Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

A new study led by <a href="https://nmu.edu/">Northern Michigan University</a> (NMU) has found that there is a significant variation in the gut microbiome of Alaskan brown bears (Ursus arctos), depending on where the bears lived and what they usually ate. These findings shed more light on the complex relationship between wildlife <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-habitats-alien-species-threaten-native-trout/">habitat</a>, diet, and gut microbiome diversity.



“The gut microbiome is the ecosystem of microbial life that populates an animal’s digestive system – and this microbiome plays a major role in an animal’s well-being,” said study co-author Erin McKenney, an assistant professor of Applied Ecology at the <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>. “Everything we learn about these microbiomes helps us make more informed decisions to support the health of wildlife species.”



According to study co-author Grant Hilderbrand, the associate regional director for resources for the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/ak/index.htm">National Park Service</a> in Alaska, the habitats of Alaskan brown bears are currently changing. “The gut microbiome serves as a new diagnostic tool for understanding the health of wildlife populations. It can also help us predict how animal health will change as the environment changes. The study we’ve done here lays the foundation for advancing our understanding of gut microbiomes in Alaska’s iconic brown bears,” he explained.



The researchers analyzed the microbial DNA found in 66 fecal samples from 51 brown bears across three national parks and preserves (Katmai, Lake Clark, and Gates of the Arctic), and found significant differences in the diversity of the bears’ microbiomes at each of the three locations.&nbsp;



“Katmai had the most diversity, and also had the most diverse array of food sources available. Gates of the Arctic, which had the most limited array of food resources, also had bears with the least diverse gut microbiomes. In other words, we found what we expected: the more diverse the diet, the more diverse the gut microbiome,” reported study lead author Sarah Trujillo, who worked on the study while a graduate researcher at NMU.



“However, while we found clear distinctions in microbiome diversity at each park, those differences could not be fully explained by diet alone. There appears to be something else at play that we don’t fully understand yet. That’s an area for future research,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0266698">PLoS ONE</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Habitat and diet shape the guts of Alaskan brown bears

A new study led by Northern Michigan University (NMU) has...

Despite their size, whales are threatened by human activity such as fishing, ship traffic, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-is-a-growing-issue-for-migratory-birds/">pollution</a>. These stressors can overlap and compound effects on whale populations. In California, the protection policies that are currently in place do not address these factors.&nbsp;



In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis,</a> researchers set out to better understand the main causes of death among nine whale species. This includes humpback, gray, blue, fin, minke, sei, sperm, North Pacific right, and killer whales in the California Current Ecosystem, which stretches from British Columbia, Canada to Baja California, Mexico.&nbsp;



“We found that oftentimes, people single out fishing or ship strike for their roles in whale mortality,” said study co-author Eliza Oldach. “But a whole slew of human activities have collided to make the modern ocean a really tough environment for whales to survive. We’re excited about efforts that look broadly to rebuild healthy oceans.”



The experts identified five main contributors to whale mortality that are currently targeted by policy instruments. These include entanglements, vessel strikes, noise, water quality and marine debris. But three other threats - nutritional stress, disease and predation - were also identified and are not included in policy responses. Researchers argue these threats must also be considered to provide a holistic approach to managing whale deaths.



“Gray whales migrate over 5,000 miles between their foraging and breeding grounds at either end of the California Current,” said study co-author Helen Killeen. “Throughout their journey, they must pass through a gauntlet of human activities, all while contending with changes to their environment precipitated by climate change. The best conservation approach for these whales is one that addresses overlapping and interacting stressors that span geographic and jurisdictional boundaries.”



The results are timely and align with the goals of the California Ocean Protection Council to develop a plan for zero mortality for whales in the California Current Ecosystem. This would require a strong understanding of threats to whales&nbsp; as well as the opportunity for policy change and ecosystem management.



On the bright side, the research team found some cases where agencies are already working to develop policies that tackle multiple stressors for whales. "Our paper is intended to highlight that approach and urge other policymakers to think along similar lines.” said Oldach.&nbsp;



The study was funded by the <a href="https://sustainableoceans.ucdavis.edu/cmsi-coast-scholars-program#:~:text=The%20Sustainable%20Oceans%3A%20from%20Policy,coastal%20management%20and%20ecosystem%2Dbased">UC Davis Sustainable Oceans: From Policy to Science to Decisions</a> program, a National Science Foundation Research Traineeship. The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/marine-policy">Marine Policy</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The modem ocean is a tough place for whales to survive

Despite their size, whales are threatened by human activity such...

