If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

Over 80 percent of habitats within the European Union are currently classified as vulnerable, leading to butterflies declining and other adverse effects on the functional capacity of wildlife habitats and the services they offer to humans. To address this issue, the European Commission has introduced a fresh set of regulations known as the “<a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/nature-restoration-law_en">Nature Restoration Law</a>.” 



This law is a crucial component of the <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en">EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030</a>, which is scheduled to be released in May 2023, and aims to establish binding objectives for the restoration of diverse ecosystems throughout the entire EU. Within two years of the law taking effect, member states are required to submit plans outlining their strategies for achieving these targets and provide evidence of the effectiveness of their implemented measures.



However, this will be far from easy, since there are only a few indicators that can reliably show the state of biodiversity. For most plant and animal species, there is a lack of comparable data across Europe that could be used to assess the status of populations. Fortunately, there are a few exceptions, such as bats, birds, and butterflies, for which a larger amount of data is currently available.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/">Butterflies</a> in particular are ideal bioindicators since they live in a wide range of habitats and react sensitively to environmental changes. Moreover, they are attractive and popular, making it relatively easy to motivate volunteers to participate in scientifically oriented butterfly counts.&nbsp;



For instance, since the establishment of the citizen science project Butterfly Monitoring Germany in 2005, such programs have been developed all across Europe, leading to over 5,000 volunteers currently participating in butterfly monitoring efforts, with data collected and analyzed in the central <a href="https://butterfly-monitoring.net/">European Butterfly Monitoring Scheme</a> (eBMS). This data can then be used to track the population development of individual species and identify common trends for the inhabitants of certain habitats.



This is the idea behind the recent “<a href="https://assets.vlinderstichting.nl/docs/290cb16a-e90f-4c5b-a7df-9b954d511cfa.pdf">Butterfly Grassland Indicator 1990-2020</a>,” which is based on the population trends of 17 butterfly species inhabiting Europe’s meadows and pastures.&nbsp;



This indicator currently shows that, across the 27 EU members states, only the Orange Tip&nbsp;(Anthocharis cardamines) butterfly is displaying a moderate increase, while three species - the Large Skipper (Ochlodes sylvanus), the Common Copper (Lycaena phlaeas), and the Meadow Brown (Maniola jurtina) - are stable.



Meanwhile, butterflies are declining across five species, including the Common Blue (Polyommatus icarus) and the Wall Brown (Lasiommata megera). 



“The biggest loser in recent years has been the large blue (Phengaris arion), which for example has disappeared completely in the Netherlands,” said Josef Settele, an agricultural ecologist at the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/">Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research</a> (UFZ).&nbsp;For the remaining species among the 17 grassland butterflies, there is either no clear trend or insufficient data. If the analysis is extended to Europe as a whole, the situation is even more dire, with no species on the rise and only three currently stable.



According to the experts, the issue of butterflies declining across populations is mainly due to changes in agriculture. In Northwestern Europe, the intensive use of meadows and pastures and the heavy employment of fertilizers have particularly unfavorable effects. On the rest of the continent, the main problem is the complete abandonment of cultivation.



In order to reverse these negative trends, scientists and policymakers should urgently promote the sustainable use of meadows and pastures, while creating new valuable habitats and better connecting the already existing ones. Moreover, effective climate change mitigation could also play a significant role in protecting butterfly populations.



“Despite all efforts, these insects are still declining in many parts of Europe. We hope that the upcoming Nature Restoration Law can stop this decline so that our children can also enjoy butterflies in flower-rich grasslands,” concluded Chris van Swaay, an expert in Conservation Biology at Butterfly Conservation Europe.



<h2 id="h-more-about-why-butterflies-are-declining">More about why butterflies are declining</h2>



Butterfly populations have been experiencing significant declines worldwide for several decades. The causes are multifaceted, and factors contributing to butterfly decline include:



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss-and-fragmentation">Habitat Loss and Fragmentation</h3>



This is perhaps the most significant reason for the decline in butterfly populations. Natural habitats are being destroyed at an alarming rate due to human activities such as urbanization, intensive agriculture, and deforestation.&nbsp;



These activities not only reduce the amount of space available for butterflies but also result in fragmented habitats that make it difficult for butterflies to migrate and find the resources they need for survival.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-and-butterflies-declining-populations">Climate Change and butterflies declining populations</h3>



Changes in weather patterns, increased temperatures, and higher frequency of extreme weather events can disrupt butterfly life cycles and affect their survival. Some butterfly species are particularly sensitive to temperature changes, and global warming could lead to mismatches in the timing of butterfly emergence and the availability of food resources.



<h3 id="h-pesticides-and-pollution">Pesticides and Pollution</h3>



The use of chemical pesticides in agriculture can directly kill butterflies or reduce their food sources. Similarly, air and water pollution can have detrimental effects on butterfly populations.



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive Species</h3>



Non-native plants and animals can outcompete native species for resources, change habitats, or even prey on butterflies directly.



<h3 id="h-disease-and-parasites">Disease and Parasites</h3>



Disease and parasites can also contribute to butterfly decline, especially when combined with other stressors that weaken butterfly populations.



To combat this phenomenon of butterflies declining, conservation efforts are being made, such as creating butterfly-friendly habitats, reducing pesticide use, and conducting research to better understand the needs and threats to butterfly species. Many of these efforts involve public participation, like citizen science projects where people help monitor butterfly populations and report sightings.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Grassland butterflies declining all over Europe

Over 80 percent of habitats within the European Union are...

The animal kingdom is filled with countless wonders and surprises, one of which is a small, vibrant jumping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-can-protect-tomatoes-from-invasive-pests/">spider</a> species, Siler collingwoodi, that has developed not just one, but two strategies to avoid falling victim to predators. 



This colorful creature, known as Siler collingwoodi, uses the trick of camouflaging with plants and adopting an ant's gait to survive in the wild. It's a fascinating display of adaptation, according to a study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.106747">iScience</a>.



These spiders mimic ants in the way they move, a survival tactic that researchers have taken an interest in. Ants, unlike many other small creatures, are not a prey of choice for many predators. They have spiny defenses, sharp mandibles, and are unafraid to fight back.&nbsp;



Moreover, many of them are equipped with chemical repellents or venom that make them a less than ideal meal. The fact that Siler collingwoodi, the subject of this study, had already shown ant-like movement intrigued the researchers. 



<h2 id="h-how-convincing-was-siler-collingwoodi-s-mimicry">How convincing was Siler collingwoodi's mimicry?</h2>



The researchers sought to understand just how convincing this mimicry was, whether the spider could mimic more than one ant species, and how effective this tactic was at warding off predators. In addition to movement, the spider's brilliant coloration is a crucial part of its defense strategy.&nbsp;



"Unlike typical ant-mimicking spiders that mimic the brown or black body color of ants, S. collingwoodi has brilliant body coloration," explained study first author Hua Zeng, an ecologist at <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a>.



At first glance, the spider's bright colors seem to blend well with the surrounding plant life, but the researchers wanted to investigate whether this coloration actually served as camouflage against predators.



The researchers embarked on their investigation by gathering samples of wild ant-mimicking spiders from four geographic locations in southern Hainan, China.&nbsp;



To draw comparisons, they also collected another type of jumping spider that does not mimic ants, as well as five species of ants that were suspected models for the spiders' mimicry.



Back in the lab, the researchers observed and compared how the ants and spiders moved. They scrutinized the use of individual limbs, their speed, acceleration, and whether the creatures moved in a straight path or followed a more complex route.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered-about-siler-collingwoodi">What the researchers discovered about Siler collingwoodi</h2>



Interestingly, they discovered that Siler collingwoodi does not move like other jumping spiders. Instead, it mimics ants by raising its front legs to imitate an ant's antennae, bobbing its abdomen, and lifting its legs in an ant-like manner. The spider's gait closely resembled that of three smaller ant species, suggesting a preference for mimicking species similar in size.



"S. collingwoodi is not necessarily a perfect mimic, because its gait and trajectory showed high similarity with multiple ant species," said Zeng. This trait of mimicking more than one ant species may actually benefit the spiders by allowing them to expand their range if the ant models occupy different habitats.



The team then subjected the spider's defenses to two predators: a similarly sized jumping spider, Portia labiata, that preys on other spiders and has color vision, and a praying mantis, Gonypeta brunneri, a generalist predator with a monochromatic visual system.



<h2 id="h-how-siler-collingwoodi-camouflage-plays-a-role">How Siler collingwoodi camouflage plays a role</h2>



To better understand the role of color camouflage, the experts modeled how the two predators would perceive Siler collingwoodi in contrast to other prey species against two plants that the spiders live on - the red-flowering West Indian jasmine (Ixora chinensis) and the Fukien tea tree (Carmona microphylla). 



They found that the ant-mimicking spiders were better camouflaged from both spider and praying mantis predators on the jasmine plant than on the tea tree plant.



When given the choice between the ant-mimicking spider and the other jumping spider, the predatory spider showed a preference for the non-mimic. In 17 trials, the spider initiated five attacks, all of them directed towards the non-mimic. However, the praying mantises didn't show any bias and launched attacks on both prey species equally.



"We initially thought that both predators would behave similarly in the antipredation experiments, but in fact, the simulated ant locomotion of Siler collingwoodi only worked for the jumping spider predator, while the praying mantis showed indiscriminate attacks on both ants and mimics,” noted study senior author Wei Zhang.



