<p>If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.</p>



<p>In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. </p>



<p>But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



<p>In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.</p>



<p>The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.</p>



<p>Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.</p>



<p>“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. </p>



<p>“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



<p>The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.</p>



<p>“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. </p>



<p>“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”</p>



<p>When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



<p>This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.</p>



<p>“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. </p>



<p>“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



<p>Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.</p>



<p>That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.</p>



<p>“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



<p>The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. </p>



<p>But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.</p>



<p>That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a></em>.</p>



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

Many,Butterfly,With,Yellow,Flower,Against,Blue,Sky

<p>The annual Big Butterfly Count, a leading citizen science project in the UK organized by <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Butterfly Conservation</a>, has brought some optimistic news for butterfly enthusiasts. According to the 2023 count, the UK has seen an increase in butterfly numbers, with over 1.5 million butterflies and day-flying moths recorded, contrasting sharply with last year's record low.</p>



<p>On average, participants recorded 12 butterflies during each 15-minute counting session, a significant rise from the previous year's average of nine. This marks the highest count in the past four years. The uplifting results can be attributed to this year's summer heat, as well as the extreme temperatures and drought experienced in 2022.</p>



<h2 id="h-scientists-had-been-concerned">Scientists had been concerned</h2>



<p>The 2022 drought had scientists worried about the potential impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> populations. Their main concern was that the extreme heatwave might have negatively impacted the food sources of grass-feeding caterpillars, subsequently leading to a reduction in the number of adult butterflies. </p>



<p>Dr. Zoë Randle, a senior surveys officer at Butterfly Conservation, expressed relief, noting, "We now know that the effects of last year’s drought were not as bad for butterflies as we had feared."</p>



<p>Dr. Randle explained that the fluctuating weather conditions this year have been advantageous for the butterfly population. The environment had ample green food plants available for caterpillars and a bounty of nectar-rich flowers to feed adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-with-more-white-spots-are-more-likely-to-survive-their-migration-journey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>.</p>



<p>However, taking a step back and looking at the broader picture, the news isn't as rosy. Data collected from The Big Butterfly Count over the past 13 years paints a worrying picture, showing significant declines in many butterfly species. </p>



<h2>Big Butterfly Count isn't all good news</h2>



<p>Randle emphasizes, "While the number of butterflies recorded this summer has been the highest since 2019, the longer-term trends show worrying declines for some of the UK’s most common butterfly species."</p>



<p>For instance, once commonly seen Small tortoiseshell butterflies have seen their population plummet by 30%. Other species like the green-veined white, common blue, ringlet, and speckled wood have also suffered, with declines of 61%, 44%, 41%, and 38%, respectively.</p>



<p>On a brighter note, the red admiral species is thriving, with an impressive 338% increase in population over the last year, landing it at the top of the chart with 248,077 sightings. Additionally, other species like the holly blue, small copper, painted lady, and large white have shown an upward trend, benefiting from the climatic crisis.</p>



<p>However, it's not all sunshine for every species. For instance, while the gatekeeper took the second spot with a 12% improvement from 2022, its numbers have reduced by 28% over the past 13 years.</p>



<p>Dr. Richard Fox, the head of science at Butterfly Conservation, provides a cautionary perspective, highlighting that while weather variations do influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-butterflies-actually-expand-their-brain-by-adopting-new-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> numbers, habitat destruction is a more pressing concern. Fox states, "Butterflies need a place to live. If they can feed, breed, and shelter, they can thrive."</p>



<p>While this year's butterfly count offers a glimmer of hope, the underlying long-term trends underscore the urgent need for conservation efforts and sustainable habitats to ensure these beautiful creatures continue to grace our gardens and wild spaces.</p>



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Big Butterfly Count count rebounds, hits four-year high

The annual Big Butterfly Count, a leading citizen science project...

<p>A team of paleontologists led by the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bath</a> has recently discovered a new species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/link-herbivorous-carnivorous-dinosaurs/">herbivorous dinosaur</a> on the Isle of Wight in southern England.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This species, named <em><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/dinosaur_Vectidromeus-insularis_Isle-of-Wright_Credit-Emily-Willoughby_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vectidromeus insularis</a>, </em>is the second member of the hypsilophodont family found on the Isle of Wight, suggesting that the European continent had its own group of plant-eating dinosaurs that were distinct from those found in North America and Asia.</p>



<h2 id="h-hypsilophodont-dinosaurs-found-in-europe">Hypsilophodont dinosaurs found in Europe</h2>



<p>Hypsilophodonts were a group of nimble bipedal dinosaurs that roamed around Europe about 125 million years ago, and lived among iconic species such as early tyrannosaurs, spinosaurs, and iguanodons. The recently discovered fossil had the size of a chicken, but was most likely a juvenile and may have grown much larger.</p>



<p>According to the experts, <em>V. insularis </em>was a close relative of <em>Hypsilophodon foxii</em>, a species of dinosaur first described in the Victorian era. Small and graceful, with bird-like hindlimbs, these dinosaurs were used by famous biologist Thomas Huxley as a proof that birds are related to dinosaurs.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-a-distinct-species">A distinct species</h2>



<p>While <em>H. foxii</em> dinosaurs were also found in Europe on the Isle of Wight, its fossils were discovered higher up in the rocks, suggesting that it was two to three million years younger than <em>V. insularis. </em>Moreover, since the latter’s hip bones were slightly different, it was likely a closely related but distinct species.</p>



<p>“Paleontologists have been working on the Isle of Wight for more than a century, and these fossils have played an important role in the history of vertebrate paleontology, but we’re still making new discoveries about the dinosaur fauna as the sea erodes new fossils out of the cliffs,” said lead author Nicholas Longrich, a paleontologist at Bath.</p>



<h2 id="h-evolving-ecosystems">Evolving ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Since the Cretaceous strata on this island are hundreds of meters thick and span several millions of years, the fossils found there are likely evidence of a whole series of evolving ecosystems, each with different types of species.</p>



<h2 id="h-amateur-collectors">Amateur collectors </h2>



<p>In finding and describing these new set of fossils, experts from the University of Bath collaborated with researchers from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a>, the <a href="https://www.dinosaurisle.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dinosaur Isle Museum</a> in Sandown, as well as with amateur local fossil collectors.</p>



<p>“Working with the amateur community is really important,” said Longrich. “It’s good to have a diverse team; everyone brings something different to the table. These guys have spent their lives collecting and preparing these fossils, they know details about the rock, the geology, and the bone that nobody else does. Everyone sees different pieces of the puzzle.”</p>



<p>“It is utterly bizarre that so many new dinosaurs are being discovered on the Isle of Wight,” added co-author David Martill, a paleontologist at Portsmouth. “<em>Vectidromeus</em>&nbsp;is the seventh new species of dinosaur to be discovered in the last four years. This is all down to the amateur collectors.”</p>



<h2 id="h-two-distinct-species">Two distinct species</h2>



<p>Although dozens of small herbivorous dinosaurs have been classified over the years as part of the hypsilophodont family, further revisions have resulted in reclassifying most of them, ultimately leaving <em>Hypsilophodon</em>&nbsp;as the only species in this family.</p>



