Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

An Ecuadorian judge recently greenlighted a mining project in the Intag Valley, a place of stunning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">biodiversity</a> in the Andes Mountains. A group of 12 environmental and research organizations argued that the judge violated the rights of indigenous people to be consulted and rights of nature in the original February decision. On March 16, the judge decided not to issue a written explanation for his decision.&nbsp;



“The judge of Cotacachi didn't analyze the minimum standards for protection of humans and natural rights that we demand in this case, generating a serious violation of the rights enshrined in the constitution and judgments of the constitutional court of Ecuador,” said Gustavo Redin, a lawyer arguing the case on behalf of local communities.



The Intag Valley is an important biodiversity hotspot, home to many unique native species, including the <a href="https://www.rewild.org/news/back-from-extinction-longnose-harlequin-toads-remain-suspended-in-a-state-of">longnose harlequin toad</a>, a critically endangered species found in the mining concession. The toad was thought to be extinct until it was surprisingly rediscovered alive but endangered in 2016. Unfortunately, the longnose harlequin toad wasn’t even included in the mining environmental impact assessment.



The Jambatu Research and Conservation Center surveyed amphibians in the mining concession area and found 22 frog species living in the area but estimates the real number could be more like 100 species. Jambatu has also been involved in captive breeding efforts for the longnose harlequin toad in an effort to reintroduce a larger population of toads.&nbsp;



“If you don't fight, then you have already lost,” said Andrea Terán-Valdez, collections manager at Jambatu Amphibian Research and Conservation Center. “We have to try. We have to keep on trying. We are doing our part, the community is doing their part, and we need the courts to honor the rights of nature. Otherwise, we will all lose.”



The harlequin toad and many other frogs and toads are already threatened by infection from chytrid fungus, climate change and continuing habitat destruction. This mining concession could easily mean the extinction of the longnose harlequin toad if it goes ahead.&nbsp;



There are other factors at play as well, explained Lina Valencia, the Andean countries coordinator for Re:wild. “The livelihoods and wellbeing of the communities in Intag depend on a conserved forest and healthy watersheds."



"This mining concession will have detrimental effects to the forests, rivers and species that live there," said Valencia. "Species don’t often get a second chance, especially harlequin toads. A mining concession would be disastrous for fragile species like the longnose harlequin toad.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Conservation groups challenge mining that threatens an Ecuadorian toad

An Ecuadorian judge recently greenlighted a mining project in the...

Starfish,And,Sponge,Of,The,Mediterranean,Sea.

Half a century ago on the shoreline of a rocky tide pool, the ecologist Robert Paine discovered something amazing: the removal of a single species from an ecosystem could dramatically alter its structure and functions. In the environment Paine studied, starfish acted as a “keystone species” in that their presence and role as a top predator in that particular region was fundamental for maintaining the balanced co-existence of a variety of species.&nbsp;



In a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a> (UZH) and the University of California, Davis, a team of ecologists and geneticists have found that even the presence or absence of a single gene could act similarly to Paine’s “keystone species.” According to the scientists, a gene not only encodes information that determines an organism’s fitness, but could also have a crucial role in structuring inter-species relationships in an ecological community. &nbsp;



The researchers constructed an experimental ecosystem in the laboratory, consisting of a predator (a parasitic wasp), two herbivores (aphids), and a plant (Arabidopsis thaliana&nbsp;– a genetic model organism often used in laboratory studies). By testing the effect of three plant genes that control chemical defenses against herbivores, the scientists found that the herbivores and the predator were more likely to survive on plants with a mutation at a gene called AOP2.



“This natural mutation at AOP2 not only affected the plant’s chemistry, but also made the plant grow faster, which in turn helped the herbivores and predator coexist, thereby preventing the ecosystem from collapsing,” explained study lead author Matthew Barbour, an evolutionary biologist at UZH. Thus, similarly to a keystone species such as Paine’s starfish, AOP2 acts as a “keystone gene” playing a critical role in maintaining ecosystem integrity.