A new study considered the movement of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">rivers</a> as a cause for the diversity of birds found in the Amazon. The lowland rainforests of the Amazon River basin are the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystems in the world. Eighteen percent of all trees found on earth make up this biome, carrying more freshwater than the seven largest river basins combined. Researchers have long wondered the root cause of the Amazon’s rich biodiversity.&nbsp;



“Early evolutionary biologists like Alfred Russel Wallace noticed that many species of primates and birds differ across opposite riverbanks in the Amazon, and ornithologists now know that rivers are associated - in one way or another - with the origin of many avian species,” said study lead author Lukas Musher.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Moreover, accumulating geological evidence has suggested that these rivers are highly dynamic, moving around the South American landscape over relatively short time periods, on the order of thousands or tens of thousands of years.”



The research, led by the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>, found that changes in small river systems over time spur the evolution of new species. To understand how the movement of rivers influenced the accumulation of birds, the researchers looked at the genes of six species of Amazonian birds.



“Even though birds can fly, our study confirmed that current rivers across the Southern Amazon rainforest, even relatively small ones, are highly effective at isolating populations of these six species, which leads to genomic divergence and ultimately speciation,” said study senior author Joel Cracraft.



However, because these rivers move around the landscape at different time scales, their movements can have varying outcomes for bird species: when rivers rearrange quickly, populations of birds on each side can merge before they’ve had time to differentiate; when river changes happen slowly, species have a longer time to diverge from one another; and when rivers change at intermediate rates, bird populations diverge and then join back together and co-occur when a river moves.



A startling discovery was also found when the researchers came across a previously unknown bird species at high risk of imminent extinction. In addition, birds that were considered a single species were identified as distinct populations that should be described as separate species.&nbsp;



“Though we know Amazonian biodiversity is unmatched by any other terrestrial ecosystem, we demonstrated that its species richness may be greatly underestimated even in well-studied groups such as birds,” said Musher.&nbsp;



In particular, the Amazon region is threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation. Sadly, the diversity of species relying on this region is generally unrecognized. “Many of the distinct populations are relatively young and endemic to a small Amazonian region, meaning that a large portion of the Amazon’s birds may be threatened with loss to imminent extinction.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dynamic rivers helped the Amazon become rich in bird species

A new study considered the movement of rivers as a...

Tanis, an important fossil site in North Dakota, has produced some fascinating findings. Previously at the site, scientists discovered sturgeon and paddlefish that died as Chicxulub - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-details-on-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">asteroid</a> that killed the dinosaurs - hit Earth.&nbsp;



Lodged in the fishes gills are tiny spherules, particles created from molten rock that date to the impact. The fish seem to have inhaled these particles with their dying breath. It was through analyzing the growth patterns of these fish that scientists determined the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">asteroid struck in springtime</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Other fossils from the site have included a turtle impaled on a wooden stake, a pterosaur egg with embryo inside, small mammals along with their burrows and triceratops skin. Scientists believe that all of these amazing remains come from the moment of the asteroid impact.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Now, another spectacular and perhaps more momentous finding comes from Tanis. An incredibly well preserved dinosaur leg with impressions of skin including foot pads was found by a team led by Robert DePalma, a University of Manchester graduate student. The leg appears to be that of a thescelosaurus, according to professor Paul Barrett of London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



"It's from a group that we didn't have any previous record of what its skin looked like, and it shows very conclusively that these animals were very scaly like lizards. They weren't feathered like their meat-eating contemporaries.” Barrett told BBC.&nbsp;



"This looks like an animal whose leg has simply been ripped off really quickly. There's no evidence on the leg of disease, there are no obvious pathologies, there's no trace of the leg being scavenged, such as bite marks or bits of it that are missing,"



Some scientists are suspicious of the claims at Tanis. For one thing, the entire site is a jumble of terrestrial and marine fossils from the western interior seaway mixed together, probably by the meteor impact. It’s possible that some of these animals died earlier and were mixed together after the impact. So far, the findings have not been presented in a peer reviewed scientific journal, and their scientific merit is yet to be confirmed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur fossil suggests it was killed by THE asteroid

Tanis, an important fossil site in North Dakota, has produced...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> has developed a new tool to better assess a highly important but largely overlooked indicator of global warming: the variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-worms-can-make-complex-decisions/">worms</a>, bugs, and snails that live in mountain streams. These aquatic invertebrates - which serve as food for a diversity of alpine life forms including birds, bats, fish, and frogs – are particularly vulnerable to climate fluctuations, such as rapid swings from droughts to massive floods.



