Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features a stunning reflection nebula known as GN 04.32.8 in the constellation Taurus.



Reflection nebulae are cosmic clouds of fine dust that become visible not by producing their own light, but by reflecting the light of nearby stars.&nbsp;



Unlike emission <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/">nebulae</a>, which glow due to ionized gases radiating light, reflection nebulae shine more subtly.&nbsp;



The light from nearby stars strikes the dust particles within the cloud and scatters in many directions - especially shorter, bluer wavelengths. This scattering effect, similar to the way Earth’s sky appears blue, often gives reflection nebulae their characteristic bluish hue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-taurus-molecular-cloud">The Taurus Molecular Cloud</h2>



“GN 04.32.8 is a small part of the stellar nursery known as the Taurus Molecular Cloud. At only roughly 480 light-years from Earth in the constellation Taurus, it's one of the best locations for studying newly forming stars,” noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>.



The Taurus Molecular Cloud is one of the closest and most extensively studied regions for low-mass star formation.&nbsp;



Unlike larger star-forming regions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/">Orion</a> that produce many high-mass stars, the Taurus Molecular Cloud is dominated by the formation of Sun-like and smaller stars, making it a prime analog for understanding the conditions that led to the birth of our own solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energetic-stars-in-the-constellation-taurus-nbsp">Energetic stars in the constellation Taurus&nbsp;</h2>



“This reflection nebula is illuminated by the system of three bright stars in the center of this image, mainly the variable star V1025 Tauri in the very center," ESA noted. 



“One of those stars overlaps with part of the nebula: this is another variable star that is named HP Tauri, but is classified as a T Tauri star, for its similarity to yet another variable star elsewhere in the Taurus Molecular Complex.”&nbsp;



T Tauri stars are young, energetic stars in the earliest stages of stellar evolution, just beginning their journey toward becoming stable main sequence stars like our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-sun-like-stars-with-secret-companions/">Sun</a>.&nbsp;



These stars are highly variable, often exhibiting strong stellar winds and flares as they settle into equilibrium. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dynamic-star-system">A dynamic star system</h2>



In this case, the trio of T Tauri stars - named HP Tau, HP Tau G2, and HP Tau G3 - are believed to be gravitationally bound, forming a dynamic triple star system.



“Eagle-eyed viewers might notice the small, squashed, orange spot, just left of center below the clouds of the nebula, that’s crossed by a dark line. This is a newly-formed protostar, hidden in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/">protoplanetary disc</a> that obstructs some of its light,” explained ESA.



“Because the disc is edge-on to us, it’s an ideal candidate for study. Astronomers are using Hubble here to examine it closely, seeking to learn about the kinds of exoplanets that might be formed in discs like it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-light-of-hot-young-stars">The light of hot, young stars</h2>



Reflection nebulae are usually found in regions where new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-billion-white-dwarf-stars-in-milky-way-galaxy-might-have-habitable-planets/">stars</a> are forming, often near or within dense molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Some reflection nebulae can span light-years across and serve as markers of stellar nurseries - places where future generations of stars are taking shape.



Reflection nebulae offer astronomers a valuable glimpse into the structure and composition of the interstellar medium and help trace the life cycles of stars from birth to maturity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examples-of-reflection-nebulae-nbsp">Examples of reflection nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



One well-known example is the reflection nebula surrounding the Pleiades star cluster, also called the Seven Sisters.&nbsp;



The Iris Nebula, located in the constellation Cepheus about 1,300 light-years from Earth, is a striking reflection nebula illuminated by the young star SAO 19158.



This nebula is a popular target for astrophotographers due to its vivid colors and intricate structure.



Found about 1,600 light-years away, M78 is the brightest reflection nebula in the Orion constellation and one of the easiest to observe with amateur telescopes. It’s illuminated by two young stars, HD 38563A and HD 38563B.&nbsp;



M78 is part of a larger complex of gas and dust that includes many other star-forming regions within the Orion Molecular Cloud.



Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Young stars illuminate the constellation Taurus 

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency...

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features a large phytoplankton bloom in the Gulf of Maine.



The image was captured on June 21, 2025, by the Ocean Color Instrument (OCI) on NASA’s PACE satellite.&nbsp;



“In summer 2025, waters in the Gulf of Maine popped with vivid swirls of blue and green. The cause was a massive bloom of phytoplankton - microscopic plant-like organisms that often float near the ocean surface,” noted <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/154472/a-booming-bloom-returns-to-the-gulf-of-maine">NASA</a>.



“Scientists say it was one of the largest blooms of its kind to show up in the Gulf’s waters in recent years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bloom-in-the-gulf-of-maine">Bloom in the Gulf of Maine </h2>



Catherine Mitchell is a satellite oceanographer at Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences. She noted that the Gulf of Maine bloom contained coccolithophores, a type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-phytoplankton-that-feed-ocean-life-are-rapidly-disappearing/">phytoplankton</a> that makes the water appear milky blue.



“The tiny organisms, along with other types of phytoplankton, including diatoms that bloom here in spring, lie at the base of the marine food web,” explained NASA.



“Their presence - or absence - in Gulf of Maine waters can affect the entire ecosystem, from finfish to shellfish, and the region’s fisheries that depend on them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-conditions-and-plankton-communities-nbsp">Shifting conditions and plankton communities&nbsp;</h2>



Mitchell said that coccolithophore blooms like this one became less common in the Gulf’s waters starting around 2010. But in recent years, they’ve started to come back.&nbsp;



Scientists have also seen more dinoflagellates (a type of phytoplankton that move with tiny tails) and an overall drop in phytoplankton productivity over the past few decades.



These changes in plankton are linked to shifting ocean conditions. For instance, heavy rainfall from 2006 to 2009 made the Gulf’s waters fresher. Then, starting in 2008, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">warm water</a> from deep in the North Atlantic began heating the Gulf from the bottom up.&nbsp;



However, by spring 2025, bottom-water temperatures were cooler than they’ve been in 20 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research-efforts">Ongoing research efforts</h2>



“The relationship between these changing water conditions and phytoplankton communities in the gulf remains unclear, but ongoing research could begin to provide some answers,” noted NASA.



“In fact, Mitchell and colleagues scrutinized this PACE image just days before heading out on a research expedition to study the bloom and other ocean properties up close. The cruise, the third so far this year, offers scientists the chance to validate ocean color data collected by PACE with real-world ocean samples.”



Mitchell pointed out that a major benefit of the PACE satellite is its ability to “see the rainbow,” which makes it easier for scientists to distinguish between groups of phytoplankton.



“With our continuing field measurements, we will validate ocean color observations from PACE, enabling satellite observations in the Gulf of Maine and supporting the region’s fisheries and aquaculture industries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vital-signs-of-ocean-health">Vital signs of ocean health</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-from-africa-sparked-a-massive-phytoplankton-bloom/">Phytoplankton blooms</a> like the one captured in the Gulf of Maine are vital signs of ocean health. These microscopic organisms form the foundation of marine food webs, feeding everything from tiny zooplankton to large fish, whales, and seabirds.&nbsp;



When conditions are right - such as warm temperatures, abundant sunlight, and available nutrients - phytoplankton populations can grow rapidly, creating colorful blooms that are visible from space.



The Gulf of Maine is particularly sensitive to environmental change. Located at the intersection of cold northern currents and warmer waters from the south, it’s a dynamic ecosystem where small shifts in temperature or salinity can have outsized effects.&nbsp;



This region is also one of the fastest-warming ocean areas on the planet, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-are-rising-faster-than-expected-and-likely-to-accelerate/">temperatures</a> rising more than three times the global ocean average in some years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-changes-with-ocean-monitoring-nbsp">Forecasting changes with ocean monitoring&nbsp;</h2>



Changes in water temperature and salinity have ripple effects across the food chain. Warmer waters can favor certain types of phytoplankton over others, shifting the balance of species in ways that affect what fish and shellfish are available to predators - and to the region’s fisheries.&nbsp;



For example, coccolithophores may thrive in clearer, warmer waters, while traditional spring-blooming diatoms do better in colder, more nutrient-rich conditions.