This difference in the behavior of predators could be attributed to the potential risk they face when attempting to eat an ant. Praying mantises are significantly larger than their prey and can safely consume spiny ants without risking serious injury. However, the same can't be said for the predatory spiders.



“For the spider predator, a random attack on an ant could result in injury, so they are very careful predators and will only attack if they can distinguish Siler collingwoodi from ants with a high degree of certainty,” explained Zhang.



One intriguing discovery the researchers made was that any impairment to a limb negatively impacted the ant-mimicking spiders’ ability to avoid the predatory spider’s attention. It seems that an injury could hinder their ability to accurately mimic ants, making them more vulnerable to attacks.



In conclusion, the researchers found that the Siler collingwoodi's dual strategy of colorful camouflage and ant mimicry effectively aids in its survival. However, while the mimicry seems to be particularly effective against spider predators, praying mantises appear undeterred.&nbsp;



This fascinating study sheds light on the complex adaptive strategies evolved by small creatures in their struggle for survival.



<h2 id="h-more-about-mimicry-in-the-animal-kingdom">More about mimicry in the animal kingdom</h2>



Mimicry, such as that of Siler collingwoodi, is a fascinating phenomenon in the animal kingdom, where one species evolves to resemble another, often for protection or some other form of advantage. This tactic can be used to deter predators, lure prey, or achieve other beneficial outcomes. There are several types of mimicry, including Batesian, Müllerian, and aggressive mimicry, among others.



<h3 id="h-batesian-mimicry">Batesian Mimicry</h3>



Named after the English naturalist Henry Walter Bates, Batesian mimicry involves a harmless species evolving to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species to ward off predators. A classic example of this is the Viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus), which mimics the coloration of the poisonous Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), thereby deterring predators that have learned to avoid the toxic Monarch.



<h3 id="h-mullerian-mimicry">Müllerian Mimicry</h3>



This form of mimicry, named after the German naturalist Fritz Müller, involves two or more harmful species that share common predators evolving to resemble each other. This way, predators quickly learn to avoid all species with a specific warning signal. An example of this type of mimicry can be seen among several species of stinging wasps and bees, which share similar yellow and black banding patterns.



<h3 id="h-aggressive-mimicry">Aggressive Mimicry</h3>



This is a form of mimicry where predators or parasites share similar signals with a harmless species, allowing them to avoid being correctly identified by their prey or hosts. The alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii) is a good example of this. The turtle has a tongue that looks like a worm, and it opens its mouth and wiggles its tongue to lure in fish.



<h3 id="h-automimicry-or-intraspecific-mimicry">Automimicry or intraspecific mimicry</h3>



This happens within a single species, where some individuals mimic other individuals or parts of their body mimic other parts. For example, some snakes have tail markings that resemble their head, potentially confusing predators.



<h3 id="h-mertensian-mimicry">Mertensian Mimicry</h3>



This is a rare form of mimicry where a deadly prey mimics a less harmful but lesson-teaching species. The idea is that a predator that survives an encounter with the less harmful species will avoid the deadly one.



These mimicry mechanisms, as seen with Siler collingwoodi, are a testament to the remarkable adaptability and survival strategies evolved by species over thousands of years. They highlight the intricate complexities of ecosystems and the delicate balance that exists within the animal kingdom.



Image Credit: Hua Zeng



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Beautiful, mysterious creature discovered, but what exactly is it?

The animal kingdom is filled with countless wonders and surprises,...

In a groundbreaking development, Dr. Andrea Harvey of the <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/">University of Technology Sydney</a> (UTS) has devised an innovative, holistic framework. This pioneering model serves to evaluate the mental and psychological well-being of wild animals, marking a significant stride in the sphere of animal welfare.



This study's importance is rooted in its capacity to revolutionize conservation endeavors. Traditionally, conservation efforts have heavily relied on monitoring population figures and reproductive success rates. However, Dr. Harvey's research introduces a new angle to the field, putting the spotlight on the quality of life of wild animals.



"With a shift in perspective, we can detect early signs of species challenges and population decreases, paving the way for more effective conservation strategies," explains Dr. Harvey.&nbsp;



She observes that while there has been extensive research on the welfare of domestic and farm animals, focusing on emotional states such as stress, pain, and fear, the same attention has not been afforded to wild animals. Dr. Harvey aims to address this disparity, shedding light on the individual lives, feelings, and mental experiences of wild creatures.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-is-done">How the research is done</h2>



Her research, an integral part of her PhD thesis at the UTS Centre for Compassionate Conservation, zeroes in on Australia's free-roaming wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-with-a-trusted-owner-remain-calm-in-new-situations/">horses</a>, known as brumbies. Despite its initial focus, the model she developed presents a flexible approach, allowing for its application across a multitude of wildlife species.



The choice of brumbies for the study was strategic. The welfare of horses in domestic environments has been extensively studied, offering an invaluable gateway into the world of wild animals. Her study was recently featured in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani13091507">Animals</a>.



<h2 id="h-the-10-stage-protocol">The 10-Stage Protocol</h2>



Dr. Harvey's novel approach, named the "10 Stage Protocol," encompasses physical and behavioral indicators. It captures both negative and positive mental experiences in wild animals, offering a comprehensive view of their well-being.



"If you have a dog, you're familiar with their routine, preferences, and behavior in different scenarios. You can tell if they're happy, sad, or distressed. This research takes that understanding and applies it to wild animals," explained Dr. Harvey.&nbsp;



"We may never fully know what an animal is thinking or feeling. But we do know that mental experiences stem from physical states, and we can measure these states."



Several elements, including nutrition, physical environment, health, and behavioral interactions, can provide clues to an animal's mental state. These range from negative experiences such as thirst, hunger, heat and cold discomfort, pain, fatigue, anxiety and fear, to positive ones like satiety, exercising agency, physical vitality and positive social interactions.



This inclusive approach amalgamates various scientific disciplines, including neuroscience, behavior, and neuroethology – the study of the neural basis of an animal’s natural behavior. It employs these fields to interpret the collected data and gain insights into animal wellbeing.



<h2 id="h-the-study-extends-to-many-other-animals">The study extends to many other animals</h2>



Dr. Harvey's current collaboration extends to researchers studying Australian water birds, such as the straw-necked ibis and pelicans. As indicators of water quality and wetland health, these birds can provide valuable information to guide management decisions in the Murray Darling Basin.



The well-being of koalas, officially declared endangered in NSW, is also a focal point. Unlike previous koala research that centered mainly on survival and disease, Dr. Harvey's study aims to evaluate koala well-being holistically, a perspective that could influence policy decisions around conservation and habitat protection.



Furthermore, Dr. Harvey is working with other researchers on the welfare of kangaroos and dingoes at a field station in southern Queensland.&nbsp;



This study will focus on the predator-prey relationship, as well as the impact of climate change and drought recovery on these species. Each animal species brings with it unique challenges, including the identification of individuals, evaluation of mental experiences in large populations, and considerations for different environments and habitats.



<h2 id="h-incredibly-complex-task">Incredibly complex task</h2>



Studying the mental experiences of wild animals is a complex task. The lack of close human-animal relationships and the difficulty in observing wild animals for extended periods pose significant challenges. However, Dr. Harvey has leveraged innovative methods such as remote camera traps to collect fine-detail data on wild animal behavior, including body posture and facial expressions.



Dr. Harvey's pioneering research could bring about a transformative shift in the field of conservation biology, offering valuable insights into the mental experiences of wild and endangered animals.



She concludes: “Welfare assessments need to be part of all wildlife monitoring, and ultimately all environmental policy decision making. It is essential to consider not just individual species, but also interactions between different species, and their ecosystems.”



In its entirety, Dr. Harvey's work is an important stride in improving our understanding of wild animal welfare. It opens up new avenues for integrating animal welfare into conservation efforts and policy decisions. The results of this research could potentially redefine how we perceive and approach the wellbeing of wildlife, offering a more empathetic lens to view the lives of these creatures.



<h2 id="h-more-about-animal-emotions">More about animal emotions</h2>



 Animal emotions, often a subject of much debate, are a growing field of study within the larger discipline of animal behavior and cognition. There are several key points to consider:



<h3 id="h-existence-of-emotions">Existence of Emotions</h3>



Scientific consensus increasingly supports the idea that at least some animals likely experience emotions. These animals often include mammals and birds, as they exhibit behaviors that appear to mirror human emotional responses.&nbsp;



However, the precise nature and complexity of these emotions are still largely unknown and a topic of ongoing research.



<h3 id="h-emotion-related-behaviors">Emotion-related Behaviors</h3>



Many animals exhibit behaviors associated with various emotions. Dogs wag their tails when happy, purr or hiss to show contentment or displeasure, and many animals show signs of distress when separated from their social groups. Some animals also display signs of grief when they lose a close companion.



<h3 id="h-neurological-evidence">Neurological Evidence</h3>



Many animals have similar brain structures to humans, which are involved in processing emotions. For example, the amygdala and other parts of the limbic system are associated with emotional processing in humans, and these structures are also found in many other mammals. This suggests that these animals may have the capacity to experience emotions.