<p>“We had a curious situation where one of the first dinosaur families to be recognized had just one species. And now, we have two,” said Longrich.</p>



<p>“What’s intriguing is that they’re not particularly closely related to anything found in North America, Asia, or the southern hemisphere. We’re still piecing together how all these dinosaurs are related, and how dinosaurs moved between continents. After Pangaea broke up, there was a lot of isolation, leading to different kinds of dinosaurs evolving on each continent.”</p>



<h2 id="h-exciting-dinosaur-discoveries-in-europe">Exciting dinosaur discoveries in Europe</h2>



<p>“This exciting new find is the latest in a line of new discoveries from the Isle of Wight. We are enjoying an amazing time of collaboration between collectors, researchers, and the museum. New finds are being made on the coast, in private collections, and the museum stores," said co-author Martin Hunt, the curator of Dinosaur Isle Museum.</p>



<p>The museum’s mission is to try and ensure as many new finds remain here on the Island for the benefit of our Island community; we anticipate this dinosaur to be on display at the museum for the October school holidays."&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cretres.2023.105707" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Cretaceous Research</em></a>.</p>



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Europe had very unique plant-eating dinosaurs

A team of paleontologists led by the University of Bath...

<p>Many songbirds can learn an amazing repertoire of warbles, whistles, calls, and songs during their lives. Among them, European starlings rank among the most advanced avian vocal learners.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adh3428">Rockefeller University</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/starlings-are-a-perfect-example-of-rapid-evolution/">starlings</a> and other complex vocal learners are also superior problem solvers, demonstrating advanced cognitive skills.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“There is a long-standing hypothesis that only the most intelligent animals are capable of complex vocal learning,” said lead author Jean-Nicolas Audet, a behavioral ecologist at Rockefeller.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“If that is true, then complex vocal learners should also be better at cognitive tasks, but no one had ever demonstrated that before.”</p>



<h2 id="h-vocal-learning">Vocal learning</h2>



<p>Only a few animal groups are capable of complex vocal learning, defined as the ability to learn and remember a large repertoire of sounds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While humans, elephants, seals, whales, and bats represent most mammalian vocal learners, songbirds, parrots, and hummingbirds are the most advanced avian vocal learners.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>For the present study, the experts focused on songbirds, ranking their vocal learning complexity across three metrics: how many songs and calls are in their repertoire, whether they can continue to learn new songs and calls during their lives, and whether they can mimic other species.</p>



<p>To determine whether vocal learning abilities are associated to different cognitive skills, the researchers spent three years catching hundreds of wild songbirds from 21 species in mist nets at the Rockefeller University Field Research Center, a vast 1,200 protected acres of land comprising many different ecosystems in New York’s Hudson Valley.</p>



<p>“It’s a protected area, which means the animals have limited exposure to humans,” said co-author Mélanie Couture, a doctoral student in Computational and Systems Neuroscience at Rockefeller. “This is ideal for studying the behaviors of wild birds - what they can do, and how they react to cognitive tasks.”</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The examination revealed that three species – starlings, blue jays, and gray catbirds (relatives of hummingbirds) – were the most adept in learning and remembering a large number of sounds.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These species were also the only ones capable of mimicking other species, which, according to Audet, is the “epitome of vocal learning.”</p>



<h2 id="h-cognitive-tests">Cognitive tests&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The scientists then ran several cognitive tests on 214 birds from 23 species, including two lab-raised bird species which were added to the wild birds. To test problem-solving abilities, they challenged the birds to remove a lid, pierce foil, and pull a stick to retrieve food.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, they also assessed the birds’ self-control capacities by placing a transparent barrier between them and a snack, and checking how long it took the birds to stop trying to pass through the barrier and go around it.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Finally, other tests were used to assess whether the birds can learn to associate a specific color with a food reward, and how quickly they adapted when the color changed.</p>



<h2 id="h-problem-solving-abilities">Problem-solving abilities&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The experiments revealed a strong correlation between vocal learning and problem-solving abilities. Starlings, blue jays, and catbirds were both the most advanced vocal learners and the most adept at solving puzzles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers also discovered that the better a bird was at finding its way around an obstacle, the more complex were its vocal learning skills.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In addition, the investigations showed that advanced vocal learners and problem solvers had larger brains relative to the sizes of their bodies, which may be a biological basis for the study’s findings. However, no other associations were found between the rest of the cognitive tests and vocal learning ability.</p>



<p>“Our next step is to look at the brains of the most complex species and try to understand why they are better at problem solving and vocal learning,” Audet said. “We have a pretty good idea of where vocal learning happens in the brain, but it’s not yet clear where problem solving occurs.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>These findings suggest that vocal learning, problem solving, and brain size may have co-evolved, possibly as a way of increasing biological fitness.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our findings help support a previously unproven notion: that the evolution of a complex behavior like spoken language, which depends on vocal learning, is associated with co-evolution of other complex behaviors,” concluded senior author Erich Jarvis, a biologist at Rockefeller.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adh3428"><em>Science</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Among songbirds, complex vocal learners are superior problem solvers

Many songbirds can learn an amazing repertoire of warbles, whistles,...

<p>New research from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a> reveals that lapwings, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-threatens-turtle-breeding-grounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground-nesting</a> birds, have evolved unique methods to remain hidden from their predators.</p>



<h2 id="h-clever-strategies">Clever strategies</h2>



<p>Amidst the vast expanse of open fields, one might wonder how ground-nesting birds protect their nests from predators. The answer, according to recent research, lies in the birds' innovative use of terrain and surroundings.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Lapwings, in particular, have demonstrated an impressive knack for using these natural features to hide in plain sight.</p>



<h2 id="h-decline-of-ground-nesting-birds">Decline of ground-nesting birds</h2>



<p>Ground-nesting species across the world are in a state of decline, and various factors have driven this decline. Land management changes, such as intensive farming and urban development, have considerably impacted their habitats.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A surge in the populations of predators like foxes and crows exacerbates the problem. These predators are a significant threat to the eggs and chicks, leading to reduced bird populations and the failure of conservation projects aimed at preserving these species.</p>



<h2 id="h-lapwing-nesting-habits">Lapwing nesting habits</h2>



<p>The Exeter team set out to investigate the nesting habits of lapwings to better understand their survival tactics. The study primarily focused on the visibility or "occlusion" of lapwing nests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Using advanced models that emulate the vision and viewing angles of predators, the experts assessed the effectiveness of lapwing camouflage techniques.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The findings are fascinating. Even in open fields, lapwings have mastered the art of hiding their eggs by exploiting small variations in the terrain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Such variations make the eggs practically invisible to ground-based predators like foxes if they are further than approximately 1.5 meters away.</p>



<p>“Like children playing hide and seek, lapwings use cover to complement their camouflage,” said study lead author George Hancock, from the Centre for Ecology and Conservation on Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.</p>



<p>“If a nest is properly concealed in this way, it doesn’t matter how good a predator’s vision is - they simply won’t be able to see it until they are nearly on top of it.</p>



