If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

A significant event transpired about 100 million years ago: a faction of innovative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-moths-are-more-efficient-pollinators-than-bees/">moths</a> began to fly during the day, as opposed to night, favoring the nectar-laden flowers that had evolved alongside bees.&nbsp;This singular event sparked the evolution of butterflies, a fascinating transformation that scientists have been studying for decades.



In 2019, scientists were able to pinpoint the timing of this evolution through a comprehensive DNA analysis. This groundbreaking research debunked the previously held theory that butterflies evolved due to pressure from bats, following the extinction of dinosaurs.



Today, scientists have unearthed new exciting revelations concerning the geographical origins of the first butterflies and their dietary preferences.



<h2 id="h-how-the-discovery-was-made">How the discovery was made</h2>



This discovery was not easy to come by. It necessitated the collaborative efforts of researchers from across the globe, who worked tirelessly to construct the world's most extensive butterfly tree of life. This complex structure comprised DNA from over 2,000 butterfly species, representing every butterfly family and 92 percent of all genera.



The researchers utilized this tree as a roadmap, tracing the butterflies' journey and dietary patterns through time, a monumental task akin to solving a four-dimensional puzzle. The puzzle's solution pointed to North and Central America as the origin of the first butterflies, a finding recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02041-9">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



For Akito Kawahara, the lead author of the study and the curator of lepidoptera at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, this project was the culmination of a lifelong dream.



“This was a childhood dream of mine,” said Kawahara. “It’s something I’ve wanted to do since visiting the American Museum of Natural History when I was a kid and seeing a picture of a butterfly phylogeny taped to a curator’s door. It’s also the most difficult study I’ve ever been a part of, and it took a massive effort from people all over the world to complete.”



<h2 id="h-how-to-trim-down-a-100-million-year-history-from-19-000-species">How to trim down a 100-million-year history from 19,000 species</h2>



The study's enormity is reflected in the sheer number of butterfly species - about 19,000. Stitching together their 100 million-year history required a deep understanding of their modern distributions and host plants. Unfortunately, before this study, such data was not readily available in one location.



“We often had to rely on field guides that hadn’t been digitized and were written in various languages,” Kawahara explained.



The lack of an existing database did not deter the researchers. They embarked on the painstaking process of creating a publicly accessible database, translating and digitizing information from books, museum collections, and scattered web pages.



A crucial component of their analysis was 11 rare butterfly fossils. These fossils, preserved despite the delicate nature of butterfly wings and fine hairs, served as calibration points on the genetic trees. They enabled the researchers to record the timing of key evolutionary events.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The results revealed a dynamic narrative of rapid diversifications, intermittent advancements, and unlikely dispersals. Some butterfly groups covered vast distances, while others remained stationary, seemingly indifferent to the shifting continents, mountains, and rivers around them.



The first butterflies, the study found, appeared in Central and western North America. During this period, North America was split in two by a vast seaway, and Mexico was connected in a long arc with the United States, Canada, and Russia. The Isthmus of Panama had not yet joined North and South America, but butterflies managed to cross the strait between them with ease.



The migration pattern of butterflies was intriguing. Despite the relative proximity of South America and Africa, butterflies took a circuitous route, journeying to Asia across the Bering Land Bridge. Once there, they rapidly dispersed, spreading into Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and the Horn of Africa. Incredibly, they also reached India, which was then an isolated island surrounded by miles of sea.



Their arrival in Australia, which was still connected to Antarctica, the last remnants of the supercontinent Pangaea, was even more astounding. It’s plausible that butterflies thrived in Antarctica when global temperatures were warmer, traversing the northern edge of the continent into Australia before the landmasses eventually separated.



Interestingly, butterflies lingered on the outskirts of western Asia for nearly 45 million years before finally venturing into Europe. The cause of this extended pause remains unclear, but its effects are still visible today.



“Europe doesn’t have many butterfly species compared to other parts of the world, and the ones it does have can often be found elsewhere," explained Kawahara. "Many butterflies in Europe are also found in Siberia and Asia, for example.”



<h2 id="h-butterfly-species-diversification-begins">Butterfly species diversification begins</h2>



Once butterflies had established themselves, they diversified rapidly alongside their plant hosts. By the time the dinosaurs met their end 66 million years ago, almost all modern butterfly families had emerged. Each family seemed to have a specific preference for certain groups of plants.



“When we looked at this association over an evolutionary timescale, we found that in pretty much every family of butterflies, bean plants appeared to be the ancestral hosts,” Kawahara said. “This was true for the ancestor of all butterflies as well.”



While bean plants have since broadened their pollinators to include various bees, flies, hummingbirds, and mammals, butterflies have also diversified their tastes.



Study co-author Pamela Soltis, a Florida Museum curator and distinguished professor, points out that the symbiotic relationships butterflies developed with plants were instrumental in their evolution from a minor moth offshoot to one of the largest insect groups on Earth.



“The evolution of butterflies and flowering plants has been inexorably intertwined since the origin of the former, and the close relationship between them has resulted in remarkable diversification events in both lineages,” she stated.



This intricate, vibrant history of butterflies demonstrates the profound interconnectedness of life on Earth, the perpetual dance of evolution and adaptation, and the mystery that continues to envelop the natural world.&nbsp;



The study underscores the importance of cross-disciplinary and international collaboration in expanding our knowledge about the origin and evolution of species. The journey of these tiny creatures over millions of years offers invaluable insights into the dynamism and resilience of life, and the ongoing saga of evolution.



<h2 id="h-more-about-butterflies">More about butterflies</h2>



Butterflies are much more than just beautiful creatures that flutter around our gardens. They play several essential roles in ecosystems and contribute significantly to the overall health of the environment.



<h3 id="h-pollination">Pollination</h3>



Like bees, butterflies are important pollinators. As they move from flower to flower in search of nectar, they inadvertently pick up and transfer pollen grains. This cross-pollination is crucial for the fertilization and propagation of many plant species, including those that humans depend on for food.



<h3 id="h-bioindicators">Bioindicators</h3>



Butterflies are considered sensitive bioindicators, meaning their presence, absence, or population trends can tell us a lot about the health of an ecosystem. Because butterflies are highly sensitive to changes in habitat quality and climate, a decline in butterfly populations can serve as an early warning sign of environmental problems.



<h3 id="h-biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3>



Butterflies contribute to biodiversity both as pollinators and as a food source for other species. Their caterpillars are a primary food source for birds and some insects. A healthy butterfly population can indicate overall biodiversity and ecosystem health.



<h3 id="h-nutrient-recycling">Nutrient Recycling</h3>



Butterfly larvae (caterpillars) play a role in nutrient recycling. They consume plant leaves, aiding in the decomposition process and contributing to the nutrient cycle. When they metamorphose into butterflies, their discarded pupal cases provide nutrients for the soil.



<h3 id="h-plant-growth-and-evolution">Plant Growth and Evolution</h3>



Some butterfly species have co-evolved with specific plant species, leading to mutual benefits. For example, the plant may rely on the butterfly for pollination, while the butterfly relies on the plant as a food source for its larvae. This relationship can drive the evolution of both species.



<h3 id="h-human-wellbeing">Human Wellbeing</h3>



The aesthetic value of butterflies also contributes to human wellbeing. Their beauty encourages people to spend time outdoors, engage with nature, and appreciate biodiversity, which has numerous mental health benefits.



<h3 id="h-education-and-research">Education and Research</h3>



Butterflies, due to their wide variety, availability, and the fascinating process of metamorphosis they undergo, serve as excellent subjects for educational purposes and scientific research. Observing butterflies can provide insights into biological processes like metamorphosis, behavior, and ecological interactions.