The discovery of such keystone genes will likely have significant implications on how to conserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-levels-of-biodiversity-reduce-extinction-risks-in-birds/">biodiversity</a> in a rapidly changing world. In order to foster more diverse and resilient ecosystems, individuals with different variants of a gene or even genetically modified organisms could be added to existing populations.



However, since this study suggests that even small genetic changes could unleash a cascade of unintended and unforeseen consequences for ecosystems. such interventions will be far from straightforward, and should only be conducted after careful analysis of all possible consequences.&nbsp;



“We’re only just beginning to understand the implications of genetic change on how species interact and coexist. Our findings show that the current loss of genetic diversity may have cascading effects that lead to abrupt and catastrophic shifts in the persistence and functioning of terrestrial ecosystems,” concluded Dr. Barbour.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abf2232">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A single gene could control biodiversity in an ecosystem

Half a century ago on the shoreline of a rocky...

Until recently, assessing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-sperm-cells-could-treat-human-infertility/">fertility</a> of breeding bulls has been a complicated and expensive matter, involving laboratory tests of the bulls’ semen. Now, a research team from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> has developed a novel fertility assessment method called RHEOLEX that is quicker and easier to perform than the traditional ones, resembling a home pregnancy test.



The scientists found inspiration in a biological process occurring in mammals called “rheotaxis,” through which the female reproductive tract simultaneously guides and selects high-quality sperm. By mimicking the cow’s female reproductive tract’s dimensions and hydrodynamic features in a microfluidic device, the researchers managed to assess the reproductive quality of bulls’ sperm within just a few minutes.&nbsp;



While traditionally, sperm quality is evaluated using computer-assisted sperm analysis that measures swimming speed and concentration, such a method ignores the strenuous process of sperm moving along the female’s reproductive tract described through the concept of rheotaxis.



“This method, along with the motile (fast speed) sperm concentration determination, can quickly predict fertility levels in artificial insemination,” said study lead author Mohammad Yaghoobi, a doctoral student in Food Science at Cornell. “We can predict the bull’s in vivo sperm fertility level within five minutes.”



According to Yaghoobi, unlike conventional semen quality parameters, which often fail to provide statistically significant predictions, the RHEOLEX method is an easy and accurate biomarker for determining in vivo male fertility.



“We are essentially taking rheotaxis results and translating that into signals that tells us the bull fertility level, which is great, because it can save companies a lot of money by selecting the best bulls. We are using nature’s selection process and that’s a huge difference,” said study senior author Alireza Abbaspourrad, an assistant professor of Food Chemistry and Ingredient Technology at Cornell.



“With this new RHEOLEX method, you can conduct better selection and breeding for bulls and cows, which can translate into higher quality and quantity products like improved milk and meat. This saves breeders and producers time,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2022/lc/d2lc00150k">Lab on a Chip</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New test can detect bulls’ fertility status in minutes

Until recently, assessing the fertility of breeding bulls has been...

We all love to have our pets close to us, in our homes and on our laps. Sadly, it seems that our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocado-may-be-a-safe-source-of-fiber-for-dogs/">dogs</a> and cats are being exposed to harmful organic chemicals in the home environment and that these chemicals are also being left in their feces and urine. If they are being affected in this way, we may well ask whether we too are ingesting or inhaling these organic substances.&nbsp;



The toxic chemicals are known as aromatic amines, and they are organic molecules formed from ammonia that is bonded to an aromatic ring. These molecules are used extensively in several different industries: they are used in the manufacture of drugs, pesticides and rubber tires; they are also used as curing agents in the preparation of plastics, and are intermediates in the preparation of dyes (for example, azo dyes) to color textiles, rubber, leather, printing ink, paints, lacquers, and metal finishes. Aromatic amines are constituents in cigarette smoke and are even found in hair dye and in the pigments used in cosmetics.&nbsp;



The reason that these molecules are of concern is that several of the different types of aromatic amines have been associated with the development of cancer. In particular, aromatic amines are known to cause bladder cancer in humans and dogs, and workers in industries that manufacture dyes, leather products, cables, rubber products, plastics, and textiles have all been shown to suffer increased incidence of this type of cancer.&nbsp;



In a recent study led by researchers at NYU Grossman School of Medicine, urine samples collected from dogs and cats were analyzed for the presence of 30 different types of aromatic amines. The 42 dogs and 21 cats lived in private households, veterinary hospitals, or animal shelters in Albany, NY. Another group of 77 pets, also living in the same region, provided fecal samples that were tested for these toxic chemicals as well. The researchers recorded each animal’s age, breed and sex.