<h3 id="h-animal-stress-and-fear">Animal Stress and Fear</h3>



Stress and fear responses have been well-documented in animals. These responses can often be measured physiologically, through changes in heart rate, cortisol levels, and other stress hormones.



<h3 id="h-positive-emotions">Positive Emotions</h3>



There is also evidence suggesting that many animals can experience positive emotions. For instance, rats have been observed to "laugh" or make specific chirping sounds when they play or are tickled. Some animals also show signs of enjoyment during social interactions or while exploring their environment.



<h3 id="h-empathy-and-altruism">Empathy and Altruism</h3>



Some animals show behaviors indicative of empathy or altruism, suggesting they might be capable of complex emotional responses. For example, rats will work to free a trapped cage-mate, even when they can obtain a food reward instead.



<h3 id="h-animal-personality">Animal Personality</h3>



Animals of many species show individual differences in behavior that are consistent over time, a concept often referred to as animal personality. These behavioral differences might be linked to differences in emotional experiences or responses.



<h3 id="h-anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</h3>



It's important to avoid anthropomorphism – attributing human characteristics to animals – when studying animal emotions. While it's tempting to interpret animal behaviors through a human lens, we must be cautious in doing so. Animals might experience emotions, but these emotions might not be exactly like human emotions.



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Scientists can now read the emotions and signs of well-being in wild animals

In a groundbreaking development, Dr. Andrea Harvey of the University...

Long-spined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-can-tolerate-hot-acidic-ocean-water/">sea urchins</a> (Diadema antillarum) are vital herbivores that graze on algae. If left unchecked, algae often outcompete corals for space and resources, blanket them, block their light, and ultimately kill them. Thus, by feeding upon them, sea urchins are crucial for maintaining coral health and balance in marine ecosystems.



Unfortunately, in late January 2022, Diadema die-offs started to be reported in St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands. By late March, urchins from the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica, and the Mexican Caribbean began to be affected too, and by June mortalities were spiking in most of the Great Antilles, Florida, and Curaçao, leading to declines of 85 to 95 percent in sea urchin populations.



Recently, an international team of 42 scientists funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) has managed to identify the culprit behind these severe die-offs: Philaster apodigitiformis, a unicellular eukaryote belonging to a group of 8,000 species called ciliates. Although P. apodigiformis has been known to infect fish, this is the first time that it was found to infect and cause mass mortality in invertebrates.&nbsp;



“Rarely are we afforded the opportunity to understand marine disease events in this detail, where we can actually work out a cause of it,” said study lead author Ian Hewson, a marine ecologist at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.



Although scientists are not yet sure how to treat P. apodigitiformis infections, discovering the identity of this parasite could help them develop strategies for maintaining the health of sea urchins that are currently being raised for restocking efforts across these regions.



“There’s a long history of&nbsp;Diadema&nbsp;die-off; the big one happened in the 1980s, with the cause still unknown, and cascaded into a loss of 80-90 percent of the coral cover in the Caribbean,” said Dan Thornhill, a program director in NSF’s <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=OCE">Division of Ocean Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



“There were a lot of factors involved, but the urchin die-off was the tipping point. It’s an ecological tragedy. It’s fairly rare and exciting to identify the parasite or pathogen behind one of these diseases in marine ecosystems, and to do it this quickly is impressive.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg3200">Science Advances</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-infectious-parasites">More about infectious parasites&nbsp;</h2>



Infectious parasites are organisms that infect hosts, such as humans, animals, and plants, causing various diseases. These parasites can be categorized into three main types: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites.



<h3 id="h-protozoa">Protozoa</h3>



These are microscopic, single-celled organisms that can multiply in humans. They are typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route (for example, through contaminated food or water or person-to-person contact). They can also be transmitted through vectors, such as mosquitoes.&nbsp;



Some common diseases caused by protozoan parasites include malaria (caused by Plasmodium species), amoebic dysentery (caused by Entamoeba histolytica), and giardiasis (caused by Giardia lamblia).



<h3 id="h-helminths">Helminths</h3>



Also known as parasitic worms, these are larger and more complex organisms. They include flatworms (like tapeworms and flukes) and roundworms (like hookworms, pinworms, and trichinella).&nbsp;



Helminths usually cannot multiply in humans. They are typically transmitted through soil-transmitted routes (i.e., eggs present in human feces are deposited on soil and can infect others if ingested or if they penetrate the skin).



<h3 id="h-ectoparasites">Ectoparasites</h3>



These are parasites that live on the surface of the host. They include lice, fleas, ticks, and mites. Ectoparasites can transmit diseases from one host to another. Lyme disease (caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and transmitted by ticks) and plague (caused by Yersinia pestis and transmitted by fleas) are examples of diseases transmitted by ectoparasites.



Infectious parasites can cause a range of symptoms from mild discomfort to severe illness and death, depending on the type of parasite, the number of parasites, and the individual's health status. They are more common in areas with poor sanitation and unsafe water sources.&nbsp;



Many preventive strategies focus on improving sanitation, providing safe drinking water, and educating communities about personal hygiene. Treatment usually involves specific anti-parasitic drugs. In some cases, preventive treatments may be administered to at-risk populations.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-urchins">More about sea urchins&nbsp;</h2>



Sea urchins are marine invertebrates found in oceans worldwide. Their interactions with the environment, including their response to climate change, are complex and multifaceted. Here are a few key points to understand:



<h3 id="h-role-in-ecosystems">Role in Ecosystems</h3>



Sea urchins play a crucial role in marine ecosystems, particularly in kelp forests where they are a keystone species. They feed on kelp and help maintain balance in the ecosystem.&nbsp;



However, in the absence of their natural predators (like sea otters or some species of fish and lobsters), their population can explode, leading to overgrazing and what's known as an "urchin barren."



<h3 id="h-climate-change-impact-on-sea-urchins">Climate Change Impact on Sea Urchins</h3>



Climate change has been linked to changes in sea urchin populations and behavior. Warming waters may alter the habitats of sea urchins, pushing them towards the poles.&nbsp;



Additionally, ocean acidification, another result of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, can impact the ability of sea urchins to form and maintain their calcium carbonate shells.



<h3 id="h-sea-urchins-and-carbon-sequestration">Sea Urchins and Carbon Sequestration</h3>



Research has suggested that sea urchins may play a role in carbon sequestration. Kelp forests, which sea urchins help regulate, are excellent at capturing and storing carbon.&nbsp;



However, if urchin populations become too large due to a loss of predators or other factors, they can overgraze and destroy these kelp forests, releasing stored carbon back into the atmosphere and negatively impacting this natural carbon sink.



<h3 id="h-effect-of-sea-urchin-s-diet">Effect of Sea Urchin's Diet</h3>



Some studies have shown that the diet of sea urchins might affect their resilience to climate change. For instance, urchins that feed on a certain type of algae seem to be more resilient to ocean acidification.



<h3 id="h-sea-urchins-as-a-resource">Sea Urchins as a Resource</h3>



In some regions, sea urchins are harvested for their roe, which is a delicacy in many cuisines. Changes in climate could potentially affect the availability of this resource.



The relationship between sea urchins and climate change is an active area of research, and new insights are likely to emerge as scientists learn more about these intriguing creatures and their role in the marine ecosystem.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Experts identify the parasite causing mass mortality in sea urchins

Long-spined sea urchins (Diadema antillarum) are vital herbivores that graze...

During their foraging trips, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">bumblebees</a> collect solid packets of pollen from flowers on their back legs to transport to their nests. Although bees seem to move from flower to flower with ease, these packets can weigh up to a third of their body weight.&nbsp;



Recently, a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has found that bumblebees carrying pollen experience significant increases in body temperature, raising questions about how these insects will be affected by warmer temperatures due to climate change.&nbsp;



Like other ectotherms, the body temperature of bumblebees is largely determined by their environment. While bumblebees are known to be exceptionally cold tolerant compared to other species of bees, shivering to warm up during cold periods, not much is known about how well they can tolerate heat.&nbsp;



The recent findings - showing that their body temperature rises by&nbsp;0.07°C for every milligram of pollen that they carry, with fully laden bees being 2°C warmer than unladen ones – suggest that carrying a full load of pollen on a hot day may put them at greater risk of heat stress and perhaps even death.&nbsp;



“Getting warmer from carrying pollen could put bumblebees in the range of those stressful, critically hot temperatures,” said lead author Malia Naumchik, who conducted this research during her undergraduate degree in Biological Sciences at NC State and is currently a graduate student at <a href="https://www.montana.edu/">Montana State University</a>.&nbsp;



“This has important implications for bumblebees and climate change. As environmental temperatures increase, the bees’ operational range of temperatures could shrink significantly.”&nbsp;



Although scientists have recently noticed that bumblebee numbers and species diversity are declining all over the world, particularly in the regions most affected by global warming, the precise mechanisms through which climate change affects these insects have not been clearly understood. The discovery that carrying heavy loads of pollen significantly increases their body temperature could be a major piece of this puzzle.



Since pollen is crucial for every stage of bumblebees’ lives, and without enough pollen, their survival as a species is at risk, better understanding how increased temperatures impact their pollen-carrying capacities is crucial.&nbsp;



The increased risk of heat stress in pollen-carrying bumblebees could have critical implications not only for their health and survival in a warming world, but also for pollination in general, and could ultimately affect not only ecosystems, but also agricultural practices.