In order to be able to protect aquatic life in high mountain streams, the scientists must first clearly understand their distribution. According to the study authors, classic theories for predicting biodiversity in such regions have various shortcomings.&nbsp;



For instance, one such theory – the “River Continuum Concept” – discusses how stream ecosystems function as they move from the stream sources down to larger, more open rivers. This theory argues that there should be a smooth gradient of change when moving from high to low elevations.



To test this theory, the scientists performed an in-depth survey of the aquatic life from the high mountain Sierra Nevada streams.&nbsp;



“We saw a change, but only partially and not for the reasons the theory said we should,” said study co-author Kurt Anderson, an associate professor of Evolution and Ecology at UC Riverside. “For example, we found that lakes tended to interrupt the smooth change we were supposed to have seen.”&nbsp;



According to Professor Anderson and his colleagues, while the diversity of invertebrates generally increased in waters headed downwards, it was lowest in streams situated immediately below lakes, where only a few species of invertebrates and insects with the ability to filter food particles were found.&nbsp;



“We believe the lakes may have a disconnecting effect and are causing the downstream waterways to have to start over again in building diversity,” said study lead author Matthew Green, an ecologist at UC Riverside.



The researchers have also found a large variety of life forms in cold, isolated streams high up in the mountains. Thus, despite the general trend towards an increase of biodiversity while moving downstream, sometimes, the differences in species between isolated headwaters is in fact as great as those between upstream and downstream areas.&nbsp;



“These are the aquatic life forms that are at the edge of the precipice of climate change,” said study co-author Dave Herbst, a researcher at the <a href="https://ucnrs.org/reserves/sierra-nevada-aquatic-research-laboratory/">Sierra Nevada Aquatic Research Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



In order to protect the biodiversity of these crucial ecosystems, interconnected systems of flowing water should be guarded from diversions such as habitat damage caused by unrestricted land development.&nbsp;



“That is what will permit these small, but crucially important life forms to thrive. Where intact habitats have been compromised, restoration efforts may be key to providing the entire ecosystem with resilience to the coming adversities of climate change,” concluded Professor Anderson.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecm.1520">Ecological Monographs</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How is the climate impacting aquatic life in mountain streams?

A recent study led by the University of California, Riverside...

Empathy is by definition, trying to feel the experience of another. Researchers recently asked whether people empathize more with other people or with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-100-cases-of-humans-passing-disease-to-animals/">animals</a>. The study was published in a special issue of the journal <a href="https://www.hogrefe.com/us/journal/social-psychology">Social Psychology</a>.



To investigate this question, scientists recruited 193 participants. The research subjects were then asked whether they wanted to empathize with a human or an animal. If the participants said human, they were shown a picture of a college age person and asked to put themselves in their situation. If they chose an animal, the participants were shown the image of a koala bear. In this study, the participants more often chose the human.&nbsp;



“Participants indicated that empathizing with animals felt more challenging, and that belief of empathy being more difficult drove them to choose animal empathy less," said study lead author Daryl Cameron of the <a href="https://rockethics.psu.edu/">Rock Ethics Institute</a>. "It’s possible that people felt empathizing with a mind that’s unlike our own was more challenging than imagining the experience of another human.”



Another study illuminated and complicated things a bit more. In a second study, two new groups of 192 and 197 participants were given two choices. First, researchers asked one group to either empathize with or just describe without empathizing a person. The second group was given the same choice but with a koala instead of a person. Interestingly, with the image of the human, people tended to avoid empathizing. With the image of the koala people didn’t avoid empathy but embraced it.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It’s possible that if people are seeing humans and animals in competition, it might lead to them preferring to empathize with other humans,” said Cameron. “But if you don’t see that competition, and the situation is just deciding whether to empathize with an animal one day and a human the other, it seems that people don’t want to engage in human empathy but they're a little bit more interested in animals.”