The study identified eight types of aromatic amines that were found in more than 38 percent of the dog and cat urine samples, and nine different aromatic amines that were found in more than 73 percent of the pet fecal samples. Cats were found to have at least three times the concentrations of aromatic amines in their urine as dogs did.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that pets are coming into contact with aromatic amines that leach from products in their household environment,” said study lead author Dr. Sridhar Chinthakindi, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://nyulangone.org/">NYU Langone Health</a>. “As these substances have been tied to bladder, colorectal, and other forms of cancer, our results may help explain why so many dogs and cats develop such diseases.”



He also explained that, apart from such direct exposures, pets are most likely also exposed to these substances indirectly. For example, past research has shown that a common flea control medication called amitraz can be broken down into an aromatic amine called 2,6-dimethylaniline (2,6-DMA) by microbes living in animals’ digestive systems. This aromatic amine was the one most commonly detected in the pet urine, accounting for almost 70 percent of the aromatic amines found in dog urine and nearly 80 percent of those found in cat urine. The amine 2,6-DMA is a toxic, teratogenic and carcinogenic metabolite of amitraz.



These findings, published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/environment-international">Environment International</a>, showed that there was almost no difference in aromatic amine exposure between animals that lived at home and those that were staying in a shelter or at a veterinary clinic. According to Chinthakindi, this highlights how commonly these substances are present in the environment, and how difficult they are to avoid. In addition, pet age and sex had no effect on the concentrations of aromatic amines found in the feces or urine.



“Since pets are smaller and more sensitive to toxins, they serve as excellent ‘canaries in the coal mine’ for assessing chemical risks to human health,” said study senior author Dr. Kurunthachalam Kannan, a professor in the Department of Pediatrics at NYU Langone. “If they are getting exposed to toxins in our homes, then we had better take a closer look at our own exposure.”



Dr. Kannan warns that it is not clear what level of aromatic amine exposure is safe for pets and so no limit has yet been set by regulatory organizations to protect them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study authors plan to explore the link between aromatic amine exposure and bladder, thyroid, and testicular cancer in pets, in the next phase of their research.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pets are exposed to toxic chemicals in our homes

We all love to have our pets close to us,...

New research suggests that in order to survive, prehistoric mammals bulked up physically - rather than developing their brains - after <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/new-evidence-reveals-that-dinosaurs-died-in-the-spring/">dinosaurs</a> became extinct.&nbsp;



66 million years ago, a catastrophic asteroid impacted the earth and ended the reign of dinosaurs. The 10-million-year period after this event is called the Paleocene. During this time, mammals increased their body size to adapt to the drastic changes on Earth.



The evolution of modern-day mammals is well known in the scientific community. Until now, it has been unclear how they developed in the first million years following the mass extinction.



A team from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> performed CT scans on newly discovered fossils from the Paleocene. The scans revealed that mammals’ brains decreased while their body size increased at a much faster rate.&nbsp;



The experts also found that animals relied heavily on their sense of smell because other senses were less developed, including vision. In order to survive in the new world, these findings suggest it was more important to be big than intelligent.



Around 10 million years later, modern mammal groups such as primates developed bigger brains, complex senses and motor skills. This would have improved their survival chances at a time when competition for resources was extreme.



“Large brains are expensive to maintain and, if not necessary to acquire resources, would have probably been detrimental for the survival of early placental mammals in the chaos and upheaval after the asteroid impact," said lead researcher Dr Ornella Bertrand.



Mammals today are highly intelligent. This can lead us to assume that brains helped our ancestors outlast the dinosaurs and survive extinction – but this research argues, that isn't the case.&nbsp;



“The mammals that usurped the dinosaurs were fairly dim-witted, and only millions of years later did many types of mammals develop bigger brains as they were competing with each other to form new ecosystems," said study senior author Professor Steve Brusatte.