Long-term monitoring is essential to understand and predict these shifts. Satellites like PACE provide a global view of ocean color, which reflects the presence and composition of phytoplankton.&nbsp;



By combining these observations with ship-based sampling, scientists can get a more complete picture of how plankton communities are evolving and how that affects everything from carbon cycling to fisheries sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-in-the-gulf-of-maine-nbsp">Warming in the Gulf of Maine&nbsp;</h2>



The Gulf’s warming trend has already caused noticeable ecological changes. Some species of fish have moved farther north or into deeper waters in search of cooler temperatures.&nbsp;



Lobsters, a key commercial species, have shifted their range as well. Meanwhile, harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-algae-in-lake-erie-may-be-hiding-toxic-deadly-compounds/">algal blooms</a> - caused by certain types of phytoplankton - have become more frequent in some parts of the Gulf, threatening shellfish harvests and public health.



Scientists are working to better predict how blooms will respond to future climate conditions.&nbsp;



Understanding which species are likely to dominate under warmer, fresher, or more acidic conditions can help predict changes in fish stocks, shellfish safety, and ecosystem stability.&nbsp;



This kind of forecasting is especially important in the Gulf of Maine, where marine resources are closely tied to local economies.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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Giant bloom in the Gulf of Maine signals change

Today's Image of the Day from NASA Earth Observatory features...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the Cat's Paw Nebula - a massive, active star-forming region in the constellation Scorpius. Also known as NGC 6334, the nebula is located about 4,000 light-years away from Earth.



The nebula’s name comes from its appearance. When viewed in visible or infrared light, it resembles a cat’s paw with bright lobes that look like giant toe beans.



“To celebrate the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope’s third year of highly productive science, astronomers used the telescope to scratch beyond the surface of the Cat’s Paw Nebula (NGC 6334), a massive, local star-forming region,” said <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images">ESA</a>.



“This area is of great interest to scientists, having been subject to previous study by NASA/ESA’s Hubble and retired NASA Spitzer Space telescopes, as they seek to understand the multiple steps required for a turbulent molecular cloud to transition to stars.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activity-in-the-cat-s-paw-nebula-nbsp">Activity in the Cat’s Paw Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



The Cat’s Paw Nebula is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/80-million-pixels-reveal-the-brilliance-of-a-star-cluster/">stellar nursery</a>, teeming with young, hot stars that are still forming from clouds of gas and dust. It spans roughly 50 light-years across and glows red, primarily due to the presence of ionized hydrogen gas illuminated by ultraviolet radiation from the newborn stars.&nbsp;



Much of the star formation remains hidden in visible light because of dense dust clouds, but observations in infrared and radio wavelengths have revealed an incredible amount of ongoing activity beneath the surface.



NGC 6334 is particularly rich in massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/">stars</a>, including some that are over ten times the mass of the Sun.&nbsp;



Because of this, it's often used by astronomers to study the early stages of high-mass star formation, which are less understood than the processes that form lower-mass stars.&nbsp;



The region is also home to a number of protostars and clusters still wrapped in dusty cocoons, making it a dynamic and evolving part of our galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-details-in-the-cat-s-paw-nebula-nbsp">New details in the Cat’s Paw Nebula&nbsp;</h2>



“With its near-infrared capabilities and sharp resolution, the telescope 'clawed' back a portion of a singular 'toe bean,' revealing a subset of mini toe bean-reminiscent structures composed of gas, dust, and young stars,” noted ESA.



“Webb’s view reveals a chaotic scene still in development: massive young stars are carving away at nearby gas and dust, while their bright starlight is producing a bright nebulous glow represented in blue.”&nbsp;



Although only recently recognized in modern astronomy, the Cat’s Paw Nebula has become iconic - not just for its curious shape, but also for the insight it offers into how massive stars form in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/">Milky Way</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-constellation-scorpius-nbsp">The constellation Scorpius&nbsp;</h2>



Scorpius is one of the most striking constellations in the night sky, especially visible during the summer months in the Southern Hemisphere and lower latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



Its shape is unusually recognizable, forming a long, curving line that resembles a scorpion with a curled tail and extended claws.&nbsp;



In mythology, Scorpius is often associated with the story of Orion, the great hunter. According to one version of the myth, Orion boasted that he could kill all the animals on Earth, which angered the goddess Artemis. To punish him, she sent a giant scorpion to defeat him.&nbsp;



After a fierce battle, both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-system-once-drifted-through-orions-star-forming-region/">Orion</a> and the scorpion were placed among the stars on opposite sides of the sky. To this day, Orion sets as Scorpius rises, as if the hunter is still fleeing from the celestial scorpion.



Antares, the brightest star in the constellation Scorpius, is a red supergiant whose name means "rival of Mars" due to its reddish hue and brightness. Antares serves as the scorpion's heart and is one of the most prominent stars in the night sky.&nbsp;



Because Scorpius lies along the plane of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-map-reveals-that-the-milky-ways-dust-has-very-unusual-properties/">Milky Way</a>, it is filled with dense star fields and deep-sky objects. This part of the sky is exceptionally rich in detail, offering a glimpse into the crowded heart of our galaxy.



Image Credit: ESA



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Webb reveals the Cat's Paw Nebula in stunning detail

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located around 35 million light-years away in the southern constellation Reticulum. The image was captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.&nbsp;



"The data featured in this portrait make use of two of Webb’s instruments: the Mid-InfraRed Instrument (MIRI) and Near-InfraRed Camera (NIRCam)," noted <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>.



"Here MIRI captures the glow of interstellar dust grains, which trace out the interstellar medium, the fuel for future star formation. NIRCam shows the light from stars, even young stars hidden behind prodigious amounts of dust. NIRCam also captures emission from ionized nebulae around young stars."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-reveals-galaxies-in-new-light">Webb reveals galaxies in new light</h2>



According to ESA, the data was collected by the <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/home">PHANGS team</a> as part of a program in which Webb will observe 55 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/james-webb-captures-galaxies-that-are-too-old-to-exist/">galaxies</a> that have also been mapped by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) radio telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, and more.&nbsp;



"By combining Webb’s unprecedented view of the dust and stars with data from these other facilities, the team aims to obtain a new, highly detailed view of how stars are born, live, and die in galaxies across the Universe."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ngc-1559-a-loner-in-space">NGC 1559: A loner in space</h2>



Although NGC 1559 appears to sit close to one of our nearest neighbors in the sky - the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - this is just a trick of perspective, noted ESA.



While it is part of the Reticulum constellation, NGC 1559 is not part of the Local Group of galaxies but instead resides in a more distant region of space.



"In reality, NGC 1559 is physically nowhere near the LMC in space; in fact it truly is a loner, lacking the company of any nearby galaxies or membership of any galaxy cluster," said ESA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-in-ngc-1559">Star formation in NGC 1559</h2>



NGC 1559 is notable for its active star formation and strong magnetic fields. It has also been the site of several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supernovae</a>, making it of particular interest to astronomers who study stellar evolution and the life cycle of stars.



The structure of NGC 1559 includes well-defined spiral arms that contain young, hot stars and regions of ionized gas, indicative of ongoing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-is-starving-its-host-galaxy-of-star-forming-fuel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-extragalactic-wonder">An extragalactic wonder</h2>



Despite being relatively small compared to larger galaxies like the Milky Way, NGC 1559 is an important object for understanding how barred spiral galaxies evolve and the processes that trigger supernovae.



The galaxy’s remote location and active nature make it a fascinating subject of study in the field of extragalactic astronomy. 



The isolation of NGC 1559 allows for a clearer view of its structure without much interference from neighboring galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-barred-spiral-galaxies">Barred spiral galaxies</h2>



Barred spiral galaxies are a type of spiral galaxy characterized by a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. This bar extends out from the core and connects to the galaxy's spiral arms, which swirl outward in a graceful pattern.



