it presents a valuable scientific opportunity. Astronomers are eager to use this time to study the surface of Betelgeuse, a red supergiant sun, which has shown unusual dimming patterns over the past four years.&nbsp;



Miguel Montargès, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/-observatoire-de-paris-.html?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Observatory</a>, expressed excitement about this event, calling it a “once-in-a-lifetime opportunity.” The occlusion will enable scientists to examine the star’s outer region, which is normally overwhelmed by its bright core.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-new-insights">Critical new insights</h2>



This research is expected to provide insights into the ‘convective cells’ of Betelgeuse, which are the pathways for heated gas movement across the star. Montargès anticipates that the data gathered might also enhance understanding of how planetary systems, like our own solar system, form.



Gianluca Masi, director of the Virtual Telescope Project, pointed out that the event will also aid in studying asteroid 319 Leona.&nbsp;



“These kinds of occultations,” Masi stated, "are very useful to constrain the shape of the asteroid involved.” He also noted that this occlusion is not only rare but symbolic of Betelgeuse’s eventual fate. “For a very short time, we will see the legendary Orion constellation without its famous, orange shoulder,” referencing the eventual supernova explosion of Betelgeuse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-the-betelgeuse-event">Viewing the Betelgeuse event</h2>



Astronomers are meticulously tracking the trajectory of asteroid 319 Leona, with the occultation anticipated to occur around 8:17 PM Eastern Time. Those within the correct viewing line will have the chance to see Betelgeuse, typically the 10th-brightest star, fade from sight, an experience that can be enhanced with binoculars or a telescope.



Even for observers outside the optimal viewing areas, there’s still a chance to witness Betelgeuse dimming in an unusual manner. Residents of the Northern Hemisphere can find Betelgeuse in December by looking east about two hours after sunset, near Orion’s Belt.



For those seeking more information, the <a href="https://occultations.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Occultation Timing Association</a> has dedicated a <a href="https://www.iota-es.de/betelgeuse2023.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">page</a> to the event, complete with a downloadable Google Earth file to assist in tracking the visibility of the event globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-betelgeuse">More about Betelgeuse</h2>



Betelgeuse, often pronounced "Beetlejuice," is a red supergiant star that has captivated astronomers and stargazers alike with its distinctive red hue and immense size. Located in the constellation of Orion, it's one of the most easily recognizable stars in the night sky and has been a subject of fascination and study for centuries.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronomical-significance">Astronomical significance</h3>



As discussed above, Betelgeuse holds a special place in astronomy due to its enormous size and relatively close proximity to Earth. It's one of the largest stars visible to the naked eye, with a radius over 1,000 times that of the Sun. If placed at the center of our solar system, Betelgeuse would engulf the inner planets, reaching out nearly to the orbit of Jupiter.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-characteristics">Stellar characteristics</h3>



This celestial giant is a red supergiant, a stage in the lifecycle of a star that occurs after it has exhausted the hydrogen in its core. During this phase, the star expands significantly and cools down, giving it a distinctive red color. Betelgeuse's surface temperature is around 3,500 Kelvin, much cooler than the Sun’s 5,778 Kelvin.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variability-and-brightness">Variability and brightness</h3>



Betelgeuse is a variable star, meaning its brightness changes over time. These fluctuations in brightness are due to complex processes happening in its vast, bubbling surface. The star’s light can vary in a somewhat irregular pattern, making it a subject of interest for those studying stellar behavior.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distance-and-visibility">Distance and visibility</h3>



Located approximately 642 light-years from Earth, Betelgeuse is relatively close in astronomical terms, allowing for detailed observation. Its brightness usually ranks it among the top ten brightest stars in the night sky, making it easy to spot even in areas with moderate light pollution.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-supernova">Future supernova</h3>



One of the most intriguing aspects of Betelgeuse is its potential future as a supernova. Astronomers predict that within the next million years, Betelgeuse will exhaust its nuclear fuel and undergo a spectacular supernova explosion. This event will be so bright that it will be visible from Earth even during the day and will mark the end of this star’s life cycle.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-and-historical-impact">Cultural and historical impact</h3>



Betelgeuse has also played a significant role in various cultures and mythologies. Its position in the constellation of Orion, a prominent figure in Greek mythology, and its visibility across the globe have made it a point of interest and storytelling for many civilizations.



In summary, Betelgeuse stands as a magnificent example of the wonders of the universe. Its immense size, changing brightness, and inevitable fate as a supernova continue to make it a subject of both scientific study and popular fascination. As we gaze upon this red supergiant, we are reminded of the vastness and beauty of the cosmos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-orion-constellation">More about the Orion constellation</h2>



As discussed above, <a href="https://universe.nasa.gov/news/147/discovering-the-universe-through-the-constellation-orion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Orion constellation</a>, one of the most recognizable and prominent constellations in the night sky, captivates observers across the globe. Named after the Greek mythological hunter, Orion, this constellation not only boasts significant astronomical importance but also holds a rich cultural and mythological heritage.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronomical-features-of-orion">Astronomical features of Orion</h3>



Orion is home to some of the brightest stars in the night sky. Betelgeuse, the protagonist of this article, marks Orion's right shoulder. Bellatrix serves as his left shoulder. Rigel, a brilliant blue-white star, represents Orion's left foot, and Saiph constitutes his right knee. These stars form the distinct hourglass shape of the constellation.