The researchers hope that this sort of psychology study might help better target conservation efforts and in the end help further the cause of wild animals.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do humans empathize more with people or other animals?

Empathy is by definition, trying to feel the experience of...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-oceans-warm-up-smaller-species-of-fish-will-dominate/">Oceans</a> are made up of multiple layers. Lighter, warmer waters sit at the top while denser, cooler waters can be found at the bottom. To move heat, ocean mixing is vital.&nbsp;



Ocean mixing also moves oxygen, nutrients and pollutants between different layers, playing a major role in how ecosystems sustain life. A new study has shown how fish can influence ocean ecosystems by circulating nutrients and oxygen around the waters when they spawn. Prior to this study, it was not previously understood how fish contribute to ocean mixing.



A team led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> spent fifteen days monitoring water turbulence in the Ría de Pontevedra, a bay in the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The experts measured variations in ocean current speed and temperature over very small distances.



It is known that turbulence and mixing increases during major storm events. The results of the study showed that increased levels of turbulence and mixing occurred every night, even without a storm.



The research team used acoustic data and samples collected with small fishing nets. This allowed the team to identify fish that were gathering in the area at night. The small nets were full of recently spawned eggs of European anchovy.&nbsp; The anchovies’ frantic behaviour during spawning had caused the turbulence. This is referred to as ‘biological mixing’.



“We believe that biological mixing was intense in our observations because the bay is highly stratified - the temperature and other properties vary significantly at different depths,” explained Dr. Bieito Fernández Castro, who led the study.&nbsp;



Previous studies suggested that biological turbulence causes minimal mixing because the circular motions fish generate while swimming are too small, especially in deeper ocean water. “However, we have shown that closer to land, where the layers change over a much shorter distance, the anchovies are able to mix them together,” said Dr. Castro.



While biological mixing may influence the open ocean, the study revealed that it can be significant in coastal ecosystems. This is because thriving marine life coexists with rapid changes in the make-up of the ocean.&nbsp;



The ocean mixing generated by fish could impact the redistribution of temperature, nutrients and oxygen, which play a fundamental role in the functioning of the ecosystem that fish rely on. The findings highlight the capacity of living organisms to influence the environment they live in.



“The observation of how our anchovies drove mixing was totally fortuitous. We were set to study how turbulence affects marine life and we end up showing, for the first time, that marine life can influence ocean turbulence, which in turn influences marine life!” concluded Dr Fernández Castro.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience</a>. To learn more, you can watch a short video of the study <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-fosxKyzQ8">here</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spawning fish generate ocean mixing, help sustain a healthy ecosystem

Oceans are made up of multiple layers. Lighter, warmer waters...

An international team of researchers recently completed a study that confirmed a link between diet, habitat, and social behavior in weaver birds. This relationship is not a new idea; it was first hypothesized in 1964 by British ethologist, John Crook. Still, this is the first time a team has been able to support the hypothesis with statistical evidence.&nbsp;



Weaver birds are known for their elaborate nests. This family of songbirds are primarily found in sub-Saharan Africa. However, they live in various habitats. Some species live in the savannah, where they consume seeds. Other species live in the forest, and their preference is for insects.&nbsp;



After analyzing previous research, the scientists noticed several trends. They saw that birds on the savannah flocked together. Weavers living on the savannah also nested in colonies and were polygamous. However, birds living in the forest were solitary hunters, with no large nesting colonies, but monogamous pairing.&nbsp;



The study was led by Professor Tamás Székely from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/">Milner Centre for Evolution</a> at the University of Bath. He explained why diet, habitat, and social behavior are affected by each other.



"For birds that feed on seeds in the open savannah, flocking together improves feeding efficiency because it makes it easier to locate patches where there are abundant seeds," said Professor Székely.



"Flocking also lowers the risk of predation out in the open by providing them safety in numbers."



"However, in open habitats such as the savannah there are limited nesting sites, meaning the birds live together in a colony and this often leads to polygamous breeding."



"On the other hand, forest-dwelling, insect-eating birds must search a wider area for food as insects are more widely distributed. The relatively safer, closed habitat of the forest provides lots of suitable nesting sites, so the birds don't need to live close together."



According to Professor Székely, this more solitary social system also means the birds are more likely to stick with the same mate during the breeding season."