Scientists believe that the bar plays a crucial role in the evolution of the galaxy, funneling gas towards the core and potentially triggering star formation or feeding a central black hole. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/newly-discovered-stars-milky-way-are-old-as-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, our own galaxy, is an example of a barred spiral. These galaxies are quite common in the universe, making up about two-thirds of all observed spiral galaxies.



The bar itself is thought to be a temporary feature, developing as the galaxy matures and possibly disappearing over time as the dynamics of the stars change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reticulum-constellation">The Reticulum constellation</h2>



Reticulum is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "the reticle" in Latin, which refers to the crosshairs in an eyepiece of a telescope.



The constellation was named in the 18th century by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille to honor the reticle he used in his scientific instruments. It is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, A. Leroy, J. Lee and the PHANGS Team



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Spiral galaxy glows with young stars and interstellar dust

Today's Image of the Day from the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/">European Southern Observatory</a> (ESO) features a stunning view of the Sculptor Galaxy, one of the brightest spiral galaxies visible from Earth.



The ultra-detailed image, which was captured using ESO’s Very Large Telescope, reveals features in the Sculptor Galaxy that have never been seen before.&nbsp;



ESO researcher Enrico Congiu led a new study on the Sculptor Galaxy that is published in the journal Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-galaxy-wide-view-of-sculptor-nbsp">A galaxy-wide view of Sculptor&nbsp;</h2>



The team observed the galaxy in thousands of wavelengths at once, collecting an immense amount of data from every point across its structure. This allowed them to build a comprehensive, galaxy-wide view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/">stars</a> live and evolve within Sculptor.



"Galaxies are incredibly complex systems that we are still struggling to understand," said Congiu.



“The Sculptor Galaxy is in a sweet spot. It is close enough that we can resolve its internal structure and study its building blocks with incredible detail, but at the same time, big enough that we can still see it as a whole system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thousands-of-distinct-colors-nbsp">Thousands of distinct colors&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-detected-in-the-most-distant-and-primitive-galaxy-ever-analyzed/">Galaxies</a> span hundreds of thousands of light-years, yet their evolution is shaped by processes unfolding on much smaller scales.&nbsp;



The fundamental components of a galaxy - stars, gas, and dust - each emit light in distinct colors. The more shades of color captured in an image, the deeper the insight into a galaxy’s internal structure.&nbsp;



Traditional images typically contain only a few colors, but the new map of the Sculptor Galaxy includes thousands.&nbsp;



This rich spectrum provides astronomers with detailed information about the galaxy’s stars, gas, and dust - from their ages and chemical makeup to how they’re moving through space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-sculptor-galaxy-nbsp">Mapping the Sculptor Galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



The research team spent more than 50 hours observing the Sculptor Galaxy using the Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) on the Very Large Telescope.&nbsp;



To capture the full view - spanning roughly 65,000 light-years - they combined over 100 separate exposures into a single, detailed mosaic.&nbsp;



According to study co-author Kathryn Kreckel from Heidelberg University, Germany, this makes the map a potent tool.&nbsp;



“We can zoom in to study individual regions where stars form at nearly the scale of individual stars, but we can also zoom out to study the galaxy as a whole,” said Kreckel.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hundreds-of-planetary-nebulae-nbsp">Hundreds of planetary nebulae&nbsp;</h2>



In their initial analysis of the data, the team identified around 500 planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-nebula-destroys-an-oceans-worth-of-water-every-month/">nebulae</a> scattered throughout the Sculptor Galaxy.



Study co-author Fabian Scheuermann, a doctoral student at Heidelberg University, emphasized the significance of the discovery.&nbsp;



Scheuermann noted that when astronomers study galaxies outside of our own cosmic neighborhood, they normally detect fewer than 100 planetary nebulae in each one.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-galaxy-of-extremes">A galaxy of extremes</h2>



The Sculptor Galaxy, also known as NGC 253, is located about 11.4 million light-years away in the constellation Sculptor. It’s classified as a starburst galaxy, meaning it’s undergoing an exceptionally high rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/">star formation</a>.&nbsp;



This vigorous star-making activity is especially intense in its central regions, where dense clouds of gas and dust feed the birth of new stars.&nbsp;



The galaxy is tilted at a steep angle from our perspective, which gives it a striking, elongated appearance when viewed through telescopes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-notable-features-of-the-sculptor-galaxy-nbsp">Notable features of the Sculptor Galaxy&nbsp;</h2>



Discovered in 1783 by Caroline Herschel, the Sculptor Galaxy has become a popular target for both professional astronomers and amateur skywatchers due to its brightness and relative proximity.&nbsp;



It’s part of the Sculptor Group, one of the nearest groups of galaxies to our Local Group. Despite being rich in star-forming regions, much of its inner structure is veiled by thick dust lanes.&nbsp;



However, infrared and X-ray observations have helped scientists peer through the obscuring material to study the galaxy’s core, revealing a wealth of activity including supernova remnants and a possible central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ultramassive-black-hole-ever-seen-cosmic-horseshoe-lrg-3-757/">black hole</a>.



The Sculptor Galaxy is also notable for its extended halo of stars and gas, which suggests past interactions or mergers with smaller galaxies.&nbsp;



This halo, along with its active central region, makes NGC 253 a valuable subject for understanding how galaxies evolve, form stars, and recycle gas over time. Its combination of beauty and scientific richness continues to make it a focus of galactic studies.



Image Credit: European Southern Observatory&nbsp;



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Thousands of colors in the Sculptor Galaxy

Today's Image of the Day from the European Southern Observatory...

Today's Image of the Day from the European Space Agency features the spiral galaxy UGC 11397 in the constellation Lyra (The Lyre).



The light captured in this striking image traveled for 250 million years before reaching the NASA/ESA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-years-of-hubble-the-telescope-that-changed-our-view-of-the-universe/">Hubble Space Telescope</a>.



“At first glance, UGC 11397 appears to be an average spiral galaxy: it sports two graceful spiral arms that are illuminated by stars and defined by dark, clumpy clouds of dust,” noted ESA.



“What sets UGC 11397 apart from a typical spiral lies at its center, where a supermassive black hole containing 174 million times the mass of the Sun is growing.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hidden-powerhouse">A hidden powerhouse</h2>



As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-oldest-black-hole-jet-ever-seen-is-size-of-three-milky-ways-j1601-3102/">black hole</a> consumes gas, dust, and even entire stars from its surroundings, the infalling material heats up dramatically, producing a dazzling display of energy.&nbsp;



These emissions span the electromagnetic spectrum - from gamma rays to radio waves - and can flare or fade unpredictably.&nbsp;



“But in some galaxies, including UGC 11397, thick clouds of dust hide much of this energetic activity from view in optical light,” explained ESA.



“Despite this, UGC 11397's actively growing black hole was revealed through its bright X-ray emission - high-energy light that can pierce the surrounding dust.”&nbsp;



Its distinctive signature has earned UGC 11397 the classification of a Type 2 Seyfert galaxy. This category describes active galaxies whose central regions are obscured in visible light by a doughnut-shaped cloud of dust and gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-and-black-hole-growth">Galaxy and black hole growth</h2>



“Using Hubble, researchers will study hundreds of galaxies that, like UGC 11397, harbor a supermassive black hole that is gaining mass,” noted ESA.&nbsp;



“The Hubble observations will help researchers weigh nearby supermassive black holes, understand how black holes grew early in the universe’s history, and even study how stars form in the extreme environment found at the very center of a galaxy.”



Studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-galaxies-discovery-would-upend-current-understanding-of-universe/">galaxies</a> like UGC 11397 also offers insight into the mysterious relationship between supermassive black holes and their host galaxies.&nbsp;



Despite residing at the heart of galaxies, these black holes influence their surroundings on a much larger scale, often regulating the formation of stars and even shaping the structure of the galaxy itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-black-hole-origins">Tracing black hole origins</h2>



One of the key questions astronomers hope to answer is how these black holes grow so massive in the first place.&nbsp;



While some appear to have formed gradually over billions of years, others - especially those in the early universe - seem to have reached enormous sizes much more quickly. 