<p>“Nests and eggs are also camouflaged – blending in with their surroundings by matching their backgrounds colour and pattern – but it appears this is a secondary defense.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hancock collaborated with the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust (GWCT) and used smart phone 3D scanners to measure the shape and height of lapwing nests and their surroundings.</p>



<p>Specialized cameras were used to measure camouflage from the perspective of the lapwing’s predators (foxes, crows and raptors), which can see ultraviolet light.</p>



<p>“Lapwings tended to choose uneven ground for their nests,” said Hancock. “They selected slightly elevated positions, reducing risk of flooding and allowing them to see predators – without being so high as to stand out to predators.”</p>



<h2 id="h-conservation-efforts">Conservation efforts</h2>



<p>Lapwing populations have more than halved since the 1970s. This research provides crucial insights for their conservation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Understanding the natural defense mechanisms of these birds can aid in designing better and more effective conservation strategies.</p>



<p>For instance, ensuring that natural terrains with variations are preserved or even created could enhance the safety of these nests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, this knowledge can be applied to other ground-nesting species, potentially reversing the decline seen in their numbers.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Habitat variation appears to be crucial for allowing lapwings choice in where to nest,” Hancock explained. “The growth of intensive agriculture has left ground-nesting birds with poorer choices of where to nest.</p>



<p>“Grazed fields provide good habitat, as long as they’re not overstocked with too many grazing animals. New technology is allowing us to better measure how animals see and view the world.</p>



<p>“Tilled fields can provide really good camouflage for eggs which match the bare earth and can be concealed by the rough geometry, but might be problematic for chicks which are more exposed.”</p>



<p>By providing habitats that compliment lapwing camouflage, Hancock said conservation managers could use “nature’s toolkit” – in addition to direct predator control – to help lapwings breed successfully.</p>



<p>The study was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council and GWCT. The findings are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ECE3.10471" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Ecology and Evolution</em></a>.</p>



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Lapwings are masters of camouflage, hiding in plain sight

New research from the University of Exeter reveals that lapwings,...

<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">York University</a> have discovered the profound influence of maternal care on the development, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-hardships-are-reflected-in-their-childs-gut-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a>, and overall health of carpenter bees. </p>



<p>Contrary to popular belief, most wild bees lead solitary lives. But among these solitary creatures, the carpenter bee stands out. These tiny bees nurture and care for their offspring like human mothers.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-tremendous-health-benefits">Tremendous health benefits&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Maternal care provides tremendous benefits to the microbiome, development, and overall health of the young carpenter bees. It shields the bees from harmful pathogens during crucial stages of development.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In fact, the absence of maternal care results in an alarming increase in pathogen loads. The researchers found that 85 percent of these pathogens were fungi, while 8 percent were bacteria.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-developmental-changes">Developmental changes&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Such an imbalance drastically affects the bees' microbiome, which is vital for their health. It impacts not just their immune system and gene expression but can lead to developmental changes in their brain, eyes, and even behavior.&nbsp;</p>



<p>One notable fungus, Aspergillus, induces the lethal stonebrood disease in honey bees, turning them into mummified versions of their former selves.</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>During the course of the study, researchers closely observed the carpenter bees through four distinct developmental stages, starting from the larvae stage.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team compared and contrasted the effects of the presence and absence of maternal care on these stages.</p>



<h2 id="h-overall-health">Overall health</h2>



<p>The experts report that a lack of maternal care in the later stages of life causes a diminished microbiome in carpenter bees, which raises their vulnerability to diseases and adversely affects their general health.</p>



<p>The research also highlighted how gene expression or suppression, and the regulation thereof, combined with disease loads and maternal care, play a pivotal role in affecting the bee's microbiome and overall health.</p>



<p>“We are documenting the shifts in development, the shifts in disease loads, and it is a big deal because in wild bees there is a lot less known about their disease loads. We are highlighting all of these factors for the first time,” said senior author Sandra Rehan, a professor in York’s Faculty of Science.</p>



<h2 id="h-critical-early-stages">Critical early stages</h2>



<p>Being single mothers, carpenter bees construct one nest annually within the core of deceased plant stems. Here, from spring to fall, they give birth and look after their young diligently.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, any factor disrupting the mother from tending to her offspring, such as excessive pruning during spring or fall, escalates the risks of nest predation and parasitism, with dire consequences for the young.</p>



<p>“We found really striking shifts in the earliest stages, which was surprising as we didn’t expect that stage to be the most significantly changed,” said study lead author Katherine Chau.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Looking at gene expression of these bees you can see how the slightest dysregulation early in development cascades through their whole formation. It is all interconnected and shows how vital maternal care is in early childhood development.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This research emphasizes the importance of maternal care in the wild bee's life and the broader implications it holds for their development and overall health.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It is a complex paper that provides layers of data and shows the power of genomics as a tool,” said Rehan. “It allows us to document the interactions between host and environment. I think that is the power of this approach and the new technologies and techniques that we are developing.”</p>



<p>Rehan hopes the research will give people more insight into the hidden life of bees and their vast differences, but also similarities.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Often people see bees as a monolith, but when you understand the complexity of bees and that there are wild bees and managed bees, people are more likely to care about bee diversity."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/"><em>Communications Biology</em></a>. </p>



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Maternal care provides lifelong health benefits to carpenter bees

Researchers at York University have discovered the profound influence of...

<p>Currently, biodiversity is dwindling at an alarming pace all over the world. One key method for countering this worrisome trend is protecting various areas around the globe, in a hope that this will suffice to save what is left.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, while such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protected-areas-are-failing-to-safeguard-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected areas</a> have clearly contributed to slowing biodiversity loss overall, it is still unclear how well they work for different species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To answer this question, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a> has recently examined changes in the occurrence of hundreds of species both within and outside of protected areas.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-slowing-the-rate-of-decline">Slowing the rate of decline</h2>



<p>The analysis revealed mixed effects, suggesting that protected areas do not fully meet the expectations set for them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Thus, rather than reversing biodiversity loss trends, current protected areas will - at best - help decelerate the rate of species decline, offering more time to act on the underlying causes of biodiversity loss.</p>



<h2 id="h-some-species-benefit-more-than-others">Some species benefit more than others</h2>



<p>“Our results show that only a small proportion of species explicitly benefit from protection, but this varied by group," explained senior author&nbsp;Marjo Saastamoinen, an associate professor of Life Sciences at Helsinki.</p>



<p>"Birds show the highest positive response to protection, one out of five species, and plants show warm-dwelling species benefiting more. Protected areas mostly help by slowing down the decline of species occurrences.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Importantly though, larger protected areas and longer protection times enhanced positive effects. The benefits were boosted for many more species, adding evidence for the genuine effects of protection.”</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To assess how effective protected areas are, the experts compared how species were faring within natures reserves to how they were doing in similar yet unprotected areas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The results showed that many species exhibited similar trends within protected and unprotected regions. Thus, species decline seems to be far from being halted by protecting specific areas.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The findings suggest that the rate of species decline is slowed down with protection rather than stopped or reversed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Among the 638 species examined, the scientists discovered that one in five bird species, one in eight mammal species, and only one in twenty plant or phytoplankton species benefit from protection.</p>