However, it's essential to note that butterfly populations are declining globally due to habitat loss, climate change, pollution, and the use of pesticides.&nbsp;



The loss of these creatures can have cascading effects on ecosystems and biodiversity, underscoring the need for conservation efforts. Protecting and restoring butterfly habitats, reducing pesticide use, and planting butterfly-friendly plants can all help to support butterfly populations.



—-



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Mystery solved: When butterflies evolved and what plants they used for food

A significant event transpired about 100 million years ago: a...

Beautiful,View,Of,Sea,Life

In a recent study, scientists have discovered that the light pollution generated by coastal cities is damaging coral reefs and leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-coral-reefs-crackle-with-the-sounds-of-busy-inhabitants/">reefs</a> to spawn outside their ideal reproduction times. 



The research offers compelling evidence that coastal artificial light at night (ALAN) is tampering with the delicate balance of coral spawning events. These events, typically tied to lunar cycles, are crucial for the survival and recovery of coral reefs, especially in the aftermath of mass bleaching and other similar disturbances.



<h2 id="h-the-alice-project">The ALICE project</h2>



The findings are part of the Artificial Light Impacts on Coastal Ecosystems (ALICE) project, which is under the funding umbrella of the Natural Environment Research Council. Coral spawning events are typically triggered by lunar cycles, leading to the release of eggs on specific nights of the year.&nbsp;



The research team used light pollution data combined with spawning observations to demonstrate an alarming trend that is damaging coral reefs. They found that corals exposed to artificial light at night are now spawning one to three days nearer to the full moon compared to their counterparts on reefs unlit by artificial light.



This change in spawning times could have serious repercussions on the survival of coral reefs. If coral eggs are released on different nights, the chances of them being fertilized and surviving to become adult corals are drastically reduced. Adult corals play a vital role in helping the reefs recover after bleaching events and other disturbances.



The ALICE project's research builds on a study published in December 2021, which identified the ocean areas most impacted by light pollution. This study found that about 1.9 million square kilometers of coastal ocean, at a depth of one meter, are exposed to biologically significant ALAN. This represents around 3.1% of the global Exclusive Economic Zones.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



For this latest study, the researchers married the data from the 2021 study with a global dataset containing 2,135 coral spawning observations from the 21st century. This allowed them to propose a novel idea: ALAN could be advancing the triggers for spawning by creating an illusory period of minimum illuminance between sunset and moonrise on nights following the full moon.



Dr. Thomas Davies, a Lecturer in Marine Conservation at the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a>, led this study. He also serves as the principal investigator of the ALICE project.&nbsp;



The research, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38070-y">Nature Communications</a>, represents a significant contribution to our understanding of the profound effects of artificial light pollution on marine ecosystems.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-scientists-learned-about-damaging-coral-reefs">What the scientists learned about damaging coral reefs</h2>



According to Dr. Davies, the study's findings could have major implications for the future survival of our planet's coral reefs and the impact of damaging coral reefs.



“Corals are critical for the health of the global ocean, but are being increasingly damaged by human activity. This study shows it is not just changes in the ocean that are impacting them, but the continued development of coastal cities as we try and accommodate the growing global population," said Dr. Davies.



"If we want to mitigate against the harm this is causing, we could perhaps look to delay the switching on of night-time lighting in coastal regions to ensure the natural dark period between sunset and moonrise that triggers spawning remains intact. That would potentially raise a number of economic and safety issues, but is something we potentially need to consider to ensure our coral reefs are given the best chance of survival.”



Dr. Tim Smyth, head of Science for Marine Biogeochemistry and Observations at Plymouth Marine Laboratory and the study’s senior author, added: “This study further emphasizes the importance of artificial light pollution as a stressor of coastal and marine ecosystems, with the impacts on various aspects of biodiversity only now being discovered and quantified. A critical first step along that path was enabled with our global in-water light pollution atlas which highlighted for the first time the true extent of the problem, which hitherto had gone unrecognized.”



The researchers looked at coastal regions all over the world, but coral reefs in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf are particularly affected by light pollution. These are areas where coastlines have been heavily developed in recent years and where coral reefs are both close to the shore and at particular risk.



“The Red Sea and the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba are heavily impacted by Artificial Light at Night (ALAN) due to urbanization and the proximity of the reefs to the coastline. Despite the challenges posed by ALAN, corals in the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba are known for their thermal tolerance and ability to withstand high temperatures. However, a disturbance in the timing of coral spawning with the moon phases can result in a decline in new coral recruits and a reduction in the coral population," said study co-author Professor Oren Levy, who heads the Laboratory for Molecular Marine Ecology at Bar-Ilan University in Israel.



"It is crucial that we take immediate action to reduce the impact of ALAN on these fragile marine ecosystems. By implementing measures to limit light pollution, we can protect these vital habitats and safeguard the future of the world's oceans. It's our responsibility to ensure that we preserve the biodiversity of our planet and maintain a healthy and sustainable environment for generations to come.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-coral-reefs-and-importance-to-ecosystems">More about coral reefs and importance to ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



Coral reefs, often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea," are among the most biodiverse and productive ecosystems on Earth. They provide a multitude of vital services that contribute to the well-being of the environment and humankind. That is why humans must stop damaging coral reefs.



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-hotspots">Biodiversity hotspots&nbsp;</h3>



Firstly, coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots. They occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean area, yet they provide a home for at least 25% of all marine species, including fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates, and other cnidarians.&nbsp;



This biodiversity is not only a critical resource for scientific research and potential medical discoveries but also plays a vital role in maintaining the overall health of our oceans.



In addition to their incredible biodiversity, coral reefs also have immense economic value. They are the backbone of many local economies, especially in developing countries, due to their importance in the tourism industry and for local fisheries. It's estimated that millions of people around the world directly rely on the resources from coral reefs for their livelihoods and food security.



Coral reefs also play a crucial role in protecting coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical storms. They serve as natural barriers, reducing the impact of waves, thereby preventing erosion, property damage, and loss of life.



Moreover, reefs play a crucial role in the carbon and nitrogen cycles. They facilitate carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, helping mitigate the impacts of climate change. By damaging coral reefs, they can no longer provide these benefits.



<h3 id="h-coral-reefs-need-our-protection">Coral reefs need our protection&nbsp;</h3>



However, despite their importance, coral reefs face severe threats from various factors including climate change, ocean acidification, pollution, overfishing, destructive fishing practices, and disease.&nbsp;



These threats have led to significant reef degradation globally, and there's an urgent need for effective management and conservation measures.



Protecting and restoring coral reefs is not just about preserving these beautiful and diverse ecosystems for future generations.&nbsp;



It's also about the survival of countless marine species and the sustenance of economic activities that depend on these ecosystems. Indeed, the health of our planet's coral reefs is a bellwether for the overall health of the world's oceans.



<h3 id="h-impact-of-climate-change-on-coral-reefs">Impact of climate change on coral reefs</h3>



Climate change poses a significant threat to coral reefs, impacting them in several ways. The primary threats are from increasing sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and more intense storm events.



<h4 id="h-rising-sea-temperatures">Rising Sea Temperatures</h4>



One of the most immediate threats of climate change is the increase in sea surface temperatures. Warmer water temperatures can lead to coral bleaching, a stress response in which corals expel the symbiotic algae living within their tissues, known as zooxanthellae.&nbsp;



These algae provide corals with food through photosynthesis and give them their vibrant colors. Without them, corals turn white (hence the term 'bleaching') and, if the high temperatures persist, the coral may die.



<h4 id="h-ocean-acidification">Ocean Acidification</h4>



The burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, a significant portion of which is then absorbed by the oceans. When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid, leading to a process called ocean acidification.&nbsp;



This process reduces the amount of available carbonate ions, a key building block for corals and other marine organisms to build their skeletons and shells. Lower carbonate ion levels can slow down coral growth and even dissolve existing skeletal structures, leading to weaker reefs.