Observations of galaxies such as UGC 11397 provide crucial data to test different growth scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clearer-picture-of-cosmic-evolution">A clearer picture of cosmic evolution</h2>



By combining Hubble’s observations with data from other telescopes, including those that detect X-rays and radio waves, researchers can build a more complete picture of how matter behaves around black holes.&nbsp;



This multi-wavelength approach is essential for studying objects obscured by dust, like Type 2 Seyfert galaxies, where optical views alone can be misleading.



Hubble’s sharp vision also allows astronomers to examine the surrounding galactic disk and spiral arms in high detail. 



These structures hold clues about recent star formation, galactic dynamics, and how gas flows toward the center - fueling both star birth and black hole growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-energy-in-active-galaxies">Black hole energy in active galaxies</h2>



In many active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/">galaxies</a>, the energy released by the central black hole can blast out powerful winds or jets that affect star formation. These feedback processes can either shut down or stimulate the creation of new stars, depending on the conditions.&nbsp;



Understanding when and how this feedback occurs is another major goal of Hubble’s ongoing studies.



UGC 11397 is just one of many galaxies being surveyed as part of broader efforts to trace the cosmic history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-turn-into-white-holes-and-blast-out-matter-and-time-runs-backwards/">black hole</a> activity.&nbsp;



Projects such as these are helping scientists map how common active galactic nuclei are, how their properties evolve over time, and how they relate to galaxy mergers and other large-scale events.



The wealth of information gathered from galaxies like UGC 11397 is not only deepening our understanding of black holes but also refining models of galaxy formation and evolution.&nbsp;



With each new observation, astronomers are piecing together the vast and complex puzzle of how galaxies and their central engines co-evolve across cosmic time.



Image Credit: ESA/Hubble &amp; NASA, M. J. Koss, A. J. Barth



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Graceful spiral galaxy hides a dark secret

Bee hives in the desert are always underground or in rock crevices. This large hive took residence in an old ant bear hole underground. Photo Credit: Whensilencefindsme

Desert Bee Hive

A new fossil skull, dug out of purple siltstone in northern China, belongs to a creature that walked the planet about 259 million years ago. The animal was named Yinshanosaurus angustus, and the find helps fill a gap in the family tree of large plant‑eating reptiles that roamed just before the greatest die‑off in Earth’s history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-yinshanosaurus-angustus">Unearthing Yinshanosaurus angustus</h2>



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jian-Yi-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jian Yi</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jun-Liu-222" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jun Liu</a> of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IVPP</a>), compared two well‑preserved specimens from Shanxi and Inner Mongolia.



Both fossils include almost complete skulls, giving researchers a rare full view of the head and much of the spine.



“Pareiasauria are a bizarre herbivorous clade of tetrapods that existed in the Guadalupian and Lopingian and were victims of both the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2021.631198/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Capitanian</a> and the end‑Permian mass extinction events,” reminded Liu. 



The more complete of the two skulls measures 10 inches long yet barely 4 inches wide across the cheeks, the narrowest head known for any pareiasaur.



That unusual shape is not the only odd trait. The snout is as wide as it is high, the frontal bone is slender and twice as long as it is wide, and the upper‑jaw teeth stand almost vertical instead of tilting backward as in relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-on-earth-is-a-pareiasaur">What on Earth is a pareiasaur?</h2>



A pareiasaur is a stocky, barrel‑bodied tetrapod that carried a tiny tail and a head often ringed with bony knobs. Most species topped out at about 8 feet long and weighed as much as today’s American bison.



They thrived across the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22096103/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">late Permian period</a>, serving as key plant chompers in ecosystems from South Africa to Russia. Their success ended abruptly when roughly 90 percent of marine species and 70 percent of land vertebrates vanished at the close of the era.



Yinshanosaurus angustus foraged on the northern shoulder of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-fossils-from-earths-largest-mass-extinction-carry-a-climate-warning/">Pangea</a>, the single landmass that stitched together today’s continents. 



At the time, the interior of the supercontinent swung between searing summers and bitter winters, pressuring animals to adapt or disappear.



China’s Naobaogou and Sunjiagou formations capture that turbulent landscape in stacked mudstones and siltstones. 



Periodic floods buried carcasses quickly enough to preserve delicate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-33-foot-jurassic-giant-twice-as-big-as-its-cousin-xingxiulong/">skeletal</a> links, a stroke of luck for modern paleontologists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-written-in-bone">Clues written in bone</h2>



Yi and Liu spotted a forked rear projection on the nasal bone and a notch in the tabular bone at the back of the skull, features never seen together before. 



They also noticed a U‑shaped paraoccipital process that differs from the V‑shaped version in close cousins.



“The skeleton of Yinshanosaurus angustus provides the complete cranial and articulated postcranial details of Chinese pareiasaurs for the first time,” added Jian Yi after months of lab preparation. 



Using 183 anatomical characters, the team ran computer analyses that split Chinese pareiasaurs into three distinct branches, placing the new taxon beside <a href="https://dbpedia.org/page/Shihtienfenia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shihtienfenia completus</a> within a fresh sub‑group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-permian-still-matters">Why the Permian still matters</h2>



The Permian ended with volcanic eruptions in what is now Siberia, pumping out enough carbon dioxide to warm oceans by at least 14°F. 



That spike drove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cascading-oxygen-loss-could-endanger-our-oceans/">ocean anoxia</a>, acid rain, and habitat collapse, setting the stage for the dinosaurs that would follow in the Triassic.



Each newly described pre‑extinction species sharpens models of how ecosystems responded to rising heat and disrupted carbon cycles. 



Because pareiasaurs sat low on the land food chain, they reflect the health of primary plant production more directly than predators do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-dig-site-to-digital-tree">From dig site to digital tree</h2>



CT scans of the Shanxi skull reveal replacement tooth buds waiting beneath worn crowns, confirming lifelong dental turnover like that in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/">modern lizards</a>. 



The scans also expose internal canals that once carried blood vessels to horn‑like bosses, suggesting seasonal growth tied to mating display or species recognition



Digital models of those structures feed into the expanding open database hosted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 



By pooling 3‑D files from separate labs, researchers can test competing family trees without moving fragile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-fossils-tell-us-about-life-after-mass-extinction/">fossils</a> across borders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yinshanosaurus-angustus-and-the-future">Yinshanosaurus angustus and the future</h2>



Work now shifts to beds just above the current fossil horizon, layers that may hold early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic</a> survivors or fresh victims of the end‑Permian crisis. 



Liu’s group plans a targeted survey during the next field season, armed with drone‑based photogrammetry to map promising outcrops.



The team also hopes to sample bone collagen, if any remains, for stable‑isotope studies that could reveal diet and seasonal water stress. 



Combined with climate models, those data might show whether narrow‑snouted herbivores had a feeding edge in arid late Permian landscapes.



Understanding how a mid‑sized, flat‑snouted browser fit into the pre‑extinction puzzle helps scientists refine the timeline of faunal turnover. 



Each added piece, however small, tests broader ideas about resilience and collapse as Earth’s systems tip past critical thresholds.



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Yinshanosaurus angustus <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/Yinshanosaurus-angustus_tetraod_illustration_credit-Guo-IVPP_1m.jpg">image credit</a>: Guo, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP)



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/spp2.70020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papers in Palaeontology</a>.



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Scientists discover a prehistoric animal that lived on Earth 259 million years ago

A new fossil skull, dug out of purple siltstone in...

Many expect warmer winters to reduce cold snaps, but that hasn’t happened. A new study reveals that what happens high in the stratosphere still controls much of what happens at ground level.



A swirling band of cold air, the stratospheric polar vortex (SPV), sometimes shifts or weakens. Two specific variations of this vortex send Arctic air plunging into the U.S. One pattern (called P2) leads to severe weather in the Northwest. 