A striking feature of Orion is his belt, comprised of three aligned stars: Alnitak, Alnilam, and Mintaka. Below the belt, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jumbos-james-webb-reveals-free-floating-worlds-that-cant-be-explained/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Orion Nebula </a>(M42), a vibrant, star-forming region, dazzles astronomers and astrophotographers alike. This nebula, visible to the naked eye under dark skies, is a popular target for telescopic observation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orion-in-culture-and-mythology">Orion in culture and mythology</h3>



In Greek mythology, Orion is depicted as a formidable hunter, often associated with tales of bravery and prowess. Various cultures have their own interpretations of this constellation, each adding to its rich narrative tapestry.



The stars of Orion have been significant in various ancient civilizations, from the Egyptians, who associated the constellation with Osiris, the god of the afterlife, to the Native American cultures, where it held various meanings and stories.



In summary, Orion continues to be a source of wonder and inspiration. Its prominent place in the night sky makes it a gateway for amateur astronomers and a subject of ongoing study for professionals. Whether it's through the lens of science, culture, or mythology, the Orion constellation remains an enduring and captivating presence in our night sky.



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"Betelgeuse" star in constellation Orion will vanish from sight tomorrow

Next week, the night sky will witness an extraordinary astronomical...

A,Curious,Humpback,Whale,Calf,In,The,Emerald,Blue,Water

A new <a href="https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/climate-change-and-migratory-species-review/">UN report</a> released at COP28 reveals the severe impacts of climate change on migratory animals. The research emphasizes the dire consequences for migratory species and the potential loss of their crucial ecosystem services.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worldwide-impacts">Worldwide impacts</h2>



The study, prepared by the <a href="https://www.bto.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Trust for Ornithology</a> (BTO), illustrates how climate change - driven by temperature increases, habitat alteration, shifts in ocean currents, and extreme weather events like wildfires - is substantially affecting migratory species worldwide.



The key impacts mentioned in the report include alterations in migratory routes, changes in breeding timings, and reduced reproductive success and survival rates. These changes not only threaten the species themselves but also the global ecosystem functions they support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anthropogenic-emissions">Anthropogenic emissions</h2>



"Over the last several decades, anthropogenic emissions (primarily of carbon dioxide (CO2)) have rapidly increased global temperatures and altered climate patterns. Widespread and rapid changes in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere and biosphere have occurred, affecting both average conditions and annual variability, in particular the frequency of extreme events," wrote the study authors.



"Climate change has already caused substantial damage and increasingly irreversible losses to most species groups in terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-migratory-species">Threats to migratory species</h2>



"Migratory species are vulnerable to a wide range of threats, both climate-related and non-climate-related, as they move between countries and ecosystems on a seasonal basis."&nbsp;



"This potentially&nbsp;exposes them to the impacts of climate change at multiple locations along their migration route, with possible interactions and divergence in the timing of cues at these locations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-services">Ecosystem services</h2>



Migratory species offer numerous benefits, including nutrition, economic development, and essential services like pollination, seed dispersal, and pest control. They play a pivotal role in climate change mitigation and resilience.&nbsp;



For example, whales sequester significant carbon amounts, and antelopes can mitigate wildfire risks through their grazing patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-evidence">Lack of evidence</h2>



"Overall, there is widespread evidence of changes in the distribution and phenology of migratory species. In particular, poleward range shifts and earlier migration and breeding are already occurring in temperature-driven medium and high latitudes, and more mixed directional shifts are&nbsp;apparent in the tropics, depending on changes in rainfall," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"The results of this review suggest that evidence on the impacts of climate change is lacking for several species groups, particularly bats, fish, South American grassland birds, and sharks and rays, as well as regionally for species residing in the tropics and Global South."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings-on-migratory-species">Key findings on migratory species</h2>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-temperatures">Rising temperatures</h3>



There is strong evidence that global increases in temperature have affected most migratory species groups, and these impacts are mostly negative.&nbsp;



For instance, rising temperatures are causing changes in the reproduction and survival of krill and are having a negative impact on marine mammals and seabirds that rely on krill as a key food source.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-of-migratory-species">Distribution of migratory species</h3>



Climate change is impacting migratory species distribution and timing of migration. In particular, temperature increases are driving poleward range shifts and earlier migration and breeding.&nbsp;



In some species, such as wading birds, there is a risk this will cause a mismatch between the timing of breeding and the time when prey species are most abundant.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-availability-nbsp">Water availability&nbsp;</h3>



Changes in water availability are causing the loss of wetlands and reduced river flows, which are likely to particularly impact the migration of fish and waterbirds.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-events">Extreme events</h3>



Extreme climate-related events such as landslides are causing severe habitat destruction and have already been observed at some seabird breeding sites.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents">Ocean currents</h3>



There is strong evidence that migratory seabirds and marine mammals will be impacted by changes in ocean currents. These changes are likely to alter the nature and functioning of many marine and terrestrial ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-demonstration-nbsp">Powerful demonstration&nbsp;</h2>



Steve Barclay is the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.