<h4 id="h-sea-level-rise">Sea Level Rise</h4>



Rising sea levels due to melting polar ice can also impact coral reefs. Although corals can grow to keep up with slow sea-level rise, rapid increases may submerge them too deeply, reducing the sunlight they receive, which is essential for the photosynthetic processes of their symbiotic algae.



<h4 id="h-more-intense-storms">More Intense Storms</h4>



Climate change is predicted to increase the intensity of tropical storms, which can cause physical damage to coral reefs. Strong storms can break apart the coral's rigid structure, causing large-scale reef destruction.



<h4 id="h-changes-in-ocean-currents">Changes in Ocean Currents</h4>



Climate change can also alter ocean currents, which may disrupt the delivery of nutrients to reef ecosystems, further affecting their health and resilience.



The loss and degradation of coral reefs due to climate change not only impact the multitude of species that depend on them but also the human communities that rely on those species for food, income, and coastal protection. Thus, efforts to mitigate climate change and to develop strategies to help coral reefs adapt to changing conditions are vital for the survival of these critical ecosystems.



—-



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Discovery: Light pollution from coastal cities is damaging coral reefs

In a recent study, scientists have discovered that the light...

The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is one of the most dangerous pathogens affecting the health and wellbeing of cattle worldwide, costing the U.S. industry billions of dollars annually. First identified in the 1940s, BVDV can be disastrous to pregnant cows since it can infect developing calves, and often leads to spontaneous abortions and low birth rates.&nbsp;



While some BVDV-infected calves manage to survive, they remain infected for life, and shed massive amounts of virus to other cattle. Moreover, despite the fact that vaccines against the virus have been available for over half a century, they are not always effective in stopping transmission.



Over the past two decades, scientists have managed to identify the main cellular receptor (CD46) and the area where the virus binds to that receptor, causing infection in cattle. Now, a team of researchers led by USDA’s <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/">Agricultural Research Services</a> (ARS) has used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/public-opinion-gene-editing/">gene-editing technology</a> to slightly alter CD46 so it would not bind the virus, yet retain all its normal functions in bovines.



After successfully testing this idea in laboratory cell cultures, the scientists collaborated with <a href="https://www.acceligen.com/">Acceligen</a> – a company specializing in precision breeding technology aiming to improve animal welfare and resistance to disease – to genetically edit cattle skin cells in order to develop embryos carrying the altered gene. The team then transplanted the embryos into surrogate cows to assess whether this approach could reduce viral infection in live animals.



The technique proved to be highly successful and the first CD46 gene-edited calf, named Ginger, was born healthy on July 19, 2021. After keeping the calf under observation for a few months, the experts housed it for a week with a BVDV-infected dairy calf which was born shedding the virus.&nbsp;



Ginger’s cells displayed significantly reduced susceptibility to the virus, resulting in no observable adverse health effects. Although these results are highly promising, the scientists will continue to closely monitor Ginger’s health and ability to produce and raise her own calves.



This proof-of-concept study demonstrates the revolutionary possibilities of gene-editing technology in reducing the burden of BVDV in cattle. 



At the same time, since BVDV infection puts calves at risk for secondary bacterial infections, using gene-editing technology to breed cattle resistant to this virus may also diminish the need for antibiotics in agriculture.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad125">PNAS Nexus</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-gene-editing">More about gene editing</h2>



Gene editing is a group of technologies that gives scientists the ability to change an organism's DNA. These technologies allow genetic material to be added, removed, or altered at particular locations in the genome. Several approaches to genome editing have been developed.



One of the most well-known is CRISPR-Cas9, which stands for "Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9." The CRISPR-Cas9 system has generated a lot of excitement in the scientific community because it is faster, cheaper, more accurate, and more efficient than other existing genome editing methods.



CRISPR-Cas9 was adapted from a naturally occurring genome editing system in bacteria. The bacteria capture snippets of DNA from invading viruses and use them to create DNA segments known as CRISPR arrays.&nbsp;



The CRISPR arrays allow the bacteria to "remember" the viruses (or closely related ones). If the viruses attack again, the bacteria produce RNA segments from the CRISPR arrays to target the viruses' DNA. The bacteria then use Cas9 or a similar enzyme to cut the DNA apart, which disables the virus.



In the lab, scientists create a small piece of RNA with a short "guide" sequence that attaches (binds) to a specific target sequence of DNA in a genome. The RNA also binds to the Cas9 enzyme. As in bacteria, the modified RNA is used to recognize the DNA sequence, and the Cas9 enzyme cuts the DNA at the targeted location.&nbsp;



Although Cas9 is the enzyme that is used most often, other enzymes (like Cpf1) can also be used. Once the DNA is cut, researchers use the cell's own DNA repair machinery to add or delete pieces of genetic material, or to make changes to the DNA by replacing an existing segment with a customized DNA sequence.



Gene editing is considered a type of genetic engineering. Other methods for genetic modification include gene targeting, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs).



Applications of gene editing technologies are vast and include correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing the spread of diseases, and improving crops. However, it also raises ethical questions, particularly when it comes to editing the human genome. For example, there are concerns about its potential use in creating so-called "designer babies" with specified traits, such as intelligence or athletic ability.



There are also potential risks, such as off-target effects (unintended changes to DNA), and the long-term effects of gene editing are still largely unknown. It's a rapidly evolving field with enormous potential, but it also requires careful regulation and oversight.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Gene editing technology used to produce disease-resistant calf

The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is one of the...

In recent years, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has transformed from a seasonal phenomenon associated with migratory birds in specific regions to a constant global risk. The influenza <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-virus-could-help-cure-cancer/">virus</a>, which has long plagued the poultry industry, is now also increasingly recognized as a potential public health issue.



Previously, Europe experienced HPAI epidemics as a seasonal event, with migratory waterfowl spreading the virus during their autumn return to overwintering sites.&nbsp;



However, since 2020, the situation has changed significantly. HPAI viruses, particularly the influenza A(H5) subtype, are causing the worst bird epidemics to date. Over 14,000 outbreaks have been reported, with approximately 96 million farmed birds culled in Europe alone.



In an editorial published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2023.28.19.2300227">Eurosurveillance</a>, Cornelia Adlhoch of the <a href="https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en">European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a> (ECDC) and Francesca Baldinelli of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) analyze the rapid development and geographical extension of HPAI in recent years. They reveal that the virus has moved away from seasonality, spreading from west to east along migratory bird routes towards Southeast Asia.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the A(H5N1) virus has spread from Europe to North America for the first time, rapidly progressing across large areas of Canada and the United States (US). Similarly, a north to south spread during autumn bird migration has been observed, reaching as far as the southern tip of Chile.



Although the current risk to human health is limited, the experts warn that the introduction of avian influenza viruses into mammalian populations could increase the risk of influenza virus reassortment, leading to adaptation and spread among mammals. “With the ongoing global presence of A(H5) HPAI viruses, further sporadic spill-over events to humans cannot be excluded,” said the researchers.



The rapid spread of the A(H5N1) virus to previously unaffected areas and its successful persistence during summer months has likely been facilitated by ongoing evolution and reassortment with local low pathogenic avian (LPAI) viruses. This has led to the adaptation of HPAI viruses to new or previously rarely affected wild bird species, such as barnacle geese or sea birds.&nbsp;



Consequently, HPAI viruses have impacted wild bird populations worldwide, with the influenza A(H5N1) virus causing the death of more than 40 percent of the pelican population in Chile and Peru.