The other (P3) hits the Central and Eastern regions. Since 2015, the Northwest has faced more of these brutal cold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">events</a>, while the East has seen fewer. This shift aligns with more frequent La Niña episodes.



The study was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uml.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Lowell</a>, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.



“The public often hears about the ‘polar vortex’ when winter turns severe, but we wanted to dig deeper and understand how variations within this vortex affect where and when extreme cold hits,” said the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vortexes-that-drive-winter-cold">The vortexes that drive winter cold</h2>



Using four decades of data, the researchers clustered five recurring SPV shapes (P1 to P5). Two of them, P2 and P3, were most associated with U.S. cold outbreaks.



P2 features a strong vortex centered over the pole with a stretched lower vortex. It often brings snow and cold to the Northwestern U.S. 



P3 shows a weaker, displaced vortex toward the North Atlantic, steering cold into the Central and Eastern U.S. These variations do not just depend on vortex position but also on how atmospheric waves behave.



Planetary waves can either be absorbed or reflected in the stratosphere. When reflected, they can send cold air barreling southward. P3 events consistently show this reflection during the cold wave itself. P2 events often have wave reflection before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-equation-predicts-a-rapid-rise-in-extreme-heatwaves/">cold</a> snap hits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-cold-hits-and-why">Where the cold hits and why</h2>



The researchers used the rAWSSI index, which considers temperature, snow depth, and snowfall.



The analysis revealed that P3 patterns produce the most extreme winter conditions in the Central and Eastern U.S., while P2 patterns primarily affect the Northwestern region with intense cold and snowfall. The findings help explain recent cold events, including the severe Texas freeze of 2021.



The Northwest has seen more P2 days recently. This increase matches a northwestward shift in cold air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">outbreaks</a>. The central and eastern parts still get hit, but less often now.



Wave activity flux (WAF) offers clues. Before P2 events, reflection happens over Siberia and Alaska. During P3 events, strong reflection occurs over Asia and the Pacific. In P3, this reflection continues as the cold air descends.



Cold air starts in the east, spreads across the Midwest, and settles in the Northwest. These transitions help forecast where the next cold wave might land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cycles-influence-winter-cold">Global cycles influence winter cold</h2>



P2 is more frequent during La Niña conditions. P3 prefers El Niño phases. This suggests tropical ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-on-pace-to-surpass-1-5c-global-temperature-increase-for-second-year-in-a-row/">temperatures</a> influence how the polar vortex behaves.



Other climate patterns play a role as well. The westerly phase of the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO) often coincides with P2 days. 



On the other hand, the Arctic Oscillation (AO) tends to be more negative during P3 events, a state that supports increased cold outbreaks in the Central and Eastern United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winter-cold-is-shifting">Winter cold is shifting</h2>



Despite a warming climate, these findings suggest extreme cold will still return. But its location may shift. In the past decade, the coldest anomalies moved westward. That’s a change from decades of more common Eastern U.S. cold.



With better tracking of SPV patterns, meteorologists can now look 2 to 4 weeks ahead. The study shows that P3 often precedes P2, which means that a Central or Eastern cold event may be followed by a Northwestern one.



The high-altitude stratosphere, once seen as distant and separate, plays an active role in shaping winter. As climate change accelerates, it’s no longer enough to track surface temperatures. We need to watch the sky, too.



The research was funded by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>) , the U.S.–Israel Binational Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.bsf.org.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BSF</a>) , the U.S. Department of Energy (<a href="https://www.doe.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DOE</a>) , and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a>).



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq9557" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Why global warming hasn’t ended extreme winter cold

Many expect warmer winters to reduce cold snaps, but that...

Niagara Falls pulls in tourists by the boatload. Angel Falls towers higher than city skyscrapers. Yet both pale in comparison to Earth's largest waterfall - an enormous, rushing torrent concealed below Arctic waves.



The Denmark Strait cataract drops in slow motion beneath the chilly surface between Iceland and Greenland. 



The chute begins thousands of feet down, rolls over a hidden ledge, and keeps sliding for 11,500 feet - more than twice the cruising altitude of a commercial jet. 



No roar reaches the surface, no mist fills the air, and passing ships glide on as if nothing remarkable lies below these crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-and-arctic-mixing-is-crucial-for-earths-climate-stability/">Arctic waters</a>, which drive Earth's climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-denmark-strait-cataract">The Denmark Strait cataract</h2>



Most of Earth's largest waterfalls form when a river meets a cliff and spills over. Turbulent water gouges the rock, the lip grows steeper, and a postcard scene is born. 



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-75984-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Submarine waterfalls</a> follow a different script. Here, colder, saltier water sinks below lighter layers, slipping along the seafloor like syrup down a tilted pan. The motion is silent, pulling entire water masses rather than a single stream.



Oceanographers first confirmed the Denmark Strait cataract decades ago by tracing temperature and salinity profiles through the channel. 



Sensors revealed a dense ribbon of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-stayed-partly-open-during-harsh-ice-ages/">Nordic Sea</a> water sliding into the Atlantic basin, gathering speed until it tumbled past a submerged ridge. That ridge acts as the unseen cliff, setting off the tallest plunge on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-arctic-chill-meets-atlantic-warmth">Where Arctic chill meets Atlantic warmth</h2>



Icy water leaving the Nordic seas is both colder and saltier than the milder Atlantic layer to the south. Density differences created by that contrast drive the flow. 



As the dense water reaches the sill between <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/rare-glimpse-of-iceland-amid-unusual-heatwave/">Iceland</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-fossil-tundra-discovery-stuns-and-worries-scientists-sea-level-rise/">Greenland</a>, it spills downward, widening as it falls until the sheet stretches roughly 300 miles - about the driving distance from Chicago to St. Louis.



During the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lessons-from-the-ice-age-how-climate-change-reshapes-plant-life/">Last Ice Age</a>, roughly 17,500 to 11,500 years ago, glaciers carved trenches across the seabed and left behind the ridge that now serves as the cataract’s tipping point. 



Glacial debris, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocks-explain-roman-empire-collapse-1500-years-ago-late-antique-little-ice-age/">volcanic eruptions</a>, and relentless currents have since hardened the structure, locking a geological funnel in place for the descending water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-the-largest-waterfall">Climate change and the largest waterfall</h2>



More than 3.2 million cubic meters of water - around 113 million cubic feet - slip over the cataract every second, far outpacing the Amazon River’s flow into the Atlantic. 



This slide feeds the lower limb of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02403-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMOC</a>), the global “conveyor belt” that ferries heat, oxygen, and nutrients around the planet.



There is increasing evidence of the effects of global change on the phenomenon of undersea waterfalls. 



“A good example is on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-ebro-river-on-the-northeast-coast-of-spain/">Catalan coast</a>, where the decrease in the number of tramontane days in winter in the Gulf of Lion and north of the Catalan coast is causing a weakening of this oceanographic process, which is decisive in regulating the climate and has a great impact on deep ecosystems,” explains marine scientist <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anna-Sanchez-Vidal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anna Sanchez Vidal</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-of-the-denmark-strait-cataract">Size of the Denmark Strait cataract</h2>



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_Falls" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angel Falls</a> drops 3,212 feet in Venezuela. Niagara clears a modest 167 feet on the U.S.-Canada border. Stack all of Niagara’s water several dozen times, and you still won’t match the cataract’s flow. 



Even the Mississippi at flood stage would struggle. Yet the Denmark Strait cataract remains invisible, its roar muffled by more than a half-mile of seawater.



Instruments tell a different story: moored profilers register velocities topping three knots, while sediment cores show layers rearranged by the hidden torrent.