“Nature underpins the very fabric of our lives – the ecosystems, food and water security upon which we all depend, as well as the health of our economies," said Barclay.



"The challenges that these migratory species face as a result of climate change are a powerful demonstration of the need for coordinated global action to protect our environment, which is why the UK is taking a leading role in efforts to restore nature, halt biodiversity loss and achieve our stretching targets to protect 30% of land and sea by 2030.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-severe-disruptions-to-migratory-species">Severe disruptions to migratory species</h2>



Amy Fraenkel, Executive Secretary of CMS, noted that migratory species are facing severe disruptions due to climate change.&nbsp;



“Migratory species are finely tuned to the rhythms of our planet. They depend on a delicate balance, journeying vast distances to reach habitats specifically suited for their survival and reproduction," said Fraenkel.



"However, climate change is severely disrupting these critical paths, altering ecosystems and affecting the availability of resources. This disruption serves as a crucial red flag, highlighting the broader implications of climate change not just for these species, but for the interconnected web of life on Earth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migratory-species-need-immediate-help">Migratory species need immediate help</h2>



The report stresses the urgent need for action to assist vulnerable migratory species in adapting to climate change. Recommendations include establishing connected protected areas and robust monitoring for successful intervention assessment.&nbsp;



"The clock is ticking on the future for many iconic species. We owe it to them to raise global awareness that solutions are possible, and call on governments to use this report to take action, seeking out nature based solutions that will help migratory species and that can reduce the impacts of climate change," said Professor Galbraith, Former Chair of the <a href="https://jncc.gov.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joint Nature Conservation Committee</a>.



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United Nations: Urgent need to protect migratory animal species

A new UN report released at COP28 reveals the severe...

The Pentagon's X-37B, an unmanned drone, is gearing up for a mission that is set to launch today at 8:14 pm Eastern time. This small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-has-left-a-metal-mark-on-earths-stratosphere/">spacecraft</a> is less than 30 feet in length and under 10 feet in height. It has a pair of compact wings and a rounded, bulldog-like nose.&nbsp;



Often compared to a miniature space shuttle, the purpose and capabilities of X-37B remain shrouded in mystery. Is it a covert weapon, a stealth technology, or something else? These questions linger as the Pentagon maintains its silence.



For the first time, the X-37B will be launched on SpaceX’s powerful <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/falcon-heavy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Falcon Heavy rocket</a>. This shift to a more potent launcher hints at a potential higher orbit - speculation that is supported by recent documents. However, the exact nature and purpose of its higher orbit activities remain undisclosed. SpaceX secured the $130 million contract for this launch back in 2018.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-on-space-domain-awareness">Focus on "space domain awareness"</h2>



The Pentagon remains tight-lipped about the specific activities of the X-37B in its higher orbit, stating only that the mission involves "a wide range of test and experimentation objectives." These include operating in new orbital regimes and experimenting with future space domain awareness technologies.



The focus on "space domain awareness" hints at the X-37B's potential role in monitoring satellites and guarding against threats in space - a mission that closely aligns with the objectives of the <a href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Space Force</a>. 



General Chance Saltzman, the Space Force’s chief of space operations, emphasized the increasing threats to U.S. space systems.



“Our space systems are threatened by a variety of growing anti satellite capabilities, and the joint force is threatened by increasingly sophisticated adversary space-based systems intended to target the joint force,” General Saltzman said in a statement to Congress earlier this year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-37b-s-cutting-edge-technologies">X-37B's cutting-edge technologies</h2>



One thing that is known about X-37B's mission is that the vehicle will expose plant seeds to the harsh radiation environment of long-duration spaceflight in an experiment for NASA.&nbsp;



The X-37B, built by Boeing, has previously been used to test cutting-edge technologies like a small solar panel for transforming solar energy into microwaves, a concept that could enable space-to-Earth energy transmission. The spacecraft has also deployed small satellites, but their purposes remain undisclosed.



“The U.S. government is in this weird place where they brag publicly about how amazing it is and cutting edge, but will not provide any info about it,” said Brian Weeden, the director of program planning at the Secure World Foundation.