“We need to know how bumblebees may change their behavior, to better understand how this could affect how much pollen they collect and how much pollination they perform during hot days,” explained senior author Elsa Youngsteadt, a professor in Applied Ecology at NC State.&nbsp;



“Whether it’s carrying smaller loads of pollen or foraging for shorter times, it could result in less pollen coming to the colony and fewer plants being pollinated. This is particularly important since bumblebees provide critical ecosystem services and are key pollinators for agriculture, especially in the United States and Europe.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0581">Biology Letters</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bumblebees">More about bumblebees&nbsp;</h2>



Bumblebees are large, hairy, social insects belonging to the genus Bombus in the family Apidae. They are known for their round bodies, black and yellow bands, and distinct buzzing sound. 



Bumblebees are native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere and are commonly found in higher altitudes or latitudes. Unlike honey bees, bumblebees can tolerate colder weather, thanks to their large body size and dense pile, or 'fur', which helps insulate them.



Bumblebees live in colonies, typically led by a single queen who is responsible for producing new workers. The size of the colony depends on the species but can range from around 50 to a few hundred individuals. 



The queen lays eggs that develop into female workers, who carry out most of the tasks within the colony, such as foraging for food (nectar and pollen), feeding the larvae, and defending the nest.



Males, or drones, and new queens are produced later in the season. These drones and new queens leave the colony to mate. The fertilized queens then seek out a suitable place to hibernate for the winter, while the rest of the colony, including the old queen, workers, and drones, usually die off with the onset of cold weather.



Bumblebees are important pollinators for both wild and cultivated plants. Their method of pollination is often described as 'buzz pollination' or 'sonication,' where they vibrate their flight muscles rapidly to dislodge pollen from flowers. This vibration is so specific that some plants have evolved to release their pollen only when they detect this frequency.



Like many insects, bumblebees face threats due to habitat loss, climate change, pesticide exposure, and disease. Their decline in certain regions has raised concerns because of their role in pollination and ecosystem function. Conservation efforts are underway in many regions to protect and preserve these important pollinators.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Carrying pollen increases bumblebees’ body temperature

During their foraging trips, bumblebees collect solid packets of pollen...

The Egyptian cotton leafworm (Spadoptera littoralis) – a moth species found throughout the Mediterranean Basin, as well as in Africa and the Middle East – is currently a widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-ecosystems-pest-control/">pest</a> in France. Since moth larvae are highly polyphagous, feeding upon a variety of different species, they cause damage to a diversity of crops, including corn, cotton, peppers, legumes, and tomatoes.&nbsp;



As part of increased efforts to reduce pesticide levels, scientists currently struggle to develop effective biocontrol methods to fight crop pests, such as strategies to disrupt their reproduction or trap them through the use of sex pheromones. However, since pheromone synthesis is expensive, other control strategies may be needed.&nbsp;



A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.sorbonne-universite.fr/en">Sorbonne University</a> in Paris has recently investigated the evolution of olfactory receptors in the Egyptian cotton leaf worms. The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2221166120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, represents an important step forward toward the development of such strategies.



In 2019, the experts identified OR5, an olfactory receptor in the Egyptian cotton leafworm which plays a critical role in recognizing the main component in the female sex pheromones. In the current study, they explored this receptor’s evolutionary trajectory within Spodoptera to clarify its specificity and functionality.&nbsp;



By combining a computational approach to model the 3D structure of OR5 with the resurrection of its ancestral receptors in the laboratory, the researchers found that OR5 most likely emerged around seven million years ago, as an essential tool in the reproduction of two&nbsp;Spodoptera&nbsp;species - the Egyptian cotton leafworm and the tobacco cutworm (S. litura).&nbsp;



The experts also used site-directed mutagenesis -&nbsp;a technique which introduces one or more precise mutations into a specific gene to investigate the functional impacts on the encoded protein. They identified eight amino acids (AAs) that structure the receptor’s specific characteristics.&nbsp;



Since previous studies suggested that only one or two AA substitutions might be sufficient to change the functionality of ecologically important receptors, the discovery of such a large number of AAs behind OR5 is quite puzzling and requires further investigations.



Clarifying how olfactory receptors emerge and acquire their specificity during evolution can help scientists anticipate the development of resistance to pheromone-based products employed to protect crops. These findings could help devise new biocontrol strategies relying on both agonist molecules (which occupy receptors to the exclusion of the key pheromone compound) and antagonist molecules (which block the receptor from being activated by the key pheromone compound).



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-egyptian-cotton-leafworm">More about the Egyptian cotton leafworm</h2>



The Egyptian cotton leafworm, also known as the Spodoptera littoralis or the Mediterranean Brocade, is a major pest of cotton and many other crops. Native to Africa, it has spread to parts of Europe and Asia and is particularly problematic in the Mediterranean region.



The adult moth is brown and has a wingspan of 3-4 cm. The larvae, or caterpillars, are the damaging stage of the life cycle. They are initially green but turn brown as they mature, with light and dark stripes along the body.



The larvae feed on the leaves, buds, and bolls of the cotton plant, causing significant damage. They can completely defoliate a plant if the infestation is heavy. After feeding, they pupate in the soil and emerge as adults to repeat the cycle.



The Egyptian cotton leafworm can have multiple generations per year, and its population can increase rapidly under favorable conditions. It can overwinter as pupae in the soil, allowing it to survive in colder climates.



Control methods for the Egyptian cotton leafworm include the use of insecticides, biological control agents such as parasitic wasps and Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterium that produces toxins harmful to certain insects), and cultivation of cotton varieties that are resistant to the pest. Integrated pest management strategies, which combine multiple methods of control, are often the most effective.



Due to the importance of Egyptian cotton in the global textile industry, the Egyptian cotton leafworm is a significant concern for farmers, scientists, and policymakers. Efforts to manage and control this pest are critical for maintaining the productivity and sustainability of cotton production.



<h2 id="h-more-about-crop-pests">More about crop pests</h2>



Crop pests are organisms that cause significant damage to crops in agriculture. They can be insects, birds, mammals, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and weeds. The damage caused by these pests can significantly reduce the yield and quality of crops, leading to economic losses for farmers.



<h3 id="h-some-common-types-of-crop-pests-include">Some common types of crop pests include:</h3>



<h4 id="h-insects">Insects</h4>



Insects are the most common type of crop pests. Examples include aphids, beetles, caterpillars, and weevils. They can damage crops by feeding on plant tissues, transmitting diseases, or both.



<h4 id="h-nematodes">Nematodes</h4>



These are tiny, worm-like organisms that live in the soil and feed on the roots of plants, which can stunt growth and reduce yield.



<h4 id="h-fungi">Fungi</h4>



Fungi can cause diseases in crops, such as rusts, smuts, and mildews. They can damage crops by producing toxins, causing rot, or disrupting the water and nutrient transport within the plant.



<h4 id="h-bacteria-and-viruses">Bacteria and Viruses</h4>



These can cause diseases in crops. Bacterial diseases include bacterial wilt, fire blight, and bacterial leaf spot. Viruses can cause diseases like tobacco mosaic virus, potato virus Y, and cucumber mosaic virus.



<h4 id="h-birds-and-mammals">Birds and Mammals</h4>



Larger pests like birds and mammals can also cause significant damage. Birds can peck at fruits and seeds, while mammals like rodents can gnaw on stems and roots. Larger mammals like deer can trample and eat crops.



<h4 id="h-weeds">Weeds</h4>



Weeds compete with crops for resources like light, water, and nutrients. They can also harbor pests and diseases, making them harder to control.



Controlling crop pests is a complex task that involves a combination of cultural practices (crop rotation, intercropping, use of resistant varieties), biological control (use of predators, parasites, or pathogens of the pests), chemical control (pesticides), and other methods like the use of genetically modified crops.&nbsp;



The goal is to keep pest populations below the level at which they would cause economic damage, a concept known as the economic threshold.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Understanding crop pest evolution to develop biocontrol strategies

The Egyptian cotton leafworm (Spadoptera littoralis) – a moth species...

Beautiful,Japanese,Yellow,Joro,Spider,In,The,Net,Close,Up

Don't judge a book by its cover, or a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-can-protect-tomatoes-from-invasive-pests/">spider</a> by its size and color, for that matter. The intimidating giant yellow and blue-black Jorō spiders, which have been spreading across the Southeastern United States, are not as fearsome as they seem. They owe their survival to a rather unexpected trait: timidity.



The <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> recently published a study shedding light on the behavior of these creatures. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/arthropoda1020009">Arthropoda</a>.



According to Andy Davis, the lead author of the study and a research scientist at UGA’s Odum School of Ecology, the Jorō spider may be one of the least aggressive spiders ever documented.



"One of the ways that people think this spider could be affecting other species is that it's aggressive and out-competing all the other native spiders. So we wanted to get to know the personality of these spiders and see if they’re capable of being that aggressive," explained Davis. His research uncovered a surprising truth: Jorō spiders aren’t aggressive at all.



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-done">How the research was done</h2>



In an intriguing experiment, Davis and his team compared the responses of more than 450 spiders from 10 different species to a brief, harmless disturbance. Instead of bouncing back quickly, the Jorō spiders played dead for an extended period.