The experts also refer to global reports of HPAI transmission to mammals like minks and sea lions, which increases the risk of the virus spilling over to pet animals through contact with dead or sick wild birds or mammals such as foxes.&nbsp;



While human infections with A(H5N1) have been reported in a few countries, symptoms vary from mild to severe, and even death, often related to exposure to infected birds, culling activities, or contaminated environments.



"Although currently circulating avian influenza viruses retain a preference for avian-type receptors, different mutations associated with transmission to and pathogenicity in mammals have been observed," said the researchers. "These mutations were detected sporadically in infected wild and domestic birds and more often emerged upon transmission events to mammals.”



To address the threat of avian influenza, the authors advocate for a One Health approach, which entails rapid sharing of outbreak information, provision of sequence data and reference viruses, and close collaboration between different sectors both locally and globally.&nbsp;



Communication campaigns may help increase public awareness and recognition of avian influenza as a threat to animal and human health, reducing the risk of contact with potentially infected animals.



<h2 id="h-more-about-avian-influenza">More about avian influenza&nbsp;</h2>



There are many types of avian influenza viruses, but only a few of them have caused serious concerns for human health, most notably H5N1, H7N9 and H5N8. These viruses can be deadly to domestic birds, such as chickens, ducks, and turkeys.



Transmission of bird flu viruses to humans is relatively rare and usually requires direct or close contact with infected birds, or heavily contaminated environments. The disease is not typically transmitted from person to person, but there have been instances of limited transmission between humans, often in circumstances where there was close and prolonged contact.



In humans, avian influenza can cause severe disease, including pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and even death. The symptoms can range from typical influenza-like symptoms (fever, cough, sore throat, and muscle aches) to severe respiratory illness and other complications.



Public health organizations closely monitor avian influenza outbreaks in birds and humans because of the potential for the virus to mutate and gain the capability to spread easily among humans, which could lead to a pandemic. As of now, no avian influenza virus has gained the ability to spread easily among humans.



Prevention strategies include close monitoring and culling of infected birds, and the use of influenza vaccines in high-risk populations.&nbsp;



It is also recommended that people avoid contact with domestic birds in areas where there is known avian influenza, and practice good hand hygiene to reduce the risk of infection. There is ongoing research into developing more effective vaccines and treatments for avian influenza.



—-



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Avian influenza has evolved into a persistent global threat

In recent years, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has transformed...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> (UQ) in Australia has found that, although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-sing/">humpback whales</a> sing louder when the wind is noisy, they do not have the same reaction to noise from boat engines.&nbsp;



According to the experts, this quirk of whale evolution could have significant consequences for their behavior and breeding practices. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2023.0204">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



“Humpback whales evolved over millions of years with noise from natural sources but noise from man-made vessels is foreign to their instincts. It’s a surprising finding given engine noise has a similar frequency range to the wind,” said study lead author Elisa Girola, an expert in Bioacoustics and Conservation at UQ.



“It’s possible the whales are picking out other differences such as wind noise being broadband and the same over large areas, while vessel noise is generated by a single-point source with specific peaks in frequency.”



By using an array of five hydrophone buoys that sent signals back to the beach, the researchers collected audio data in late 2010 off the Peregian Beach in Queensland, during the humpback whales’ southward migration from their breeding grounds in the lagoon of the Great Barrier Reef to their feeding grounds in Antarctica. In addition, a 19-meter fishing boat was introduced to test whales’ reactions to vessel noise.



The investigation revealed that, even with this massive boat producing loud noises, the whales did not sing any louder, suggesting that they may be using other strategies to compensate for such artificially produced sounds.&nbsp;



“There are a few things going on – they might be using ‘spatial release from masking,’ which is the ability to discriminate between audio signals coming from different directions. Or there’s ‘comodulation release from masking’ which is the ability to discriminate between signal and noise when the noise has distinctive frequency components and at least some of these components are not overlapping with the signal,” Girola explained.



It is not yet clear whether this lack of response to boat noise is diminishing the effectiveness of whale communication or making breeding practices more difficult. Although male humpback whale singing is likely used to mediate reproductive interactions, the ways in which vessel noise is interfering with these processes requires further investigations.



“There’s still so much more research to be done. Understanding humpback whales’ response to noise is important for developing mitigation policies for human activities at sea,” Girola concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-whales-and-noise-pollution">More about whales and noise pollution&nbsp;</h2>



Noise pollution, particularly from human activities such as shipping, construction, and oil drilling, can have significant impacts on marine life, including whales. The noise can interfere with the whales' communication, navigation, feeding, and mating behaviors. Below are some of the specific effects:



<h3 id="h-communication-disruption">Communication Disruption</h3>



Whales use sound to communicate with each other. Noise pollution can interfere with these communications, causing confusion and distress.



<h3 id="h-navigation-and-foraging">Navigation and Foraging</h3>



Many species of whales use echolocation to navigate and find food. This involves producing sounds and then listening for their echoes to determine the location and distance of objects. Noise pollution can disrupt this process, making it difficult for whales to navigate or find food.



<h3 id="h-stress-and-physical-harm">Stress and Physical Harm</h3>



Prolonged exposure to loud noise can cause stress in whales, which can lead to changes in behavior, decreased immune response, and other negative health effects. Extremely loud noises can even cause physical harm, such as hearing loss.



<h3 id="h-displacement">Displacement</h3>



Noise pollution can make certain areas inhospitable for whales, forcing them to move to other, potentially less suitable areas. This can result in increased competition for resources, changes in prey availability, and other negative impacts.



<h3 id="h-stranding">Stranding</h3>



There have been instances where intense underwater noise events, such as naval sonar use or seismic testing, have been associated with mass strandings of beaked whales, although the exact mechanisms are still not fully understood.



Efforts are being made to mitigate the impact of noise pollution on whales and other marine life. For example, some shipping companies are modifying their vessels to be quieter, and certain areas are being designated as protected, with restrictions on the amount of noise that can be produced.&nbsp;



However, more work is needed to fully understand the impact of noise pollution on marine life and to develop effective mitigation strategies.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Humpback whales fail to respond to vessel noise

A recent study led by the University of Queensland (UQ)...

A recent study has found that modern dog breeds, which are genetically more distant from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-may-not-be-heroes-but-theyre-not-villains-either/">wolves</a>, possess a relatively larger brain size compared to ancient breeds that have existed for thousands of years.&nbsp;



This discovery has led scientists to believe that the increase in brain size is likely influenced by urbanization and a more complex social environment, rather than breed roles or life history characteristics.



With over four hundred known dog breeds, the canine species showcases remarkable diversity, providing valuable insights for researchers studying rapid changes within a species. Investigating the factors that affect brain size is of particular interest, as the human brain is notably large in comparison to body size.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



By comparing various dog breeds, researchers hope to answer questions about correlations between brain size, breed tasks, life expectancy, and offspring rearing challenges.



László Zsolt Garamszegi, an evolutionary biologist at Hungary's <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/erc/">Ecological Research Centre</a>, has been examining the evolution of brain size for an extended period.&nbsp;



"The brains of domesticated animals can be up to twenty percent smaller than those of their wild ancestors. The likely reason for this is that the lives of domesticated species are simpler compared to those of their wild counterparts. In the safe environment provided by humans, there is no need to fear predator attacks or hunt for food," explained Garamszegi.



"Therefore, there is no need to sustain the energetically costly large brain, and the freed-up energy can be directed towards other purposes, such as producing more offspring, which is important for domesticated animals.”



Niclas Kolm, a researcher at <a href="https://www.su.se/">Stockholm University</a>, studies brain evolution and the connection between brain morphology and behavior.



“Different dog breeds live in varying levels of social complexity and perform complex tasks, which likely require a larger brain capacity," said Kolm. "Therefore, we hypothesize that the selective pressures on the brain can vary within the dog species, and we may find differences in brain size among breeds based on the tasks they perform or their genetic distance from wolves."