<p>“Our findings should not discourage us from establishing protected areas,” said lead author&nbsp;Andrea Santangeli, an expert in Organismal and Evolutionary Biology at Helsinki.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Quite the contrary, they show that protected areas will buy us some time to counter rapid species loss. By protecting an area, we will slow the local loss of many species – but, at the same time, we cannot stop species loss by simply setting aside some small pieces of land here and there and expect miracles to happen.”</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“What we need to do is to make the overall landscape more suitable for the species. Protected areas can serve as lifeboats, but in the longer run, these lifeboats will still need a safe landing site.”</p>



<p>Therefore, current area-based protection is insufficient for acting as a “silver bullet” for countering species loss.&nbsp;</p>



<p>An efficient approach would be to manage already existing protected areas better and increase their connectedness with each other, while making unprotected regions a better place for more species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-41073-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-effectiveness-of-protected-areas">Effectiveness of protected areas</h2>



<p>Protected areas (PAs), such as national parks, wildlife reserves, and marine protected areas, play a critical role in conservation efforts. Their effectiveness can be evaluated on various fronts:</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-conservation">Biodiversity conservation</h3>



<p>Many PAs have been successful in safeguarding critical habitats and helping in the recovery of endangered species. For instance, the establishment of mountain gorilla sanctuaries in Africa has played a role in the species' slow but steady population increase.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-services">Ecosystem services</h3>



<p>PAs can help ensure that ecosystems continue to provide vital services, such as clean water, pollination of crops, and carbon sequestration.</p>



<h3 id="h-cultural-and-recreational-values">Cultural and recreational values</h3>



<p>Protected areas offer places for recreation, spiritual rejuvenation, and cultural activities, benefiting both local communities and tourists.</p>



<h3 id="h-economic-benefits">Economic benefits</h3>



<p>Through ecotourism, many PAs contribute significantly to local and national economies.</p>



<h3 id="h-research-and-education">Research and education</h3>



<p>Protected areas serve as living laboratories where scientists can study ecosystems in relatively undisturbed conditions.</p>



<h2 id="h-influential-factors">Influential factors</h2>



<p>While protected areas have been effective in many contexts, their success depends on several factors, including adequate resources, appropriate management strategies, and the engagement of local communities.</p>



<h3 id="h-size-and-connectivity">Size and connectivity&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Small, isolated PAs might not be sufficient to support viable populations of large or wide-ranging species. Corridors or networks of PAs can be more effective than standalone ones.</p>



<h3 id="h-community-involvement">Community involvement&nbsp;</h3>



<p>If local communities are involved in the management and benefits of PAs, they're more likely to be supportive and help ensure the PAs' long-term success.</p>



<h3 id="h-external-pressures">External pressures</h3>



<p>Protected areas are often threatened by external pressures like pollution, climate change, and invasive species, which might originate outside their boundaries.</p>



<h3 id="h-illegal-activities">Illegal activities</h3>



<p>Furthermore, human activities such as poaching and illegal logging can undermine the goals of a protected area.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 id="h-management-and-funding">Management and funding</h3>



<p>Without adequate resources and skilled personnel, PAs may exist only on paper. These established protected areas, where current protection activities are insufficient to halt degradation, are known as "paper parks."</p>



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Protected areas slow down biodiversity loss, but they can't reverse it

Currently, biodiversity is dwindling at an alarming pace all over...

Siberian,Husky,Dog,With,Narrow,Eyes,,Funny,Smiling,Husky,Dog

<p>In a recent study conducted at the <a href="https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Veterinary Medicine</a> Vienna, Austria, evidence suggests that both wolves and dogs rely not just on their sense of smell but also on their observational memory and social learning when trying to locate hidden food.</p>



<p>The research was led by Sebastian Vetter and his team and published in the open-access journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0290547">PLOS ONE</a>. The study builds upon prior research on social learning in wolves and dogs.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-focused-on-social-learning">Study focused on social learning</h2>



<p>Social learning involves acquiring knowledge by observing or interacting with others. A specific type of this learning, known as observational spatial memory, entails remembering the location where another individual has hidden food.</p>



<p>To delve deeper into this phenomenon, Vetter and his colleagues designed an experiment at the <a href="https://www.wolfscience.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolf Science Center</a> in Ernsbrunn, Austria. The subjects of this experiment comprised 9 timber wolves and 8 mongrel dogs. These animals were tested on their capability to locate 4, 6, or 8 caches of food, with the variable being whether they had observed a human hide the food or not.</p>



<h2>What the scientists learned</h2>



<p>The results were quite revealing. Both species located more of the initial 5 food caches faster and traversed shorter distances when they had witnessed the hiding process. </p>



<p>This behavior clearly implies that the wolves and dogs didn't rely solely on their sense of smell to find the food, reinforcing the idea of observational spatial memory's existence in these animals.</p>



<p>Interestingly, even with the presence or absence of visual cues, wolves consistently outperformed dogs in locating the hidden caches. However, this doesn't necessarily point to a superior cognitive ability in wolves. The researchers speculate that the difference might be rooted in other characteristics, such as persistence or the motivation driven by food.</p>



<p>Reflecting on the broader implications of their findings, the researchers commented, "While domestication probably affected dogs’ willingness to adjust to humans, the results of the current study collaborate previous findings suggesting that cognitive abilities do not differ very much between dogs and wolves."</p>



<p>This study contributes significantly to the understanding of cognition in wolves and dogs and might reshape how we train and interact with these animals in various settings, from household pets to conservation efforts.</p>



<h2>More about social learning</h2>



<p>Social learning is a fascinating process through which individuals acquire new behaviors, skills, or information by observing and imitating others. Unlike individual trial-and-error learning, where an individual learns solely through their own experiences, social learning allows for faster adaptation by leveraging the knowledge and experiences of others.</p>



<p>At its core, social learning hinges on observation. From a young age, humans watch their peers, elders, and even media representations to learn how to act, speak, and even think. For example, a child might learn to tie their shoes by watching a parent or sibling, skipping the painstaking process of figuring it out alone.</p>



<h3>Animals also practice social learning</h3>



<p>As noted earlier in this article, humans aren't the only species that benefit from social learning. Many animals, from birds to primates, observe and mimic others in their group. </p>



<p>For instance, a young chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to extract termites by watching an elder demonstrate the technique. This mode of learning has considerable advantages.</p>



<p>Efficiency: By observing, individuals can avoid potential risks and pitfalls that come with trial-and-error methods.</p>



<p>Cultural Transmission: Social learning plays a pivotal role in passing down traditions, customs, and techniques from one generation to the next.</p>



<p>Adaptation: In changing environments, observing successful behaviors in peers can lead to quicker adaptation.</p>



<p>In the modern age, with the rise of digital media and online communities, the scope of social learning has expanded exponentially. Platforms like YouTube, where one can watch and learn anything from cooking to coding, are testaments to the power and reach of social learning in today's interconnected world.</p>



<p>In essence, social learning is a testament to the age-old saying, "Monkey see, monkey do." By observing and imitating, we not only preserve valuable knowledge but also foster innovation and adaptation, proving that sometimes, watching is indeed learning.</p>



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Dogs and wolves have social learning ability and can remember where people hid food

In a recent study conducted at the University of Veterinary...