The badlands of New Mexico are frequently visited by scientists as one of the few places where skeletons of the mammals that lived immediately after the mass extinction of dinosaurs can be found.



“Collecting and CT scanning many of the beautiful fossil skulls has led to this new understanding of what these bizarre animals were like and the evolution of the mammalian brain," said Dr. Thomas Williamson, Curator of Palaeontology at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient mammals bulked up to deal with drastic changes

New research suggests that in order to survive, prehistoric mammals...

Networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) are crucial for the protection of species with high dispersal capacity. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has found that a network of West African MPAs (<a href="https://www.rampao.org/?lang=en">RAMPAO</a>) – running along the coast of seven African countries, from Cape Verde to Sierra Leone – is protecting the vital habitats of green turtles, a species with complex life-cycles, involving large-scale migrations between breeding and feeding sites.



"West Africa has very rich marine ecosystems. Conservation efforts initially focused on key habitats, such as seagrass, mangroves, estuaries and intertidal flats, which are used by populations of global importance of coastal and seabirds, and by charismatic species such as humpback dolphins, West African manatees, and green turtles,” explained study lead author Dr. Rita Patricio, a postdoctoral fellow in Biosciences at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. “Our study is part of wider efforts to discover where species are distributed in the region, to ultimately find the most effective ways of protecting them.”



Dr. Patricio and her team tracked 45 female green turtles from Poilão Island, in Guinea-Bissau’s Bijagós Archipelago, which hosts the largest green turtle population in the Eastern Atlantic region. They found that, during nesting and foraging, the turtles spent most of their time inside the MPA network. However, their migration corridors were located largely outside of the protected areas, close to the shore, where regionally important fishing activities could endanger the turtles.



According to Dr. Patricio, balancing marine protection with the needs of human coastal communities is vital. The turtles’ large-scale migrations between breeding and feeding sites should be taken into account in order to better structure MPAs and thus improve conservation efforts.



“It is essential to understand the connectivity between these areas, to estimate the level of protection, and to ensure that conservation efforts on breeding sites are not cancelled out by lack of protection at feeding sites, and vice-versa,” said Dr. Patricio.



Although for the moment green turtle populations in these areas look stable, if conservation efforts are removed, the population could drop very quickly, Dr. Patricio warned.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.812144/full">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

African network helps protect green turtle populations

Networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) are crucial for the...

Avocados are a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/popular-foods-are-bad-for-humans-and-our-planet/">food</a> in the US and use of them as a source of oil and for other products is on the rise. According to the internet, there’s one thing avocados aren’t good for - dogs. Lots of sources claim that avocados are toxic for pets, pointing in particular to a chemical known as persin as the culprit. Scientists at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> were suspicious of this claim, and set out to test avocado meal for use in dog foods.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Being from Brazil, avocados grow in our backyards. They fall on the ground, and if dogs get hold of them, they eat them. Just like they do with mangoes, bananas, or any other fruits that grow natively in our country. I'd never heard of a dog dying from eating an avocado, so I was really curious why they were considered toxic here,” said Maria Cattai de Godoy, associate professor in the Department of Animal Sciences at U of I.



The scientists discovered that there is little research on the toxicity of avocados in dogs.&nbsp;



“When you look at the literature for avocado toxicity, all that exists are a few case studies," said Cattai de Godoy. "Dogs reported to have a fondness for avocado showed some signs of toxicity, but the case reports couldn’t prove avocados caused those symptoms. There are a lot of uncontrolled factors in these cases.”



The scientists prepared avocado meal by drying avocado pulp, seed and skins after the fruit has been used for oil. They tested this meal for persin and found that none could be detected, leaving no active ingredient claimed to be toxic to dogs.



“Persin is structurally similar to a polyunsaturated fatty acid, meaning there are a lot of double bonds,” said Cattai de Godoy. “They’re not very stable; heat and light can make them break down. Processing is very likely breaking down persin, which is probably why we cannot see it in the meal.”