<h2 id="h-results-of-the-study-took-decades-to-prepare">Results of the study took decades to prepare</h2>



This groundbreaking study, the first of its kind to examine the brain size of different dog breeds, took several decades to prepare. Tibor Csörgő, a senior research fellow at <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/">Eötvös Loránd University</a> (ELTE), has been collecting skulls for decades.&nbsp;



Medicopus Nonprofit Ltd. in Kaposvár performed CT scans of the skulls, and veterinarian Kálmán Czeibert used the scans to reconstruct the brains and determine their exact volume.&nbsp;



This invaluable collection was supplemented by the Canine Brain and Tissue Bank, operated by ELTE for the past seven years, allowing researchers to verify brain volumes calculated from skull images using actual brains.&nbsp;



Ultimately, data from 865 individuals representing 159 dog breeds and 48 wolf specimens was gathered for analysis.



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/evolut/qpad063">Evolution</a>, revealed that wolves have an average brain volume of 131 cm3, associated with an average body weight of 31 kg.&nbsp;



Comparatively, dogs of similar weight have a brain volume of around 100 cm3, only about three-quarters of that of wolves. This confirmed that domestication has led to a decrease in brain size in dogs.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-more-surprises-from-their-research">More surprises from their research</h2>



Surprisingly, however, the researchers also found that the more genetically distant a dog breed is from wolves, the larger its relative brain size becomes, regardless of the breed's original role, average litter size, or life expectancy.



"The domestication of dogs began approximately twenty-five thousand years ago, but for ten thousand years, dogs and wolves did not differ in appearance. Many ancient breeds, such as sled dogs, still resemble wolves today. However, the transition to settlement, agriculture, pastoralism, and the accumulation of wealth offered various tasks for dogs, requiring guard dogs, herding dogs, hunting dogs, and even lap dogs," explained Enikő Kubinyi, a senior research fellow at the Department of Ethology at ELTE.



"However, a significant portion of the distinct-looking breeds known today has only emerged since the industrial revolution, primarily in the last two centuries, as dog breeding has become a kind of hobby,"&nbsp;



"The results show that the breeding of modern dog breeds has been accompanied by an increase in brain size compared to ancient breeds. We couldn't explain this based on the tasks or life history characteristics of the breeds, so we can only speculate about the reasons. Perhaps the more complex social environment, urbanization, and adaptation to more rules and expectations have caused this change, affecting all modern breeds."



Research supports these findings, suggesting that ancient breeds, renowned for their independence, show reduced responsiveness to human cues and emit fewer barks, indicating distinctive variations in visual and acoustic communication when compared to contemporary breeds.



<h2 id="h-how-dogs-evolved-from-wolves-to-pets">How dogs evolved from wolves to pets</h2>



The evolution of dogs from wolves to the diverse modern breeds we see today is a fascinating journey that spans thousands of years. It is widely believed that the domestication of dogs began between 20,000 and 40,000 years ago when humans began taming and breeding wolves for specific traits. Early humans likely found these tamed wolves beneficial for hunting, protection, and companionship.



The process of domestication involved selecting and breeding wolves that exhibited desirable traits, such as tameness, smaller size, or specific coat colors. Over generations, these traits became more prominent, leading to the gradual emergence of distinct dog breeds. The genetic divergence between dogs and wolves was further driven by geographic isolation, human migration, and varying environmental conditions.



As human societies evolved, so did their needs for specific dog breeds. Agricultural societies required herding dogs to manage livestock, while hunters sought breeds with exceptional tracking and hunting abilities. Over time, the roles of dogs continued to diversify, giving rise to breeds specialized in tasks such as guarding, sledding, and even serving as companions.



In more recent history, the Victorian era marked a significant turning point in dog breeding. The 19th century saw the emergence of dog shows and breed standards, leading to a surge in the number of breeds and the refinement of their physical and behavioral characteristics. Selective breeding during this period produced many of the modern breeds we are familiar with today.



The process of selective breeding has not only led to the vast diversity in dog breeds but has also impacted their brain size and cognitive abilities.&nbsp;



As the recent study highlighted, modern dog breeds genetically more distant from wolves have a relatively larger brain size compared to ancient breeds. This increase in brain size is thought to be influenced by urbanization and a more complex social environment rather than breed roles or life history characteristics.



In summary, the evolution of dogs from wolves to modern breeds is a product of thousands of years of domestication, selective breeding, and adaptation to human society. This rich history has given rise to the incredible diversity in dog breeds, each with its own unique set of physical and behavioral traits.



—-



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Modern dogs have larger brains than ancient dog breeds

A recent study has found that modern dog breeds, which...

Could the key to slowing human aging and fighting off ailments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smartphone-app-can-detect-covid-19-infection-in-your-voice/">Covid</a>, heart disease, and arthritis be hiding in the wings of bats? A recent study suggests it just might be.



Bats, remarkable creatures that live for around 20 years on average, appear to be unscathed by pathogens that prove deadly to humans, such as Ebola and Covid.&nbsp;



This intriguing fact has prompted scientists to take a closer look at these animals, hoping to uncover the secret behind their resistance to sickness, and see if it can be replicated in humans.



The study, conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.duke-nus.edu.sg/">Duke-NUS Medical School</a> in Singapore, led to the discovery of a protein that forms the backbone of bats' extraordinary immune defense.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-the-secrets-behind-bat-asc2">The secrets behind "bat ASC2"</h2>



The protein, named bat ASC2, showed remarkable promise in genetically engineered mice. The research team is optimistic that it may one day be harnessed to save millions of human lives.



Bat ASC2 is a modified version of a protein that halts the inflammatory response in bats, providing them with their unique resistance to viruses. In a statement, the research team explained, "Our results demonstrate an important mechanism by which bats limit excessive virus-induced and stress-related inflammation with implications for their long lifespan."



The scientists tested this protein's effectiveness by genetically modifying mice to carry the ASC2 protein. The results were astonishing. The mice demonstrated the same defensive properties against inflammation as the bats, as reported in the study published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.



Further investigation into why bats excel at fending off viruses revealed more about the ASC2 protein. When tested on human cells, these cells became more resistant to disease, showing the 'therapeutic potential' of bat ASC2.



<h2 id="h-how-the-protein-works">How the protein works</h2>



The protein works by dampening inflammasomes - the part of the immune system that drives inflammatory responses when infection strikes.



Dr. Linfa Wang, a professor of emerging infectious diseases at Duke-NUS Medical School, spoke to The Telegraph about the potential of bat ASC2 in contributing to human longevity and reducing mortality from viruses.&nbsp;



He cautioned: "It may not be the only factor, as biology is never as simple as one molecule or one pathway. But the overall dampening of inflammation most likely plays a role in health aging in bats."



<h2 id="h-what-the-discovery-means-for-human-health">What the discovery means for human health</h2>



Dr. Wang further explained that this discovery could lead to the development of new medicines that mimic ASC2, offering a potential treatment for various viruses that trigger an inflammatory response in humans.&nbsp;



"We have filed patents based on this work and are exploring commercial partnerships for drug discovery," said Dr. Wang. "We are hoping to develop a new class of anti-inflammatory drugs for inflammasome-driven human diseases."



Interestingly, mice carrying the ASC2 adaptation saw their death rate from a deadly flu virus drop dramatically from 100 percent to 50 percent. In addition, the ASC2 protein 'substantially inhibited' the Zika virus in these genetically engineered mice.



Both humans and bats carry the ASC2 protein, but the researchers speculate that it may have evolved to be stronger in bats due to the immense physiological stress that comes with flight.&nbsp;



Bats, the only mammals capable of powered flight, may have developed a means to suppress their inflammatory immune response as a survival mechanism. This theory suggests the metabolically costly flight could be a key driver for this adaptation.