Moreover, the researchers discovered details beyond Crook's hypothesis. They found that diet and habitat affect whether a species is dimorphic, meaning males and females have distinct differences in size or appearance. Polygamous species living on the savannah were more likely to be dimorphic, while forest-dwelling, monogamous species tend to have identical males and females.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research team doesn't want to stop at weaver birds, and they look forward to testing Crook's theory on other bird species, mammals, fish, and insects.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/an/current">The American Naturalist</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Diets of weaver birds are influenced by their social lives

An international team of researchers recently completed a study that...

Rising numbers of free-roaming stray <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-to-tell-whether-you-cat-is-a-psychopath/">cats</a> is a global problem. They are considered one of the world’s most invasive species, posing a health risk to humans and destroying large numbers of wildlife. Nevertheless, people are reluctant to cull them, as they usually do with pests such as rats or cockroaches. A new study led by the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/en">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> (HUJI) has now investigated the impact of different protocols to control stray cat populations over a period of 12 years.



At the moment, the most popular and widespread population-control method is TNR - in which street cats are Trapped, Neutered, and Returned to the location where they were initially found.&nbsp;



“Although this method has been implemented in various parts of the world, there was controversial evidence regarding its effectiveness for reducing cat populations and no hard evidence regarding its effectiveness in reducing cat-related nuisances or improving their welfare,” said study lead author Eyal Klement, an expert in Veterinary Epidemiology at HUJI.



Professor Klement and his colleagues focused on one Israeli city (Rishon LeZion) where they tried out different population-control measures during three four-year periods. While in the first period there was no intervention, in the second one the scientists organized an intensive program of neutering cats in half of the city, using the other half as a control group. Finally, in the third period, neutering was applied city-wide.



Surprisingly, neutering cats in only half of the city did not seem to reduce cat populations at all. According to the researchers, the migration of unneutered cats into the area can explain this unexpected finding. While in the third case, a seven percent annual reduction of cat population was achieved, a rebound increase in the number of kittens was later on noted, most probably due to an increase in their survival rates due to lack of competition with the neutered, less aggressive cats.&nbsp;



“Intact cats are more territorial than their neutered counterparts.&nbsp;Once they move into a neighborhood with neutered cats, they tend to thrive and take over,” explained Professor Klement.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



These results and further analysis suggest that, ideally, 70 percent of stray cat populations should be neutered on a continuous basis. Moreover, in order to avoid the rebound effect, cat food resources should be controlled in parallel to the TNR campaign.&nbsp;



“This can be achieved by setting up feeding stations in agreed-upon locations and by prohibiting feeding in other public areas,” said Professor Klement. Such a method would make sure that the cats are properly fed and the neutering procedures could be implemented efficiently, by catching the cats when they come to eat.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2119000119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How can we control the growing issue of stray cats?

Rising numbers of free-roaming stray cats is a global problem....

People have a stronger connection to their dogs than previously thought, according to a recent survey conducted by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.onepoll.us/">OnePoll</a>&nbsp;in partnership with&nbsp;<a href="https://www.puppyspot.com/">PuppySpot</a>. Out of the 2,000 American dog owners surveyed, 69 percent considered their dog their best friend, 73 percent claimed that having a dog has improved their emotional well-being, and a staggering 83 percent of respondents who also had children strongly agreed that taking care of their dogs is as important as taking care of their children.



“As a community of dog lovers, we know firsthand about the various ways dog parents show love and affection to their fur baby, and how these moments build trust and create a life-long bond,” said Claire Komorowski, the CEO of PuppySpot. “Whether it’s through long walks, special treats, new toys or, simply some cuddles, every dog needs to be cared for in a way that shows them just how special and adored they are.”



Indeed, the survey results show that dog owners love pampering their pet companions with “treats and cuddles,” “new toys,” or “long walks.” Three quarters of the respondents claimed they spend over 300 hours per year looking for the best treats and toys available on the market, while 57 percent of the participants never failed to celebrate their dogs’ birthdays.



Dog “parents” also seem to have a tough time staying away from their pups. Many take their dogs with them when they have to run errands (51 percent) or when they are meeting their families and friends (40 percent). Moreover, two in five dog owners look for restaurants that allow pets, while 35 percent of the respondents prioritize pet-friendly vacation spots.