The researchers then tested the avocado meal on beagles and found it to be comparable to other fibers already used in dog food and quite palatable. The experts caution, however, that more research is needed before avocado meal becomes a staple of pet foods.&nbsp;



“I certainly think there's still work to be done in order to say there are no concerns, especially if we were giving the fresh fruit. But according to our study, I think avocado meal is a safe bet and can be used effectively as a sole source of dietary fiber or in fiber blends.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jas">Journal of Animal Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Avocado may be a safe source of fiber for dogs

Avocados are a common food in the US and use...

As the extent of suitable habitat decreases and conflict with humans increases, many African lions end up being moved to sanctuaries where they can be cared for and protected. Add to this the lions rescued from circuses, foreign <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-animals-lead-longer-lives/">zoos</a> and war zones, and it becomes apparent that significant numbers of lions need to be managed at such sanctuaries. This is not a simple task when dealing with a large apex predator that can be aggressive and territorial.&nbsp;



Often lone lions are rescued and brought to a facility where other lions already live in groups. It is not healthy for lions to live alone as they are social animals with complex group structures and they thrive on close relationships with others. It would be ideal to introduce newcomer lions into established groups, but this is usually not possible due to the levels of aggression and intolerance towards outsiders.



In a rather novel approach, researchers from the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/">University of Minnesota</a> have been treating captive lions with the hormone oxytocin to determine whether this would make their behavior more prosocial and manageable. Oxytocin is known to enhance social bonding in some group-living mammals, such as meerkats, although most of the previous research on the effects of the hormone has been focused on bonded pairs of animals, such as marmosets, macaques and chimpanzees. The effects of oxytocin have never before been tested in a non-domesticated social group of carnivores, such as lions.



The current study took place during 2018 and 2019, on a wildlife reserve in Dinokeng, South Africa. Researchers, led by animal biologist Craig Packer and neuroscientist Sarah Heilbronner from the University of Minnesota, used hunks of raw meat to lure lions up to a fence so they could spray oxytocin up their noses with a modified squeeze-bottle.&nbsp;



“By spraying the oxytocin directly up the nose, we know it can travel up the trigeminal nerve and the olfactory nerve straight up into the brain.” said study first author Jessica Burkhart. “Otherwise the blood-brain barrier could filter it out.”



After spraying 23 lions with oxytocin, Burkhart and her colleagues measured changes in aggressive behavior within the group and between groups. Their findings are published today in the journal iScience, where they describe the effects of the hormone on lion social behavior. &nbsp;



“You can see their features soften immediately, they go from wrinkled and aggressive to this totally calm demeanor,” said Burkhart. “They totally chill out. It’s amazing.”&nbsp;



The researchers found that a sprayed lion would allow other members of the group to approach more closely when it was in possession of a favorite toy.&nbsp;



“After the lions were treated with oxytocin, and we gave them their favorite pumpkin toy to play with, we saw the average distance between them drop from about 7 meters with no treatment to about 3.5 meters after oxytocin was administered,” explained Burkhart.



This greater social tolerance was not seen when sprayed lions were in possession of food, however. But the hormone did lead to decreased vigilance and greater tolerance in the presence of potential intruders from another group. Recordings of the roars of other, unknown lions were played and, whereas untreated lions always roared back in response, lions treated with oxytocin never responded by roaring. This finding is important when considering possible approaches to the introduction of new lions into an established group.



In order to keep lions safe and away from humans, many have been transported to private fenced reserves, which often results in lions from different prides being mixed in with one another. In addition, when lone lions arrive at such sanctuaries they need to be integrated into existing groups and the oxytocin treatment may help facilitate this.



“Currently we’re working on introductions of animals who have been rescued from circuses or overseas or war zones that now live in sanctuaries,” said Burkhart. “The hope is that this will translate to animals being relocated in the wild, helping them to become more inclined to their new social environment so they're more curious and less fearful, leading to more successful bonding.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hormone treatment makes captive lions more manageable

As the extent of suitable habitat decreases and conflict with...