The research findings have sparked interest among experts worldwide. Professor Gilda Tachedjian, head of Life Sciences at the Burnet Institute in Australia, acknowledged the significance of the study. She told The Telegraph: "The researchers have proved the concept that bat ASC2 protein can target the part of the immune system responsible for inflammatory responses, and therefore reducing inflammation in cells in a petri dish and in mice."



However, she tempered her praise with caution, adding, "While the findings of this study are intriguing, more work is needed to translate these findings into new therapies that can be used in people to reduce mortality from viruses or increase longevity."



<h2 id="h-next-steps-for-the-researchers">Next steps for the researchers</h2>



Indeed, the road from promising laboratory findings to effective human therapies can be long and arduous. The discovery of bat ASC2's potential is just the beginning. To fully understand how this protein works and to harness its power for human health, extensive further research is necessary.



The current study does, however, underscore the incredible potential that nature holds for medical breakthroughs. As scientists continue to investigate bats' remarkable resilience to viruses, they are gaining insights that could transform our approach to human health and longevity.



In the fight against diseases like Covid and conditions such as heart disease and arthritis, bats could prove to be an unexpected ally. Their unique protein could provide a template for new anti-inflammatory drugs that could not only save lives but also extend them.



The quest for longevity and disease resistance has been a long-standing challenge for humanity. Now, it appears that the solution may be soaring in the night sky, in the form of these winged mammals. As we continue to study and learn from them, bats may just hold the key to unlocking a new frontier in human health and medicine.



As we wait for the next steps of this exciting research, it's clear that the humble bat, a creature that has inspired myth and legend for centuries, may soon find itself at the center of a scientific revolution. The study of bat ASC2 has the potential to reshape our understanding of disease, immunity, and the very nature of aging. And who knows? The secret to a longer, healthier life may just be a bat's flight away.



—-



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Scientists find a protein in bats that can slow aging and fight most diseases

Could the key to slowing human aging and fighting off...

Since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-with-a-trusted-owner-remain-calm-in-new-situations/">horses</a> in the wild had to be continuously alert for predators that might attack them, even domestic horses are now hardwired to be alert of potential dangers and often scare easily. 



Unfortunately, such “startle response” or “spooking” is reflexive, and many times horses cannot distinguish between real threats and events in their environment that are not dangerous, such as a plastic bag floating by a riding arena.&nbsp;



When horses overreact to perceived threats by rearing, bolting, or bucking, they can create dangerous situations for owners and riders.



In an attempt to overcome such issues, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> is currently working to identify genes that structure such horses’ tendency to overreact. In the future, the identification of such genes could help selecting or breeding horses for the types of temperaments their owners prefer.



To better understand startle responses, the researchers equipped several horses with heart-rate monitors and let them loose in a round pen. Occasionally, they opened an umbrella quickly within the horses’ perceptual field and analyzed their behavior and heart rate during and after their initial startle reaction.



“We can’t read their minds,” said senior author Samantha Brooks, an associate professor of Equine Genetics at UF. “Their heart rate tells us what is going on inside that we cannot see from reading their body language alone. It was interesting to see the stories their heart rates told us.”



This experiment helped scientists identify two types of horses: one that was startled by the umbrella opening, had a spike in heart rate, and maintained a hyper-alert state, spending more time looking and moving away from the umbrella; and another that startled just as easily and experienced a spike in heart rate, but calmed quickly afterwards. While these animals were also startled by the stimulus, they did not go through the pattern of fear and avoidance as the other horses.



“Horses have adapted over thousands of years to live with people. Some of those changes include a reduction in startle response and are really helpful to better understand the horses we work with today,” Brooks explained.



By using these findings, the scientists plan to design a new study to differentiate the genetic components structuring how horses respond to perceived threats, in order to help owners find their right fit. For instance, while an easily spooked horse may not be the best choice for children learning to ride, it could be a good fit for high-energy “jobs” such as show jumping.&nbsp;



“Understanding each horse’s genetic makeup will help you understand the type of animal you need,” Brooks said. “If we learn early on what this animal’s natural tendencies are most likely to be, we can make educated decisions on training and future careers to give the horse the best shot to grow into their potential, rather than becoming a problem or danger.”



Moreover, clarifying a horse’s reaction to an uncomfortable situation could make a difference in transportation or veterinary practices too.&nbsp;



“It doesn’t matter if the horse is a racehorse, therapy animal or driving a carriage, an unplanned startle response is generally a problem. We are just beginning to scratch the surface of this. It might take us 10 years or more to really have a clear understanding, but it is worth the effort,” Brooks concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14030593">Genes</a>.



<h2 id="h-how-horses-express-their-emotions">How horses express their emotions</h2>



Horses, like many animals, do have a range of emotions that they can express, and these can often be seen through their behavior and body language. It's important to remember that while we can observe and interpret these signs, we can't fully understand a horse's emotional experience in the same way we understand human emotions.



<h3 id="h-here-are-some-commonly-recognized-emotions-in-horses">Here are some commonly recognized emotions in horses:</h3>



<h4 id="h-happiness">Happiness</h4>



A relaxed horse with ears forward and a calm tail usually indicates a happy horse. A soft, gentle eye also suggests contentment. Happy horses often engage in social grooming with other horses and appear generally calm and at ease.



<h4 id="h-fear">Fear</h4>



When a horse is scared, it might raise its head high, prick its ears forward, and widen its eyes. In some cases, a scared horse may also show the whites of its eyes. Horses are flight animals, so a fearful horse may also try to run away from whatever is causing its fear.



<h4 id="h-anger-aggression">Anger/Aggression</h4>



An angry or aggressive horse may pin its ears back flat against its head. It might also show its teeth, swish its tail, or even try to bite or kick. These are all warning signs that should be taken seriously to avoid injury.



<h4 id="h-stress-anxiety">Stress/Anxiety</h4>



Horses can also show signs of stress or anxiety. These may include pacing, excessive sweating, increased heart rate, or other signs of restlessness. They might also show repetitive behaviors known as stereotypies, such as cribbing (biting on fences or stalls) or weaving (swaying side to side).



<h4 id="h-sadness-depression">Sadness/Depression</h4>



Although it's harder to identify than some of the other emotions, horses can also show signs of sadness or depression, particularly if they're kept in poor conditions or are socially isolated. These may include lack of interest in surroundings, low energy, changes in eating or drinking habits, and generally appearing 'down'.



<h4 id="h-relief">Relief</h4>



Horses can show signs of relief, usually through sudden relaxation or a return to normal behaviors after a stressful event.



<h4 id="h-curiosity">Curiosity</h4>



A horse showing curiosity will often have pricked ears, a high head, and a focused gaze. It may approach or inspect new objects, smells, or sounds with caution but interest.



These are just some examples of horse emotions, as interpreted through their behavior and body language. Understanding a horse's emotions can be incredibly helpful in promoting good welfare and positive interactions.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Scientists aim to breed less “spooky” horses

Since horses in the wild had to be continuously alert...

In a surprising revelation that adds a new dimension to our understanding of marine biology, a recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.add4445">Science</a> suggests that hammerhead sharks have a unique way of maintaining their body temperature while hunting in deep, chilly waters - they "hold their breath."



This unexpected finding, reminiscent of thermoregulation strategies employed by marine mammals, raises intriguing possibilities about similar tactics being prevalent among other deep-diving fish species.



As a scientific journalist, it's my pleasure to dive into the details of this fascinating discovery and shed light on the complexities of life beneath the surface of our oceans.