The phenomenon of dense water overflow is particularly intense in the Arctic and Antarctic. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/denmark-strait-cataract_graphic-illustration_credit-NOAA_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/denmark-strait-cataract_graphic-illustration_credit-NOAA_1s.webp" alt="In the Denmark Strait, southward-flowing frigid water from the Nordic Seas meets warmer water from the Irminger Sea. The cold, dense water quickly sinks below the warmer water and flows over the huge drop in the ocean floor, creating a downward flow estimated over 123 million cubic feet per second. Credit: NOAA" class="wp-image-1977524"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In the Denmark Strait, southward-flowing frigid water from the Nordic Seas meets warmer water from the Irminger Sea. The cold, dense water quickly sinks below the warmer water and flows over the huge drop in the ocean floor, creating a downward flow estimated over 123 million cubic feet per second. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NOAA</figcaption></figure>



“The poles are the regions where most of the dense water masses - generated by the formation of sea ice at the surface - eventually reach the global ocean floor," explains David Amblàs of the <a href="https://www.ub.edu/portal/web/earth-sciences/faculty" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics</a> at the University of Barcelona. 



"The polar areas are like the heart of the oceanic circulatory system: they pump cold, dense water into the great oceanic troughs through the ‘heartbeats’ made by overflows of dense water."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-more-to-learn">Much more to learn</h2>



The cataract may slow or speed up as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drastic-warming-will-transform-the-arctic-beyond-recognition/">Arctic warming</a> alters salinity and temperature patterns. Researchers use autonomous gliders, deep-sea landers, and satellite altimetry to watch for any shift that could ripple through weather systems. 



A weakening flow might stall the North Atlantic’s heat pump, cooling Europe and nudging hurricanes onto new tracks.



Yet there is still no direct video of the full descent, and no sensor array captures every eddy. Each expedition peels back only a sliver of the story. 



Future projects aim to stitch those slivers together, mapping the plunge in three dimensions and tracking its pulse through the seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-largest-waterfall-matters">Why Earth's largest waterfall matters</h2>



Anyone enjoying mild January weather or a fish fillet pulled from Icelandic waters owes thanks, in part, to the Denmark Strait cataract. 



By dragging cold, dense water southward, the cataract clears space for warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weakening-ocean-currents-could-cost-trillions-of-dollars/">Gulf Stream water</a> to flow north. That exchange tempers winter, nourishes plankton, and steers migratory species toward fertile feeding grounds.



When the torrent quickens, more carbon-rich deep water rises elsewhere, boosting ocean productivity. When it slackens, heat piles up in the tropics, whipping up stronger storms. 



In other words, the waterfall no one can see holds a backstage pass to everyday weather and the seafood aisle alike.



From a tourist’s point of view, the cataract offers nothing to watch. From a planetary perspective, it's a crucial lever, tilting climate and commerce with the quiet push of density-driven flow. 



Scientists will keep chasing its rhythm, because the better we know this hidden giant, the better we can forecast the moods of the sea and the sky above it.



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Earth’s largest waterfall, dwarfing all others, is hidden in the ocean

Niagara Falls pulls in tourists by the boatload. Angel Falls...

Abuse or neglect in the preschool years appears to push a child’s internal clock forward while also steering their eyes away from the very cues that build trust. 



Two separate biological and social signals - faster cellular aging and reduced eye contact - foreshadow later struggles with emotions and behavior.



The evidence comes from the <a href="https://www.ugscd-osaka-u.ne.jp/en/">United Graduate School of Child Development</a>, a consortium of several leading Japanese universities specializing in child development research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quiet-footprint-of-maltreatment">The quiet footprint of maltreatment</h2>



Long-term studies already link childhood maltreatment to heart disease, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-healthy-lifestyle-habits-that-prevent-depression/">depression</a>, and premature death, yet pinpointing the earliest biological shifts has been tricky. 



Many investigations lean on teenagers’ memories or on broad stress hormones that rise for many reasons.



The Japanese team aimed lower in age and deeper in detail, asking what happens inside the body and in live social behavior before a child enters grade school.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clocking-childhood-stress-in-cells">Clocking childhood stress in cells</h2>



Ninety-six four- and five-year-olds visited the university lab with a caregiver they trusted. Thirty-six of them suffered confirmed severe childhood maltreatment; the remaining sixty formed a comparison group.



Technicians took a painless cheek swab and measured DNA methylation patterns with the Pediatric-Buccal-Epigenetic clock - a method this group refined in earlier work. 



The algorithm converts chemical tags on genes into an “epigenetic age.” If that number outruns the child’s actual age, researchers infer that wear and tear has set in early.



The abused children’s cells looked markedly older, even after the analysts adjusted for sex, birth weight, and household income. 



Accelerated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-dna-clocks-predict-biological-age-more-accurately/">epigenetic clocks</a> in adults often foreshadow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-diabetes-type-5-is-now-officially-recognized-linked-to-nutritional-deficiencies/">diabetes</a>, stroke, and early mortality. Spotting the same pattern in four-year-olds suggests damage is already under way while most of the brain is still wiring itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abused-children-miss-social-cues">Abused children miss social cues</h2>



Next came a social test. High-resolution eye-tracking cameras recorded exactly where and how long each child looked while short videos played.



When faces appeared on screen, youngsters with a history of abuse spent far less time examining the eye region than their peers.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-and-human-brains-sync-up-during-eye-contact/">Eye contact</a> feeds children information about emotions, intentions, and safety. Avoiding it deprives them of a fast, intuitive map of other people’s feelings just when they are learning to navigate friendships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abuse-disrupts-on-two-fronts">Abuse disrupts on two fronts</h2>



Statistical models showed that cellular aging and gaze avoidance each predicted higher scores on caregiver checklists of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/">anxiety</a>, aggression, and attention problems.



Yet the two did not sit in a single chain. Faster clocks did not explain why eyes wandered, and wandering eyes did not explain the faster clocks. Trauma, it seems, injures children along at least two independent tracks.



“Our research sends a powerful message: child maltreatment can leave invisible but measurable marks on a child’s biology and social development. By identifying these early warning signs, we can step in earlier and provide targeted support,” said lead author Keiko Ochiai.



“Tools such as eye-tracking assessments and stress-related biological testing could help teachers, doctors, and caregivers expedite the identification of children at risk,” she added.



“Support programs can then be tailored to improve social skills, reduce emotional stress, and promote healthier development - potentially preventing more serious problems later in life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catching-childhood-maltreatment-early">Catching childhood maltreatment early</h2>



Because the study captured a single snapshot in time, it cannot prove that abuse causes every change.



Poverty, prenatal stress, or inherited risks may also accelerate epigenetic clocks or nudge eyes away from faces. Even so, the data place the first measurable cracks astonishingly early, suggesting that age four is not too soon - perhaps not even soon enough - to intervene.



Crucially, both assessments are simple to bring into clinics and preschools. Cheek swabs require no needles, and modern processors can read methylation signatures in hours. Portable eye trackers now fit on a laptop.



Embedding these tools into routine checkups could flag vulnerable youngsters before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hijacks-the-brain-disrupting-sleep-and-memory/">stress</a> cements into chronic disease or social isolation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-young-people-reset-the-clock">Helping young people reset the clock</h2>



The researchers have already begun a follow-up that will revisit the same children in middle school to see whether early cellular age predicts adolescent depression, metabolic illness, or continued social withdrawal.



They also hope to test whether nurturing foster care, trauma-focused therapy, or parent-training programs can slow the epigenetic clock and coax eyes back to faces.



Childhood is meant to stretch time, not compress it. Yet when abuse or neglect crowds those years with fear, the body and mind appear to leap forward, aging faster and dodging the very gaze that could bring comfort.



Detecting those hidden signals of childhood maltreatment offers a rare chance to reset the clock and guide young people toward a future where curiosity, connection, and health unfold at the pace nature intended.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0321952">PLOS One</a>.



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Childhood maltreatment speeds up aging and alters behavior

Abuse or neglect in the preschool years appears to push...

As oceans heat up, coastal sharks are adjusting their calendars. Instead of swimming south in early fall, many are now sticking around longer due to global warming. 



Researchers at <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> tracked this trend by following six shark species along the U.S. East Coast. They used acoustic tags and detection models to uncover how ocean warming delays the sharks’ southern migrations by up to 29 days.