Portrait,Of,Two,Scarlet,Macaws,Perched,On,A,Tree,Branch

Animal behaviorists have long wondered why certain species of parrots have such long lifespans, considering that they are so small. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> and the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> are shedding some new light on the topic. The key to parrot <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explain-longevity-in-mammals/">longevity</a> might be found in their brain size and cognitive ability.&nbsp;



To gather reliable data, the scientists needed to compare living parrots. To get the data, they coordinated with Species360, which contains animal records from zoos and aquariums. Overall, they were able to look at over 130,000 individuals representing 217 species.&nbsp;



They found that there was a lot of variation in life expectancy between species. The shortest-lived is the fig parrot, with an average lifespan of two years. The longest-lived species is the Scarlet Macaw, with an average life expectancy of 30 years.&nbsp;



After analyzing the data, the scientists were confident that parrots' brain size and life expectancy are positively correlated. The question remained... Why? They had two hypotheses. One theory is that larger brains mean that the birds are more intelligent and better able to fend for themselves and avoid predators. The second was that since larger brains take more time to grow, larger birds require longer lifespans.&nbsp;



After running both hypotheses through models, the researchers determined that the models support the first hypothesis. The scientists believe that large brain sizes relative to body size, have cognitive abilities that allow them to solve problems in their natural environments, allowing the parrots to survive longer.&nbsp;



"This supports the idea that in general larger brains make species more flexible and allow them to live longer," said study lead author Simeon Smeele. "For example, if they run out of their favorite food, they could learn to find something new and thus survive."&nbsp;



The research team hopes to explore this subject in the future by examining how sociality and cultural learning might influence longevity.&nbsp;



"Large-brained birds might spend more time socially learning foraging techniques that have been around for multiple generations," said Smeele. "This increased learning period could potentially also explain the longer life spans, as it takes more time but also makes the foraging repertoire more adaptive."&nbsp;



This research is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Longevity in parrots linked to brain size and cognitive ability

Animal behaviorists have long wondered why certain species of parrots...

Humans and other vertebrate species hear using eardrums that can turn soundwave pressure into signals to the brain. A new experimental study led by <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/">Binghamton University</a> has investigated the auditory processing of orb-weaving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-spiders-web-making-secrets/">spiders</a> and found that these small creatures are using their webs as extended auditory rays to capture sounds. Such a procedure is possibly giving spiders advanced warning of incoming predators or prey.



It has long been known that spiders readily respond when something vibrates in their webs, such as potential pray. In these new experiments though, researchers discovered for the first time that spiders turned, crouched, or flattened out in response to sounds travelling through their web.&nbsp;



Spider silk is so thin and sensitive that it can easily detect the movements of vibrating air particles that make up soundwaves. “The spider is really a natural demonstration that this is a viable way to sense sound using viscous forces in the air on thin fibers,” said study senior author Ronald Miles, a professor of mechanical engineering at Binghamton. “If it works in nature, maybe we should have a closer look at it.”



According to professor Miles and his colleagues, spiders can detect minuscule movements and vibrations through sensory organs located on their tarsal claws at the tips of their legs, which they use to grasp their webs. Since orb-weaving spiders build large webs, they are creating “acoustic antennas” with a sound-sensitive area that is often 10,000 times larger than the spiders themselves.



To better understand spiders’ auditory mechanisms, the scientists used laser vibrometry to measure over one thousand locations on a spider’s web, while the spider was located in the center of the web. They placed a mini-speaker five centimeters away from the center of the web and two millimeters away from the web plane, allowing the sound to travel to the spider both through the air and through the web.&nbsp;



The results were amazing: while the soundwave from the mini-speaker died out significantly while travelling through the air, it propagated readily through the web with very little attenuation, providing evidence that the web moves with sound almost at maximum physical efficiency across an ultra-wide frequency range.



The researchers also found that, by stretching and crouching, spiders are changing the tension of the silk strands, tuning them to pick up different frequencies, and thus customizing their external auditory “organ” to hear different sorts of sound.



Further research is needed to investigate how spiders make use of the sounds they can detect using their web and to find whether other species of web-weaving spiders also use their silk to outsource their hearing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2122789119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spiders use their webs to detect sounds

Humans and other vertebrate species hear using eardrums that can...