Most fish, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-threaten-australian-tiger-sharks/">sharks</a>, are ectothermic, which means that their body temperatures are largely determined by the environment around them. This poses a physiological conundrum for large predators, who need to maintain a specific body temperature to operate efficiently, yet venture into cold, deep waters in search of food.



Take, for instance, the scalloped hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna lewini). These formidable predators, which dwell in warm surface waters of temperate and tropical coastal regions, are known to undertake frequent deep dives, sometimes exceeding 800 meters. In such depths, water temperatures can plummet to a frigid four degrees Celsius.



The question that puzzled scientists was how these sharks managed to maintain their body temperature in such icy waters, given their lack of specific morphological or vascular adaptations to conserve body heat actively.



To unravel this enigma, Mark Royer and his team developed cutting-edge remote biologgers. These devices, implanted internally in adult sharks, recorded an array of data including depth, ambient water temperature, activity rates, body movements, and, crucially, internal body temperature.



The team discovered that the hammerhead sharks maintained a body temperature significantly elevated - up to 20 degrees Celsius above the surrounding water temperatures - throughout the deepest part of each dive. Intriguingly, the sharks only began to lose body heat rapidly when they started their return journey to the surface.



The researchers proposed a compelling explanation for this phenomenon. They suggest that the sharks effectively "hold their breath" while diving by closing their mouths and/or gill slits. This action reduces the flow of cold water across their gills, thereby minimizing heat loss that would typically occur due to the respiration process in cold water.



The swift body heat loss during the sharks' ascent to warmer waters is likely a result of the gill slits reopening, leading to convective heat transfer. While this finding is a significant leap in our understanding, the authors caution that more research is needed to confirm this thermoregulation strategy.



Mark Meekan and Adrian Gleiss, in a related perspective, write, “Given the effectiveness of breath holding and the strong selective forces that shape behavioral and physiological thermoregulation, this strategy could be widespread among other epipelagic and teleost fishes.”



This innovative study offers a fascinating glimpse into the adaptive strategies of one of nature's most intriguing predators, potentially opening doors to better comprehend the survival mechanisms of other marine species.



<h2 id="h-more-about-hammerhead-sharks">More about hammerhead sharks</h2>



Hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks that belong to the family Sphyrnidae. As their name suggests, these sharks are best known for their distinctive head shape, which is flattened and laterally extended into a "hammer" shape called a cephalofoil. There are nine recognized species of hammerhead sharks. Here's what we know about them:



<h3 id="h-distinctive-appearance">Distinctive Appearance</h3>



Apart from their unique hammer-shaped heads, these sharks are typically gray-brown to olive-green on their dorsal (upper) side and lighter on their ventral (lower) side. Their size can range from 0.9 to 6 meters (3 to 20 feet), depending on the species. The great hammerhead is the largest species, while the bonnethead and the scoophead are among the smallest.



<h3 id="h-cephalofoil">Cephalofoil</h3>



The hammer-shaped head, or cephalofoil, provides several advantages. It increases the shark's sensory perception by spreading the sensory organs over a larger area, enhancing its ability to find prey. The wide head also allows for better maneuverability and the ability to scan larger areas of the ocean floor for food.



<h3 id="h-diet-and-feeding">Diet and Feeding</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are carnivorous and feed on a variety of prey, including fish, squid, octopus, crustaceans, and other sharks. The great hammerhead has a particular taste for stingrays.



<h3 id="h-sensory-systems">Sensory Systems</h3>



Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptive sensory organs known as ampullae of Lorenzini. These allow them to detect the electric fields created by other animals, which is particularly useful when hunting for prey. Their wide-set eyes give them a better visual range than most other shark species.



<h3 id="h-reproduction">Reproduction</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are viviparous, meaning they give birth to live young. The embryos are initially sustained by a yolk sac, and once this is depleted, the yolk sac transforms into a structure similar to a mammalian placenta through which the mother provides nutrition.



<h3 id="h-behavior">Behavior</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are known for their schooling behavior. Large schools, primarily composed of females, can be seen in the open ocean during the day. At night, the sharks disperse to hunt.



<h3 id="h-conservation">Conservation</h3>



Many species of hammerhead sharks, including the scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini), are considered endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to overfishing and demand for their fins, which are highly prized in the shark fin trade.



<h3 id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and Distribution</h3>



Hammerhead sharks are found in warm waters along coastlines and continental shelves. They're present in various oceans worldwide, including the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.



<h3 id="h-deep-diving-abilities">Deep Diving Abilities</h3>



Some species, like the scalloped hammerhead, are known to make frequent deep dives, sometimes exceeding 800 meters. They're known to maintain an elevated body temperature in these frigid waters, potentially by "holding their breath" to reduce the flow of cold water across their gills - a phenomenon that's currently being studied.



Please note that research is ongoing and our understanding of these remarkable creatures is continually evolving.



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Discovery: Hammerhead sharks hold their breath to stay warm

In a surprising revelation that adds a new dimension to...

Whales in the Southern Ocean are losing weight due to global warming

As the chill of winter sets in during June in...

The mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pine-beetles-use-different-strategies-to-attack-their-hosts/">pine beetle</a> is one of the leading causes of pine tree mortality across North America. For instance, this insect has already killed thousands of acres of pine forests in British Columbia and Alberta, making these areas more vulnerable to wildfires, and turning Canada’s forests into large sources of carbon emissions – resulting from the burned or decaying wood of dead trees – rather than carbon sinks.



Using a groundbreaking approach inspired by fluid mechanics to study the flight performance of the mountain pine beetle, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html">University of Alberta</a> has recently provided a novel method to improve estimates of the insects’ spread through the environment. Better understanding the flight behavior of pine beetles could help conservationists preserve pine forests.



The scientists employed a type of model initially used for idealized airfoils, and showed that it can be successfully applied to various individual animals to predict how factors such as biological sex, age, and body size can impact flight characteristics.&nbsp;



“We found that there is a dimensionless grouping of velocity and wing beat amplitude that can predict the thrust produced by an insect, and that this grouping can dramatically improve our ability to determine factors that affect flight performance in insects,” said study lead author Zahra Hajati, a mechanical engineer at Alberta.



Using this model on multiple insects -&nbsp; each with a slightly different wing shape (including some with wing damage), size, and age - the scientists discovered differences by group. For instance, female beetles seemed to have greater flight endurance than males, and younger beetles flew with less thrust than insects from other age groups.&nbsp;



In order to make the airfoil model functional for pine beetles, the researchers had to modify it to deal with the more complex 3D wings of the insects rather than the simpler, tear-drop shape of idealized airfoils. Interestingly, the main difference between the wings and the idealized airfoils was found to be the relative influence of viscosity, with the insects being more sensitive to it than the airfoils.&nbsp;



One of the study’s limitations is that the scientists looked at the forces generated by insects over the course of only a few wingbeats. Since, in nature, beetles can fly for hours during dispersal flights, further work is needed to relate the wingbeat-to-wingbeat scaling of force generation and energy consumption to how far the insects can disperse over entire flights.



“This model opens new avenues for entomological investigation, providing a means of dramatically improving statistical confidence levels for insect dispersion studies,”&nbsp;Hajati concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0145208">Physics of Fluids</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-mountain-pine-beetle">More about the mountain pine beetle&nbsp;</h2>



The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America from Mexico to central British Columbia. It has a hard, black exoskeleton, and measures approximately 5 millimeters, about the size of a grain of rice.



These beetles play a significant role in the life cycle of a forest, attacking old or weakened trees, which can help to spur the development of a healthier ecosystem. However, they can also kill large numbers of trees when their populations reach outbreak levels, leading to significant ecological disruption and increasing the risk of forest fires.



The mountain pine beetle has a one-year life cycle in most of its range but can take two years in high-elevation areas where temperatures are lower. Adults emerge from infested trees in the summer, fly to a new host tree, and mate. Females then tunnel into the bark, where they lay their eggs. The larvae feed on the inner bark of the tree, eventually killing it by cutting off its nutrient supply.