Weeden suggests that much of the speculation surrounding the vehicle is likely off-base, with its mystique being its most defining trait. Secure World downplays the likelihood of the X-37B being used as an orbital weapons system for attacking ground targets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-china-s-secretive-space-plane-nbsp">China's secretive space plane&nbsp;</h2>



The X-37B is more likely employed for the purposes stated by the Pentagon: testing reusable space launch vehicle technologies and on-orbit testing of new sensor technologies and satellite hardware. This hasn't stopped nations like China from perceiving the X-37B as a symbol of U.S. space militarization.



China's own secretive reusable space plane, the Shenlong, has completed two missions, with its latest lasting 276 days in orbit. Like the X-37B, the Shenlong is shrouded in secrecy, with no publicly released photos. This apparent mimicry of the American model suggests China's interest in similar space capabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-covert-operations-of-the-x-37b">Covert operations of the X-37B</h2>



The X-37B's history spans over a decade in space, with each mission exceeding the duration of the last. Its last flight ended in November 2022 after 908 days in orbit. General David Thompson of the Space Force hinted at exciting plans for the X-37B. He acknowledges its role as a remarkable test bed and experimentation vehicle.



The upcoming Mission 7 of the X-37B, launching on the Falcon Heavy, will include a mixture of innocuous civilian NASA science and military experimentation with space domain awareness. This combination of civilian and military objectives underscores the dual nature of the mission.



The X-37B's development history is intertwined with NASA, the Air Force, and Boeing's Phantom Works. Initially envisioned as a lifeboat for the International Space Station, its design evolved to meet various military and experimental needs. The spacecraft's ability to deploy solar arrays in orbit allows for extended missions, a capability unmatched by the Space Shuttle.



The X-37B's design suggests potential for covert operations, such as retrieving or inspecting foreign satellites without detection. The U.S. has expressed concerns about similar activities by nations like Russia and China, highlighting the strategic importance of space domain awareness.



In summary, the combination of the X-37B and Falcon Heavy opens up possibilities for high-energy orbits and advanced military capabilities in space. While the specifics of the X-37B's upcoming mission remain classified, its launch signals the U.S.'s intent to maintain dominance in space.



Image Credit: AP / U.S. Air Force



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The Pentagon's X-37B "spycraft" is shrouded in mystery and whispers

The Pentagon's X-37B, an unmanned drone, is gearing up for...

Beautiful,Aurora,Borealis,Northern,Light,In,Iceland,,Shot,In,Early

The enchanting auroras, with their vibrant displays of green, red, and purple curtains, have long captivated observers of the night sky. However, the recent emergence of peculiar aurora-like phenomena -- the mauve and white streaks known as "Steve" and their often accompanying <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/aurora_Steve_green_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glowing green</a> "picket fence" -- has intrigued scientists and sky-watchers alike. 



First identified in 2018 as distinct from the more familiar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aurora-borealis-seen-as-far-south-as-the-equator-after-largest-known-solar-storm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroras</a>, Steve, named after a character in a 2006 children's movie, and the picket fence phenomenon were initially believed to be products of the same physical processes as the auroras. However, this assumption left many questions unanswered about the origins of their unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/aurora_Steve_green_1medium.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glowing emissions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-mechanism-is-generating-sky-glows">New mechanism is generating sky glows</h2>



Enter Claire Gasque, a promising graduate student in physics at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. Gasque has proposed an intriguing explanation for these phenomena, suggesting a physical mechanism vastly different from those responsible for the traditional auroras.



"This would upend our modeling of what creates light and the energy in the aurora in some cases," Gasque said. "It's really cool, one of the biggest mysteries in space physics right now."



Collaborating with the Space Sciences Laboratory (<a href="https://www.ssl.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SSL</a>) at Berkeley, Gasque advocates for a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> mission to launch a rocket into an aurora to validate her hypothesis. This research coincides with the sun entering a more active phase of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-activity-will-intensify-over-the-next-18-months/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">11-year cycle</a>, making this an opportune moment for studying rare events like Steve and the picket fence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-steve-from-a-common-aurora">Distinguishing "Steve" from a common aurora</h2>



Gasque's research focuses on the peculiar behavior of electric fields in the upper atmosphere. She suggests that these fields, parallel to <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, might produce the color spectrum observed in the picket fence phenomenon.



This hypothesis challenges existing models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-lights-captivated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroral light</a> and energy generation and has significant implications for our understanding of the interaction between Earth's magnetosphere and the ionosphere.



Common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathtaking-red-auroras-ignited-northern-hemisphere-skies-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">auroras</a> result from solar wind energizing particles in Earth's magnetosphere, causing oxygen and nitrogen molecules in the upper atmosphere to emit specific frequencies of light. 



Steve, however, exhibits a broad range of frequencies centered around purple or mauve, without the blue light typical of the most energetic particle interactions in auroras. Interestingly, Steve and the picket fence occur at lower latitudes than typical auroras, potentially even near the equator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parallel-electric-fields-at-play">Parallel electric fields at play</h2>



Gasque's research posits that the emissions from the "picket fence" are generated by low-altitude electric fields parallel to Earth's magnetic field. Employing a widely accepted physical model of the ionosphere, she demonstrated that a parallel electric field of approximately 100 millivolts per meter at an altitude of about 110 km could accelerate electrons. 