<p>Ecuador, home to a rich tapestry of biodiversity, has unveiled a new entrant: the <em>Neacomys marci</em>. This recently identified spiny mouse species, previously mistaken for another of its kind, bears the length equivalent to a tennis ball. </p>



<p>With distinctive features such as a pale suede underbelly, a long tail, and a white throat, it stands as the 24th recognized species in its genus, Neacomys.</p>



<h2 id="h-many-recent-spiny-mouse-discoveries">Many recent spiny mouse discoveries</h2>



<p>The last five years have been revolutionary for the Neacomys genus with the discovery of 14 new species, including <em>Neacomys marci</em>. </p>



<p>Found in the Chocó biogeographic region, one of South America's significant biodiversity hotspots, this region is not only expansive, stretching along the Pacific coasts of Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador, but it's also notably under-researched. </p>



<p>This particular part of northwestern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-carnivorous-plants-discovered-in-ecuador/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecuador's rainforests</a> boasts immense biodiversity and endemism, credit being owed to the confluence of the Chocó and the Andes Mountains.</p>



<h2>How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>The journey to recognizing Neacomys marci didn't happen in isolation. Collaborative efforts among researchers Nicolás Tinoco of <a href="https://www.puce.edu.ec/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pontificia Universidad</a> Católica del Ecuador, Claudia Koch from Germany's <a href="https://www.leibniz-gemeinschaft.de/en/institutes/leibniz-institutes-all-lists/leibniz-institute-for-the-analysis-of-biodiversity-change#:~:text=The%20Leibniz%20Institute%20for%20the,for%20society%20as%20a%20whole." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leibniz Institute</a> for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change, Javier E. Colmenares-Pinzón of <a href="https://www.uis.edu.co/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad Industrial de Santander</a> in Colombia, and Jorge Brito from <a href="http://inabio.biodiversidad.gob.ec/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad</a> in Quito, Ecuador were integral to this revelation. </p>



<p>Their in-depth description and findings on this rodent have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1175.106113" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published in the open-access journal, Zookeys</a>.</p>



<p>As a genus, Neacomys has made its presence known across eastern Panama and the northern regions of South America. Studies since 2017 have invigorated the understanding of this genus, introducing several new species. </p>



<p>However, given the expansive uncharted terrains of South America and nearby Panama, many believe that the genus's true diversity might still be lurking in the shadows, waiting for further discovery.</p>



<p>Modern scientific approaches, including molecular analysis, have been paramount in identifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dozens-of-frog-species-rediscovered-in-ecuador/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal groups</a> with more precision. Additionally, extensive reviews of museum collections and augmented field collection endeavors have been pivotal in comprehending not just <em>Neacomys marci</em> but its peer species as well.</p>



<h2>How to name a new spiny mouse</h2>



<p>The naming of this new species pays tribute to Marc Hoogeslag from Amsterdam, Netherlands. As a co-founder and leader of the International Union for Conservation of Nature - Netherlands Land Acquisition Fund, Hoogeslag has been instrumental in aiding local groups globally in crafting new ecological reserves and championing the cause of endangered species conservation. </p>



<p>The discovery of <em>Neacomys marci</em> in the EcoMinga Foundation's Manduriacu Reserve stands as testament to the impact of Hoogeslag's initiatives, with the reserve being one of the many beneficiaries of his program.</p>



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New species of spiny mouse discovered in Ecuador

Ecuador, home to a rich tapestry of biodiversity, has unveiled...

<p>In an era long past, when the Earth was hot and humid, marine life thrived. The sea teemed with early squids, eel-like fish, and sea worms, all hunting smaller marine animals -- like the springtails.</p>



<p>Yet, above ground, life had not yet ventured. Such was the state of our planet about 450 million years ago, at the tail end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Ordovician-period_illustration_Credit-Fritz-Geller-Grimm_1big.jpeg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ordovician period</a>.</p>



<p>The warm oceans provided an idyllic haven for marine creatures, but change was imminent. Earth’s once balmy land masses began to freeze, as a vast ice cap steadily expanded across its surface.</p>



<p>The previously hospitable waters transformed into cold, unforgiving habitats. Within a brief span, our world witnessed its second-worst mass extinction event. Half of all known species were obliterated.</p>



<h2 id="h-springtails-are-everywhere">Springtails are everywhere</h2>



<p>However, against the odds, the springtail emerged as a survivor. These insect-like creatures are minute, with the largest among them only stretching to six millimeters. At a casual glance, you might mistake them for a garden-variety insect, but they command a unique evolutionary branch.</p>



<p>Over 9,000 species of springtails have been identified, and their habitats range from the soils of backyards to the foliage of dense forests. Interestingly, they get their name from a forked tail, also known as furcula, which allows them to jump up to 10 centimeters high when threatened, a notable feat for such a tiny creature.</p>



<p>Amidst the ever-expanding list of their fascinating traits, springtails have another impressive adaptation: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snailfish-have-a-secret-weapon-to-survive-in-frozen-arctic-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antifreeze proteins</a>.</p>



<h2>Tiny animals and antifreeze proteins</h2>



<p>A fascinating <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-35983-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new study</a> by researchers from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a> and <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen’s University</a> in Canada suggests that the springtail may have been the first animal to ever produce antifreeze proteins. Prior to this discovery, the scientific consensus was that animals did not develop this ability until much later.</p>



<p>“We knew that antifreeze proteins had developed independently of each other several times during evolutionary history. Fish have them. Insects have them. Some spiders have them. But until we saw these results, we didn't know that they’d developed so early in the animal world," says Professor Martin Holmstrup of the Department of Ecoscience at Aarhus University.</p>



<h2>How to find springtails</h2>



<p>Martin Holmstrup and his colleagues collected the springtails from Denmark, Iceland, and Greenland for their lab. Finding them isn't difficult. You might even discover them in your garden. Here's how:</p>



<ol type="1">
<li>Take a handful of soil or foliage from your garden and put it in a sieve.<br></li>



<li>Position an adjustable lamp above the sieve and set a tray underneath.<br></li>



<li>The lamp's heat drives the springtails to seek cooler surroundings, causing them to fall through the sieve. You can then observe them scurrying about in the tray.</li>
</ol>



<h2>What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>Holmstrup, who oversees nearly 20 species of springtails in his laboratory, sent samples to his Canadian colleagues to ascertain when these creatures first developed the antifreeze protein. With DNA sequencing technology, the team searched for sequences associated with antifreeze protein production across a wide range of species.</p>



<p>Their findings? The gene mutation leading to antifreeze protein genesis happened during the Ordovician period.</p>



<p>"The calculations show that springtails developed the antifreeze protein long before other animals. It didn’t happen for fish and insects until a million years later. Although plants and microorganisms, such as bacteria and single-celled algae, might have developed a similar mechanism even earlier,” Holmstrup adds.</p>