Mountain pine beetles infest and kill host trees, usually lodgepole, ponderosa, Scotch and limber pine. In recent decades, warmer temperatures have allowed beetles to survive in areas where cold temperatures previously kept them in check. This has led to an unprecedented epidemic of beetle infestations in North American pine forests, particularly in British Columbia and the Rocky Mountain region of the United States.&nbsp;



The scale of these infestations and their impact on forest ecosystems, the timber industry, and the risk of forest fires are areas of ongoing research and management efforts.



<h2 id="h-future-of-pine-forests">Future of pine forests</h2>



The future of pine forests, especially in regions affected by the mountain pine beetle, depends on a variety of factors including climate change, forest management practices, and ongoing scientific research and innovation.



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



Warmer temperatures associated with climate change have allowed pests like the mountain pine beetle to expand their range and survive in areas that were previously too cold.&nbsp;



If global warming continues at its current pace, these pests could continue to spread and cause further damage. On the other hand, more extreme weather events and changes in precipitation could also affect the health and distribution of pine forests.



<h3 id="h-forest-management">Forest Management</h3>



Forest management practices can also influence the future of pine forests. Proper management can help maintain forest health and resilience, making trees less susceptible to pests and diseases.&nbsp;



For example, practices like thinning, which reduces tree density, can help improve the overall health of the forest and make it less susceptible to large-scale infestations. Controlled burns can also be used to reduce the risk of catastrophic wildfires and create a more varied and resilient forest landscape.



<h3 id="h-scientific-research-and-innovation">Scientific Research and Innovation</h3>



Research and innovation can also play a crucial role. Scientists are studying the life cycle and behavior of pests like the mountain pine beetle in order to develop more effective control methods. In addition, genetic research could potentially lead to the development of pest-resistant tree varieties.



<h3 id="h-natural-regeneration">Natural Regeneration</h3>



Even in areas heavily affected by pests or fires, pine forests can often recover naturally over time. Some species of pine have cones that only open and release their seeds during a fire, ensuring a new generation of trees after such an event.&nbsp;



However, this recovery can take many decades or even centuries, and the resulting forest may be different from the original one due to changes in conditions and species composition.



While challenges exist, there are also many strategies and potential solutions that can help protect and preserve pine forests for the future. The key will be implementing these strategies effectively and continuing to adapt them based on ongoing research and changes in conditions.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Predicting mountain pine beetle behavior could help save forests

The mountain pine beetle is one of the leading causes...

New research from scientists at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> and the University of British Columbia have discovered that the majority of Earth's biomass is concentrated in living organisms at either end of the size spectrum.&nbsp;



The findings not only shed light on the fascinating range of life forms that exist on our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radio-signal-from-nearby-planet-could-mean-alien-life-is-present/">planet</a>, but also carry significant implications for understanding the impacts of climate change and human activity on global biomass.



Over the course of five years, the team of scientists meticulously compiled and analyzed data pertaining to the size and biomass of every type of living organism on Earth. Their subjects ranged from minuscule single-celled organisms, such as soil archaea and bacteria, to massive life forms like blue whales and sequoia trees.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The researchers observed that the pattern favoring large and small organisms was consistent across all species and more pronounced in land-based organisms as compared to those in marine environments. Intriguingly, they also found that maximum body size appeared to reach similar upper limits across various species and habitats (see image <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/graphic-size-of-life-on-earth_credit-Sylvia-Heredia_1big.png">here</a>).



"Trees, grasses, underground fungi, mangroves, corals, fish, and marine mammals all have similar maximum body sizes. This might suggest that there is a universal upper size limit due to ecological, evolutionary, or biophysical limitations," explains lead author Eden Tekwa, a former postdoctoral fellow at the University of British Columbia who now works as a research associate with McGill University's Department of Biology.



The study underscores the incredible diversity of life on our planet. Study co-author Malin Pinsky, an associate professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources at Rutgers University, reflected on the astonishing range of sizes that living organisms can take. "If the tiniest microbe was the size of the period at the end of this sentence, the largest living organism, a sequoia tree, would be the size of the Panama Canal."



<h2 id="h-where-humans-fit-on-the-spectrum">Where humans fit on the spectrum</h2>



Humans, despite representing a relatively small biomass, belong to the size range that comprises the highest biomass, which is a relatively large body size. "Our size among all living things reveals our place in the global biome," said Tekwa.



Understanding the distribution of body sizes among living organisms is crucial for gaining insights into the world around us, according to the researchers.&nbsp;



Furthermore, these findings carry important implications for predicting how climate change and human activities may affect the planet's biomass in the future.



"For example, fish biomass is probably half of what it was before humans arrived, but it gets harder and harder to infer those patterns as we go farther back in time," explained Tekwa. "We need to think about how the distribution of body size biomass will change under environmental pressures."



This comprehensive study not only offers a captivating glimpse into the vast range of living organisms on Earth, but also serves as a critical stepping stone towards understanding and mitigating the impacts of human activity and climate change on our planet's delicate balance of life. The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283020">PLOS One</a>.



<h2 id="h-the-impact-of-human-activity-on-other-earth-species">The impact of human activity on other Earth species</h2>



Human activity has had a profound impact on Earth's millions of species, affecting their populations, habitats, and ecosystems. While some of these impacts are direct, others are indirect consequences of human actions. Here are some key ways human activity has influenced the planet's biodiversity:



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss-and-fragmentation">Habitat loss and fragmentation</h3>



The expansion of human populations and activities, such as agriculture, logging, mining, and urban development, has led to the destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats. This not only reduces the available space for all of Earth's life forms, but also isolates populations, making it harder for them to maintain genetic diversity and adapt to changing environmental conditions.



<h3 id="h-overexploitation">Overexploitation</h3>



Humans have been harvesting plants, animals, and other resources from nature for millennia. However, unsustainable practices, such as overfishing, deforestation, and poaching, have led to the depletion of many species' populations, pushing some to the brink of extinction.



<h3 id="h-pollution">Pollution</h3>



Industrial activities, agriculture, and waste disposal introduce harmful chemicals and substances into the environment. These pollutants contaminate air, water, and soil, affecting the health of various species and disrupting delicate ecosystems. For example, the widespread use of pesticides has caused declines in insect populations, which in turn impacts the food chain and disrupts ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, have led to a significant increase in greenhouse gas emissions. This has resulted in global warming and changes in weather patterns, which can lead to shifts in species' ranges, altered migration patterns, and disrupted breeding cycles. Climate change can also exacerbate other threats, such as habitat loss and the spread of invasive species.



<h3 id="h-introduction-of-invasive-species">Introduction of invasive species</h3>



The movement of people and goods around the world has facilitated the spread of non-native species into new environments. These invasive species often outcompete native species for resources, disrupt ecosystems, and can even drive local species to extinction.



<h3 id="h-disease-transmission">Disease transmission</h3>



Human activities can facilitate the spread of diseases among wildlife populations, either by increasing contact between species or by introducing pathogens into new areas. For example, deforestation and habitat fragmentation can force wildlife to live in closer proximity to humans and domestic animals, increasing the likelihood of disease transmission.



To mitigate the impact of human activity on Earth's millions of other life forms, conservation efforts must be tailored to address these various threats. This includes habitat preservation and restoration, sustainable resource management, pollution control, climate change mitigation, and the control of invasive species.&nbsp;



By working together, governments, businesses, and individuals can help protect the planet's biodiversity and ensure the survival of countless species for generations to come.



—-



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Nature seems to favor the biggest and the smallest forms of life

New research from scientists at McGill University and the University...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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