This acceleration is sufficient to energize oxygen and nitrogen atoms, resulting in the emission of the <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12865" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spectrum of light</a> observed in the "picket fence" and "Steve" aurora. She also identified unique conditions in this region, such as a reduced plasma density and an increased presence of neutral oxygen and nitrogen atoms. These could serve as an insulator, preventing the electric field from short-circuiting.



"If you look at the spectrum of the picket fence, it's much more green than you would expect. And there's none of the blue that's coming from the ionization of nitrogen," Gasque said. "What that's telling us is that there's only a specific energy range of electrons that can create those colors, and they can't be coming from way out in space down into the atmosphere, because those particles have too much energy."



Instead, she said, "the light from the picket fence is being created by particles that have to be energized right there in space by a parallel electric field, which is a completely different mechanism than any of the aurora that we've studied or known before."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-steve-with-rockets">Searching for Steve with rockets</h2>



<a href="https://www.ssl.berkeley.edu/full-directory/name/brian-harding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brian Harding</a>, an assistant research physicist at SSL and co-author of Gasque's paper, highlights the significance of this discovery. 



"The really interesting thing about Claire's paper is that we've known for a couple of years now that the Steve spectrum is telling us there's some very strange physics going on. We just didn't know what it was," said&nbsp;Brian. "Claire's paper showed that parallel electric fields are capable of explaining this strange spectrum."



The team proposes launching rockets from Alaska to measure electric and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-wind-collides-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> within these phenomena, aiming to validate their hypotheses. This endeavor aligns with NASA's Low Cost Access to Space (<a href="https://www.science.gov/topicpages/l/low-cost+space+access" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LCAS</a>) program and is expected to deepen our comprehension of the upper atmosphere's chemistry and physics. Initially, the target would be what's known as an enhanced aurora, which is a normal aurora with "Steve" and "picket fence"-like emissions embedded in it.



"The enhanced aurora is basically this bright layer that's embedded in the normal aurora. The colors are similar to the picket fence in that there's not as much blue in them, and there's more green from oxygen and red from nitrogen. The hypothesis is that these are also created by parallel electric fields, but they are a lot more common than the picket fence," Gasque said.



The plan is not only "to fly a rocket through that enhanced layer to actually measure those parallel electric fields for the first time," she said, but also send a second rocket up to measure the particles at higher altitudes, "to distinguish the conditions from those that cause the auroras." Eventually, she hopes for a rocket that will fly directly through "Steve and the "picket fence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-drives-this-steve-aurora-research">Curiosity drives this "Steve" aurora research</h2>



Gasque credits her success to collaborations with experts studying various atmospheric layers, including the mesosphere and stratosphere. This interdisciplinary approach enabled significant progress in understanding the difference between an aurora and Steve. 



Harding, Gasque, and their colleagues submitted a proposal to NASA for a sounding rocket campaign this fall, anticipating a response about its selection in the first half of 2024. Gasque and Harding view the experiment as a crucial step towards comprehending the chemistry and physics of the upper atmosphere, ionosphere, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-storms-are-influenced-by-earths-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetosphere</a>. 



"It's fair to say that there's going to be a lot of study in the future about how those electric fields got there, what waves they are or aren't associated with, and what that means for the larger energy transfer between Earth's atmosphere and space," Harding said. "We really don't know. Claire's paper is the first step in the chain of that understanding."



The team eagerly awaits NASA's decision on their proposed rocket campaign, anticipated in the first half of 2024.



In summary, the research led by Claire Gasque marks a pivotal advancement in space physics. Gasque has shed light on the elusive nature of "Steve" and the "picket fence" as being something other than an aurora. As the solar cycle progresses, these findings promise not only to unravel the mysteries of these phenomena but also to enhance our broader understanding of the dynamic interplay between Earth and space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-auroras">More about auroras</h2>



Auroras, commonly known as the Northern and Southern Lights, stand as a mesmerizing natural light show in the Earth's polar skies. They occur due to the fascinating interplay between the Earth's atmosphere and solar winds.



As discussed in detail above, scientists believed that the "Steve" and the "picket fence" phenomenon resulted from the same physical processes as an aurora. However, this belief left many questions unanswered about the origins of their unique glowing emissions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Origin: The solar connection</h3>



The Sun, a powerhouse of energy and particles, constantly emits solar winds, streams of charged particles. These particles, on their journey towards Earth, encounter the Earth's magnetic field, which plays a crucial role in the formation of auroras.



Upon reaching Earth, the solar winds get influenced by its magnetic field. The Earth's magnetic field, extending into space, acts as a shield and directs these particles towards the poles. Here, the magnetic field lines funnel these charged particles into the Earth's upper atmosphere.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Science of "Steve" and aurora displays</h3>



The core phenomenon of auroras occurs when these charged particles, primarily electrons, collide with gases like oxygen and nitrogen in the Earth's atmosphere. This collision transfers energy to the gas molecules, exciting them and causing them to emit light - the essence of auroral displays. 