Most respondents recall bringing home their newly acquired dog as the happiest day of their lives (72 percent), and highly cherish other memories, such as when their dog first jumped or fell asleep on their lap. Finally, the fact more than 8 in 10 participants who also had children did not hesitate to declare that they consider their dogs as important as their children is further proof that, for most people, their relationship with their furry companions is highly significant, offering strong emotional rewards.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People have deep emotional connections with their dogs

People have a stronger connection to their dogs than previously...

Honey bees are pollinators of flowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-flower-colors-help-plants-survive/">plants</a> all over the world and are therefore critical for the production of food crops. In recent decades, honey bees have been subjected to numerous environmental and management stresses that have impacted their survival rates. Among these, the most devastating has been infection by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor.&nbsp;



Varroa is an external parasite of Asian and European honey bees. Not only does it attach to the bodies of adult and larval bees and suck out nutrients, but it also carries at least five viruses that are devastating to the bees. The parasite’s original host was Apis cerana, the Asian hive bee, but it was introduced to the European honey bee, Apis mellifera, in the mid-1800s. Since then it has spread to all continents and regions of the world, except Australia and Antarctica.&nbsp;



Interestingly, Asian honey bees show certain behavioral traits that help keep infestations of varroa mites under control. These behaviors include grooming mites off their own and other bees’ bodies, as well as getting rid of larvae that have been infected with mites. Such hygienic strategies have genetic components and are heritable. It is likely that, since the Asian honey bees have been exposed to varroa mite infestations over evolutionary time, natural selection has gradually favored the survival of colonies where bees practice these behaviors. As a result, Asian honey bees are largely resistant to the parasite.



In the U.S., scientists have spent 20 years breeding a line of European honey bees that also shows hygienic behavior towards infestations of varroa mites. Beekeepers in this country, as in many others, have resorted to using pesticides and other chemical agents to control varroa mites in bee colonies. This has meant that natural selection for more resistant bees has not been able to take place and apiculturists are faced with large losses in colony numbers each year.&nbsp;



In a new study, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, experts from the universities of Louisiana and Exeter, and from the Agricultural Research Service of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), tested the survival rates of these varroa resistant “Pol-line” bees in the field. The study took across three US states (Mississippi, California, and North Dakota), where commercial beekeepers move tens of thousands of colonies annually to provide pollination services for large-scale agriculture. The survival of colonies of varroa resistant bees was compared with the survival of standard bees that had not been selectively bred for hygienic behavior.



“The&nbsp;Varroa&nbsp;mite is the greatest threat to managed honey bee colonies globally,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://biosciences.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Thomas_OShea-Wheller">Dr. Thomas O’Shea-Wheller</a> of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/esi/">Environment and Sustainability Institute</a>&nbsp;at Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“So far, new methods to control the mites – and the diseases that they carry – have had limited success, and the mites are becoming increasingly resistant to chemical treatments. It’s a ticking time-bomb.”&nbsp;



The results of the study showed that the mite-resistant bee colonies were more than twice as likely to survive the winter (60% survival compared to 26% in standard honey bee colonies). The standard honey bees experienced high losses unless extensive chemical treatments were used. Colony survival over the winter is particularly important for beekeepers, because honey bees are needed in early spring to pollinate many valuable crops.&nbsp;



“By selectively breeding bees that identify and remove mites from their colonies, our study found a significant reduction in mite numbers, and crucially, a two-fold increase in colony survival,” explained Dr. O’Shea-Wheller. “While this is the first large-scale trial, continued breeding and use of these bees has shown consistently promising results.”



Although European honey bees are not naturally resistant to varroa mite infestations, they do show some of the specific hygienic behaviors that are common in Asian honey bees. The incidence of the cleaning behaviors is very low but it does indicate that the genes for these behaviors are present. By selectively breeding for these behavioral traits, colonies can been produced that automatically protect themselves from infestation, while maintaining large colony sizes and ample honey production.



“The great thing about this particular trait is that we’ve learned honey bees of all types express it at some level, so we know that with the right tools, it can be promoted and selected for in everyone’s bees,” said research molecular biologist Dr. Michael Simone-Finstrom, of the USDA Agricultural Research Service.



According to Dr. O’Shea-Wheller: “This kind of resistance provides a natural and sustainable solution to the threat posed by&nbsp;Varroa&nbsp;mites, and does not rely on chemicals or human intervention.”