Two,Zebra,Finches

While it may just sound pretty to the human ear, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-song-of-the-east-african-sunbird-may-be-a-million-years-old/">bird song</a> has in fact multiple functions. For instance, a male’s song may be used to repel other male competitors, or to attract females. In some of the more than 5,000 songbird species, the males are real “virtuosos.” Throughout their entire life, they acquire new songs and can vary them according to specific purposes.&nbsp;



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.orn.mpg.de/en">Max Plank Institute for Ornithology</a> has found that songs of four different zebra finch populations differ systematically. These “cryptic dialects” appear to be decisive for females’ choice of mate. In other words, female zebra finches pay more attention to “cultural” traits than to the males’ appearance.



Zebra finch males learn their songs from conspecifics at an early-age, in an individual-specific manner. The songs each male learns in infancy are generally used for a lifetime. Due to these individual signatures in songs, scientists have long assumed that dialect formation is not possible in zebra finches. However, by using a machine learning algorithm able to recognize the songs of males from four different, separately kept zebra finch populations, the Max Plank researchers have managed to detect different dialects in zebra finch songs.



“We were indeed surprised by this result. It appears that there are cryptic dialects in zebra finches, which remained undetected by conventional analysis methods,” said study co-lead author Wolfgang Forstmeier, a behavioral ecologist at Max Planck.



Dr. Forstmeier and his colleagues have also shown that these dialects are biologically highly relevant, playing a key role in mate choice. In order to disentangle the role of biology from that of culture in female mate choice, the researchers made zebra finch parents from one population raise chicks from another population. This led to zebra finches with different combinations of genetic (e.g. body size) and culturally acquired traits (e.g. dialect).



The analysis of social interactions between the finches have revealed that females preferred partners who sang the same dialect as the males with whom these females grew up. Dialect preference turned out to be much stronger than the tendency to choose a mate based on appearance, highlighting the fundamental role song plays in birds’ social interaction.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28881-w#Sec13">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Female zebra finches choose mates based on their dialects

While it may just sound pretty to the human ear,...

Earthworm,In,Garden,In,Grass

Northern North America, such as Canada, is a land where worms were relatively latecomers. Only after the arrival of Europeans on the continent did earthworms, which are also from Europe, get introduced to Canadian forests.&nbsp;



Since the arrival of earthworms, little research has been done on their environmental impact. Scientists from the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (IDIV) set out to change this. The researchers sampled above ground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-insects-will-kill-more-than-a-million-street-trees-by-2050/">insects</a> in areas with earthworms and areas without, near Calgary, Canada.&nbsp;



Insect abundance, species richness (biodiversity) and biomass were all less in areas with earthworms compared to areas without earthworms. In the places with the highest earthworm biomass, insect populations were reduced by 61 percent, insect biomass by 27 percent, and species richness by 18 percent.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We had expected that earthworms would have an impact on aboveground insects,” said study lead author Dr. Malte Jochum from iDiv and Leipzig University. “Even so, I was surprised at how pronounced the effects were, and that not only the abundance but also biomass and species richness were affected”.



Why there is an inverse relationship between earthworms and above ground insects is unknown. Interestingly though, in these areas spiders and predatory insects were present in greater numbers and seemed to benefit from areas with worms. The scientists hypothesize that perhaps there are less of other insects because plant life is impacted by worms.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It’s possible that the earthworms eat the food and reduce the habitat of those above ground insects, such as beetles and fly larvae, which break down dead plant material,” said Jochum.&nbsp;



There is, however, no evidence that plant life is significantly different in species or composition between areas with worms and those without. This research is just a start and more is needed for the full explanation of mechanism and causation behind the observed phenomena. The scientists are quick to emphasize that earthworms have coevolved with many other environments and will not have the same effect in places they’re native to.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



”For regions like Europe, where natural communities have always co-developed with earthworms, comparable negative effects due to new earthworm species are very unlikely,” said Jochum. “Quite the opposite. Here they are important ecosystem engineers, which many important ecosystem functions depend on.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

European earthworms hurt biodiversity in North America

Northern North America, such as Canada, is a land where...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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