The specific colors of the aurora and of Steve, ranging from greens and reds to blues and purples, depend on the type of gas involved and the altitude of these interactions.



Solar activity significantly impacts the intensity and frequency of auroras. During the solar maximum, increased solar flares and coronal mass ejections result in more intense and frequent auroras. Conversely, the solar minimum leads to reduced auroral activity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cultural and historical significance</h3>



Beyond their visual splendor, auroras offer valuable insights into the Earth's magnetosphere dynamics and its interaction with solar radiation. The study of auroras contributes to our understanding of how the Earth's magnetic field protects us from harmful solar emissions.



Auroras have held a special place in various cultures, inspiring myths and folklore. From being seen as the Valkyries' shields in Norse mythology to representing ancestral spirits in indigenous beliefs, auroras have been a source of wonder and inspiration throughout history.



In summary, auroras, with their breathtaking beauty, are more than just a visual spectacle. They are a dynamic interaction between solar winds and our planet's magnetic field, offering insights into Earth's protective shield and continuing to captivate people across cultures and generations.



The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GL106073" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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The "Steve" phenomena looks like an aurora, acts like an aurora, but it's not an aurora

The enchanting auroras, with their vibrant displays of green, red,...

Pink,Soft,Coral,With,Sea,Anemone,,(actiniaria)at,Lipe,Island,Andaman

The world's coral reefs, aside from a few that are showing surprising resilience, have been facing unprecedented challenges over the past four decades. This is largely due to the adverse effects of climate change, pollution, unsustainable coastal development, and overfishing. 



Scleractinian corals, commonly known as hard corals, have been particularly impacted. However, a ray of hope shines through the resilience of some Caribbean octocorals, also known as soft corals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-soft-coral-resilience">Studying soft coral resilience</h2>



<a href="https://arts-sciences.buffalo.edu/geology/faculty-staff/faculty/mary-alice-coffroth.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mary Alice Coffroth</a>, a respected professor emerita of geology at the <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University at Buffalo</a>, led a significant study on the resilience of soft corals. Over two years, Coffroth and her team at UB conducted an extensive survey in the Florida Keys. 



Their focus was on three species of octocorals that demonstrated an ability to survive heat waves. Coffroth emphasized the importance of this finding, stating, "The resistance and resilience of Caribbean octocorals offers clues for the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-study-provides-answers-to-how-coral-reefs-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a>."



Coffroth led a dedicated team including graduate student Louis Buccella, undergraduates Katherine Eaton and Alyssa Gooding, technician Harleena Franklin, and <a href="https://arts-sciences.buffalo.edu/environment-sustainability/faculty/faculty-directory/howard-lasker.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Howard Lasker</a>, professor emeritus. Between 2015 and 2017, they focused on the symbiotic relationship between the octocorals and their algae.



Hard and soft corals rely on symbiosis with single-celled algae. Warmer waters disrupt this relationship, leading to bleaching. Coffroth, who has been studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rescue-underway-florida-is-battling-an-unprecedented-coral-bleaching-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs in the Florida Keys</a> since 1998, explained, "Bleaching can lead to coral death. It’s unclear if the algae leave or are ejected from the coral."



In this study, they examined the mechanisms contributing to the heightened resistance and resilience of three octocoral species during marine heat waves leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepest-known-coral-reef-bleaching-discovered-alarming-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching events</a>. This involved following the genetic makeup and density of symbiont algae before, during, and after major heat waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered</h2>



Coffroth discovered that Caribbean octocorals predominantly harbor Breviolum symbionts. These symbionts declined in density during heatwaves but recovered quickly, contributing to lower octocoral mortality compared to their scleractinian counterparts.



“The Breviolum densities declined during the heatwaves but recovered quickly,” she explained. “Octocoral mortality was low compared to their scleractinian relatives.”



Following the 2014 El Niño and anticipating a similar event, Coffroth successfully applied for a Rapid Response Research grant from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>. This funding allowed her team to conduct an in-depth 28-month study in the Keys, focusing on the fate of octocorals and their symbionts.



The team's regular visits to the <a href="https://www.fio.usf.edu/keys-marine-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Keys Marine Lab</a> facilitated detailed observations and sample collections, enabling a comprehensive analysis of coral resilience, coloration, symbiont density, and genetic identity.



Coffroth highlighted the timeliness and relevance of their findings, given the current global warming trends, increased storms, and major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/devastating-coral-bleaching-is-expected-around-the-world-within-the-next-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching events.</a> She pointed out that corals today are withstanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-coral-reefs-have-naturally-increased-their-heat-tolerance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher temperatures</a> than in the 1960s.