"They basically shut down and wait for the disturbance to go away. Our paper shows that these spiders are really more afraid of you than the reverse," said Davis.&nbsp;



In fact, the Jorō spiders, despite their formidable appearance, pose little threat to humans or pets. They only bite when cornered, and their fangs are typically too small to pierce human skin.



To study the spiders' reaction to stress, the researchers gently blew two rapid puffs of air onto individual spiders using a turkey baster.&nbsp;



This action caused the spiders to freeze in place. Various species, including garden spiders, banded garden spiders, and marbled orb weavers, were tested. The team also included data from previous peer-reviewed studies that evaluated the response of additional species.



The spiders all demonstrated a brief freeze response, going motionless for about a minute and a half on average. The Jorō spiders, however, remained motionless for over an hour, displaying an unusually extended freeze response.&nbsp;



The only other species displaying a similar reaction was the Jorō's cousin, the golden silk spider, both belonging to the same genus, Trichonephila.



<h2 id="h-joro-spiders-are-quickly-expanding-their-habitat">Joro spiders are quickly expanding their habitat</h2>



The Jorō spider, officially named Trichonephila clavata, originally hails from East Asia, specifically Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and China. It is believed that the species first arrived in Georgia around 2013, likely as unintended passengers on a shipping container.



Since then, the Jorō spiders have spread rapidly across Georgia and the Southeast. Their numbers are now in the millions, and it seems there's little that can be done to halt their increasing range.



Study co-author Amitesh Anerao noted: "Most people think 'invasive' and 'aggressive' are synonymous. People were freaking out about the Joro spiders at first, but maybe this paper can help calm people down."



Interestingly, Jorō spiders have a knack for occupying spaces where native Georgia spiders rarely venture. They weave their golden webs in high-traffic areas such as between power lines, atop stoplights, and even above gas station pumps.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The researchers suspect that the Jorō spiders' shyness could be a survival strategy in urban environments, allowing them to withstand the constant noise, vibrations, and visual stimuli. Their extended freeze response when startled may be a means of conserving energy.



If you're puzzled as to how such a timid creature could spread so rapidly, you're not alone in your curiosity. Davis points to the spiders' remarkable reproductive capabilities to explain their rapid proliferation.&nbsp;



"One thing this paper tells me is that the Joros’ rapid spread must be because of their incredible reproductive potential," said Davis. "They’re simply outbreeding everybody else. It’s not because they’re displacing native spiders or kicking them out of their own webs."



This doesn't mean that the timid Jorō spiders are pushing native spiders out of their habitats. Instead, they're simply expanding their own territories and reproducing at a faster pace.



For those with a fear of spiders, the knowledge of the Jorō spiders' mild and gentle nature might offer some comfort. However, it's essential to remember that these creatures are likely here to stay. "They’re so good at living with humans that they’re probably not going away anytime soon," said Anerao.



So next time you come across a Jorō spider in an unexpected place, remember this: the spider is likely more scared of you than you are of it. And far from being an aggressive invader, this timid arachnid is just trying to survive in its new environment.



<h2 id="h-more-about-spiders">More about spiders</h2>



Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that are found all over the world. As of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021, there are more than 48,000 known species of spiders, and scientists suspect there may be many more undiscovered species.



Spiders are a part of the order Araneae, which is divided into two suborders: Mesothelae, which contains the primitive spiders, and Opisthothelae, which includes the more modern spiders. The Opisthothelae is further divided into two groups: Mygalomorphae, the tarantulas and their kin, and Araneomorphae, the remaining spiders.



These creatures are best known for their ability to spin silk. They use this silk for various purposes, including constructing webs to catch prey, creating egg sacs, and making shelter. Some spiders don't use webs to hunt, instead relying on camouflage and speed to catch their prey.



Spiders are carnivorous and typically feed on insects, although some larger species have been known to eat small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They employ a range of hunting strategies, from lying in wait to actively pursuing or even tricking their prey. The majority of spiders use venom to subdue their prey. However, very few spider species are dangerous to humans.



Spiders reproduce by laying eggs. The males of most species use a modified pair of appendages, called pedipalps, to transfer sperm to the female. In many species, the females are larger than the males, and it's not uncommon for female spiders to eat their mates, a behavior that has made the "black widow" spider infamous.



Spiders have a unique leg structure that sets them apart from insects. They possess eight legs (compared to insects, which have six), and their bodies are divided into two segments: the cephalothorax (which combines the head and thorax) and the abdomen.



Spiders have a significant impact on ecosystems. They help control insect populations, and they are also a food source for many birds and small mammals. Despite their sometimes fearsome appearance and reputation, spiders play an essential role in maintaining the balance of nature.



—-



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Joro spiders: They may be massive, but they are gentle giants

Don't judge a book by its cover, or a spider...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-threaten-australian-tiger-sharks/">Sharks</a>, the ocean's top predators, have held our fascination for centuries. Their impressive teeth and lower jaws, which allow them to devour a wide variety of prey, are among their most distinctive traits. But how has the jaw shape of these fascinating creatures changed over their long evolutionary journey?&nbsp;



An international team of researchers, spearheaded by Faviel A. López-Romero of the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a>, has dived into this question, revealing some intriguing findings about these marine predators.



The study, recently published in the renowned journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-04882-3">Communications Biology</a>, highlights that the jaw shape of the most widespread shark species has shown surprisingly little variation over millions of years. Intriguingly, the most significant jaw diversity was observed among deep-sea sharks.



Sharks' ability to feast on a diverse array of prey is evident in the corresponding adaptations they have acquired over the course of their evolution. These evolutionary advancements have enabled them to colonize almost all marine habitats, with some species even daring to venture into freshwater.



An international, multidisciplinary team of scientists embarked on this research journey. Alongside López-Romero from the University of Vienna, scholars from Imperial College London, Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris, Christian-Albrechts-University in Kiel, and the Naturalis Museum in Leiden also participated.



The research findings underscore the significance of prey, position in the marine food webs, and habitat in relation to the diversity of jaw shapes among shark species. This crucial insight helps decipher the evolutionary triggers behind the differences in jaw morphology associated with various habitats.



<h2 id="h-first-evidence-of-sharks-dates-back-to-180-million-years-ago">First evidence of sharks dates back to 180 million years ago</h2>



With an evolutionary lineage extending back to nearly 180 million years, today's sharks have consistently been key components in the marine realm and its food chains, primarily occupying the roles of meso and top predators. Over these vast spans of time, sharks have adopted a plethora of lifestyles and forms, including bottom dwellers, swift swimmers in the open sea, and even small species inhabiting the deep sea.



The research team conducted a detailed quantitative analysis to examine the possible correlation between jaw morphology and sharks' lifestyle. They used X-ray computed tomographic scans of the jaws of 90 shark species, preparing 3D reconstructions to estimate the evolution of shark jaw shape over time.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-found">What the researchers found</h2>



One of the surprising results was that species-rich groups like requiem sharks displayed low variation in jaw shape, despite being one of the most widely distributed shark groups. Conversely, the most variability in jaw shape was found among deep-sea dwelling species.



"Although sharks from the deep sea are not as extensively represented in the data as reef sharks, they display the most disparate forms seen in our analysis," explained López-Romero, the study's first author from the Department of Palaeontology at the University of Vienna.



Deep-sea sharks showcase an array of adaptations, including bioluminescence and a wide variety of feeding strategies, ranging from large bites out of whales to a diet consisting of eggs or cephalopods. Meanwhile, the feeding choices of reef-dwelling species and large top predators in the open sea seem more restricted, mainly preying on fish and even other shark species.



"Of course, many sharks in these environments feed on a large variety of prey with only a few having adapted to a single, specific prey, such as the bonnethead shark, Sphyrna tiburo, which preys almost entirely on hard-shelled crabs, while shrimps and fish are only captured occasionally," noted Jürgen Kriwet from the University of Vienna.



The evolution of jaw shape also allowed the team to reconstruct the historical changes in jaw morphology over time.&nbsp;



"Remarkable changes occurred in carpet, sleeper, and dogfish sharks. These changes were probably concomitant with the clear distribution of these sharks in reefs and the deep sea, which noticeably distinguishes them morphologically from other species with larger jaws as seen in the top predators in the open sea,” said López-Romero.



<h2 id="h-sharks-living-in-the-deep-showed-most-variation">Sharks living in the deep showed most variation</h2>



Deep-sea sharks, despite their underrepresentation in the data, presented the most diverse jaw shapes, noted López-Romero. Such diversity likely reflects the diverse feeding strategies of these creatures, which span from chomping down on whales to dining on eggs or cephalopods. As such, their jaws have evolved to be incredibly versatile and adapt to their unique environmental needs.



By contrast, the choices of most reef-dwelling species and the large top predators in the open sea are more limited. These predators mainly feed on fish and occasionally other shark species, restricting the evolution of their jaw morphology.



However, this doesn't mean that all sharks in these environments have limited diets. "Many sharks in these environments feed on a wide variety of prey, with only a few having adapted to a single, specific prey," explained Kriwet.



He cited the bonnethead shark, Sphyrna tiburo, as an example, which preys almost exclusively on hard-shelled crabs, with shrimps and fish only occasionally captured.