"Both temperature and photoperiod (length of sunlight) influenced the timing of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-survive-for-centuries-in-icy-waters/">sharks</a>’ southernly migration, and it is likely that they both cumulatively influence migratory patterns,” said lead author Maria Manz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-delay-migration-due-to-warming">Sharks delay migration due to warming</h2>



The study observed blacktip, dusky, sand tiger, sandbar, thresher, and white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">sharks</a>. Among them, sandbar sharks showed the longest delay of up to 29 days. They also used the widest range of latitudinal zones, from the New England Shelf to Florida.



White sharks, by contrast, showed the least delay. Being partially warm-bodied (regional endotherms), they are less dependent on external temperature shifts. Their migration changed by only one day under future climate scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-east-coast-is-warming-fast">East Coast is warming fast</h2>



The study focused on the Mid-Atlantic Bight. This region, especially the New York Bight and New England Shelf, is heating faster than many other parts of the Atlantic. 



According to projections based on the high-emissions SSP5 8.5 scenario, the New England Shelf could warm by over 2°C (3.6°F) by 2049.



This rise in temperature affects not just the water, but everything in it. Fish prey species may move earlier or later, altering food availability for predators like sharks.



“Results of the models suggested that projected increases in SST across decades may delay southern autumn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-video-footage-of-an-elusive-deep-sea-predator-pacific-sleeper-shark/">migrations</a> of coastal sharks with many species remaining in northern habitats for longer durations," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-sharks-were-tracked-in-warming-waters">How sharks were tracked in warming waters</h2>



The researchers tagged 155 sharks and monitored their movements using over 390 acoustic receivers. These receivers picked up signals from the tags whenever sharks came within 900 meters (2,953 feet).



The sharks’ migrations were tracked across five defined zones: New England Shelf (NES), New York Bight (NYB), Mid-Atlantic (MA), Southern Atlantic (SA) and Florida (FL).



Some species, like sandbar and thresher sharks, appeared in all zones. Others, like white sharks, showed more restricted ranges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictors-of-migration-timing">Predictors of migration timing</h2>



To understand what drives sharks to migrate, the researchers fed their data into mixed-effect Cox models. 



The team tested sea surface temperature (SST), photoperiod, and lunar phase. Photoperiod emerged as a consistently strong predictor, especially for thresher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">sharks</a>.



Interestingly, lunar phase had less influence than expected. Only sandbar sharks showed some sensitivity to moonlight patterns. 



Most migration timing was better explained by combinations of light and temperature, which can vary regionally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-delays-and-shark-survival">Warming delays and shark survival</h2>



If sharks delay migration but human activities continue on schedule, it could spell trouble. For example, commercial fishing in the Northeast typically ramps up in the fall. Sharks that remain in the area face a higher risk of accidental catch.



“Our findings suggest that climate change could increase vulnerability to bycatch, particularly in mixed-use areas like the New York Bight,” the authors wrote.



There is also concern that shark diets and reproductive cycles may shift out of sync with prey availability. A mismatch in timing could reduce feeding success or breeding success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-strategies-for-a-changing-ocean">New strategies for a changing ocean</h2>



Static conservation policies will not hold up if shark behavior keeps changing. The researchers suggest dynamic management tools, like adjusting fishery closures based on temperature data.



Sandbar sharks, which showed the most migration delay, may require special focus. They are already listed as vulnerable due to previous overfishing and slow reproduction.



Successful conservation now depends on real-time data and predictive modeling. As this study shows, changes in migration are not hypothetical. They are already underway.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-migration-is-shifting-with-warming">Shark migration is shifting with warming</h2>



The timing of shark migrations is shifting. Some species are adapting by staying longer in warming northern waters. While that may suit them for now, it raises questions about long-term ecological impacts.



Maria Manz and her team stress the importance of using both regional climate data and shark movement models. Doing so can improve predictions and help managers adjust strategies before the ocean changes even more.



"Our study adds to the growing body of evidence demonstrating how migratory populations will respond to a warming climate, potentially altering regional ecosystem dynamics and exposure to anthropogenic threats."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.70080" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Warming oceans are changing shark migration patterns

As oceans heat up, coastal sharks are adjusting their calendars....

Our galaxy may be wrapped in a richer swarm of tiny companions than astronomers have ever seen. New calculations predict that there are dozens of ultra-faint satellite galaxies circling close to the Milky Way.



They are too dim for current surveys to spot, but real enough to tip the cosmic balance sheet in favor of standard cosmology.



The forecast comes from cosmologists at <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/">Durham University</a>. By combining the sharpest supercomputer simulations available with new mathematical modeling, the team argues that up to 100 additional satellites should be lurking nearby.



Many are likely to be “orphan” galaxies, almost entirely stripped of the dark matter cocoons that once cradled them. This twist could finally resolve a long-standing mismatch between theory and observation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-milky-way-s-ghost-galaxies">The Milky Way’s ghost galaxies</h2>



The study begins with the Lambda Cold Dark Matter framework. In this model, roughly five percent of the cosmos is ordinary matter, twenty-five percent is cold <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/">dark matter,</a> and the remaining seventy percent is dark energy.



In this model, galaxies shine from the centers of vast dark-matter halos. Most star systems in the Universe are low-mass dwarf galaxies bound to a more massive host.



The problem is that classic LCDM computations generate far more dwarf satellites than astronomers have cataloged around the Milky Way. Either the model is wrong or the satellites are missing.



To probe that gap, the Durham group turned to the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/videos/aquarius_springel/">Aquarius simulation</a>, the highest-resolution model yet of a Milky Way-like dark-matter halo. The team also used <a href="https://galaxies.northwestern.edu/">GALFORM</a>, a code that tracks gas cooling, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/">star formation</a>, and feedback.



Even top tools miss tiny halos when they near the galaxy and feel its tidal pull. Analytical fixes revived erased halos, letting researchers track their stellar remnants across 13 billion years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-galaxies-cluster-nearby">Lost galaxies cluster nearby</h2>



The key insight is that the galaxies whose halos entered the Milky Way’s neighborhood early have spent eons being stretched, prodded, and shaved by gravity. Their dark matter bleeds away first; their stars shrink into faint knots that simulations often drop but nature should keep.



The models suggest that these ghostly remnants have orbital histories similar to the brighter satellites we already know. They tend to cluster within a few hundred thousand light-years of the galactic center.



Because they are faint and sparse, current imaging misses them, but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-images-from-the-vera-c-rubin-observatory-are-breathtaking/">Vera C. Rubin Observatory</a>’s LSST camera, now undergoing commissioning, should pull many into view.



“We know the Milky Way has some 60 confirmed companion satellite galaxies," said lead author Isabel Santos-Santos, a cosmologist at Durham. "We think there should be dozens more of these faint galaxies orbiting around the Milky Way at close distances.” 



If their predictions are correct, it strengthens support for the Lambda Cold Dark Matter theory of how structure in the Universe forms and evolves.



“Observational astronomers are using our predictions as a benchmark with which to compare the new data they are obtaining,” she said. “One day soon, we may be able to see these ’missing’ galaxies, which would be hugely exciting and could tell us more about how the Universe came to be as we see it today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-images-of-the-milky-way">Future images of the Milky Way</h2>



Over the past decade, wide-field cameras such as the <a href="https://www.darkenergysurvey.org/">Dark Energy Survey</a> have turned up about thirty ultra-faint satellite candidates. 



Yet astronomers still debate whether these specks are true dwarf galaxies embedded in dark matter or merely star-cluster outliers.



The study argues that many of them - and many more beyond - should indeed be galaxies, the visible tips of dark-matter fragments pared to the bone. 



Future deep imaging and stellar-population studies will be critical for deciding which candidates carry dark matter signatures such as elevated velocity dispersions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-milky-way-s-ghost-galaxies">Finding the Milky Way's ghost galaxies</h2>



“If the population of very faint satellites that we are predicting is discovered with new data, it would be a remarkable success of the LCDM theory of galaxy formation,” said co-author Carlos Frenk, a professor of computational cosmology at Durham.