The current study also monitored the levels of three debilitating viruses present in the varroa resistant colonies. These viruses (DWV-A, DWV-B and CVPV) are carried by the mites and transmitted to the bees. The results showed that the colonies bred for varroa resistant behavior also had significantly lower levels of these viruses. This is explained by the fact that cleaning behavior by the bees removes mites from the colonies and therefore also removes the viruses.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Interestingly however, when examined separately from levels of mite infestation, these viruses were not strong predictors of colony losses.



“A lot of research is focused on the viruses, with perhaps not enough focus on the mites themselves,” said Dr. O’Shea-Wheller.



“The viruses are clearly important, but we need to take a step back and be rigorous in delivering the best practical outcomes, because if you control the mites, you automatically control for the viruses that they transmit.”



Dr. O’Shea-Wheller said that breeding and testing is expensive and takes time, but that breeding mite-resistant bees is cost-effective in the long term, and is likely to be the only sustainable solution to deal with the&nbsp;Varroa&nbsp;pandemic.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breeding “cleaner” bees may stop varroa mites in their tracks

Honey bees are pollinators of flowering plants all over the...

The Las Hoyas fossil site is situated in the Las Hoyas Basin in central eastern Spain. It was declared a Paleontological and Historical Heritage Site in 2016 but has been excavated since 1992. The site is well known for its exceptionally preserved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-a-previously-unknown-mass-extinction-event/">fossils</a> of many different lifeforms, including algae, invertebrates and vertebrates. In one area of the site, a large track of dinosaur footprints has been exposed, revealing some unusual aspects.



Fossilized tracks of animals, known as trackways, are an excellent source of information about the locomotion and behavior of extinct animals. The so-called magenta trackway in Las Hoyas was discovered in 2010 and was researched by Carlos M. Herrera-Castillo of the Autonomous University of Madrid, and his colleagues. The six footprints were made by a large theropod dinosaur that walked across the surface of the wetland some 129 million years ago.&nbsp;



At the time that this bipedal dinosaur left its very characteristic three-toed footprints, the surface of the wetland was covered by a microbial mat, a thin layer of living organisms including filamentous cyanobacteria, anaerobic photobacteria, and different types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms. As the dinosaur walked along on this substratum, its feet sank into the microbial mat and very clear and detailed imprints were left behind. These traces were filled with sediment and became fossilized with time.&nbsp;



Herrera-Castillo and his colleagues used several different techniques to characterize and analyze the six footprints. They also compared them to a large sample of other bipedal dinosaur trackways that had been studied previously. Their results are published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.



The researchers found that this set of footprints had an unusually wide step pattern, as though the individual was walking with its legs spread apart more than normal. In addition, they noted that the left foot and right foot imprints were significantly different. Whereas the right foot displayed all three toes splayed out evenly, the left foot appeared to have lost the innermost toe (digit II), or to have it dislocated and curled backwards underneath the foot.&nbsp;



The footprints of the left foot were significantly shorter than those of the right foot, and the researchers suggested the dinosaur had either sustained an injury to that foot, or had a congenital deformity. The gait of the animal appeared to be adjusted to accommodate the abnormality, specifically by putting more weight on the right leg while favoring the left.&nbsp;



The authors state that the dinosaur walked in a straight line, with a constant direction, while maintaining a consistent stride. They feel this is evidence of a constant walking speed and a regular walking pattern, indicative that the dinosaur remained functional and active, despite its deformity. From the length of the stride and the overall size of the normal footprints, the researchers estimate that the dinosaur was around 2 meters high at the hips.&nbsp;



There are other instances where fossilized trackways show evidence of foot pathology in dinosaurs, and one of the most common abnormalities involves the very same digit, digit II. This toe is sometimes missing, but may also show swelling, torsion or backward displacement.&nbsp;



The authors conclude that the magenta trackway at Las Hoyas is “one of the best trackways of a theropod dinosaur, which combines a foot pathology and a fairly regular gait, although with a forced wide-trackway.” Their results support the idea of this very large dinosaur with an injured foot that strode slowly and consistently across a shallow wetland with sediment that was covered in a microbial mat, while assorted fishes also swam along and left their traces in the same sediment.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Unusual dinosaur tracks likely made by a therapod with an injury

The Las Hoyas fossil site is situated in the Las...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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