The research team's study of the evolution of shark jaw shape provided an opportunity to reconstruct the historical changes in this crucial morphological feature. López-Romero noted that "remarkable changes occurred in carpet, sleeper, and dogfish sharks."&nbsp;



He suggested that these changes likely coincided with the clear distribution of these sharks in reefs and the deep sea, distinguishing them from other species with larger jaws found among the top predators in the open sea.



The findings provide an insightful snapshot of shark evolution, illuminating the intriguing link between jaw morphology, habitat, and prey diversity. As scientists continue to delve into the evolutionary history of these captivating creatures, each discovery brings us one step closer to understanding their long-standing dominance in the world's oceans.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sharks">More about sharks</h2>



 Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head.



They are a diverse group with over 500 known species ranging from the small dwarf lanternshark, a species of only 17 centimeters in length, to the whale shark, the largest fish, which can grow up to 12 meters in length.



<h3 id="h-here-are-some-key-points-about-sharks">Here are some key points about sharks:</h3>



<h4 id="h-evolution-and-classification">Evolution and Classification</h4>



Sharks have a long evolutionary history dating back to at least 420 million years. They are divided into eight orders, which include the well-known great white shark, tiger shark, and hammerhead shark, among others.



<h4 id="h-anatomy-and-physiology">Anatomy and Physiology</h4>



Sharks have a streamlined, torpedo-shaped body that enables them to swim swiftly through the water. They have a cartilaginous skeleton, which is lighter and more flexible than bone. They are equipped with multiple rows of teeth, and when they lose a tooth, another one slides forward to replace it.



Sharks have several adaptations for sensing their environment. They possess a network of special cells that can detect electricity (called the ampullae of Lorenzini) which they use to detect the electrical fields that all living things produce. This helps them locate prey. Sharks also have an extraordinary sense of smell.



<h4 id="h-diet-and-feeding">Diet and Feeding</h4>



Most sharks are carnivorous. They can be top predators, feeding on smaller fish and invertebrates, or they can be filter feeders, like the whale shark and basking shark, which sieve tiny plankton from the water.



<h4 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h4>



Sharks have diverse modes of reproduction. Some species lay eggs (oviparity), while others give live birth. In the latter group, some have a placenta-like organ (viviparity), while others do not and the young feed on yolk or other siblings in the womb (ovoviviparity).



<h4 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h4>



Sharks exhibit a wide range of behaviors. Some are solitary, while others, like the scalloped hammerhead, can be found in large schools. Some species migrate over great distances to feed or reproduce.



<h4 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h4>



Many shark species are threatened by human activities. Overfishing, both targeted and incidental, is the primary threat to sharks, with millions killed annually for their meat, fins, and liver oil. Habitat degradation and climate change also pose significant threats. As a result, many species are now listed as endangered or critically endangered.



<h4 id="h-sharks-and-humans">Sharks and Humans</h4>



While sharks are often portrayed as dangerous to humans, in reality, shark attacks are rare and typically the result of mistaken identity. Sharks play a crucial role in the ecosystem by maintaining the species below them in the food chain and serving as an indicator for ocean health. They help remove the weak and the sick, and maintain balance with competitors, ensuring species diversity.



As of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021, ongoing research continues to provide new insights into the biology, behavior, and ecology of sharks. They remain a fascinating group of animals that are critical to the health of the world's oceans.



—-



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Jaws of most shark species show little variation over millions of years

Sharks, the ocean's top predators, have held our fascination for...

Clam leases are designated aquatic areas in which individuals or businesses can cultivate and harvest clams of all sizes, from littlenecks to chowders. However, unwanted marine intruders such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-two-thirds-of-coral-reef-sharks-and-rays-face-extinction/">rays</a> often endanger clam production or aquaculture.&nbsp;



For instance, in the Indian River Lagoon along Florida’s Atlantic coast, clam fisherman have frequently reported seeing rays and suspect that their interactions could lead to damaged aquaculture gear and crushed clams.



Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.fau.edu/">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) has used passive acoustic telemetry to better understand the interactions between two highly mobile species of rays – the whitespotted eagle rays (Aetobatus narinari) and the cownose rays (Rhinoptera&nbsp;spp.) – over two years in two clam leases and four other sites in Sebastian, including the Sebastian Inlet and the Saint Sebastian River mouth.



“We wanted to understand how often and when rays visited these clam leases, how long they stayed there, and if it was seasonal or year-round,” said&nbsp;senior author Matt Ajemian, an associate research professor of Fisheries Ecology and Conservation at FAU. “We tagged them, set them on their way, and logged 17,014 unique visits to the leases derived from 38 different rays.”&nbsp;



The investigation revealed that, although rays spent even more time in the clam leases sites than fisherman reported, these places were not necessarily where they preferred to roam. In fact, white spotted eagle rays spent only 6.2 percent of their time near clam leases, and cownose rays 13.2 percent.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, both species exhibited longer visits at clam lease sites than at other locations, with the longest continuous duration spent at the northern and southern clam leases being 387.5 and 207.1 minutes, respectively. The extended periods of time spent in these areas suggest that they may possibly interact with and even forage upon clams.&nbsp;



“Since 84 percent of all visits were from whitespotted eagle rays and their visits were significantly longer at night, this information suggests that observed interactions with the clam leases are potentially underestimated, given most clamming operations occur during daytime,” said lead author Brianna Cahill, a graduate student in Marine Science and Oceanography at FAU.&nbsp;



“Results from our study justify the need to continue monitoring mobile predators in the region, including more studies to assess their behaviors, such as foraging at the clam lease sites.”



However, since both ray species tend to be highly mobile, their impact on clams may be limited. “Additional good news for clammers is that rays did not use the clam lease sites year-round, and their visits varied seasonally, with substantially fewer detections and visits during the summer months. This suggests that clammers need only deploy anti-predator protections against rays, if needed, for a portion of the year,” Ajemian explained.



These findings highlight the need to clarify if specific clam leases are situated within rays’ natural foraging habitats and if rays are actively interacting with the clams or are attracted by other organisms nearby.&nbsp;



“It’s possible that rays may be feeding on other organisms that are attracted to the clams in the clam lease sites, as bivalve aquaculture farms have been known to change community structure and attract a wide variety of predatory snails, which may be an alternative attractant for cownose and whitespotted eagle rays given their diets,” Cahill concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285390">PLoS ONE</a>.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Clam production possibly threatened by migrating rays

Clam leases are designated aquatic areas in which individuals or...

Monitoring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tourist-photographs-wildlife-monitoring-data/">wildlife</a> is one of the most expensive and challenging aspects of conservation, often depending on long-term observations of individual species. However, according to a recent study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2211288120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, a new and effective method relying on small-scale wildlife surveys could be used to reveal the health of entire ecosystems.&nbsp;



Unlike traditional approaches, this one focuses on interactions between species, such as birds feeding on plants or insects pollinating flowers. It starts with the assumption that, when environmental conditions change, interactions between species frequently change too, and can thus provide an early indicator of wider problems.&nbsp;



As a result, a small snapshot of interactions can often be a reliable indicator of the status of an entire community of species, offering critical information regarding the risks some species currently face.



“All communities of plants and animals are supported by an underlying network of interactions between species,” said co-author Christopher Kaiser-Bunbury, a senior lecturer in Conservation and Ecology at the University of Exeter.



“Our study – which combines theory, statistics, and real-world data – shows that examining a few of these interactions can provide ‘big picture’ conclusions about ecosystem health. This information is essential for policymakers, scientists, and societies, as we try to tackle the global biodiversity crisis.”



This method allows scientists to identify patterns more quickly than traditional conservation monitoring – which is vital, considering the rapid changes that human activities cause in a variety of ecosystems worldwide.



“Using minimal resources, we can rapidly assess both the persistence of entire ecological networks and the expected success of restoration,” said co-author Benno Simmons, an ecologist and conservationist at Exeter. “Our method is especially effective at identifying when an ecological community is not persistent – allowing for rapid detection of extinction risk.”



More about wildlife surveys



Wildlife surveys are an important part of wildlife management, conservation efforts, and ecological research. They provide vital data about the population sizes, distribution, behaviors, and health of various species in a particular area. Here are a few key points about wildlife surveys:



<h3 id="h-types-of-wildlife-surveys">Types of Wildlife Surveys</h3>



These can be broadly categorized into two types: direct and indirect surveys. Direct surveys involve directly observing animals in their habitat, often counting individuals or groups. Indirect surveys, on the other hand, rely on signs of an animal's presence, such as tracks, nests, scat, or vocalizations.



<h3 id="h-methods-used">Methods Used</h3>



There are a number of different methods used for wildlife surveys, including:



<h3 id="h-line-transect-surveys">Line Transect Surveys</h3>



In this method, surveyors walk along a predetermined path, or transect, and record the number of animals seen or heard.



<h3 id="h-point-counts">Point Counts</h3>



This is a method often used for bird surveys. Observers stay in one place for a set period of time and count the number of individuals of each species that they see or hear.



<h3 id="h-camera-trapping">Camera Trapping</h3>



Cameras with motion sensors are set up in the wild to automatically take photos or videos when an animal passes by. This is a great way to study elusive, nocturnal, or rare species.



<h3 id="h-aerial-surveys">Aerial Surveys</h3>



These are often used for large or difficult-to-reach areas, such as for counting large herds of mammals in savannas or tracking marine life.