<h2>Springtails dry out like raisins</h2>



<p>While these proteins are vital, springtails have another survival mechanism. To protect their cells from freezing, they undergo a form of hibernation, drying out completely. In this state, their metabolism drops to near-undetectable levels.</p>



<p>“You can compare them to a grape that dries into a raisin in a process reminiscent of freeze-drying. The springtails shrink and become small, wrinkly critters in winter. And then, when spring arrives, they absorb water and swell back to normal size,” Holmstrup explains.</p>



<h2>Antifreeze proteins and the food industry</h2>



<p>The concept of antifreeze proteins first emerged in the mid-20th century. For years, scientists were puzzled at how Arctic fish could thrive in icy waters that, based on temperature alone, should have frozen them. It wasn’t until the late 1960s that the American researcher Arthur DeVries identified these proteins in Arctic fish, noting their ability to prevent ice from forming within their cells.</p>



<p>Today, the implications of these proteins reach beyond our understanding of evolutionary survival. The food industry, particularly in the frozen sector, has taken a keen interest.</p>



<p>Holmstrup shares, "The genes that encode the antifreeze proteins in fish have been copied into industrial yeast cell cultures. This makes the yeast produce the very useful proteins, which can then be added to different foods."</p>



<p>For instance, companies like Unilever have integrated these proteins into ice creams, resulting in enhanced textures and an improved freezing-thawing process. But the potential applications don't end there.</p>



<p>As Holmstrup concludes, "In the longer term, this effect could be used in connection with the cryopreservation of transplant organs. Other industries like the aerospace and wind turbine industries have also experimented with the proteins. They hope the proteins can protect wings from freezing and needing to be de-iced.”</p>



<p>In understanding the springtail's evolutionary triumph, we not only gain insight into our planet's rich past but also draw inspiration for technological advancements in our future.</p>



<h2>More about the Ordovician period</h2>



<p>Dive deep into Earth's geologic timeline, and you'll find the Ordovician Period. Spanning from approximately 485 to 443 million years ago, this epoch, following the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-the-first-animals-appear-on-earth-we-are-now-one-step-closer-to-knowing-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Period</a>, paints a vivid picture of an ever-evolving world.</p>



<h3>A flourishing marine life</h3>



<p>The Ordovician Period primarily showcased an explosion in marine life. Oceans covered a vast majority of the Earth's surface, and within these primordial waters, diverse marine species thrived. Trilobites, brachiopods, graptolites, and nautiloids dominated the oceans. Notably, corals began constructing the first significant reef systems, laying the foundation for an ecosystem we recognize and value today.</p>



<p>However, it wasn't just about the animals. The first evidence of green algae appeared during this period, indicating the beginnings of plant life that would later colonize the land. The marine plankton diversified, which led to a significant increase in the overall amount of life. This diverse marine food web set the stage for the rapid evolution and proliferation of predatory organisms.</p>



<h3>Advancements in ocean dynamics</h3>



<p>The world's continents underwent significant transformation during the Ordovician. The supercontinent known as Gondwana was on a slow journey toward the South Pole. This migration played a key role in shaping oceanic patterns and sea levels. As Gondwana approached the pole, global cooling ensued, setting the stage for the period's eventual ice age.</p>



<h3>The rise of fish</h3>



<p>Fish, albeit very early fish, first emerged during the Ordovician Period. Although these early fish lacked jaws, they still represented a significant evolutionary advancement, marking the onset of vertebrates' dominance in the following periods. These early fish primarily relied on filter feeding, with their soft bodies navigating the depths of the ancient oceans.</p>



<h3>Life takes its first steps on land</h3>



<p>While the Ordovician seas teemed with life, land remained mostly barren. However, by the end of the period, the first evidence of life on land began to emerge. Early, non-vascular plants called bryophytes likely took root on terrestrial landscapes. These first steps onto land would pave the way for the more advanced plants and animals that would later dominate the Silurian and Devonian periods.</p>



<h3>A freezing conclusion</h3>



<p>The Ordovician Period did not end quietly. The movement of Gondwana over the South Pole led to widespread glaciation. This global cooling caused a drop in sea levels, which, combined with other yet-to-be-confirmed factors, triggered the Ordovician mass extinction. This catastrophic event wiped out nearly 60% of marine invertebrate genera and 85% of marine invertebrate species.</p>



<p>However, despite its chilling conclusion, the Ordovician Period remains significant for its contributions to Earth's evolutionary history. It showcased the diversification and dominance of marine life, saw the emergence of the first fish and land plants, and underwent significant geological changes that shaped the Earth as we know it. </p>



<p>The legacy of the Ordovician Period offers us a profound understanding of our planet's dynamic history and the intricate web of life it nurtures.</p>



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What are springtails and why would humans not exist without them?

In an era long past, when the Earth was hot...

<p>Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-turn-to-cannibalism-when-food-sources-are-limited/">spiders</a> near water bodies feed on insects like dragonflies. But when these insects inhabit mercury-contaminated waters, they might transfer this hazardous metal to spider species that feed on them.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Thus, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/upper-midwest-water-science-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey Upper Midwest Water Science Center</a>, spiders with habitats close to the shoreline can move mercury contamination from riverbeds up the food chain to land animals.</p>



<h2 id="h-contaminant-transfer">Contaminant transfer</h2>



<p>Adult aquatic insects provide subsidies to linked terrestrial ecosystems, supporting consumers such as birds, bats, amphibians, and spiders.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, contaminants that are accumulated by aquatic insect larvae and retained through metamorphosis can result in insect-mediated contaminant transfer (i.e., flux) to terrestrial biota.</p>



<p>"The transfer of contaminants from aquatic to terrestrial ecosystems represents an often overlooked exposure pathway that can elevate health risks to wildlife, highlighting the need for monitoring recipient terrestrial animals that eat aquatic insects emerging from contaminated waters,” the authors explained.</p>



<h2 id="h-methylmercury">Methylmercury</h2>



<p>A significant proportion of the mercury present in aquatic environments comes from industrial waste and other human-related activities (although there are natural sources of mercury too).&nbsp;</p>



<p>When this mercury reaches the water, microorganisms transform it into methylmercury, a more toxic form that biomagnifies and increases in animals up the food chain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As a result, researchers have increasingly recognized spiders living on lakeshores and riverbeds as a potential link between aquatic contamination and predominantly terrestrial creatures such as birds, amphibians, and bats.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



<p>To better understand this phenomenon, the experts assessed whether shoreline spiders’ tissue contained mercury from adjacent aquatic sources and examined how these animals connect mercury pollution in water and land animals.</p>



<p>The scientists collected long-jawed spiders found near two tributaries of Lake Superior, and gathered samples of sediments, dragonfly larvae, and yellow perch fish from these locations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Afterwards, they identified and measured the various sources of mercury contamination, including direct industrial discharge, rainwater, and land runoff.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The analysis revealed that the origin of mercury in the sediments was identical up the aquatic food chain in wetlands, reservoir shorelines, and urban shorelines.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, when sediment contained a higher level of industrial mercury, so did the dragonfly larvae, spider, and yellow perch tissues that they examined. According to this data, long-jawed spiders could indicate how mercury pollution moves from aquatic environments to land-based wildlife.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Thus, such spiders could shed new light on the sources of mercury pollution and inform management decisions by providing a novel tool for the monitoring of remediation activities.</p>