"Using the laws of physics, solved using a large supercomputer, and mathematical modelling we can make precise predictions that astronomers, equipped with new, powerful telescopes, can test."



Validating the prediction would also quiet doubts raised by the so-called “missing satellite” and “too-big-to-fail” problems - tensions often cited as cracks in LCDM.



If the Milky Way does host scores of nearly invisible ghost galaxies, then the theory’s tally of dark-matter clumps stands. What looked like a failure of physics may be a failure of detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ghosts-become-neighbors">Ghosts become neighbors</h2>



With LSST set to map the southern skies to unprecedented depths, the hunt for hidden satellites is gaining momentum. Other instruments, such as the European Space Agency’s Euclid telescope, will help sharpen the picture. 



New algorithms tuned to pick out diffuse, low-surface-brightness objects will scan the LSST deluge, guided by the locations and properties the Durham models predict.



Discovering even a fraction of the proposed “orphan” galaxies would give cosmologists a richer lab for testing how dark matter behaves on small scales and how starlight survives in extreme environments.



It would also remind us that the Milky Way, though serene to the naked eye, belongs to a teeming, fragile community of companions.



For now, they remain ghosts in a computer. But new telescopes may soon reveal them as real, stellar neighbors, deepening our understanding of how galaxies, large and small, take shape in the dark.



The research was presented at the <a href="https://conference.astro.dur.ac.uk/event/7/">National Astronomy Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



Image Credit: The Aquarius simulation, the Virgo Consortium/Dr. Mark Lovell



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Dozens of 'ghost galaxies' may be orbiting the Milky Way

Our galaxy may be wrapped in a richer swarm of...

Stray sandstone and quartz pebbles strewn across a quiet beach near Breiðavík, Iceland, look innocuous, yet they hold evidence of a climate shock that chilled Europe nearly 1,500 years ago and jolted the late Roman world.



New microscopic work on those stones shows they were ferried from Greenland by icebergs during the onset of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095927322004790" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Antique</a> Little Ice Age - a cold spell lasting two‑to‑three‑centuries that followed a string of giant volcanic eruptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanoes-bring-a-little-ice-age">Volcanoes bring a Little Ice Age</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-show-amazon-rainfall-is-getting-more-extreme/">Tree‑ring</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-ice-fossil-discovery-stuns-and-worries-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice‑core</a>, and historical data point to eruptions in 536, 540, and 547 AD that injected so much sulfate into the stratosphere that summer temperatures dropped by up to 3 °F across the Northern Hemisphere, setting the stage for years of failed harvests.&nbsp;



Climatologists later labeled this interval the Late Antique Little Ice Age, as mentioned above, noting that North Atlantic summers stayed cool from about 536 to 660 AD. 



This finding was backed by a 2016 multi‑proxy reconstruction of Eurasian temperatures. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-iceland-beaches">Studying Iceland beaches</h2>



During field mapping on Iceland’s west coast, Spencer’s group spotted cobbles made of granite, gneiss, and even serpentinite embedded within otherwise basaltic beach terraces.



“We knew these rocks seemed somewhat out of place because the rock types are unlike anything found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/rare-glimpse-of-iceland-amid-unusual-heatwave/">Iceland today</a>, but we didn’t know where they came from,” said <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/geol/dr-christopher-spencer-phd-pgeo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Christopher Spencer</a> of Queen’s University.



Samples came from a low terrace about 6 feet above today’s high‑tide line, a bench that earlier work had dated to the seventh century. 



The team reasoned that the terrace formed as land rebounded after the last <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/current-climate-goals-arent-enough-to-stop-massive-glacier-losses/">glaciers</a> from the Little Ice Age melted, meaning any exotic stones trapped there arrived by sea rather than human hands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-ice-age-and-zircon-analysis">Little Ice Age and zircon analysis</h2>



Back in the lab, researchers crushed each cobble and sifted out specks of zircon, a hardy mineral that preserves its birthplace like a fingerprint.



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/zircon-u-pb-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U‑Pb dating</a> showed age clusters at roughly 2.8, 1.15, 0.5, and 0.24 billion years, a combination that matches crustal provinces across <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/doi/10.1130/G53168.1/653479/Greenlandic-debris-in-Iceland-likely-tied-to-Bond" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland</a> but not Iceland, firmly tying the pebbles to the other side of the Denmark Strait.



“[This is] the first direct evidence of icebergs carrying large Greenlandic cobbles to Iceland,” Spencer noted. 



Grain size and rounding indicate that the rocks traveled inside floating ice rather than as loose sand, so the voyage probably lasted weeks or months before the bergs melted on Icelandic shores.



The team also measured hafnium isotopes inside the same zircons, yielding chemical signatures unique to Greenland’s <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2020.540997/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic craton</a>, a confirmation that rules out Icelandic sources and signals a voyage of roughly 800 miles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-iceberg-highways-in-the-little-ice-age">Iceberg highways in the Little Ice Age</h2>



Ocean‑current reconstructions suggest that a stronger <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/subpolar-gyre" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subpolar Gyre</a> during the sixth century shepherded bergs toward Iceland, while cooler seas slowed melting and extended travel times. 



Modeling shows that a 1 °F drop in summer sea‑surface temperature lengthens the iceberg‑survival zone by almost 200 miles, allowing debris to drift far beyond normal limits.



Geologists link the seventh‑century spike in ice‑rafted debris to Bond event 1, a recognizable pulse of iceberg discharge recorded in North Atlantic sediment cores that sits squarely within the sixth‑century cooling interval.



The Icelandic cobbles add a shoreline data point to that marine signal and confirm that extra ice once clogged the Denmark Strait.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shock-for-rome">Climate shock for Rome</h2>



During the Late Antique Little Ice Age, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-gold-precious-metals-discovered-hawaii-may-have-come-from-earths-core/">volcanic</a> aerosol veils dimmed sunlight, shortened growing seasons, and helped trigger a famine that struck the Eastern Mediterranean in the 540s, the same decade the Justinian Plague swept through Constantinople.



“When it comes to the fall of the Roman Empire, this climate shift may have been the straw that broke the camel’s back,” explained <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/people/5x7llb/professor-thomas-gernon" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tom Gernon</a> of the University of Southampton.



Historians such as <a href="https://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/michael-mccormick" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michael McCormick</a> point to tax records showing lower grain shipments from Egypt to Rome after 536 AD, evidence that the breadbasket of the empire faltered just as Germanic kingdoms pressed south.



Tree‑ring reconstructions reveal that alpine summers during 536-660 AD were the coldest of the past two millennia, supporting the view that climatic stress compounded existing political fractures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feedback-loops-and-the-roman-empire">Feedback loops and the Roman Empire</h2>



Cooler summers curbed cereal yields, livestock weights, and tax revenue, weakening imperial logistics. Hun and Gothic groups seeking pasture migrated toward warmer latitudes, colliding with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-may-have-caused-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire/">Roman</a> frontiers and accelerating military overstretch.



In turn, warfare destroyed irrigation and trade networks, deepening famine and amplifying disease spread, a vicious cycle typical of complex systems under environmental stress. 



That shock arrived on top of plague and revenue crises, stacking stressors in a way familiar to modern analysts who study compound disasters.



Modern shipping lanes now dominate the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-waterfall-is-hidden-in-the-ocean/">Denmark Strait</a>, yet satellite data still capture plumes of drift ice after large eruptions, a reminder that the ocean-ice engine remains active.



Understanding ancient episodes like the Late Antique Little Ice Age helps planners anticipate how future volcanic winters or polar meltwater pulses could ripple through food, trade, and migration networks today.



-----



The research team behind the discovery includes scientists from <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen’s University</a>, the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a>, and the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/53/7/572/653479/Greenlandic-debris-in-Iceland-likely-tied-to-Bond?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Scientists discovered rocks that explain the fall of the Roman Empire 1,500 years ago

Stray sandstone and quartz pebbles strewn across a quiet beach...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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