<h3 id="h-data-analysis-and-interpretation">Data Analysis and Interpretation</h3>



Once the data is collected, it's analyzed to derive useful information, such as population estimates, distribution patterns, and changes over time. This requires statistical analysis and can be quite complex, particularly because imperfect detection (i.e., the fact that not every animal present will be seen or heard during a survey) must be accounted for.



<h3 id="h-importance">Importance</h3>



Wildlife surveys are critical for conserving biodiversity, managing wildlife resources, and making informed decisions regarding land use and policy. They provide the data needed to assess the status of a species or a habitat, which can guide conservation efforts and policy decisions.



<h3 id="h-challenges">Challenges</h3>



There are many challenges involved in conducting wildlife surveys. These can include logistical difficulties, such as reaching remote areas, the potential for bias in observation or counting, and the need for significant resources and expertise. Additionally, there are always ethical considerations to ensure that surveys do not unduly disturb or harm the animals being studied.



Technological advancements, such as the use of drones, acoustic recorders, and satellite imagery, are helping to overcome some of these challenges and are providing new ways to monitor wildlife populations.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Small scale wildlife surveys can reveal the health of entire ecosystems

Monitoring wildlife is one of the most expensive and challenging...

A fascinating new study has emerged that challenges the common belief across various species - from humans to horses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybridization-among-wild-baboons-comes-with-hidden-costs/">baboons</a> - that early life adversity results in a higher likelihood of experiencing hardship later in life.



This groundbreaking research was conducted by a team from the <a href="https://gorillafund.org/">Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund</a> and the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> who decided to investigate this question in gorillas, unsure of what they might discover.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/1x8JsN172-1000x662.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-1917767"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image Credit: Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund </figcaption></figure>



Previous studies conducted by the Fossey Fund showed that young gorillas displayed an incredible resilience after losing their mothers - a stark contrast to other species. However, the loss of a mother is only one form of adversity that young animals can face.



Senior author on the study, Stacy Rosenbaum, an anthropologist from the University of Michigan, remarked: "Assuming that you survive something that we consider early life adversity, it's often still the case that you will be less healthy or you will have fewer kids or your lifespan will be shorter - no matter what species you are."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



Rosenbaum noted that there is a wide range of negative impacts that early life adversity can have on adulthood.



The researchers, however, were surprised to find that gorillas who survived past the age of six were largely unaffected by the hardships they faced as infants or juveniles. This crucial finding has been published in the prestigious journal, <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



Rosenbaum compared this phenomenon to humans, who also experience early life adversity that can lead to issues in adulthood, such as health complications or a shortened lifespan.&nbsp;



However, in human studies, it's a challenge to determine whether these outcomes are directly due to early life adversity, or if they stem from a combination of behavioral, environmental, and cultural factors.&nbsp;



Studying these events in non-human species, such as gorillas, may provide valuable insights to help understand and mitigate these effects in humans.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/eCpcMmNU-1000x667.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-1917768"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image Credit: Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund </figcaption></figure>



Robin Morrison, a researcher with the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund and the lead author on the study, described the benefits of studying animals in this context.&nbsp;



"When you look at animals, you remove a lot of the variation that we have in humans. For example, they are all eating similar diets, they all get exercise as part of their daily lives, they don't have the opportunity to engage in behaviors with negative health outcomes like smoking," explained Morrison.



Despite this, most species still suffer negative effects in adulthood from early adversity, suggesting an underlying biological mechanism that is not yet fully understood. The differing pattern observed in gorillas, however, indicates that it's possible to overcome these adversities.&nbsp;



Morrison believes that understanding how this resilience works could have important implications for our own species.



<h2 id="h-why-use-gorillas-for-the-study">Why use gorillas for the study?</h2>



The researchers chose gorillas for this study as they, like humans, have a long lifespan and invest heavily in a small number of offspring. The research team analyzed 55 years of long-term data collected on 253 wild mountain gorillas - 135 males and 118 females - living in Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda. These gorillas have been under the continuous observation of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund for over five decades.



The study identified six different types of early life adversity, including losing a parent, experiencing the death of a group member through infanticide, social group instability, having few age-mates in the social group, and having a sibling born soon after them. The data showed how many of these adversities each gorilla faced and at what age, as well as their lifespan.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered</h2>



The researchers found that gorillas who experienced more adversities before the age of six were more likely to die as juveniles. However, if they survived past their juvenile stage, their lifespan was not shortened, regardless of how many adversities they faced.&nbsp;



Surprisingly, gorillas who faced three or more adversities actually lived longer, with a 70 percent reduction in the risk of death in adulthood. This intriguing trend was primarily seen in males, leading researchers to theorize that it may be linked to a phenomenon known as viability selection.&nbsp;



In essence, this means that a gorilla robust enough to endure tough early life events might be a "higher-quality individual" and consequently more likely to enjoy a longer lifespan.



"I was expecting to see that these gorillas would have short lifespans and would not do very well as adults," said Rosenbaum.



"We found that these events are definitely associated with a much higher risk of death when you're young. But if you survive to age 6, there's no evidence that those shorten your lifespan at all. This is quite different from what we see in other species."



<h2 id="h-mountain-gorillas-exhibit-incredible-resilience">Mountain gorillas exhibit incredible resilience</h2>



The team has a few theories to explain the extraordinary resilience of these mountain gorillas. For one, gorillas live in very close-knit social groups, and previous studies have shown that when a young gorilla loses its mother, other group members step in to fill the void in social companionship.



"The youngster actually increases its time near other gorillas after the loss of its mom and in particular the highest-ranking adult male, even if he isn't their biological father," said Morrison.



"These strong networks might provide critical social buffering, as has been shown in humans. The quality of our social relationships is a very important predictor of our health and longevity - in some cases, more important than genetics or lifestyle."



Another factor contributing to their resilience may be the resource-rich environment mountain gorillas inhabit, which is a luxury many other wild primates don't enjoy.&nbsp;



"For comparison, savanna baboons - who were the inspiration for this analysis - live in this highly seasonal environment where they go through extreme droughts," said Rosenbaum. "They sometimes will have to walk miles to get to a water hole. They're often struggling for every single calorie they take in." She contrasted this with the world of mountain gorillas, which she described as a "giant salad bowl."



<h2 id="h-conclusion">Conclusion</h2>



The findings from this research suggest that species closely related to humans can exhibit significant resilience to early life adversity. It also raises intriguing questions about the biological roots of sensitivity to early experiences and the protective mechanisms that contribute to resilience in gorillas.



"I don't think we should assume that the long-term negative effects of early life adversity are universal," said Rosenbaum.



She challenged the ubiquity of this belief, emphasizing that the data is much more complex for humans and other animals. "I actually think that that's a hopeful story," Rosenbaum added, indicating a silver lining to the challenges faced in early life.&nbsp;



This research opens up new avenues for understanding and potentially mitigating the impacts of early life adversity across species, including our own.



<h2 id="h-more-about-mountain-gorillas">More about mountain gorillas</h2>



Mountain gorillas are a critically endangered species of great ape, and one of the two subspecies of the eastern gorilla. As of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021, there were only about 1,000 mountain gorillas left in the wild.



<h3 id="h-here-s-what-you-should-know-about-mountain-gorillas">Here's what you should know about mountain gorillas:</h3>



<h4 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and Distribution</h4>



Mountain gorillas live in the high-altitude cloud forests of central Africa, specifically in two isolated regions. One population can be found within the Virunga volcanic mountain range, which stretches across Rwanda's Volcanoes National Park, Uganda's Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, and Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The other population resides in Uganda's Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.



<h4 id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical Characteristics</h4>



Mountain gorillas are large and powerfully built, with long, strong arms and a broad chest. Adult males, known as silverbacks due to the characteristic patch of silver hair on their back and hips, typically weigh between 300 and 400 pounds and stand about 4 to 6 feet tall when upright. Females are typically smaller, weighing between 150 and 200 pounds. Mountain gorillas have a robust build with a large head, a prominent brow ridge, and a long, muscular arms.



<h4 id="h-behavior-and-social-structure">Behavior and Social Structure</h4>



Mountain gorillas are highly social animals, living in stable groups that usually consist of one dominant silverback, multiple females, and their offspring. Groups may also include younger subordinate males, known as blackbacks. Silverbacks lead the group, making decisions about feeding, nesting, and movement.



Mountain gorillas are diurnal, spending most of their day foraging for food and resting. They build new nests from foliage each night.



<h4 id="h-diet">Diet</h4>



Mountain gorillas are primarily herbivorous. They eat a variety of plant species, including leaves, stems, roots, vines, and fruits. They are also known to eat small invertebrates. Their diet varies by season and depends on what food is available.



<h4 id="h-reproduction-and-lifespan">Reproduction and Lifespan</h4>



Female mountain gorillas typically start to breed in their late teens, while males start in their early teens. The gestation period is about 8.5 months, and infants are cared for by their mothers for several years.&nbsp;



Mountain gorillas have a slow rate of reproduction which, along with other factors, has contributed to their status as a critically endangered species. In the wild, mountain gorillas can live to be over 40 years old.



<h4 id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and Conservation</h4>



Mountain gorillas face numerous threats, including habitat loss due to agriculture and human settlement, disease (including diseases transmitted by humans), poaching, and civil conflict. Conservation efforts have included anti-poaching patrols, veterinary care, community education, and ecotourism. These efforts have led to a slow increase in their numbers, but mountain gorillas remain critically endangered.