“There is evidence that corals are withstanding higher temperature now than they did in the 1960s,” she said. “That signals evolution, but the problem is that climate change is moving too fast, faster than evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-significance-of-coral-reefs">Ecological significance of coral reefs</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral reefs</a>, beyond their stunning beauty, play crucial roles in protecting coastal regions, providing habitats for significant marine life, supporting tourism, and contributing to medical research. Coffroth remarked on the stark contrast between the coral reefs of the 1970s and the present, underscoring the dramatic changes they have undergone.



“If you a see picture of coral reefs when I started diving in the 1970s and compare it with one now, it makes you want to cry,” she said. “The change is just amazing.”



While acknowledging the importance of their observations, Coffroth stressed the need for further research to understand the variations within the coral and symbiont genera. She noted an increase in both the bleaching of coral species that had previously shown resilience, and the emergence of new resilient ones.



“I’m seeing species bleach that have never bleached before but also corals showing more resilience,” she said. “There is a lot of variation within both the animal and symbiont genera. We need to understand the variation.”



The ultimate goal is to continue exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recent-coral-recovery-in-the-great-barrier-reef-has-paused/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reef dynamics</a> and the robustness of symbiotic algae, alongside efforts to mitigate environmental damage caused by human activities. 



Coffroth concluded, "We can’t stop global warming, but the hope is that we can slow it down," underscoring the urgent need for continued research and action in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adj6788" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Some corals and reefs are showing surprising resilience as global waters warm

The world's coral reefs, aside from a few that are...

In a comprehensive new study, scientists have assembled a detailed 66 million-year history of Earth's atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and corresponding temperatures. The research offers critical insights into the current and future state of our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/">climate</a>.&nbsp;



The study was conducted over the course of seven years by a consortium of over 80 researchers from 16 countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitivity-of-earth-s-climate-nbsp">Sensitivity of Earth's climate&nbsp;</h2>



The experts determined that the last time Earth's atmosphere contained CO2 levels comparable to today was 14 million years ago, which is much earlier than previously estimated.&nbsp;



This revelation underscores the sensitivity of Earth's climate to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/state-of-the-climate-greenhouse-gases-hit-a-record-high-in-2022/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> and human-driven concentrations of CO2, with potential long-term effects spanning millennia.



“We have long known that adding CO2 to our atmosphere raises the temperature,” said Bärbel Hönisch, a geochemist at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a>’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory who coordinated the consortium. “This study gives us a much more robust idea of how sensitive the climate is over long time scales.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-levels-and-global-temperature-rise">CO2 levels and global temperature rise </h2>



The research suggests that for every doubling of atmospheric CO2, average global temperatures could increase by 1.5 to 4.5 degrees Celsius (2.7 to 8.1 Fahrenheit) in the near future, with some studies proposing even higher increases.



The study highlights a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-tipping-points-report-shows-humanity-on-a-disastrous-trajectory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">concerning trend</a>: from around 280 parts per million (ppm) of CO2 in the late 1700s, we have reached approximately 420 ppm today, a 50% increase. 



This trajectory could lead to levels of 600 ppm or more by the century's end, pushing the planet along a path of uncertain but significant warming, with an increase of about 1.2 degrees C (2.2 degrees F) already observed since the late 19th century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-historical-co2-levels">Studying historical CO2 levels</h2>



The researchers used a range of scientific methods, including analysis of air bubbles in ice cores, ancient soil and ocean sediment chemistry, and fossil plant leaf anatomy, to track historical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-accelerated-in-the-last-decade-making-it-the-hottest-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature trends</a> relative to CO2 levels. 



The team meticulously reviewed and recalibrated existing data, excluding less reliable studies in light of new findings, to create a more accurate and comprehensive CO2 versus temperature curve over 66 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-prediction-nbsp">Dramatic prediction&nbsp;</h2>



This new curve suggests a dramatic prediction: a doubling of CO2 could increase global temperatures by 5 to 8 degrees C. However, this "Earth system sensitivity" metric reflects climate changes over hundreds of thousands of years, not the shorter timescales directly relevant to human experience.



The study authors explained that over long periods, increases in temperature may emerge from intertwined Earth processes that go beyond the immediate greenhouse effect created by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-carbon-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2 in the air</a>. 



These include melting of polar ice sheets, which would reduce the Earth’s ability to reflect solar energy; changes in terrestrial plant cover; and changes in clouds and atmospheric aerosols that could either heighten or lower temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-effects-of-co2-levels">Cascading effects of CO2 levels</h2>



“If you want us to tell you what the temperature will be in the year 2100, this does not tell you that. But it does have a bearing on present climate policy,” said study co-author Dana Royer, a paleoclimatologist at Wesleyan University. “It strengthens what we already thought we knew. It also tells us that there are sluggish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cascading effects</a> that will last for thousands of years.”