<p>The researchers also collected and analyzed tissue samples from two additional types of arachnids from certain locations: the fishing spider and the orb-weaver spider.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The data indicated variability in mercury sources across these different taxa. Such variability can be attributed to their distinctive feeding patterns: while fishing spiders predominantly hunt on land near water, orb-weavers consume both water and land-based insects.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The long-jawed variety, however, mainly preys on adult water insects. Thus, these findings suggest that, although long-jawed spiders are reliable indicators of aquatic pollution, not every species living near the shoreline can be considered an effective mercury pollution sentinel.</p>



<h2 id="h-mercury-contamination">Mercury contamination&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Mercury contamination is a serious environmental issue caused by the release of mercury into ecosystems. It can occur through industrial processes, mining, and natural sources.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Mercury is toxic to humans and wildlife, and it can accumulate in organisms, leading to health problems, including harmful effects on the nervous, digestive and immune systems.</p>



<p>Efforts to reduce mercury contamination include stricter regulations on emissions and responsible disposal of mercury-containing products.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Environmental Sciences &amp; Technology Letters</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Spiders transfer mercury contamination from water to land animals

Many spiders near water bodies feed on insects like dragonflies....

<p>A recent Europe-wide study has investigated the prevalence of protozoans, bacteria, and viruses in birds and bats that are potentially pathogenic to humans and domestic animals. The experts compiled the results of over 700 scientific articles and nearly half a million observations in varying climate conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers identified specific climatic factors that can significantly alter the risk of succumbing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-heightens-risk-of-most-infectious-diseases/">infectious diseases</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-pathogen-occurrence">Pathogen occurrence&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By combining data on the occurrence of more than 75 pathogenic microbes across Europe from almost 400 bird and 40 bat species with climatic factors, the scientists discovered that the occurrence of most pathogens is associated with temperature and rainfall.</p>



<p>“In general, the occurrence of pathogenic bacteria increased in areas with a warm and dry climate. On the other hand, pathogenic viruses prefer moist climate,” said lead author&nbsp;Yanjie Xu, a postdoctoral fellow in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.luomus.fi/en/natural-history-museum">Finnish Museum of Natural History</a> from the University of Helsinki.</p>



<h2 id="h-climatic-factors">Climatic factors&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The link between climatic factors and pathogens could be reliably assessed on the 17 pathogen taxa with most data. According to the researchers, the observed associations significantly varied.</p>



<h3 id="h-temperature">Temperature</h3>



<p>“Temperature was positively associated with occurrence of avian flu virus, malaria-parasite, and bacteria that cause chlamydia, salmonella, Q-fever, and typhus in birds and bats,” explained co-author&nbsp;Arto Pulliainen, an expert in Biomedicine at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en">University of Turku</a>.</p>



<h3 id="h-rainfall">Rainfall</h3>



<p>Rainfall had both positive and negative associations with the occurrence of different pathogens. For example, rises in rainfall increased the probability for the occurrence of Usutu-, Sindbis- and avian flu viruses and salmonella bacteria.</p>



<p>“Usutu- and Sindbis-viruses are vectored by mosquitoes, and rainfall can increase the occurrence of wetlands favored by mosquitoes. Similarly, avian flu and salmonella are prevalent particularly in waterfowl, for whom wetlands are also of importance,” said co-author<strong> </strong>Thomas Lilley, a professor of Ecophysiology&nbsp;at the Finnish Museum of Natural History.</p>



<h2 id="h-distribution-ranges">Distribution ranges&nbsp;</h2>



<p>According to the scientists, climate change modifies the distribution ranges of both the pathogens and their hosts. For instance, the distribution ranges of birds have already been observed to shift northwards by more than a kilometer per year.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There is a possibility that for instance thermophilic pathogens become more common in northern Europe as a cause of climate change,” said senior author Aleksi Lehikoinen, a curator at the Finnish Museum of Natural History.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-implications">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Our results suggest that rising temperature and increasing precipitation will accelerate the threat of bird- and bat-associated bacterial and viral pathogens to wildlife, domesticated animals and humans, respectively," said the study authors.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, the idiosyncratic relationships with climatic conditions among pathogenic taxa highlight the need for pathogen-specific predictive models to understand future pathogen distributions."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.06783"><em>Ecography</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bat-and-bird-viruses">More about bat and bird viruses</h2>



<p>Bats and birds are known to be reservoirs for various viruses that can sometimes spillover and infect other animals, including humans.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 id="h-bat-viruses">Bat viruses</h3>



<h4 id="h-coronaviruses">Coronaviruses</h4>



<p>The most well-known of these is SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Bats are believed to be the natural reservoir for various coronaviruses, including the ones responsible for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS).</p>



<h4 id="h-ebola-and-marburg-viruses">Ebola and marburg viruses</h4>



<p>These are hemorrhagic fever viruses with bats serving as a potential reservoir. They can be transmitted to humans and non-human primates leading to severe outbreaks.</p>



<h4 id="h-rabies-and-other-lyssaviruses">Rabies and other lyssaviruses</h4>



<p>Bats can be reservoirs for rabies virus and other related viruses. Transmission to humans is rare but can be fatal without treatment.</p>



<h4 id="h-nipah-and-hendra-viruses">Nipah and hendra viruses</h4>



<p>These viruses are found in fruit bats and can spill over to other animals and humans, causing severe respiratory and neurological disease.</p>



<h3 id="h-bird-viruses">Bird viruses</h3>



<h4 id="h-avian-influenza">Avian influenza</h4>



<p>Often referred to as "bird flu," various strains of avian influenza virus can infect birds. Some of these strains, like H5N1 and H7N9, have caused severe illnesses in humans.</p>



<h4 id="h-west-nile">West Nile&nbsp;</h4>



<p>While this is primarily a mosquito-borne virus, birds are the main reservoir. Mosquitoes transmit the virus after biting infected birds and can then infect mammals, including humans.</p>



<p>The existence of these viruses in natural reservoirs emphasizes the importance of surveillance, understanding wildlife ecology, and the interactions between wildlife, livestock, and humans.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Reducing the interface between wild animals and humans, like by limiting the wildlife trade or encroachment into natural habitats, can help minimize the risk of future outbreaks.</p>



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Which climatic factors promote the spread of zoonotic diseases?

A recent Europe-wide study has investigated the prevalence of protozoans,...