—-



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Does early life adversity in gorillas lead to hardship as adults?

A fascinating new study has emerged that challenges the common...

Around 12,000 years ago, the first humans began their journey into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-could-play-a-key-role-in-limiting-global-warming/">agriculture</a>. In the regions we now identify as Iraq and Syria, nestled between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, small collectives of people embarked on the cultivation of peas, lentils, and barley. Each group operated independently, making their own discoveries and innovations along the way.



In order to create room for these fledgling fields and the animals they kept, they had to cut down trees. It was the beginning of a human-initiated transformation of nature, bending and shaping it to meet our own needs.



Our ancestors were aware of the consequences of their actions. They knew that once the forests were cleared and the fields set up, certain species of animals and plants would cease to exist in those regions. In our current era, we understand that modern, high-intensity agriculture poses one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity.



Despite this knowledge, there remains a gap in our understanding. Specifically, we lack concrete information about the direct impact on the ecosystem - on its plants, insects, and animals - when a forest is cleared, and the land is tilled and sowed.



In response to this, Gabor Lovei from the Department of Agroecology at <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a> and a group of Portuguese colleagues embarked on a research journey. They chose the island of Terceira in the Azores as their laboratory, an ideal location due to the preservation of some of its original forest.



Gabor Lovei, however, was taken aback by the results of the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2022.11.010">study</a>. "The changes in the ecosystem were less extensive than I’d imagined. True enough, there were fewer large and small animals in the fields, but on a number of other parameters, activity in the ecosystem had actually increased," said Lovei.



<h2 id="h-the-unique-nature-in-the-azores">The unique nature in the Azores</h2>



The Azores had largely remained untouched until 1427. The islands were lush and thriving in the middle of the Atlantic, hosting deep-green trees and a variety of plants. This rich biodiversity was due to the islands' unique combination of high heat, frequent precipitation, and volcanic soil.



That all changed in the 15th century when Portuguese sailors stumbled upon the forested mountains in the middle of the Atlantic. Smallholders, disillusioned with the royal favours directed towards manor houses in Portugal, packed up their tools and set sail for the Azores. They felled the forests and planted wheat and other crops.



Their efforts bore fruit. The yields were significantly higher than on the mainland, and soon, the news spread. Farmers flocked to the Azores, resulting in rapid deforestation and transformation into agricultural land. The only areas spared were those where the terrain was too mountainous or the soil too difficult to cultivate.



It was in these untouched parts of the original forest that Gabor Lovei carried out his research. "In Denmark – and most other places in Europe – the forest is not original. It has been felled, replanted and changed by humans for thousands of years. In the Azores, on the other hand, there is completely original forest – and it’s gold for this type of research," said Lovei.



<h2 id="h-innovative-trick-used-in-this-study">Innovative trick used in this study</h2>



When scientists want to study the impact of agriculture on various species, they often don their hiking boots and embark on a field journey. They systematically comb through fields, meadows, and forest edges, meticulously recording their findings at different times of the day and on multiple occasions.&nbsp;



However, these traditional methods primarily shed light on animal populations, not the whole ecosystem's response to agricultural changes.



Gabor Lovei, a researcher, had a different approach. He aimed to investigate the entire ecosystem's reaction to forest felling and the establishment of fields, so he had to employ innovative methods.



Lovei began his investigation by planting several mature lettuces in three different environments: an original forest, cultivated fields, and cow grazing fields. He left the plants undisturbed for two weeks. After this period, he assessed the area covered by the lettuce and the amount consumed, providing a measure of the plant-eating activity in each ecosystem.



He replicated this process with larvae to assess predation levels. The more larvae consumed, the more wildlife - birds, rodents, frogs - were likely present in the area. Lovei also scattered small boxes of seeds to observe how many would disappear. He even buried teabags ten centimeters deep into the soil to examine the microorganisms' activity levels, which break down organic matter.



Additionally, he planted strawberries to gain insights into pollination across the different areas. All these mini-experiments collectively painted a picture of the ecosystem-wide changes occurring when forests are felled and fields established.



<h2 id="h-researchers-find-fewer-animals-in-the-fields">Researchers find fewer animals in the fields</h2>



Among all parameters Lovei studied, insect predation showed the greatest difference. He found that significantly more larvae disappeared in the forest than in the cultivated field and grazing areas.



According to Lovei, this suggests more wildlife inhabits the forest. "Larvae are typically eaten by rodents, birds, and lizards. Our findings suggest that there were significantly more of them in the forest, because more larvae disappeared between the trees," said Lovei.



Seeds also vanished more rapidly in the forest, which Lovei attributes to the higher humidity levels fostering a wider range of invertebrates. "Animals like snails and beetles, which eat seeds, can live there."



However, he found no difference regarding pollination and the number of soil microorganisms. Interestingly, plant pollination was slightly higher on maize fields than in the forest. But Lovei cautions against seeing this as an indication of greater bee diversity. He clarified that cultivated fields usually have few plant types, meaning that "the same few bee species are responsible for pollination."



<h2 id="h-what-farmers-can-do-to-help">What farmers can do to help</h2>



Deforestation by local farmers inevitably leads to a loss of biodiversity, a fact clearly demonstrated through Gabor Lovei's extensive research. But does his work also reveal ways to regain some of that lost biodiversity in our agricultural fields?



The answer, Lovei assures us, is yes. His results offer a fresh understanding of which parts of the ecosystem are most impacted by farming practices.



Lovei has observed that "snails and beetles have a hard time on the fields." To rectify this, he suggests that farmers could leave small pockets of natural vegetation untouched in their fields. For instance, allowing roots from dead trees to decompose naturally could attract many types of beetles.



Another issue stems from the unintentional introduction of non-native species during farming, which can disrupt the natural ecosystem. In the Azores, rats became invasive and displaced a large portion of the local fauna.



"By making space for small pockets of non-cultivated nature in and around the fields, we know that the native species will survive more easily. They’re simply more resistant to invading species," explained Lovei.



Is it possible, then, to apply these findings to a place like Denmark, which has distinct natural conditions? The Azores' nature is quite different: Denmark is colder, its soil is different, and virtually no original nature remains.



Despite these differences, Lovei believes the results from the Azores can still apply to Danish conditions. "Such comprehensive experiments have never been conducted on the European mainland, but some of the parameters have been studied in other European countries. The pattern was roughly the same. Therefore, we can assume that Danish nature reacts more or less in the same way to deforestation and cultivation."



He is quick to remind us, though, that agriculture isn't the sole threat to biodiversity. Urban environments, including our own backyards, also impose limitations on animal habitats. He emphasizes, "That’s why it's important to do something in our own backyard.”



Planting native species can make a significant difference, Lovei suggests. Cultivating trees and flowers indigenous to Denmark, rather than exotic plants, can greatly benefit the local ecosystem. "Stop mowing the lawn. This will make a huge difference for many species."



This research, while highlighting the detrimental effects of farming practices on biodiversity, also points to viable strategies for mitigating these impacts. The findings serve as a call to action for both farmers and individuals, reminding us of our shared responsibility in preserving our planet's precious biodiversity.



<h2 id="h-more-about-deforestation">More about deforestation</h2>



Deforestation is the process of clearing, thinning, or eliminating forested areas, often to make way for agriculture, logging, or urban development. It has profound impacts on the Earth's ecosystems and the overall environment, affecting biodiversity, climate, and human societies.



<h3 id="h-loss-of-biodiversity">Loss of Biodiversity</h3>



Forests are home to a majority of the world's terrestrial biodiversity. They house millions of species of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, many of which are still undiscovered. When forests are cleared, these species lose their habitats, leading to population declines and extinctions. This loss of biodiversity can disrupt ecosystems and diminish their resilience, potentially leading to the collapse of entire food webs.



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



Forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate. They act as "carbon sinks," absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in plant tissues and soils. When forests are cut down and burned or allowed to decompose, this stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Deforestation is estimated to be responsible for about 10-15% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions.



<h3 id="h-disruption-of-the-water-cycle">Disruption of the Water Cycle</h3>



Trees and plants in forests contribute significantly to the water cycle. They release water vapor into the atmosphere through transpiration, promoting the formation of clouds and precipitation. When forests are removed, this process is disrupted, potentially leading to changes in rainfall patterns and an increased risk of drought.



<h3 id="h-soil-erosion-and-degradation">Soil Erosion and Degradation</h3>



Forests help to protect soil from erosion by reducing the impact of rain and wind. They also contribute to soil fertility through the recycling of nutrients. Without trees, soils are more vulnerable to erosion, and their fertility can decline over time, making the land less suitable for agriculture and other uses.



<h3 id="h-impact-on-indigenous-communities">Impact on Indigenous Communities</h3>



Many indigenous and local communities depend on forests for their livelihoods, food, water, and cultural practices. Deforestation can lead to the displacement of these communities and the loss of their traditional knowledge and ways of life.



In short, deforestation has far-reaching impacts on the Earth's ecosystems and the environment. Addressing this issue is vital for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and sustainable development.



Image Credit: Jules Verne Times Two / Creative Commons



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Study reveals exactly what happens to nature when forests are cut down

Around 12,000 years ago, the first humans began their journey...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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