Hönisch said the study will be useful for climate modelers trying to predict what will happen in coming decades, because they will be able to feed the newly robust observations into their studies, and disentangle processes that operate on short versus long time scales. She noted that all the project’s data are available in an open database, and will be updated on a rolling basis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-nbsp">Critical insights&nbsp;</h2>



Covering the Cenozoic era, the study offers a refined understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2-temperature relationship</a>, particularly for certain time periods. It confirms that the hottest period was around 50 million years ago, with CO2 levels reaching up to 1,600 ppm.



The researchers conclude that the last time CO2 was consistently higher than now was about 16 million years ago at about 480 ppm. By 14 million years ago, atmospheric CO2 had decreased to today’s human-induced level of 420 ppm.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-messing-with-the-atmosphere">Messing with the atmosphere</h2>



The decline continued, and by 2.5 million years ago, atmospheric CO2 reached about 270 or 280 ppm, kicking off a series of ice ages. It was at or below that when modern humans came into being about 400,000 years ago, and persisted there until we started messing with the atmosphere on a grand scale 250 years ago, said the experts.



"Regardless of exactly how many degrees the temperature changes, it’s clear we have already brought the planet into a range of conditions never seen by our species,” said study co-author Gabriel Bowen, a professor at the University of Utah. “It should make us stop and question what is the right path forward.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adi5177" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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CO2 levels linked to cascading effects that last for millennia 

In a comprehensive new study, scientists have assembled a detailed...

In a world increasingly aware of environmental issues, many people desire to adopt a more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-nations-are-making-more-progress-toward-sustainable-development/">sustainable</a> lifestyle. Yet, the transition to sustainable behavior is not as simple as it may seem.&nbsp;



A new review article by Professor Wilhelm Hofmann of <a href="http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ruhr University Bochum</a> explains why self-control is more complex than a mere lack of self-discipline.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-motivational-conflicts-nbsp">Motivational conflicts&nbsp;</h2>



"People often encounter motivational conflicts in which they must somehow choose between a highly enjoyable, tempting option and an option that is more long-term oriented or prosocial," said Professor Hofmann.&nbsp;



"This phenomenon is the focus of self-control research, where self-control is typically defined as the process of advancing a self-control goal over a conflicting motivation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-external-environment-nbsp">The external environment&nbsp;</h2>



Hofmann argues that when psychological studies are focused on the individual, they often overlook structural factors. His analysis of numerous research studies uncovers the significant role of the physical and social environment in shaping individual behavior.



For instance, when an eco-conscious consumer faces a choice between multiple meat dishes and a single, possibly more expensive vegetarian option, the environmental setup plays a key role in decision-making. This example illustrates the conflict between personal goals and available choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-individual-discipline-nbsp">Beyond individual discipline&nbsp;</h2>



Traditional theories like self-determination emphasize personal autonomy and the preservation of freedom of choice. However, Hofmann points out that this approach is flawed.&nbsp;



The assumption that providing sufficient information about risks and trusting individuals to make the right decisions is insufficient. Environmental and social norms significantly influence decisions, like the tendency to conform to peer choices in matters like car ownership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-changes-are-needed">Structural changes are needed</h2>



“Many people try to live in a more sustainable manner, but fail to do so in reality,” said Hofmann. Unsustainable options are often cheaper, more visible and more available than sustainable ones.&nbsp;



“Relying on individual discipline, willingness to make sacrifices and a sense of guilt won’t get us very far. We need to question and change the structures that contribute to social problems such as the overuse of natural resources and make sustainable behavior more difficult. And in order to achieve this, we need sound and effective political decisions.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-escalating-climate-crisis-nbsp">Escalating climate crisis&nbsp;</h2>



Hofmann suggests that society needs to agree on good rules in order to provide individuals with the best possible support on the path to sustainable behavior.



"The accelerating climate crisis is the best example of how the unlimited exercise of personal consumer freedoms leads to negative consequences for society as a whole,” explained Hofmann.&nbsp;



“We’ve forgotten to a certain extent to look at the collective benefit, i.e. the common good, and need to recognize the importance of good regulation once again. By this I mean that we need to agree on effective and fair rules that protect us from risks and that apply to everyone equally. Such as are standard practice in road traffic, for example.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-the-individual-nbsp">The role of the individual&nbsp;</h2>



While acknowledging the importance of structural changes, Hofmann does not diminish the role of individual efforts in achieving sustainability.



“Everyone can take small steps and help shape their environment wherever possible. And once your own creative power as a citizen, employee or customer reaches its limits, you can advocate for people with decision-making power to take up the cause. We always have the power to influence."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44159-023-00256-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Psychology</a>.



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Why is the transition to sustainable behavior so difficult?

In a world increasingly aware of environmental issues, many people...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

So, as documented in the PBS series Nature: Spy in the Wild 2, filmmakers and scientists created a hidden camera that could infiltrate an ape troop. This piece of technology, however, did more than simply record.

Spy in the Wild

Even a camera isn't a perfect solution; gorillas would realize that the technology doesn't belong in their native habitat and act accordingly. Thankfully for the scientific community, those who study the apes are nothing if not creative.