<p>The narrative of our planet’s history is filled with tales of massive, awe-inspiring creatures, often with the dinosaurs as the headlining act. Yet, a newly unveiled chapter in this ever-evolving story takes us 40 million years before these famous reptilian giants roamed the Earth, to the era of Pampaphoneus biccai - a creature that once laid claim to the title of the largest and most ferocious predator in South America.</p>



<p>Recent revelations in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlad071/7260715">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a> have introduced the world to an extraordinary 265-million-year-old fossil specimen of Pampaphoneus biccai. The fossil is exquisitely preserved and was uncovered in the pastoral landscapes of São Gabriel in Southern Brazil.</p>



<p>The significance of this finding cannot be overstated. This is especially true since the remains include an intact skull as well as parts of its skeleton, like ribs and arm bones.</p>



<h2 id="h-when-dinocephalians-ruled-the-earth">When dinocephalians ruled the Earth</h2>



<p>Tracing the lineage of Pampaphoneus leads to the dinocephalians, an early branch of therapsids that precede the catastrophic extinction event wiping out a staggering 86% of global animal species. These creatures were aptly named after the Greek words for "terrible head" due to their dense cranial bones. They were the predominant large land-dwellers of their time, showcasing a diverse range including both carnivores and herbivores.</p>



<p>Mateus A. Costa Santos was the study's lead author and a graduate student at the <a href="https://unipampa.edu.br/portal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleontology Laboratory at the Federal University of Pampa</a> (UNIPAMPA). For context, he explains, "The fossil was found in middle Permian rocks, in an area where bones are not so common, but always hold pleasant surprises.”</p>



<p>He elaborates on the significance, noting, “Finding a new Pampaphoneus skull after so long was extremely important for increasing our knowledge about the animal, which was previously difficult to differentiate from its Russian relatives."</p>



<h2>How Pampaphoneus biccai was found</h2>



<p>A colossal effort went into unearthing this fossil. For a month, paleontologists from UNIPAMPA and <a href="http://www.ufrgs.br/ufrgs/inicial" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</a> (UFRGS) diligently worked, day in and day out. However, challenges posed by the global pandemic meant an additional three-year delay before the specimen could be cleaned, studied, and its mysteries unveiled.</p>



<p>Co-author Professor Stephanie E. Pierce of Harvard offered her insights on the specimen. He remarked, “This animal was a gnarly-looking beast, and it must have evoked sheer dread in anything that crossed its path.” Pierce emphasizes the global implications of the discovery. He noted its ability to shed light on "the community structure of terrestrial ecosystems just prior to the biggest mass extinction of all time."</p>



<p>The Pampaphoneus biccai specimen has elevated Brazil's significance in the world of paleontology. Interestingly, this isn't the first time a Pampaphoneus skull has been discovered in South America. It is, however, certainly the most comprehensive find yet. Its size, larger than its predecessor, coupled with the impeccable preservation of its bones, offers unprecedented data about its morphology.</p>



<h2>Pampaphoneus was similar to modern big cats</h2>



<p>Equating the creature's ecological significance to that of today's big cats, Professor Felipe Pinheiro from UNIPAMPA describes, “Pampaphoneus played the same ecological role as modern big cats." He goes on to illustrate the creature's might. He observed that, "Its dentition and cranial architecture suggest that its bite was strong enough to chew bones, much like modern-day hyenas."</p>



<p>Indeed, while the newly discovered skull is a formidable 40cm, there are indications of an even larger individual. This clue was gleaned from a jaw fragment that is believed to belong to Pampaphoneus. If accurate, this would suggest creatures nearly twice the size of the current specimen, potentially reaching lengths of up to three meters and weighing around 400kg.</p>



<p>This apex predator of its time was not alone. Within the same vicinity, remains of potential prey like the small dicynodont Rastodon and the giant amphibian Konzhukovia were identified. This discovery paints a vibrant picture of a bygone ecosystem.</p>



<p>The unfolding narrative of Pampaphoneus biccai, in tandem with other fossil findings in the region, underscores the Pampa's untapped potential as a treasure trove of paleontological discoveries. </p>



<p>This research endeavor was made possible through funding by many generous institutions. Special thanks goes to CAPES, <a href="https://www.gov.br/cnpq/pt-br" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNPq</a>, and the <a href="https://research.harvard.edu/lemann-brazil-research-fund/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Lemann Brazil Research Fund</a>. The study reaffirms the global significance of Brazil’s rich and diverse fossil record.</p>



<h2>More about dinocephalians</h2>



<p>Dinocephalians, often overshadowed by the more famous dinosaurs, hold a unique and critical place in our planet’s prehistoric narrative. As mentioned above, derived from Greek words meaning "terrible heads," dinocephalians were a diverse group of therapsid (mammal-like reptiles) species that once roamed the Earth long before the first dinosaur made its footprint.</p>



<h3>Origin and evolution</h3>



<p>Dinocephalians first appeared in the middle Permian period, roughly around 270 million years ago. Over time, they diversified into a wide range of forms, leading to both herbivorous and carnivorous species.</p>



<h3>Physical characteristics</h3>



<p>One of the defining characteristics of dinocephalians was their thick, dense cranial bones, which earned them their unique name. These heavy skulls, especially in males, might have served multiple purposes. They helped with protection, combat with rivals, or even as a display to attract potential mates.</p>



<p>Many dinocephalian species also exhibited sexual dimorphism, where males and females displayed distinct physical differences. While males typically had larger, more robust skulls and bodies, females were comparatively smaller and less robust.</p>



<h3>Diet and lifestyle</h3>



<p>The diversity in the dinocephalian group was not just in size or skull structure, but also in dietary habits. Some species, like the massive Moschops, were herbivores with strong, pillar-like limbs. This indicates they had a slow-moving lifestyle where they browsed low-lying vegetation. Others, like the carnivorous Titanophoneus, had sharp teeth and strong jaws, suggesting a predatory lifestyle where they hunted smaller animals.</p>



<h3>Habitat and distribution</h3>



<p>Most dinocephalian fossils come from South Africa and Russia. This suggests these regions were primary habitats for these creatures during the Permian period. These habitats ranged from arid plains to dense forests, supporting the diverse lifestyles of the various dinocephalian species.</p>



<h3>Pampaphoneus biccai extinction</h3>



<p>Around 260 million years ago, dinocephalians began to decline. After Pampaphoneus biccai, the dinocephalians slowly vanished from the planet. </p>



<p>The exact reasons for their decline remain a subject of debate among paleontologists. However, by the late Permian period, dinocephalians had become extinct. Their extinction paved the way for new groups of therapsids to dominate, eventually leading to the rise of the dinosaurs.</p>



<h3>Significance in evolutionary history</h3>



<p>Dinocephalians represent a vital evolutionary link between earlier reptilian forms and the more advanced mammal-like reptiles that would follow. Their rise and fall highlight the dynamic nature of life on Earth. Entire groups can evolve, diversify, and eventually go extinct, giving way to newer, more adapted species.</p>



<p>In summary, while they may not be as famous as the mighty Tyrannosaurus or the graceful Diplodocus, dinocephalians played a crucial role in the Earth’s prehistoric ecosystem. Their fossils provide valuable insights into the evolution of life, the changing climates and habitats of the past, and the intricate dance of survival, adaptation, and extinction. The legacy of the "terrible-headed" dinocephalians, therefore, stands as a testament to the ever-changing story of life on our planet.</p>



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<p>---</p>

Long before dinosaurs, Pampaphoneus biccai was the fiercest predator on Earth

The narrative of our planet’s history is filled with tales...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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